Imposition of Portuguese

century onwards for various reasons such as 1. Famine of 1553, 1630-1631 (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009: 30; Pius F. Pinto 1999a:24; B.S. Shastry 2000:257). 2. Declining food production (B.S. Shastry 2000:257). 3. Economic hardships. Conversion deprived converts of much of their former status. The Portuguese noblemen and ministers showed greater respect to Hindus than to Christians (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009:196). 4. Conversions also brought humiliation and ill-treatment on converts and they were treated as captives (Machado A.2015:106). Hence migration was one of the options. 5. Epidemic in 1543, 1545, 1570, 1583-88, 1618-19, and 1635 (Pius F. Pinto 1999a:23; B.S. Shastry 2000:257). 6. Invasion by the Marathas in 1667, 1683, 1739 (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009:30; Machado A.2015:102-104; Pius F. Pinto 1999b:18). 7. Adil Shah of Vijayapura (formerly known as Bijapur) invaded Bardes and Salcette in 1570 and between 1654-1659 (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009:30; Pius F. Pinto 1999b:17; Alan Machado 2015:102). 8. Two severe cyclones accompanied by earthquakes in April 1649 and in July 1654 (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009:30). 9. Inquisition introduced in 1560 (B.S. Shastry 2000:257) and it was abolished only in 1812. It was intolerant in its religious attitude, it wanted to impose the Portuguese type of Christianity on the new converts of Goa by force, it wanted to eliminate all the traces of local culture. Their names, food habits, social customs, and even dress were made to conform to the European Christian standards. It created a sense of fear and insecurity. Thus, to escape from this tyranny migration was the only option (Pius F. Pinto 1999b:14-17). 10. Imposition of Portuguese language and culture upon all the natives and suppress their native language through the decree of 27

June 1684 (Teotonio R. de Souza 2009:67; Pius F. Pinto 1999a:24). 11. Excessive taxation by the Portuguese (Pius F. Pinto, 1999a:1516; Alan Machado 2015:99). 12. The Portuguese Christians were not fully prepared to accept the native Christians as social and cultural equals. They practised social discrimination as long as the native Christians tried to maintain a separate identity through their language, customs, and manners (Pius F. Pinto 1999b:16-17). 13. Population problem in Goa (Pius F. Pinto 1999:18). 14. Nayaka Kings of Keladi welcomed from Goa, cultivators, and skilled labourers such as carpenters, fishermen, masons, potters, goldsmiths, businessmen, etc (Pius F. Pinto 1999:19-20); the policy of religious liberalism of the Nayaka Kings provided incentives to migrate. Agricultural land was scarce in Goa and availability of fertile lands along the Coastal Karnataka was easy. Keladi kingdom had scarcity of skilled labourers. This void was filled

by the migrant Christians (Pius F. Pinto 1999:18).

15. The Konknni speaking Christian migrants did not come to the Keladi kingdom with empty hands. They had cash at their disposal, which they invested in Keladi territory. Therefore, Nayaks of Keladi whole-heartedly welcomed Christians from Goa to their kingdom. (Pius F. Pinto 1999:19). 16. In Goa there was scarcity of rice. The local food production was not sufficient for more than four months in a year. Kanara’s rice kept Goa alive (Alan Machado 2015:105). This situation too caused migration to Karnataka. 17. The Christian farming migrants with their qualities of discipline, hard work, honesty, and skill contributed much to the prosperity of Keladi kingdom (Pius F. Pinto

1999:19). 18. The Keladi kings knew that it was politically profitable to invite the Christians from Goa to their kingdom because these Christians knew the strengths and weaknesses of the Portuguese (Pius F. Pinto 1999:20).

The Konknni speaking Hindus migrated from Goa to Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala as early as 10th century (Alan Machado 2015:97). The Catholic Konknnis (Konknni speakers) who migrated from Goa took this Mônti Fest from Goa along with them to Coastal Karnataka. Now these Konknni Catholic settlers of Coastal

Karnataka are spread out in India and all over the world and they celebrate Mônti Fest with great enthusiasm, wherever they have settled. Konknni as the cultural identity of Konknnis: Unfortunately, and wrongly, Konknnis of Coastal Karnataka are labelled as “Mangaloreans”. Mangaluru is the district headquarters of Dakshina Kannada district. It is unfair to label Konknnis who live in Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Shivamogga, Mysore, Bengaluru, Chikkamagaluru, Dharwad, Belgavi,

Kodagu, Hassan, and elsewhere, who have nothing to do with the city of Mangaluru, to be clubbed together as “Mangaloreans”. Moreover, Mangaloreans, Goans are regional identities and not cultural entities. In India, the cultural identity is primarily based on language affinity. For example, Gujarati speakers are known as Gujaratis, Sindhi speakers as Sindhis, irrespective of their placeof birth or dwelling. In this logical sense, all Konknni speaking persons and those who belong to Konknni speaking lineage to be rightly called as KONKNNIS.

Goa Archdiocese and Mônti Fest:

Mônti Fest was fostered in Coastal Karnataka by priests from Goa who were serving in Coastal Karnataka till 1838. In 1838 Dakshina Kannada district - Mangaluru (earlier known as Mangalore) as its headquarters of Coastal Karnataka was separated from the jurisdiction of Goa Archdiocese. Similarly, on 19th September 1953 Uttara Kannada district (Karwar as its headquarters) and Belgavi district were separated from the jurisdiction of Goa Archdiocese and Belgavi Diocese was erected. Irrespective of these developments, Mônti Fest continued in Coastal Karnataka the most popular feast. Now let us see how Mônti Fest took its origin in Goa.

The arrival of the Portuguese: On 25th November 1510, in the second attempt the commander of Portuguese army Afonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515) conquered Tiswadi from Adil Shah

of Bijapur (now Vijayapura). Soon after the conquest he ordered a chapel to be built in honour of Our Lady to thank her for his escape from Kamaran island in the Red Sea. Thus in between 1510 -1519, Capela de Nossa Senhora do Monte (The chapel of Our Lady of Mount) was built on the hillock at the City of Goa (now known as Old Goa). He died on 16th December 1515. According to his will he was buried in that chapel. In 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon. The chapel of Our Lady of Mount was probably reconstructed twice. It had a dimension of a church and in fact it was a parish when the City of Goa was thickly populated. Since the chapel was on the mount and in Portuguese ‘Monte’ means mount, that chapel was called in Konknni “Mônti Saybinničhem Køpel” (the Chapel of Our Lady of the Mount). It had three altars. The main altar was dedicated to Our Lady of the Mount. The side altars were dedicated to St. Anthony of Padua and to St. Anthony, the Hermit. Due to this chapel, the universally celebrated Feast of the Nativity of Our Lady on 8th September, in Goa came to be known as Mônti Saybinničhem Fest or Mônti Fest. Daily Mass was celebrated when it was a parish in 16th century. The feast is now celebrated in this chapel on Sunday after 8th September. Besides, on 8th of every month, an evening Mass was celebrated. I do not know whether this practice continues or not. Until 2001, this chapel was in ruins. A restoration project was then planned and funded by the Fundação Oriente in association with the Goa government. This restored chapel still exists in Old Goa and it has become famous to host the much-acclaimed Monte Music Festival to integrate the Indian and Western forms of classical music. It attracts both music performers and lovers from

various countries. Besides, this chapel has been the backdrop for many Bollywood films.

The arrival of the Jesuits: In 1543, the Portuguese conquered the Bardes and Salcete regions from Adil Shah. These two regions with Tiswadi came to be known as Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquest). On 6th

May 1542, Francis Xavier, the first Jesuit priest of the Society of Jesus arrived in the City of Goa. He was followed by many other Jesuits. In 1552, Fr. Gaspar Barzeus (15151555), a Jesuit priest of Dutch origin came to Goa. He was a good preacher and a talented person. Francis Xavier appointed him as the Rector of St. Paul College at City of Goa and the Vice-Provincial of the East Province of the Society of Jesus. Fr. Gaspar died in Goa on 18th October 1553. When he was alive, he introduced to teach music in St. Paul College. He was responsible for introducing the cultural phenomena for the creation of a Latin Indian culture, like plainchant, polyphony, western musical instruments (like organ, piano, trumpet, guitar, violin, viola, harp, shawm, flute, vihuela, lute, harpsichord, and percussion drum), as well as Western musical forms like oratorio, cantata, villancico, and even opera. He made liturgy lively by initiating the custom of the sung Mass and of chants accompanied by the organ, as well as by instituting the post of choir master (mestre capela). Drama and music were conjoined most effectively in the Passos (sufferings). Passion plays enacted with the aid of images, including scenes from the Last supper, the agony in the

garden, the scourging at the pillar, the crowning with thorns, the Ecce Homo, the judgement of Pilate, the carrying of the cross, the crucifixion and the entombment. These ceremonies first performed with great pomp, in the first monumental Church of St. Paul College (now Old Goa), of the Jesuits (José Pereira 1995: 9-20). Fr. Barzeus and Mônti Fest: The Mônti Fest with flowers, introduced by Fr. Gaspar Barzeus was held in commemoration of the Nativity of Mother Mary on 8th September. He asked the newly converted Catholic boys to come to the church in two long rows in white tunics and crowned with chaplets of flowers, dressed as “angels” carrying bamboo baskets of flowers. They would walk in procession, a pair at a time, to the statue of Mother Mary in the Jesuit church of St. Paul College, empty their baskets at her feet, and return to their places, singing “O Gloriosa Virginum” The reference to this custom is found in the Jesuit letters written to the General of the Society of Jesus published in Documenta Indica vols 70-72. This custom of bringing flowers was borrowed by Fr. Barzeus from the local Ganesh Chaturthi festival and adapted for the newly introduced Catholic religion.

Ganesh Festival and Mônti Fest: According to the Indian calendar, after the Shravan month, Bhadrapada month starts (corresponds to August/ September of the Gregorian calendar). On the fourth day of Bhadrapada month, Ganesh Chaturthi in Konknni Chøvøt is celebrated. It is the most important, popular, and loved festival along the Western Coast of India among Hindus. Since it is a family festival, persons who are residing far and near come to their ancestral house to celebrate Ganesh festival. Before the festival, houses are cleaned, painted, and decorated. On the first day of Chøvøt, the idol of Ganesh is normally installed in the ancestral family house. The festival lasts for 1½, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 days. It is celebrated with great splendour.

During the festival, every day fresh local fruits, flowers, and sweets are offered. Local vegetable dishes are prepared. Anything prepared or offered to Ganesh is in odd numbers, namely, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and so on. The Harvest Festival (Nøvyačhi Pøn ’čhøm ’) is celebrated the next day. Newly harvested paddy corn is brought home from fields and is worshipped. A few grains are put in the day’s meal. The corn is artistically tied to bamboo sticks decorated with jungle flowers. This is fitted above the main door and removed in the next year after procuring new corn, with the belief that the house will be full of rice throughout the year. Pure vegetarian meals are served on banana leaves or other leaves. Sweet dishes are prepared. During the festival, non-vegetarian dishes and liquor are strictly forbidden.

In the Old conquest of Goa in 16th century, the Feast of the Nativity of Mary was celebrated on 8th September, and it was called Mônti Saybinničhem Fest. Chøvøt and other in terms of date and certain customs. Fr. Gaspar Barzeus adapted the existing local tradition of Hindus offering fresh flowers to Ganesh, now to Mother Mary of

Christianity. Jesuit missionaries who spread Christianity in Goa, took care to retain or adapt local cultural roots of Hindus. Mônti Fest is the best proof of this. Some of the cultural traits of Ganesh Chaturthi are reflected in Mônti Fest as it is celebrated by Konknnis who

migrated from Goa to Coastal Maharashtra and Coastal Karnataka. During the nine days of novenas and Feast Day of the Nativity of Mary, he encouraged the Catholic boys to bring flowers to honour Mother Mary, to the Church of Our Lady of Mount. Everyday fresh flowers were brought. Within no time this tradition became very popular among Catholics in every church of Old Conquest. In those days the newly converted Catholics of Goa were eating only vegetarian food on 8th September. Gradually due to the Portuguese influence, this custom disappeared. Now for the nine days of novenas and feast, sprinkling of flowers is replaced in severalparishes of Goa, by placing a flower at the feet of the statue of Mother Mary by everyone who comes to the church. The Feast of Nativity of Lady in Modern Goa: In Goa now Mônti Fest is known as “Saybinničhya Zølmačhi Pørøb” , or “Fulančhem Fest”, or the Feast of Our Lady of Vailankanni. The Catholics of Goa do not combine the Harvest Festival known as “Kønnsančhem Fest with Mônti Fest. It is celebrated in the month of August. Raia village of Salcete has the first privilege of celebrating it on 5th August. In Salcete, mostly it is celebrated on 15th August. In Bardes, Aldona and Salvador do Mundo are the first to celebrate the Harvest Feast on 06th August. In Tiswadi, this feast is celebrated mostly on 24th August. However, the village of Taleigão has the privilege over the others for this festival. It starts on 21st and ends on 24th of August. The priest blesses the new paddy crop and harvests a few sheaves of corn. In Goa this feast among Catholics is celebrated by the Gaunkars (original settlers) only in rotation. The Gaunkar who celebrates the feast in a particular year, has to offer a lavish lunch to

other Gaunkars. The other parishioners have no role in it. Thus unfortunately, the Harvest Feast among the Catholics in Goa is limited only to Gaunkars and not to the entire parish community

Coastal Karnataka and Mônti Fest: In Coastal Karnataka Mônti Fest combined with Nøvem (the Harvest Festival) is celebrated by all

Catholics with great enthusiasm and joy in their respective parishes. It is a family feast, which unites its members. Therefore, as far as possible, family members who are far away prefer to come to their family for the celebration of this feast. This custom too has its origin in Ganesh Festival. There is a misconception in Karnataka that Fr. Joaquim Miranda, a diocesan priest of Goa Archdiocese, who was serving at Farangipete, Dakshina Kannada district started the Mônti Fest in Coastal Karnataka. This misconception is far from the real facts. When their ancestors migrated to Karnataka, they took cultural traits and adapted them to this feast. Fr. Miranda was a known missionary serving in Dakshina Kannada district must have given the boost to this festival.

Maria Bambina Statue and Mônti Fest:

In 19th century, Sister of Charity of St. Bartholomea Capitanio, and St. Vincenza Gerosa Congregation from Italy, who came to Mangaluru to establish their convents brought the statue of Maria Bambina to Mangaluru. The multiple production of this statue was done by Simon and company and St Joseph

Workshop at Mangaluru. It is a beautiful statue of baby Mary in a sleeping posture in a cradle.

During the novena days children search for flowers everywhere. As a boy, I after school, in the evening have gone 2 to 3 kilometres in search of flowers, especially golden trumpets, hibiscus, plumeria, marigold, periwinkle, tiger claw, balsam. When these flowers were not available mother would ask us to take wild sesame flowers and pumpkin flowers. In her simple faith, mother would tell us that Mother Mary accepts all flowers brought to her with faith and love. We children took with great reluctance because other children would laugh at us. In the morning especially children with their parents came to the church for Novena Mass with flowers arranged artistically in a basket or a plate. After the Mass, children came in a procession singing the most popular song of Mother Mary “Søkkødd Sangata mellyam” and laid one main flower at the feet of Baby Mary’s statue called Maria Bambina. This hymn is a translation of the English hymn “Let us Mingle Together”, done first at Mangaluru. From there this hymn spread to Mumbai and Goa. In Goa, it changed as “Søgllim Sangata Mellia” replacing a few original words with local Konknni words. After laying a flower, all the children stood in a horseshoe shape around the Baby Mary’s statue and sang the song “Møriyêk Hogollxiyam” and sprinkled three times flowers around the statue. Afterwards, the priest incensed the statue, and the novena prayer was said. Finally, the priest gave a blessing and the novena of the day ended by singing the hymn of Mother Mary and kissing the statue. This novena ritual continued for nine days. Witha little variation the same custom continues for nine days of novenas.

Feast Day Celebration: On the feast day 8th September, sheaves of new corn are kept on a table near the grotto of Mother Mary or in an open place of church compound. People gather there and

children are ready with their flower baskets. The priest then blesses the new corn, and it is carried in procession to the church by singing the hymns of Our Lady. Children sprinkle flowers during the procession. Then, Feast Day Mass is celebrated. After the Mass, each family is given one or two sheaves of blessed corn. People carry it to their homes. In some parishes sugarcane or sweet dish “vorn” is served to everyone, especially to children by the sponsors. On the feast day, various types of vegetable dishes of local vegetables are prepared in odd numbers, namely, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … (as it is done for Ganesh Festival by the Hindus). A sweet dish called “vorn” or “pays” is prepared. Most of the Catholic families strictly eat only vegetarian meals on this day. However, in the northern part of Udupi district and Uttara Kannada, Catholics besides vegetarian dishes do prepare fish curry of fresh fish. If fresh fish is not available, then the curry of dry prawns is prepared. No meat dishes or alcohol is served on this feast. In some places, the blessed corn is peeled and mixed with milk, served to family members after saying a prayer in front of the altar. In other places, the peeled corn is put either in the sweet dish “vorn” or in all dishes. The remaining corn is placed on the altar. That day people eat their lunch on a banana leaf. To those who could not attend the feast at home, a few grains of blessed corn is sent to them by post. My parents sent it to me faithfully from the time I joined the Jesuits in 1971 till their death in 2004. The customs of this festival have changed according to the locations, times, circumstances, and local customs. For example, banana leaves for meals are replaced by plates. In cities, the feast is celebrated on Sunday after 8th September. Mônti Fest is now celebrated by Catholic Konknnis of Karnataka in all parts of India and abroad, even in USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan in their own way, even including non-vegetarian dishes!!! In Goa, the cultural importance of this festival is

totally lost, but it is still preserved among Konknni Catholics of Karnataka origin, especially in Coastal Karnataka. However, the core of the feast, namely, honouring Mother Mary with flowers has remained both in Goa and elsewhere.

In Goa there were two churches dedicated to Our Lady of Mount. One at Old Goa and the other built by the Jesuits in 1590 at Chinchinim. Later, Chinchinim church was dedicated to Our Lady of Hope. The reason for this decision is not known to me. I do not know how many chapels in Goa are there dedicated to Our Lady of Mount. Outside Goa many churches are dedicated to Our Lady in Karwar, Udupi, Mangaluru, Belgavi and Sindhudurg dioceses where Konknni Catholics are in majority. Surprisingly, in these dioceses not a single parish is dedicated to Our Lady of Mount. Why? It is a great mystery for me. Mônti Saybinn (Our Lady of Mount) is originally a native Konknni word of Goa. Unfortunately, In Goa, day by day Mônti Saybinn and Mônti Saybinničhem Fest terms are dwindling and Vailankanni Saybinn name, which was originally from Tamil Nadu is getting prominence among Catholics. It is true that Mother Mary is called by hundreds of names, but a name of Goan origin should have been maintained and popularized. Here the role and leadership of the diocesan clergy is important. This is not happening. The probable reason could be, for the Catholics of Goa, “The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence”.

Bibliography:

de Souza, Teotonio (2009). Medieval Goa A Socio-Economic History. Saligão: Goa 1556. Machado, Alan (2015). Slaves of Sultan. Saligão: Goa 1556. Pereira, José (1995). Baroque Goa. The Architecture of Portuguese India. New Delhi: Books & Books. Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999a). Desan’tør thavn bøn’dhøddêk (Køravølli Kørnatøkantle Konknni Kristanv).

Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan. Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999b). Konkani Christians of Coastal Karnataka in Anglo-Mysore Relations (1761-1799 A.D.). Mangalore: Samanvaya

Prakashan. Shastry, B.S. (2000). Goa-Kanara Portuguese Relations 1498-1763. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Insights into Colonial Goa

Philomena Lawrence & Gilbert Lawrence Third Edition

The third edition of Insights into Colonial Goa is a response to the excellent feedback prior editions received both in terms of readership and as sources of reference. Each chapter of this edition has been significantly expanded. The Goan diaspora, created by colonization, has left footprints in Portugal, Britain, and their former colonies. Over time, Goans have twice migrated to new vistas in the US, Canada, and Australia. Vasco da Gama sailed across two oceans to arrive in India in 1498. Twelve years later, Portugal and Europe established its first Asian toehold in Goa. The Era of Discovery morphed into Eras of Exploration, Colonialism, Capitalism, and Mercantilism. Until 1961, Goa was the capital of Lisbon's Overseas Territories, which extended from EAfrica to S-E Asia. Lusitania's model for naval colonialism was later adopted by the Dutch and English. Lisbon’s “playbook” on imperialism was expanded and perfected by the English. Many authors quote biased earlier reports, which reflect the limited knowledge and understanding of the comparative history of Europe and India (under both Muslim and Hindu rulers). In addition, many publications and books on Goa are unaware of the strategic factors that

led to decisions made during Iberian rule. Information sent from Goa to Lisbon was embellished as the data sent from Saigon to Washington, DC, in the 1970s during the Vietnam War. Both Lisbon and Washington demanded progress. Unfortunately, today's writers quote these inaccuracies without carefully considering whether facts corroborate with other data and logic. The Estado successfully fused Eastern and Western ways – their cuisine, music, attire, language, and religion -- which still contribute to its thriving tourism-based economy. Colonial Goa introduced many crops from Europe and the New World to Asia. Due to the lucrative trade in spices, textiles, porcelain, diamonds, and semi-precious stones, among others, there was a boom in commerce, population, and exploitation. The book introduces readers to Goa, which is among the most popular Indian tourist attractions due to its history and Indo-Iberian ambiance. This text reviews the successes and failures of da Gama, Albuquerque, as well as later pioneers and settlers. A comprehensive dialog is presented about the impact of colonialism in transforming Goa from the Medieval period to Renaissance art and economy, the role of religious pioneers, inquisition, persecution, settlement, and miscegenation of the colonizers (Europeans and Jews) with native residents. Goa continues to be the artists’ paradise for both the writers and painters. The chapter on the Indo-Iberian diaspora addresses its origins and includes detailed historical information on the GEM (Goan, East-Indian, Mangalorean) diaspora both in India and abroad. The book contains an extensive bibliography and index. This edition is designed to enable denizens and diaspora alike to learn about their history and culture; and knowing the past is sharing our ethos and heritage. Very likely, the hopes, fears, difficulties, and challenges of the GEM diaspora pioneers and settlers leaving the Occupied Territories of the Iberian Empire in the 19th and 20th century are similar to the described experiences of the pioneers and settlers of the 16th and 17th century coming East. Understanding the past helps us to appreciate