The Social Sciences

Science is defined in many different ways in various dictionaries and encyclopedias. In general, the word itself comes from the Latin Scientia which simply means knowledge.

In Webster's dictionary, you will find several definitions of science. The first definition in Webster is "a state of knowing or knowledge." This is the simplest definition, but it does not suit our purposes here. The second definition in Webster speaks to "a systematized body of knowledge that can be studied." It is, however, Webster's third definition that we are most interested in here as it defines both the

natural and the social sciences. This third definition is as follows: "Science is a

system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws obtained and tested through the scientific method."

What, then, is the scientific method? According to Wikipedia, it is "an empirical method of gaining knowledge through observation, experimentation, testing, and refinement." The scientific method involves creating a hypothesis and then conducting research and experiments to either prove or disprove the hypothesis.

The term empirical is important. Empirical data is data obtained through observation and experience that can be proved or disproved. The work of the social sciences must be empirical to be considered actual science. So, with these definitions in mind, I will discuss the social sciences and the definition of sociology.

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

The term "social science" first appeared in the book called An Inquiry into the

Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness. The year was eighteen twenty four, and the writer was William Thompson. Even

though this is the first evidence of the term in writing, Thompson is not considered its creator nor the ideas behind it.

The social sciences grew out of a need to understand human behavior and activities in the same way we understand the natural world. This need for understanding grew out of the disciplines of philosophy and theology. It was the work of August Comte that presented the concept that ideas are founded on three different stages.

In the first stage, ideas are theological and based on assumptions. In the second stage, these ideas are philosophical and rooted in critical thinking. Finally, in the third stage, the scientific stage ideas come from observation and experimentation.

Out of this line of thinking grew the science of economics. The study of the economy and monetary systems was the first social science to really grow into prominence. Economics began to follow a mathematical or statistical model that would become a part of many of the social sciences. The study moved out of the descriptive stage and into the mathematical stage. By the end of the nineteenth century, many philosophers turned to mathematics and statistics to make claims about human behavior.

Karl Marx was the first to state that his research methods were, indeed, statistical and scientific. This led to Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim being considered the developers of the social sciences. Today, the social sciences are any discipline, outside of the natural sciences and arts, that attempts to analyze human society.

Previously, it was Isaac Newton who applied the mathematical model to physical science. Blaise Pascal used the same models to understand human behavior. This

evolution created a lot of pressure in all fields to use the mathematical model for all disciplines. Out of these mathematical models grew statistics as the primary

form of methodology in most social sciences. I will discuss methodology in more detail in a future chapter.

By nineteen twenty four, there was a movement among social scientists to create a society that would promote cooperation among the social sciences. The goal was to develop among them an integrated theory of human organization and personality. These would become the guiding factors for sociology and psychology, respectively. This group of social scientists established the Pi Gamma Mu honor society, an interdisciplinary journal, and grants for lecturers. As the social sciences grew their methodologies, both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in the natural and social sciences.

At the end of the nineteenth century, there were only five established social sciences. They were Law, Economy, Art, Health, and Education. Today, most of these are not considered social sciences. Nowadays, the most common social sciences include sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science, and criminology. There are many more, but these are the most prominent.

The same desire for understanding and knowledge that led humans to study matter, the universe, and the earth led to the social sciences. That is, to study human institutions, human behavior, morality, economy, and human nature. Social sciences have also been referred to as "soft sciences" or "behavioral sciences."

Before delving into sociology, itself, I will discuss the other prominent social sciences. As I mentioned previously, the most common social sciences today include:

• Sociology.

• Psychology.

• Anthropology.