Psychology
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface........................................................................................................ 1 Chapter One: Psychology as a Discipline ..................................................... 5 Psychology Explained ...................................................................................................... 5 Basic Branches of Psychology .......................................................................................... 8 History of Psychology .................................................................................................... 10 Modern Psychology ........................................................................................................ 15 Careers in Psychology .....................................................................................................17 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 18 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 19 Chapter Two: Psychological Research ....................................................... 23 Scientific Method ........................................................................................................... 23 Types of Psychological Research ................................................................................... 25 Experimental Psychology .............................................................................................. 29 Analyzing Research Findings......................................................................................... 31 Ethics in Psychological Research................................................................................... 33 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 35 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter Three: Biology in Psychology ....................................................... 40 Psychology and Genetics................................................................................................ 40 Parts of the Nervous System .......................................................................................... 45 Parts of the Nervous System .......................................................................................... 49 Brain Imaging ................................................................................................................ 54
The Endocrine System ................................................................................................... 55 Neurotransmitters ......................................................................................................... 56 Biopsychology ................................................................................................................ 58 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 59 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 60 Chapter Four: Lifespan Development ....................................................... 64 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 64 Theories on Lifespan Development ............................................................................... 65 Developmental Stages .................................................................................................... 68 Adolescent Development ............................................................................................... 72 Adulthood....................................................................................................................... 73 Death and Dying ............................................................................................................ 73 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 75 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 76 Chapter Five: Consciousness .....................................................................80 States of Consciousness .................................................................................................80 History of Consciousness ............................................................................................... 81 Sleep and Stages of Sleep ............................................................................................... 82 Sleep Disorders .............................................................................................................. 84 Altered States of Consciousness .................................................................................... 86 Meditation and Hypnosis .............................................................................................. 87 Hypnosis ........................................................................................................................ 87 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 89 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 90
Chapter Six: Sensation and Perception ..................................................... 94 Sensation and Perception Defined ................................................................................ 94 Waves ............................................................................................................................. 96 Vision ............................................................................................................................. 98 Hearing........................................................................................................................... 99 Other Senses .................................................................................................................101 Gestalt Principles of Sensation .................................................................................... 104 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 107 Chapter Seven: Learning Theory .............................................................. 111 Learning Defined .......................................................................................................... 111 Classical Conditioning .................................................................................................. 116 Operant Conditioning ................................................................................................... 117 Modeling ....................................................................................................................... 119 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................. 121 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 122 Chapter Eight: Intelligence and Thinking ................................................ 126 Cognition Defined ........................................................................................................ 126 Language ...................................................................................................................... 129 Problem Solving ........................................................................................................... 130 Sources of Intelligence .................................................................................................. 131 Intelligence Assessment............................................................................................... 132 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 134 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 135 Chapter Nine: Personality ....................................................................... 139
Personality Defined...................................................................................................... 139 Personality Development ............................................................................................. 140 Freud and Neo-Freudians in Personality Development .............................................. 141 Approaches to Personality ........................................................................................... 144 Personality Assessment ............................................................................................... 146 Personality Disorders................................................................................................... 147 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 150 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 151 Chapter Ten: Memory .............................................................................. 155 Types of Memory ..........................................................................................................155 Biological Basis of Memory ..........................................................................................157 Memory Impairment ................................................................................................... 158 Memory Enhancements ............................................................................................... 160 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................. 161 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 162 Chapter Eleven: Emotion and Motivation ................................................ 166 What is Motivation? ..................................................................................................... 166 Sexual Behavior............................................................................................................ 168 Hunger and Satiety ...................................................................................................... 170 Eating Disorders ...........................................................................................................173 Basis of Emotion .......................................................................................................... 174 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 176 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 177 Chapter Twelve: Social Psychology ........................................................... 181
Social Psychology Defined ............................................................................................ 181 Attitudes and Persuasion ............................................................................................. 183 Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance .................................................................... 185 Discrimination and Prejudice ...................................................................................... 186 Social Aggression ......................................................................................................... 187 Prosocial Behavior ....................................................................................................... 188 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 190 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 191 Chapter Thirteen: Stress and the Pursuit of Happiness ........................... 195 Stress Defined .............................................................................................................. 195 Stressors ....................................................................................................................... 198 Stress and Disease....................................................................................................... 200 Regulating Stress .........................................................................................................202 Happiness..................................................................................................................... 203 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 205 Quiz ..............................................................................................................................206 Chapter Fourteen: Psychopathology ....................................................... 210 Diagnosis of Psychological Disorders .......................................................................... 210 Anxiety Disorders ......................................................................................................... 211 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders ................................................................................ 213 PTSD ............................................................................................................................ 214 Dissociative Disorders ................................................................................................. 214 Mood Disorders ........................................................................................................... 215 Schizophrenia................................................................................................................217
Somatic Symptom Disorder ......................................................................................... 218 Childhood Psychological Disorders ............................................................................. 218 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................220 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 221 Chapter Fifteen: Psychotherapy and Mental Health Treatment ............... 225 History of Mental Health Treatment ........................................................................... 225 Types of Therapy .......................................................................................................... 226 Treating Substance Abuse ........................................................................................... 230 Types of Therapy Providers ......................................................................................... 230 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 232 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 233 Summary ................................................................................................ 237 Course Questions and Answers ............................................................... 241
PREFACE This course is designed to introduce the listener to the basis of college psychology. Simply put, psychology is the study of the mind. There are elements of psychology that have biological origins, such as learning, memory, sensation, and perception. Psychological wellness is important to overall health. In the course, we talk about stress and illness, states of consciousness, and personality. The different mental illnesses are important to learn about when you study psychology as well as the different ways that many of these disorders are treated by psychologists and other mental health professionals. When you finish the course, you should feel competent in your understanding of psychology as it is presented in a typical college psychology course. Chapter one in the course introduces psychology as a health discipline. In the chapter, you will learn about what psychology means as a discipline, the history of psychology throughout the world, and the practice of modern psychology. Psychology has many applications. Whether you are studying psychology to become a psychologist or using psychology as part of your career, this chapter will help you understand both the different careers in psychology and the various fields of applied psychology. The focus of chapter two is psychological research. All good research starts with an understanding of the scientific method, which is the foundation of all research processes. There are different types of psychological research studies that differ in their design and interpretation, as well as ways to interpret the findings determined to be fact in the different psychological experiments. There are certain ethical principles that must be considered when performing research on human subjects, which are covered as part of this chapter. Chapter three in the course delves into the subject of biology in the study of psychology. Genetics are an important part of the biology of a human being, so this is covered in the chapter. The cells and structures of the nervous system need to be understood before you can understand the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena. An important aspect of this are the neurotransmitters that have different effects on the
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nervous system. All of these things are put together in the study of biopsychology, which is a major research field in psychology. Chapter four is about lifespan development. There are several researchers who have developed theories on lifespan development, which are explained in the chapter. The different stages of development, from the prenatal stage to stages of advanced age, are covered in this chapter. Finally, issues related to death and dying as well as the different stages of grief are explained as part of the chapter. The focus of chapter five in the course is consciousness, which is the awareness of one s internal and external environment. There are different states of consciousness experienced every day, the most common of which is the sleep state. There are different stages of sleep that can be identified and a range of sleep-related disorders that can affect a person. Altered states of consciousness are covered in this chapter, including ways of inducing an altered state, such as meditation and hypnosis. Chapter six discusses the principles of sensation and perception. Sensation can involve several things because there are multiple sensory organs in the body. The typical sensory functions covered in this chapter are vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and several different tactile perceptions. Each of these depends on certain receptors that pick up details from the environment. Perception is related to sensation. Because Gestalt psychology is based on perception, this is discussed in this chapter as well. The topic of chapter seven in the course is learning theories. Learning involves the acquisition of new information but it also involve acquiring behaviors, values, preferences, or skills. There is learning throughout life and different ways in which learning can happen. Some of the most historically significant learning strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, although there are other ways of learning new things, such as through operational learning or modeling, which is covered in this chapter. Chapter eight is about intelligence, thinking, and cognition. Part of the understanding of intelligence involves the understanding of things like creativity and language. Where intelligence comes from and how it is tested for are also covered in this chapter.
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Everyone, regardless of their intelligence, has the ability to problem solve so this is included in the chapter. The focus of chapter nine in the course is personality. Personality involves the traits a person has that are consistent over time. There are multiple theories on what personality is all about and theories on personality development, which are discussed in the chapter. Specific personality tests can be used to evaluate a person s personality. Finally, there are personality disorders covered in the chapter, which represent deviations in what can be called a normal personality. Chapter ten in the course introduces the subject of memory. Memory is not just a single thing as there are several types of memory. Memory is largely biological, with certain parts of the brain contributing to the experience of memory. Some people have memory deficits, which are discussed in the chapter. In order to combat memory impairment, many individuals will use specific memory enhancement techniques in order to improve memory. Chapter eleven is about emotion and motivation. Motivation explains why a person does what they do. There are specific motivations that are universal to all humans. These include the drives to eat and the drives related to sexuality and sex. The chapter talks about the different disorders related to eating and sexuality, such as eating disorders and gender identity disorder. Finally, the basis of emotions is covered in the chapter. Chapter twelve in the book talks about issues related to social psychology. Social psychology is about those behaviors, thoughts, and feeling brought about by interactions with other people. There are certain things that occur mainly in the group environment, such as conformity, obedience, aggression, and prosocial behavior. This chapter is basically about groups and group dynamics as they exist only in a social environment. The topics in chapter thirteen include stress from a psychological viewpoint and the pursuit of happiness. Stress comes in many forms; there can be relatively positive stressors and negative stressors. People regulate stress in relatively predictable ways, which are covered in the chapter. Negative stress can lead to a variety of disease states. The pursuit of happiness is an uplifting aspect of psychology, which is also covered as part of this chapter.
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The focus of chapter fourteen in the course is clinical psychology or the study of psychopathology. There are many different types of mental disorders in the realm of psychology, which are briefly covered in the chapter. These include mood disorders, schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, and somatic disorders. The different psychological disorders that primarily affect children are also discussed in the chapter. The chapter also explains how different psychological disorders are diagnosed in clinical psychology. Chapter fifteen is about the treatment of mental health disorders. Mental health treatment has been around for centuries but is currently more humane than it originally was. There are several approaches to treating mental illness and several specific psychological treatments, which are covered in the chapter. There are many types of providers that help people with mental health problems, which are described as part of the chapter.
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CHAPTER ONE: PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE This chapter introduces psychology as a health discipline. In the chapter, you will hear about what psychology means as a discipline, the history of psychology throughout the world, and the practice of modern psychology. Psychology has many applications. Whether you are studying psychology to become a psychologist, or using psychology as part of your career, this chapter will help you understand both the different careers in psychology and the various fields of applied psychology.
PSYCHOLOGY EXPLAINED Psychology is the study of the interactions between emotions, behavior, and cognition or thinking. These things are both separate and interrelated aspects of the human mind. Some psychologists are interested in psychological development and the formation of personality. Others spend their time researching how people think in different circumstances in order to predict and control behavior. There are many applications of psychology in everyday life. For this reason, there are several disciplines under the umbrella of applied psychology”. There are also psychotherapists that counsel and treat individuals with psychological disorders in individual, couples, family, and group psychotherapy. The term psyche” is of Greek origin, which means soul. Because the soul and mind were not well understood at the time when the term psychology was developed, this is why the term meant the study of the soul but now means the study of the mind. In modern times, psychology is considered a scientific discipline. As with any scientific study, psychology makes use of the scientific method. This involves first identifying a hypothesis or theory that might explain what is happening to an individual. The researcher takes the hypothesis and makes observations or creates an experiment to test the hypothesis. After this, there are results of the experiment or observations. If the results are verified, they can be published and certain theorems can
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be made based on the results. Theorems are laws or explanations of what is happening in a given setting. There are many sub-fields in psychology. There will be more on applied psychology later in this chapter so now we will talk about the basics of the different disciplines involved in the study of psychology. You can see where psychology has a great many applications in schools, industry, and in communities all over the world. These are a few of the subfields involved in psychology: •
Aviation psychology—this is the study of the psychology of aviation safety. It focuses on the psychological aspects of pilot performance so as to understand how to avoid aviation accidents.
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Biological psychology—this is also referred to as biopsychology. It is involved with the interplay between physical processes of the mind and how it relates to psychological principles.
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Clinical psychology—this is the study of how mental illnesses develop and how to treat the different psychological and mental illnesses.
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Comparative psychology—this is the study of how different animals in nature behave and how it varies from species to species.
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Consumer psychology—this is the study of how individuals determine which products and services to purchase. It helps salespeople determine how to target their advertising based on psychological principles.
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Counseling psychology—this is similar to clinical psychology but focuses on helping the average person cope better, reduce stress, and overcome social and emotional concerns.
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Developmental psychology—this is the study of the way humans develop throughout their lives in the areas of emotional, physical, intellectual, and social health.
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Educational or school psychology—this involves psychologists who work within educational settings to improve student wellbeing and success in their educational endeavors.
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Experimental psychology—this is also referred to as research psychology. It is involved in the designing and implementation of research studies in order to understand how people think and behave.
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Family psychology—this is the field that deals most with issues involving couples and families as they deal with various issues amongst themselves.
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Forensic psychology—this is the area of psychology that deals with criminal behavior and with the legal system.
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Geropsychology—this is the area of expertise that deals with the aging process and how people think and behave in their older years.
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Industrial psychology—this field studies the psychology of workers in the workplace in order to better understand how to maximize employee wellbeing at work.
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Psychometrics—this is the study of testing within psychology, including how to test people for intelligence and personality issues.
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Social psychology—this is the field of how your emotions, beliefs, and behaviors are affected by other individuals in a social setting. It deals with groups and group behaviors.
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Sports psychology—this is the study of performance psychology in athletics in order to maximize motivation and athletic performance in sports.
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BASIC BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY One of the major branches of psychology is neuropsychology or biopsychology. It looks at the different biological factors that affect mental processes and behavior. It looks at the phenomena associated with sensation and sensory perception. This is a relatively new field of psychology because it depends on understanding things like neurotransmitters and the different mental processes linked to different parts of the brain. The field originated in the 1870s, when a researcher named Paul Broca mapped speech production to certain areas on the left frontal gyrus of the brain. Another researcher, Carl Wernicke, mapped out the areas of the brain that determine the ability to understand the spoken word. It was discovered by these researchers that there is lateralization of certain cerebral processes so that an injury on a specific side an of the brain means a different impact on mental and physical functioning. Many other things were discovered by studying people who had major brain injuries. One infamous patient who was studied was Phineas Gage, who had a rod impaling his frontal lobe and survived. He developed significant social and interpersonal difficulties afterward, which were examined; the findings helped doctors understand the role of the frontal lobe on thinking and behavior. In modern science, there is the field of behavioral neuroscience that looks at the interplay between neurology and psychology. Because of the ethical issues regarding the study of the nervous system in humans, many studies are done on neural circuits as they relate to learning and memory in rats. There are doctors and researchers that use neuroimaging techniques to take specialized images of the human brain. The differences in brain structures as they relate to psychological differences in humans can then be studied ethically. Brain damaged patients or those with brain tumors can help determine which parts of the brain are associated with what kinds of neurological, emotional, and cognitive defects. A related field is evolutionary psychology, which looks at thinking patterns and personality traits that have changed over the course of human development. According
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to those who study this field, there have been specific psychological adaptations that have evolved over the course of human history in order to advance humankind. Behavioral genetics looks at the more immediate genetic factors that play a role in behavior and cognition. Another branch of psychology is behavioral psychology. This has involved a great deal of research on mammals and other animals with regard to learning and behavior among the different species. Later on, we will cover classical and operant conditioning. This has been studied in animals and applied to human behavior. Behaviorism describes how people could be used to describe how phobias can develop by pairing an aversive stimulus with otherwise benign imagery. Behaviorism or behavioral psychology is used to explain the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in order to model certain behaviors. They do not discuss things like the unconscious mind, which cannot easily be studied. Famous behaviorists include Edwin Guthrie, Clark Hull, and BF Skinner. A part of behaviorism is called cognitive behaviorism, which combines pure or radical behaviorism and the internal thinking processes of the mind. Behavioral modification is used in some psychological circles in order to shape human and animal behavior. Cognitive psychology is another main branch of psychology. It mainly studies thinking processes, such as reasoning, attention, perception, memory, learning, and problemsolving. These are largely physical processes that originate in the brain. Researchers use experimental studies to look at how people learn and observe things. Aspects of behaviorism and cognitive psychology have been combined in clinical terms to make cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a popular form of psychotherapy. Social psychology is another major branch of psychology. It studies the thought processes and relationships between two or more individuals. Things related to this include persuasion, stereotyping, conformity, and group dynamics. Group dynamics relates to things like group communication, leadership, and how people work together in groups. Social issues also play a big role in the manifestations of some psychiatric diseases.
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HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is related to several other disciplines, including sociology, philosophy, anthropology, physiology, and neuroscience. Psychology was originally studied as a branch of philosophy and has been studied on some levels in ancient cultures, including the Egyptians. Modern psychology was first thought of as an independent scientific field in Germany in the 1970s. It was originally studied in a research format by Wilhelm Wundt, who created the first psychological laboratory. Early researchers were William James, who first studied pragmatism, Hermann Ebbinghaus, who first studied memory, and Ivan Pavlov, who worked with dogs in the development of classical conditioning. Borne out of experimental psychology were different kinds of applied psychology. Psychology was applied to many different fields, including the legal system and industry. The first psychology clinic was established by Lightner Witmer in the 1890s. Mental testing was also first established in the 1890s. It was also at this time that Sigmund Freud developed his theory and practice of psychoanalysis. The early Twentieth Century brought about John B Watson and BF Skinner, who first studied issues related to behaviorism. This became popular because of the fact that behavior could be easily examined and quantified. These early behaviorists didn t concern themselves with the mind because it was considered to be too vague a topic to actually study. The latter half of the Twentieth Century was when cognitive psychology was developed. The mind was increasingly studied in order to apply the findings to different aspects of applied psychology, including the field of artificial intelligence, which continues to be a popular psychological field of research. The first uses of the term psychology” predates the practice of psychology. It was a branch of philosophy developed in the late 1500s. It was later popularized in the early 1700s by a German philosopher named Christian Wolff. It was originally thought of as the study of the soul. Rene Descartes looked at psychology as a part of his philosophy in
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the early 1600s. Some of his works were not originally published because of possible criticism by the Catholic Church. Early study that predated the transition to modern psychology included the study of mesmerism, which was considered a precursor to modern-day hypnosis, and phrenology, which was the study of the meaning of bumps on the skull. France Mesmer first brought about mesmerism in the late 1700s in Austria. It was used to cure different physical and mental illnesses. Mesmerism in its pure form was eventually discounted. Later, several physicians remade mesmerism into what is now referred to as hypnotism. Immanuel Kant, in the late 1700s, first addressed the issue of whether or not psychology was an independent science apart from philosophy but he thought it could not be because it involved things that could not actually be quantified. Johann Herbart opposed this idea of Kant s, attempting to come up with mathematical models that could explain psychological phenomena. This led to researchers like Gustav Fechner, who first coined the term psychophysics, which looked at quantifying aspects of psychology. The related subjects of neuropsychology and psychology came together in the mid1800s, when Charles Bell and Francois Magendie were able to distinguish between motor and sensory nerves. The electrical basis of muscle cell contraction was discovered and both Pierre Broca and Carl Wernicke uncovered the parts of the brain responsible for speech and language. The speed of nerve transmission was discovered by Hermann Helmholtz, as was the nature of our understanding of color vision and sound. It was Wilhelm Wundt who first published a book on the study of psychological psychology, which led to his opening of the first experimental facility for the study of psychology. He gathered students from all parts of the world who studied under him in what was considered a widely expanding scientific field. It is commonly known that the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud is considered the father of modern psychoanalysis. He also pioneered hypnosis, the concepts of free association, and dream interpretation—each used to identify unconscious beliefs that led to the phenomenon of hysteria. The emphasis was on sexual development as the source of a great many psychological disorders. He and Karl Jung identified
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compartmentalized thinking, in which certain thoughts and behaviors are lost to the conscious self. Both physicians agreed on the concept of ego but disagreed on the influence that sexuality had on the development of mental illnesses. Jung identified four different aspects of mental functioning that help to define a person s ego, which is the conscious self. These include: •
The ability to sense things in the outside world, called sensations.
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Feelings, which help to motivate our responses to sensations.
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Intellect, which compares a sensation to past sensations so as to understand its meaning.
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Intuition, which can help predict unexpected consequences.
Sigmund Freud s ideas were both influential and controversial. Few psychologists doubt that early childhood experiences shape the rest of the person s life. Freud changed his ideas from his early days to his later days and there is more criticism about his earlier works. Most of the criticism comes from his earlier works. Less controversial are his ideas on the importance of the relationship between the therapist and the client. The first American to study psychology was William James, who was a psychologist who opened a psychology laboratory in the 1870s. He lectured on the senses and their relationship to thought. He published a book called The Principles of Psychology” in the late 1800s. Another early American who studied psychology was Charles Peirce. He studied color vision as one of the major senses. He was joined by G. Stanley Hall, who studied experimental psychology in the 1880s. Hall was the founder of the American Journal of Psychology, where his work was first published. About 40 years later, Princeton University opened the first Department of Psychology. G. Stanley Hall was one of the founding members of the American Psychological Association. Over time, there was controversy that led to structuralism and functionalism in psychology, which will be discussed in a minute.
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It can be said that Wilhelm Wundt was the first psychologist. He studied the conscious experience and undertook study of the different components of consciousness. He felt that the human mind was unique in that it was capable of introspection or internal perception”, which was the examination of one s own conscious experience. He made use of experienced observers who could report specific reactions to repeatable stimuli. Wundt made major contributions to structuralism, which was the attempt to find structure out of the characteristics of the mind. He studied reaction times to various stimuli down to one-thousandth of a second in some cases. Structuralism was far less popular later on because it was not possible to train people consistently in the process of objective introspection. William James had a different perspective on psychology. He studied Darwinian evolution and believed that people were the product of natural selection. He was the founder of functionalism, which was the study of how mental functions helped the individual fit into their environment. The interest was in the way the whole mind operated, rather than the parts of the mind. Gestalt psychology was developed by several German psychologists who escaped Nazi Germany and came to the US. Gestalt basically means whole” and talks about the fact that, despite the separate parts of the sensory experience, these parts are related to one another in order to create a whole, which was a contradiction to structuralism developed by Wundt. Gestalt psychology didn t take hold in the US as much as it had in Germany. There were several other researchers in the world who pioneered the ideas related to behaviorism. Ivan Pavlov in Russia studied reflexes elicited as a result of different stimuli. Pavlov worked on salivation in dogs both with and without the presence of actual food. The pairing of food with an alternate stimulus created a response to the alternate or learned stimulus. This was classical conditioning. John B Watson was an American psychologist who believed it was impossible to analyze the mind objectively. He focused instead on observable behaviors. He was influential in shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to that of behavior. He and other behaviorists attempted to translate animal behavioral findings to human behavior. Behaviors and behavioral modification are used in many psychological settings.
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BF Skinner was another American behaviorist who utilized aspects of reinforcement and punishment in order to drive behavior. He pioneered operant conditioning and made use of what s referred to as the Skinner box to study animal behaviors. The Skinner box used learning in rats to reinforce behaviors that would increase the chances of a reward or a punishment. The two dominating features of American psychology in the Twentieth Century were psychoanalysis and behaviorism. There were, however, some psychologists who were not satisfied with these limitations. They formed the concepts that emphasized a predisposition for good as being important for human self-concept and behavior. They believed that the potential for good exists in all humans. This was the foundation for humanism, which was proposed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow was a Twentieth century humanist who proposed Maslow s hierarchy of needs that help to motivate human behavior. If the needs lower down in the hierarchy are met, then some of the higher needs, such as social needs, will begin to motivate human behavior. Full potential is achieved when a person reaches self-actualization. Out of Maslow s work came research on meditation, happiness, and self-concept. Figure 1 shows Maslow s hierarchy of human needs:
Figure 1.
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Carl Rogers also emphasized the potential for human good. He used client-centered therapy to help patients deal with the issues that brought them into therapy in the first place. He felt that the therapist needed to be genuine, have unconditional positive regard, and empathy. With these things, he felt that the patient was fully capable of working through their interpersonal issues. Humanism lead psychologists to an increased focus on the whole individual as a selfaware person. Because of advances in other areas of science, there was more attention paid to the field of cognitive psychology. The first textbook on the subject was published in 1967. Noam Chomsky was one of the major influences on this movement toward cognitive psychology. It combined the fields of linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, and computer science in the understanding of human cognition.
MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Modern psychology or contemporary psychology has certainly been influenced by history. In today s time, the largest professional organization of psychologists in the world is the APA or the American Psychological Association. There are 56 separate divisions of the APA that represent the different areas of applied psychology. The APS or Association for Psychological Science was developed in 1988 and focuses on the scientific aspects of psychology. There are many other contemporary associations related to the advancement of psychology. There are several branches of modern-day psychology that will be discussed throughout this course. We have already discussed biopsychology, which looks at the biological influences on human behavior. Later on, we will talk about the different aspects of the nervous system—each of which becomes important in the study of human behavior. The issues that are dealt with include neurodevelopment, biological basis of psychological diseases, sleep, and drug abuse. Evolutionary psychology is related to this field. It looks at the impact of genetics on human behavior. It is difficult, however, to determine whether or not a behavior or trait is naturally selected by evolution. For this reason, while it is believed that behavior has
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an evolutionary origin, it is hard to find out what aspects of behavior are solely based on evolution. Cognitive psychology looks at thoughts or cognitions and how they relate to action and experiences. There are a lot of disciplines that fall under the umbrella of cognitive psychology. Things that are covered include sensation, perception, problem solving, language, and memory. Developmental psychology is the study of how humans develop across their lifespan. It relates to issues of physical and psychological maturation. There are issues at every stage of human development with goals to be met as part of each stage. Jean Piaget was a famous child psychologist who studied the development of young children. Outside of his work, there is increasing focus on the psychological issues facing the aging population. Personality psychology places a focus on the behaviors and thinking that make each person a unique individual. Freud, Maslow, and Gordon Alport have all contributed to how personality develops. There are certain personality traits that exist in each individual, which help to define the different ways the person reacts and interacts with their environment. Personality traits are relatively stable over time and include things like a person s degree of openness, neuroticism, and extraversion. Social psychology refers to differences in how the person interacts with others. It looks at issues of prejudice, the resolution of interpersonal conflicts, and attraction. It also looks at how being with other people help to shape a person s patterns of thinking and human behaviors. It studies how people are sometimes willing to do things they would not ordinarily do just because they were told to do so by an authority figure. Health psychology looks specifically at the interactions between psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors. There are relationships between psychological stress, physical health, genetic makeup, and patterns of behavior. Those who study this aspect of psychology look at those patterns of behavior that contribute to poor health outcomes. Clinical psychology focuses on the different psychological disorders and problem behaviors. Some in this field do research but most focus on the treatment of patients. 16
Counseling psychology is related to clinical psychology except that it deals with the emotional, social, and health issues in people who are basically psychologically healthy. Forensic psychology deals with psychological issues in the criminal justice system. These clinicians help to determine competency to stand trial and consult on possible treatment recommendations. They become expert witnesses in relation to court cases and jury selection. They help to prepare witnesses and provide some kinds of psychological treatment to those in the criminal justice system. Criminal profilers are also professionals in forensic psychology.
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY Individuals with a degree in psychology can do many different types of jobs in multiple workplaces. A degree in psychology can be a 4-year bachelor of science degree, while those who treat patients must have a master s degree or PhD in the field. People with a PhD can work in higher education doing research and teaching. Others work in hospitals, government medical centers, businesses, medical schools, or private practice. Postdoctoral programs are generally for individuals who are interested in pursuing a specific field of psychological research. Another common degree is a doctor of psychology degree, which is often for individuals who have a desire to become a clinical psychologist. There is a reduced emphasis on research and a greater emphasis on skills necessary to treat patients. There is a licensure examination for licensed clinical psychologists. Psychologists cannot prescribe medications but can treat patients using other modalities. People with undergraduate degrees in psychology can use these skills to enter other fields, such as nursing, human resources, teaching, and even sales. There are many corporations that value a degree in psychology when it comes to helping employees in the workforce or understanding how consumers make decisions in advertising.
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KEY TAKEAWAYS •
Psychology is the study of emotions, cognition, and behaviors.
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There are different psychological angles that focus on things like behaviors, biopsychology, and the study of mental processes.
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Behaviorists tend to stick to those things that are observable in human psychology.
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Psychology has been studied and written about since ancient times.
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Modern psychology predates to about the 1870s in Germany with the opening of the first research laboratories devoted to psychological research.
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There are many different areas of applied psychology that are used in numerous ways in all aspects of human life.
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There are different degrees that can be gotten in the study of psychology as an academic focus.
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