3.2 State of Play of Outcomes

biodiversity protection, conservation and restoration activities guided by “the free, prior, and informed consent of indigenous peoples, and with appropriate recognition of the rights of indigenous peoples to their lands, territories and resources, as set out under the United Nations Rights of the Indigenous People (UNDRIP), and full respect for their diverse knowledge systems” (Manifesto, 2021). This would be especially beneficial if applied within the Heart of Borneo Initiative (see Section 5.1.2) as it envelopes a huge expanse of pristine natural forested areas, which is home to IPLC. Once the cultures, rights and traditional knowledge of IP are also immersed deeply into the global biodiversity framework to save the planet, humankind could at least retrospectively learn more about sustainability and how to live in harmony with Nature, as they have done for centuries.

2.0 THE ASEAN LANDSCAPE

Southeast Asia comprises the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and Timor-Leste. It is a hotspot of biodiversity, and is biologically unique and complex, mirroring its unique biogeography. Although it covers only 4% of the Earth’s land area, Southeast Asia hosts 20–25% of the world’s plant and animal species and is a major global biodiversity hotspot (Lechner et al., 2021; Hughes 2017; Sodhi et al. 2010). A combination of expanding human population and economic development has placed unprecedented pressure on Southeast Asia’s natural capital. Concerted action is vital at the regional level for the protection of biodiversity to ensure sustainable economic development, a healthy ecosystem and food security for a fast-growing population in the region. Southeast Asian biodiversity is often described in terms of biogeographic units, the 4 major units being Sundaland, Wallacea, Indochina, and the Philippines. These 4 biogeographic zones are each considered as one of the most biodiverse regions of the globe (Myers et al., 2000) but are also the most biologically threatened (Schipper et al., 2008). With a population exceeding 655 million, and population densities of twice (Wallacea), thrice (Indochina and Sundaland), and six times (Philippines) the world mean of 44 people/km2 (demographic data from The Economist 2008, cited by Woodruff, 2010), Southeast Asia has seen the highest rate of habitat loss in the world with estimated loss of 95% of its original habitat (Sodhi et al., 2010). The threats are complex, and it is important to understand the drivers of the biodiversity threats to devise effective conservation and restoration strategies for the region.

2.1 Sundaland

Sundaland covers Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and smaller islands on the Sunda Continental Shelf (Myers et al., 2000). The Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot is home to a diversity of ecosystems such as coral reefs, lowland rainforests, mangrove forests, swamp forests, and montane and subalpine forests. It houses about 25,000 vascular plant species, of which 60 percent are endemic (Brooks et al., 2002). The hotspot holds around 380 species of mammals, 115 of which are endemic (Brooks et al., 2002) including iconic species like the critically endangered Javan (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and Sumatran (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) rhinos. It is home to the Sumatran (Pongo abelii) and the Bornean (Pongo pygmaeus) orangutan, both of which are critically endangered. It also houses the endangered proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus), which is only found in Borneo. Sundaland faces the highest deforestation rates in Southeast Asia, and is considered a terrestrial global conservation priority based on its high species endemism and habitat loss (Myers et al., 2000; Polgar & Jaafar, 2018).

2.2 Wallacea

Wallacea is defined by thousands of oceanic islands, the largest being Sulawesi Island hosting a highly endemic faunal assemblage (Sodhi et al., 2004). Its high endemism is

attributed to the formation of a speciation region (where new species are naturally bred) between the species of Asian and Australian continental shelves. Wallacea is home to more than 10,000 plant species of which 15% are endemic and 1142 vertebrate species of which 45% are endemic (Hernani, 2018). It has 220 different mammals, 125 of which are endemic, over 220 species of reptiles and 50 amphibian species (Mala, 2021). Its 100 endemic reptiles include the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), the largest reptile on Earth. Wallacea has the richest marine biodiversity on earth and is exceptionally rich in coral reefs (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, 2014). Coastal and inland indigenous communities have developed diverse mechanisms to control and manage their natural resources. However, immigration, population expansion and the development of policies in favour of large-scale plantations, and logging and mining concessions have changed these mechanisms. The region’s bioresources are stressed but less than 6% of the region is within protected areas (Mala, 2021).

2.3 The Philippines

The Philippines with its 7,107 islands is one of the most biodiverse countries of the planet, containing two-thirds of the Earth’s biodiversity and 70 percent of the world’s plants and animal species. The Philippines ranks second among the world’s 25 top biological hotspots in terms of number of species per square kilometre, and outweighs the Galapagos in species biodiversity and endemism. It been described as tenfold more diverse than Galapagos (Heaney & Regalado, 1998). About 30% of the highly diverse avi-fauna comprising 572 species are endemic to the Philippines (Kennedy et al., 2000). Between 2000 and 2005, it lost an estimated 2.1% of its forest cover annually. This was the second highest rate of deforestation in Southeast Asia after Myanmar and seventh in the world (CBD, 2021).

2.4 Indochina

Indochina comprising Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Myanmar and Vietnam and parts of southern China has a wide diversity of ecosystems such as mixed wet evergreen, dry evergreen, deciduous, and montane forests, lowland floodplain swamps, and mangroves. Critical ecosystems include the great Mekong River and Southeast Asia's largest lake, the Tonle Sap in Cambodia. Indochina hosts more than 7,000 endemic plant species representing 52% of its flora (van Dijk et al., 2004). More than 430 mammalian species have been reported of which 71 are endemic. 74 of the 1,277 bird species found in Indochina are endemic. It has the highest global diversity of freshwater turtles (53 species) (van Dijk et al., 2004; Conservation International, 2007) and a staggering 1,262 documented species of freshwater fish, representing about 10 percent of the total global fish fauna, including 566 endemics (van Dijk et al., 2004). Of the 34 global hotspots, Indochina has the largest human population. This is reflected in the statistic that its remaining natural habitat is only about 5% of its original extent (Mittermeier et al., 2004). The accelerating habitat loss and overexploitation have placed immense pressures on both plant and animal populations. There was more