Investigation into the application of biomimicry in architectural design by Azadeh Rabbani, AIA

The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School Department of Architecture

NATURALLY INSPIRED DESIGN INVESTIGATION INTO THE APPLICATION OF BIOMIMICRY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN A Thesis in

Architecture

Azadeh Rabbani Rankouhi ď&#x192;&#x201C; 2012 Azadeh Rabbani Rankouhi Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Architecture

May 2012

The thesis of Azadeh Rabbani Rankouhi was reviewed and approved* by the following:

Darla Lindberg Professor of Architecture Thesis Advisor

Ute Poerschke Professor of Architecture

Marcus Shaffer Professor of Architecture

Alexandra Staub Professor of Architecture Director of the Graduate Program

*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School

iii

ABSTRACT The current economic turmoil, persistent questions about climate change and the ubiquitous need for sustainable practices has attracted designers to turn to biomimicry for solutions to these problems.

The practice of biomimicry has resulted in numerous

breakthroughs in fields such as transportation, material science, and medicine. However, the extension of biomimicry principles into the field of architecture remains in its infancy. Currently the integration of biomimicry principles in the field of architecture appears to often be solely aesthetic or the result of a random, unrepeatable process. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is the systemization of biomimicry application in the field of architecture. The methods utilized herein rely on the analysis of successful samples of biomimicry in other fields.

In the process, challenges that hinder the

application of biomimicry in architecture are identified and addressed. The research concludes that a systematic collection of natural data and subsequent creation of a database abates the challenges that prevent designers from approaching biomimicry as an inspirational tool. The flexible nature of this database creates a platform for different disciplines to contribute which in turn will result in generating new building related ideas while constantly examining the existing content.

Contents LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... ix 1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Context .......................................................................................................... 2 1.1.1.Overview .............................................................................................. 2 1.1.2.Current Applications of Biomimicry .................................................... 3 1.2. Research Questions and Methods .................................................................. 9 1.3. Scope and limitation ...................................................................................... 11 2.

Literature Review ................................................................................................. 13 2.1. Intro ............................................................................................................... 14 2.2. On Evolution ................................................................................................. 14 2.3. Biomimicry .................................................................................................... 18 2.3.1.Definitions and Historical Development .............................................. 18 2.3.2.Current Practices of Biomimicry .......................................................... 19 2.3.3.Different Approaches to Biomimicry in Architecture .......................... 26 2.4. Nature and Architects .................................................................................... 29 2.4.1.Conclusion ............................................................................................ 34

Finding the Path .................................................................................................... 37 3.1. A Systematic Process .................................................................................... 38 3.1.1.The Shinkansen Bullet Train ................................................................ 38 3.1.2.Conclusion ............................................................................................ 40 3.2. Retracing the Steps ........................................................................................ 41 3.2.1.Analogy ................................................................................................ 42 3.2.2.Definition of Skin in Nature ................................................................. 43 3.2.3.The Parallels ......................................................................................... 44 3.2.4.Evolution of the Role of Architectural Façade ..................................... 47 3.2.5.Innovations in Form, Function, Material, and the Concept.................. 47 3.2.6.From Façade to “Skin” ......................................................................... 50

Design of the Database ......................................................................................... 52 4.1. Intro ............................................................................................................... 53 4.2. Definition of a Database ................................................................................ 54 4.3. Database Case Studies ................................................................................... 55 4.3.1.Mc GrawHill Sweets Network ............................................................. 55

v 4.3.2.Great Buildings Collection ................................................................... 58 4.3.3.Architonic ............................................................................................. 59 4.3.4.Materials for Design ............................................................................. 62 4.3.5.Neufert Architects Data ........................................................................ 63 4.3.6.High Performance Building Database .................................................. 64 4.3.7.More Databases .................................................................................... 66 4.3.8.The Wiki model .................................................................................... 67 4.4. Summary: ...................................................................................................... 70 5.

The Biomimicry Driven Architectural Database .................................................. 72 5.1. Planning the Database ................................................................................... 73 5.2. Subject Groups .............................................................................................. 74 5.3. Architectural Context Related Design Criteria .............................................. 74 5.3.1.Koppen climate classification............................................................... 74 5.3.2.Wind direction and speed ..................................................................... 75 5.3.3.Precipitation.......................................................................................... 75 5.3.4.Daylight harvesting .............................................................................. 75 5.3.5.Program ................................................................................................ 75 5.3.6.Context ................................................................................................. 76 5.4. Building Skinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Technical Functions ............................................................ 76 5.4.1.Resulting Subject Groups ..................................................................... 78 5.5. Data Collection Interface ............................................................................... 79 5.5.1.Row 1: .................................................................................................. 79 5.5.2.Row 2: .................................................................................................. 79 5.5.3.Row 3: .................................................................................................. 79 5.5.4.Row 4: .................................................................................................. 79 5.5.5.Row 5: .................................................................................................. 80 5.5.6.Row 6: .................................................................................................. 81

The Architectural Building Skin Database ........................................................... 83 6.1. Examples of Skin in Nature ........................................................................... 84 6.1.1.Human Skin .......................................................................................... 85 6.1.2.Shark Skin ............................................................................................ 89 6.1.3.Lotus Leaf ............................................................................................. 91 6.1.4.Cuttlefish .............................................................................................. 93 6.1.5.Polar Bear ............................................................................................. 96 6.1.6.Chameleon ............................................................................................ 99 6.1.7.Crocodile skin....................................................................................... 101 6.1.8.Thorny Devil ........................................................................................ 104 6.1.9.Namibian Desert Beetle ........................................................................ 106 6.2. Additional Subject Groups ............................................................................ 108 6.3. Summary........................................................................................................ 111

vi 7.

Designerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Application and Simulation ................................................................ 112 7.1. Search Screen ................................................................................................ 113 7.2. Test Design .................................................................................................... 117 7.2.1.Test Conditions and Results ................................................................. 118

Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 122 8.1. Summary........................................................................................................ 123 8.2. Future Research ............................................................................................. 123

Bibliography of Cited Work ........................................................................................ 125

vii

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 The Kingfisher Bird And The Bullet Train ................................................... 4 Figure 2 Mercedes Design Inspired by Nature ............................................................ 4 Figure 3 Foundations Designed To Contain Water ..................................................... 20 Figure 4 Banyan Fig Leaf ............................................................................................ 20 Figure 5 Lavasa Hill Station Master Plan .................................................................... 21 Figure 6 Ventilation Diagram In Eastgate Shopping Center ....................................... 22 Figure 7 Circulation Of Air In Each Floor................................................................... 22 Figure 8 Las palmas Water Theatre ............................................................................. 24 Figure 9 Sand Dollar Structure .................................................................................... 25 Figure 10 Structural Analysis ...................................................................................... 25 Figure 11 ICD/ITKE 2011 Pavilion Interior ................................................................ 25 Figure 12 National Farmers Banks By Louis Sullivan ................................................ 29 Figure 13 Guaranty / Prudential Building By Louis Sullivan...................................... 29 Figure 14 The Robie House By Frank L. Wright ........................................................ 31 Figure 15 The Falling Water by Frank L.Wright ......................................................... 31 Figure 16 Sydney’s Opera House by Jorn Utzon......................................................... 32 Figure 17 Sea Shells..................................................................................................... 32 Figure 18 National Aquatic Center Beijing ................................................................. 33 Figure 19 The Blur Building ........................................................................................ 46 Figure 20 The Blur Building inside ............................................................................. 46 Figure 21 Caribou Tent Construction .......................................................................... 47 Figure 22 Villa Savoy by Le Corbusier ....................................................................... 48 Figure 23 Montreal's Geodesic Dome ......................................................................... 49 Figure 24 George Pompidou Center ............................................................................ 49 Figure 25 Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao.................................................................. 50 Figure 26 de Young Museum San Francisco by Herzog & De Meoron ...................... 50 Figure 27 The Yas Hotel by Asymptote in Abu Dhabi, UAE ..................................... 51 Figure 28 Sweets Typical Search Result Screen.......................................................... 56 Figure 29 Screen Shot Of The Zero Energy Building’s Database ............................... 65 Figure 30 The Process Of Systemized Collection And Organization Of Data ............ 70 Figure 31 Koeppen's Climate Classification ................................................................ 74 Figure 32 Species Record Collection Fields and User Interface ................................. 82 Figure 33 Human Ear ................................................................................................... 85 Figure 34 Human Skin and Hair, Microscopic View .................................................. 85 Figure 35 Layers In The Human Skin.......................................................................... 86 Figure 36 Shark skin Cross Section ............................................................................. 89 Figure 37 Shark’s Denticle Under Microscope ........................................................... 89 Figure 38 The Lotus effect ........................................................................................... 91 Figure 39 Lotus Leaf Under The Microscope.............................................................. 91 Figure 40 Lotus Leaf Diagram ..................................................................................... 92

viii Figure 41 Cuttlefish In The Process Of Blending At The Bottom Of The Ocean ....... 93 Figure 42 Cuttlefish Skin Layers ................................................................................. 94 Figure 43 Polar Bear In Summer ................................................................................. 96 Figure 44 Microscopic View Of Polar Bear Hair ........................................................ 96 Figure 45 Polar Bear Skin Cross Section ..................................................................... 97 Figure 46 Closeup Of Chameleon’s Skin .................................................................... 99 Figure 47 Chameleon’s Change Of Color For Social Signaling.................................. 99 Figure 48 Complex Curve ............................................................................................ 101 Figure 49 The Difference In Size And Shape In Mobile And Fixed Areas ................. 101 Figure 50 Thorny Devil’s Fake head and Bumps ........................................................ 104 Figure 51 The Thorny Devil Top View ....................................................................... 104 Figure 52 Diagram of Desert Beetle’s Water Collection Mechanism ......................... 106 Figure 53 Namibinan Desert Beetle ............................................................................. 106 Figure 54 Evaluating Design Criteria Existing In The Natural Species ...................... 109 Figure 55 The Descriptive Database ............................................................................ 110 Figure 56 Sample Search Screen ................................................................................. 114 Figure 57 Sample Search Result, List Of Items Sorted According To Relevance ...... 115 Figure 58 Sample Search Result Expanded Item View ............................................... 116 Figure 59 Trombe wall, Polar bear, Polar bear inspired Trombe wall ........................ 117 Figure 60 Trombe Wall With Glass Section With Material Properties ....................... 119 Figure 61 Modified Trombe Wall Section With Material Properties .......................... 119 Figure 62 Glass Trombe Wall ...................................................................................... 120 Figure 63 The Modified Trombe Wall......................................................................... 120

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research would have not been possible without the support of many people. I would like to thank my advisor Darla Lindberg for all her criticism and guidance throughout the process of my work. In addition, I would like to thank my committee member, Ute Poerschke, for her valuable feedback and comments, which encouraged me to delve deeper and helped to clarify my objective. I would also like to thank committee member Marcus Shaffer, for his interest and creative input throughout the formative stages of this research. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family whose support and encouragement gave me the strength to pull through. I would like to dedicate this thesis to them.

1. Introduction

1.1. Context 1.1.1. Overview As technology progresses, the boundaries between the disciplines become more and more transparent. This further highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach. However, the depth of knowledge in each field, let alone of a collection of disciplines, makes it impossible for one person to be truly self-sufficient and necessitates a platform for the transfer of concepts. To this end, a systematic study of a field such as biology can be a great source of inspiration for any designer or engineer.

The

significance of learning from nature lies in the fact that every system in nature is effective; they are effective in the sense that they either get the job done or become extinct. It remains however, important to note that these systems might not necessarily be efficient. For example, a thousand blossoms on an apple tree may not be considered at first glance to be efficient, however, considering all the climatic and environmental effects that can destroy these blossoms, the over-compensation in the number, becomes necessary. Architecture as an embodiment of plethora of factors is no exception to the need for interdisciplinary collaboration. In this research specifically, we are interested in translating concepts from the discipline of biology to the discipline of architecture. This procedure is so prevalent and successful amongst other disciplines it has been given the well know name of biomimicry. Although the term biomimicry is somewhat new1, using nature as a source of inspiration is not. James Paxton in 1851 designed the crystal palace 1

Coined in 1997 by Jenine Benyus (Benyus 2002)

based on his observations of giant water lilies. George de Mestral, an electrical engineer, invented Velcro in 1948 inspired by noticing how burrs attach themselves to his clothes and his dogâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fur after a hunting trip. It is obvious that mere observation is often the initial instigator of these ideas.

However, to reduce the role of chance in these

observations, creation of a database that collects all the relevant information in one place seems essential. This database will allow for a systematic collection and exchange of relevant biological data with the purpose of architectural design inspiration. It will be built up through user interaction, and facilitates the collaboration between architects and biologists. The easy access to the data will encourage all designers, not only the ones with biological backgrounds, to examine the application of biomimicry.

1.1.2. Current Applications of Biomimicry Through basic research in the field of biology in combination with new technological advances, biomimicry studies the processes, functional solutions, and optimization of resources that natural systems and structures possess. Biomimicry has solved problems in fields such as transportation, agriculture, the car industry, and medicine. We look at a few examples of the integration of biomimicry in different scientific fields.

1.1.2.1.

Transportation

The Shinkansen Bullet Train in Japan is capable of travelling over 200 miles per hour. The problem was that when the train emerged from the tunnel, loud thunderclaps were heard within a quarter-mile radius, disturbing the residents around it. The company engineer solved this problem by redesigning the front of the train, to mimic the beak of

F IGURE 1 T HE K INGFISHER B IRD A ND T HE B ULLET T RAIN

F IGURE 2 M ERCEDES D ESIGN I NSPIRED BY N ATURE Mercedes designed a car inspired by the form of boxfish. It claims to have reduced the drag coefficient to 0.06, which results in 20% less fuel consumption.

the kingfisher (Figure 1). This design not only solved the noise problem but also resulted in 15% less electricity use and 10% faster speed2.

1.1.2.2.

Car Industry

Figure 2 shows the image of a car designed by Mercedes-Benz that formally mimics the shape of a boxfish. The boxfish lives in the coral reefs and has great structural strength with a low mass, and its aerodynamic form enables it to swim fast. Structural strength, low mass, and an aerodynamic form are the three significant characteristics crucial in car design. The wind tunnel tests on a clay model of this car calculated its drag coefficient factor to be 0.06 3 as compared to the typical values of 0.30.39 for car models such as Nissan Altima, Ford Escort, and Audi A5 4.

Biomimicry Institute, Transportation, http://www.biomimicryinstitute.org/case-studies/casestudies/transportation.html, (accessed September 3, 2011) 3 The most aerodynamic form in nature is a water drop with drag coefficient of 0.04 4 Carfolio, http://www.carfolio.com/ (accessed January 1, 2012)

1.1.2.3.

Harvesting Energy

The founder of the company CloudSolar5 began as a bioengineering student researching microfluidics, biofluids, and blood vessels as a heat transfer system. Through this research, he discovered unique thermal properties in biomaterials that led to the development of a nanofluid usable in systems that rely on heat transfer. This fluid is a non-toxic substitute for the industry standards of black polypropylene solar heaters, showing a 400% increase in collection efficiency during cloudy conditions while increasing the baseline efficiency by 90% 6. Moreover, it is non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and more cost-effective. Even better yet, the fluid can be utilized in the existing systems without the need for new infrastructure.

1.1.2.4.

Wastewater Treatment

Dean Cameron is the inventor of Biolytix速 system7; an on-site water treatment system delivers high quality irrigation water. He was initially inspired by observing the process of decomposition in the forest, which is carried out by biological organisms. The system introduces the same concept by using worms, beetles, and microscopic organisms to turn the sewage waste into humus. Humus is a term used in soil science referring to an organic matter, which will not break down any further (Whitehead and Tinsley 1963). The humus then acts as a filter that removes all solid waste. There are many advantages to this system. One of the most prominent one is reducing energy use and maintenance costs by 90% through eliminating the need for a mechanical aerator.

http://www.cloud-solar.com/ (accessed March 24, 2012) http://www.cloud-solar.com/about.html (accessed March 24, 2012) 7 http://www.biolytix.com/ (accessed March 24, 2012) 6

1.1.2.5.

Medicine

For most vaccines, maintaining a certain temperature is crucial to preserve their stability and viability.

This causes great issues in countries or situations in which

refrigeration is not readily available. NovaLabs has studied organisms that survive in extreme conditions by transforming into a different state. Some species such as water bear (Hypsibius dujardini) survive lab temperatures of -457°F to 300°F, radiation, pure alcohol, and many more chemicals (Shuker 2001). They are able to dry themselves and survive in the dried condition using a process called anhydrobiosis. The water within the cell is replaced with a sugar solution that solidifies like glass protecting the organism. They later simply rehydrate and continue their lives unharmed.

This process was

mimicked to develop a polymer-based formulation that stabilizes vaccine forms8.

1.1.2.6.

Electronics

The shimmering iridescent color of the male butterfly wings was the inspiration behind Qualcomm’s mirasol®9 display. The color is the result of its structure rather than pigments. This structure consists of layers of transparent chitin and air that selectively cancel some wavelengths while reflecting others depending on the distance between the layers by way of constructive and destructive interference. This creates the shimmering effect that is dependent on the movement and the ambient lighting, which is different from the static absorption of wavelength in pigmented color. This quality inspired the designers in Qualcomm to design a screen that takes the ambient light, chooses how to modulate it, and sends it back to the screen. This results in a display that has a high 8 9

http://www.inpharm.com/directory/nova-laboratories-limited (accessed March 24, 2012) http://www.qualcomm.com/solutions/displays (accessed March 24, 2012)

quality, uses far less power and is legible in all lighting conditions including direct sunlight.

1.1.2.7.

Mathematical Optimization Algorithms

In the event that a mathematical system is described by non-linear governing equations, biomimicry provides one of the most effective means of optimizing the system. The optimization of the element locations in an electromagnetic antenna array is an example of a nonlinear optimization problem since the variable is found in the argument of a complex exponential (Haupt and Werner 2007). In a single array antenna, there are frequently hundreds of individual elements, the location of which critically affects the overall performance. Therefore, assuming for illustration an array of 100 elements, the 100 positions represent an individual “organism” in a population.

The population is generated by choosing the element

location randomly or by way of a reasonable initial guess. The response of the array is then simulated and the performance is graded by way of a cost function that decreases with improved array performance. The cost function then determines both the probability that a given “organism”/array will survive and the probability that it will mate. The mating process is simply a random mixing of two fit arrays with a small percentage of mutations invoked.

This procedure is repeated until the simulated performance is

satisfactory As Haupt and Warner have pointed out, the genetic optimization is resistant to getting stuck in a local optimum by virtue of the mutations that are invoked each generation.

1.1.2.8.

Brief Section Summary

It would be an exercise in futility to attempt a complete compilation of biomimicry’s success in industry and science, however it is easy enough to note that other products on the market include: 

The stain resistant fabric10 inspired by lotus leaf,



Formaldehyde-free wood glue11 inspired by the protein mussels use to stick to the sea floor,



i2™12 modular carpet’s flexible patterning inspired by forest floors,



Platelet Technology™ used to locate and seal pipe leaks inspired by how blood vessels carry platelets to seal the wound.

In the first two example it just so happens that aerodynamics and drag forces depend strongly on physical form, as we perceive it with the naked eye. However, the rest of the examples show that copying the actual physical form barely scratches the surfaces of biomimicry potential, considering the complexity of the interactions between species and their environment. Moreover, the mere act of copying the physical forms in nature does not guarantee a natural quality.

Surpassing the superficial mimicry

necessitates a vast knowledge of the processes, the concepts, and the causality in a certain form. Studying the factors that make these examples successful and their possible challenges will clear the way for a deeper exploration of biomimicry in the field of architecture.

http://www.greenshieldfinish.com/ (accessed March 24, 2012) http://www.columbiaforestproducts.com/PureBond.aspx (accessed March 24, 2012) 12 http://www.interfaceflor.com/Default.aspx?Section=3&Sub=11 (accessed March 24, 2012) 11

1.2. Research Questions and Methods The examples show the positive applications of biomimicry in other fields and of how it has led to innovative solutions. In the hope of finding a systemized approach for the application of biomimicry in architectural design, this research raises the following questions and responds to them. 1- How has nature benefited architecture and other fields? In chapter 1, through a series of archival and case studies, we will point out the current practices in biomimicry and identify the significant gaps in the field. 2- With all its success in other fields, what factors prevent widespread application of biomimicry in the architectural design process? To better understand the challenges architectural design faces in the pursuit of biomimicry, analysis of successful examples in other fields can be valuable. section 3.1 does this analysis.

The

Retracing and adapting each step to the process of

architectural design will help identify the challenges specific to this field. In section 3.2 using analogy as a method, we try to create the connection between the building façade and a phenomenon in nature. Through analyzing the characteristics in the architectural component, in this case building façade and skin in nature and by drawing parallels between these two, we infer that due to the similarity in challenges, the genius in natural skin is applicable to architectural façade problems. 3- There are millions of organisms and structures in nature that can be considered as the source of “new information”.

a- How can the large magnitude of new information be introduced to architectural design practice in a systematic manner? This step will involve the study of a framework through which gathering, organization, and retrieval of information is made possible. In Chapter 4, this is done by studying the general characteristics of a model that facilitates the three processes of collection, organization, and retrieval of information. This step enables us to design a database through which collection of data from nature is systemized. The systemization starts with the “smart” data collection through a web-based template, which in turn helps the refinery of the data and ultimately facilitates its access. b- How should each natural phenomenon be examined, and what type of information is relevant? Creating subject groups will help realize the relevant criteria in each species. In chapter 5, 0 these subject groups are created through identifying the technical design criteria of the building façade. The result is a set of tables containing information about different skins and membranes in nature. Each skin is labeled based on its architecturally relevant characteristics. 4- Can a building be considered the “problem” as a whole where there is a one-to-one correspondence between the natural phenomenon and the architectural design? Alternatively, should each component be treated as a separate “problem”? To test this process the database needs to be filled with data. Chapter 6 entails studying and evaluating a number of natural skins in nature and classifying them based

on their technical functions. In chapter 7, a sample architectural problem is then carried out with use of this database. Using energy simulation software and comparing its result with a conventional solution will demonstrate if this methodology is beneficial to the architectural design process.

1.3. Scope and limitation Architectural design processes and natural sciences are both vast and complex fields.

To avoid creating a superficial relation between the two disciplines, a

comprehensive and careful examination is necessary. Thus, it is imperative to point out the limitations and the ground that will not be covered in this research. Some of these limitations can be addressed at this point, while many issues arise later at the practical level. One of the main hindering factors in fully embracing biomimicry is the materials we possess. Learning how an organism keeps itself warm or how it reticulates waste is often the easy part since it has been done by the biologist; however, to fully implement these strategies one is restricted to the contemporary technological capabilities. For one, in architecture, we work with a completely different palette of materials. Unless some breakthrough â&#x20AC;&#x153;bio-materialsâ&#x20AC;? are developed, we can only simulate the way these organisms work and depending on how well these materials are simulated, we can expect limited resemblance to the original biomaterial. Time constraints are another issue that impedes the process of architectural design in contrast to the natural one, which is the result of millions of years of evolution. Translating the best strategy to a buildable thing is often the hardest part, but is feasible

through collaborative research in the long term and by use of iterative computer aided methods. Hence, for a single architect or engineer, time is less readily available. At this point, one needs to â&#x20AC;&#x153;settle for part of the idea" (Faludi 2005). Lastly, it is crucial to be aware that architecture consists of many layers and biomimicry may not address all aspects. In the case of the Mercedes Benz car that mimicked the boxfish, the engineers only mimicked the form to respond to the optimization of the aerodynamic aspects of the car. They still had to design the rest of the car accordingly. Similarly, the process of architectural design is an iterative process that moves back and forth between parts and wholes. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the building professionals including architects and engineers to use this tool as part of an integral planning and design process to avoid a blind mimicry.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Intro This chapter reviews the following concepts: evolution, how natural system develop and its relevance to naturally inspired architectural design, the significant current practices of biomimicry in architecture, different approaches to biomimetic architectural design, and the last section studies the work of a selected group of architects who have addressed and integrated nature in their projects. It compares their work to show how a similar theory often leads to different outcomes in practice. The goal of this literature review is to clarify the state of biomimicry in the field of architecture and review the advantages and the disadvantages of each approach. The conclusion shows where these approaches are lacking and how they can be addressed.

2.2. On Evolution Even though it is one of the most disputed topics in all sciences, the study of evolution helps create a better understanding of the way systems work and how they came to be what they are today, for example recall the genetic optimization described in section 1.1.2.7. Evolution is a very broad topic, and this section only touches on a brief background about this theory and its driving forces. In general, what all theorists agree upon is that species change over time; the disagreement arises by in large in the reason behind these changes and the way they occur. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first to present a coherent theory of evolution. He considered two main driving forces for evolution: first the tendency for organisms to become more complex and second, their adaptation to the environment.

This idea was later referred to as soft inheritance13and asserts that organisms pass on characteristics they have acquired over their lifetime to their offspring, these changes being subtle from one generation to the next but resulting in profound changes of the course of many generations. George Cuvier on the other hand, (1769-1832) strongly opposed this theory of soft inheritance. Through the study of fossils, he stated that changes happen abruptly and stay with the specie until the time of its extinction. He also disagreed with the idea that any part of an animal will gradually change in isolation from other parts14. More than two decades after Cuvierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed the idea of natural selection as the mechanism of evolution15. Natural selection suggests the idea of survival of the fittest. Natural variation exists in any group of organisms due to genetic mutations that inevitably occur. The traits arising via mutation that contribute to the survival of the organisms ensure the organism lives long enough to produce offspring with a high likelihood of possessing the very traits that ensured their parents survival. These stronger traits are passed on to the next generation and, over time; the population is almost entirely composed of these â&#x20AC;&#x153;fitâ&#x20AC;? organisms increases. The main idea of evolution is a concept shared amongst these scientists, which is the change over time. The differences are in explaining the driving force of these changes and their direction. It cannot be said, that these changes follow a linear path towards perfection. These changes are just responses to the change of needs due to

Erns Mayr coined this term to include ideas such as Lamarckism Hall, Brian Keith (1999), Evolutionary Developmental Biology 15 On the Origin of Species, 1859 14

internal16 or environmental imbalances17 or a combination of these two to fulfill every speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ultimate goals of survival and reproduction. Here is how this topic is relevant to our research; when considering an organism as model we must realize the limitations surrounding that organism to avoid blind mimicry.

First of all every organism is limited to its previous state and, unlike

architecture, is not created from the ground up. For example if you compare the two situations wherein an architect designs a building from the remainders of the building that previously occupied a site, or is free to use any material that he wishes, it is apparent that the second option offers far more freedom. Secondly, the pursuit of evolution is not perfection and hence creatures are not â&#x20AC;&#x153;perfectâ&#x20AC;?. The ultimate goal of every creature is survival and reproduction. As long as these two are not threatened, there is no need for that creature to improve or change. In the example of boxfish (Figure 2), was it considered the most aerodynamic creature? No. Does that form help the creature survive and did it help the engineers arrive at a better solution? In both cases, the answer is yes. Hence, in the pursuit of biomimicry it is important not to fall on any of these extremes: become so lost in the praise of nature that we lose sight of its limitations and shortcomings, or be perfectionist to the point we dismiss natural solutions altogether and lose the chance of finding innovative ideas.

Moreover, the fact that the boxfish does not exhibit the most

aerodynamic morphology only confirms that biomimicry optimizes design with a complex set of criteria often not containable in a single engineering parameter. This is 16

Apart from the outside forces like radiation and viruses, one of the causes of mutation (changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome) can be errors that occur during replication of the DNA 17 Adaptation

one of the reasons that the genetic algorithm has become popular for optimization in mathematical simulations of complex systems with complex performance criteria (Haupt and Werner 2007).

2.3. Biomimicry 2.3.1. Definitions and Historical Development Otto Schmitt (1913-1998), an American engineer and inventor, worked on a device that replicated the nerve system in squids. He continued to work on devices that drew inspiration from nature and further developed the field of biophysics. In 1969, in one of his papers,18 he first used the term “biomimetic” as describing the transfer of ideas from biology to technology but it only entered the Webster dictionary19 in 1974. In 1958, Jack E. Steele (1924-2009) coined a similar term called “bionics”. He defined it as the science of natural systems or their analogues. However, it was not until 1997 when Jenine Benyus in her book biomimicry promoted biomimicry as an actual field of research in different design disciplines. She defines biomimicry as a systematic way of design that tries to emulate natural organisms’ principles and orders. “Biomimicry is not a style of building, nor is it an identifiable design product. It is, rather, a design process—a way of seeking solutions—in which the designer defines a challenge functionally (flexibility, strength under tension, wind resistance, sound protection, cooling, warming, etc.,) ,seeks out a local organism or ecosystem that is the champion of that function, and then begins a conversation” (Benyus 2008). A biomimetic approach is an approach that takes information from nature, seeks connections and patterns therein, while observing the consequences thereof, and then

Schmitt O. Third Int. Biophysics Congress.1969 Some interesting and useful biomimetic

transforms 19

Biomimetic: The study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones

mimics these, ending with a final evaluation to ensure the design is commensurate with the initial natural principles. This field relies heavily on the iterative process, which is the key to the pursuit of perfection. Jenine Benyus claims that a biomimetic will help create products that are sustainable, perform well, save energy, cut material costs, reduce waste, and even define new products (Benyus 2002). The logic behind this claim is that since natural organisms have faced these challenges for millions of years they have gradually perfected their solutions. Jenine Benyus has recently changed biomimicry to “Biomimicry 3.8” 20. Its aim is to redistribute the “wisdom” that nature offers through creating a network of professionals. The most prominent community in biomimicry right now is an online website called “ask nature”21. The aim of this website is the creation of a place where biologists can share their studies and designers can search through the collection of natural systems, which are classified based on their design and engineering properties.

2.3.2. Current Practices of Biomimicry 2.3.2.1.

Biomimicry Guild and HOK

Since 1998, Janine Benyus has been a principal in an organization called biomimicry guild22. This institute provides consultancy for companies and communities that want to incorporate biomimicry in their design. Biomimicry Guild consists of individuals and organizations that form groups based on specific projects. Depending on

The number 3.8 refers to the 3.8 billions of years of evolution. www.asknature.com (accessed March 24, 2012) 22 http://www.biomimicryguild.com (accessed March 24, 2012) 21

the projects, the groups provide workshops, research reports, presentations, and field excursion to inspire innovators in the process of biomimetic design. In 2004, HOK, one of the largest architectural firms in the United States formed an alliance with the Biomimciry Guild to pursue biomimicry in their projects. The Lavasa Hill Station near Pune, India (Figure 5) was a community development that consisted of five villages of 30,000 to 50,000 people each. The projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal was to create a sustainable community that defines a new way to support human habitation while preserving and improving natural ecosystems. Rainwater management was one of the greatest challenges since the site was subject to heavy flooding during monsoon season. Their studies showed that the site previously used to be a deciduous forest. Originally, the tree roots were able to maintain the soil hence storing the water in the dry season, while the canopy controlled the evaporation. In an effort to mimic the original ecosystem, the foundations were designed to store water (Figure 3) and for the future rooftops, they designed a shingle system mimicking the water dripping system from a native banyan fig leaf (Figure 4). To deal with the excess runoff, the team turned to the harvesting ants on the site.

F IGURE 3 F OUNDATIONS D ESIGNED T O C ONTAIN W ATER

F IGURE 4 B ANYAN F IG L EAF The spear shaped tip of this leaf helps water run-off.

F IGURE 5 L AVASA H ILL S TATION M ASTER P LAN The master plan incorporates the multipath channels to channel water through the city and prevent flooding.

They learned that the ants on this site build nests out of mud, which are not washed away by the flood. This is made possible through creation of multipath low-grade channels to divert the water away from their nests (Gendall 2009). Through studying the metrics of the original ecosystem, like patterns of soil coverage and erosion, in addition to observing the antsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behavior, they were able to design a master plan that complied with these metrics (Figure 5). From the master plan to the foundations to the roof shingles, the biomimetic strategies in this project pertained to different scales and were in response to several specific problems. The question is; will this number of strategies satisfy the goal of this biomimetic approach, building as nature would have built? How well will this project simulate the forest it substituted? We might just have to wait for years to find out the benefits and the consequences of these strategies, well after the project expected completion date of 2020. One may speculate that although the design might solve a few anticipated problems, it will never completely simulate the preceding ecosystem, after all this project may be considered a single iteration.

Each ecosystem is made up of

numerous components and is affected by so many different forces, that without doubt

some of them will elude the most adept biomimicry savvy architect. In addition, any kind of human interference, however well intentioned, will inevitably disturb the balance between the constituents of a natural ecosystem. Nonetheless, we cannot deny the benefits of this approach in solving specific problems compared to one that completely ignores context. At the end of the day, the fact is that a company as large as HOK can afford to experiment with these ideas and strategies and if successful, it will set a valuable example for the architectural practice all around the world. It might just be worth the wait.

2.3.2.2.

Eastgate Center Building

This building, located in Zimbabwe Harare, solves one of the prominent building issues of the region, air conditioning. It was found that termite mounds keep a constant inside temperature of 87째F in the outside range of 35째F-104 째F. The mound consists of numerous shafts that narrow all the way to the top. During the night the warm air rises up, the negative pressure created sucks the cooler outside air from the openings at the bottom of the shaft. During the day, the thermal mass of the mound prevents heat gain

F IGURE 6 V ENTILATION D IAGRAM S HOPPING C ENTER Image Source: www.archnet.org

E ASTGATE

F IGURE 7 C IRCULATION O F A IR I N E ACH F LOOR Image Source: www.archnet.org

(Gould and Gould 2007). This process inspired the design of the ventilation system in Eastgate Center, Zimbabwe’s larges office building and shopping center. The temperature swings of 1040 °C during the day makes passive or mechanical cooling system a practical alternative to closed loop air-conditioning. The building is largely made of concrete, which acts as a thermal mass. During the night, cool air penetrates the building and passes through openings in the floor slabs (Figure 7). During the day the heat rises but the thermal mass prevents it from rising greatly. Towards the end of the day, warm air is vented through the central chimneys both naturally and with the assistance of fans. This motion draws in the outside cool air and this cycle continues (Figure 6). This building uses 10% energy compared to similar building of this size.

2.3.2.3.

Exploration Architecture LTD

Michael Pawlyn is an architect who has established the company called “Exploration” in 2007 with the aim to focus on environmentally sustainable projects that take their inspiration from nature. In his latest book Biomimicry in Architecture (Pawlyn 2011), he explores six key environmental concerns: efficiency in structures, manufacturing materials, zero-waste energy, water management, thermal control, and building energy production. Amongst the examples, he is dismissive of structures that simply emulate the natural form. Amongst the few sustainable ideas Pawlyn has proposed, two projects specifically pertain to biomimicry, the Eco-Rainforest and the Las Palmas Water Theatre (Figure 8). Water management is addressed in the Las Palmas Water theatre. This project is a

F IGURE 8 L AS PALMAS W ATER T HEATRE Different wind flaps adjusting to the wind direction

Dif sculptural outdoor theatre that doubles as a desalination plant, inspired by the Namibian desert beetle23. This beetle radiates heat at night and as a result becomes cooler than the surrounding environment creating a perfect surface for condensation. In addition, this creature raises its wings to take advantage of the wind and increase its chances of capturing the fog and turning it into water. In collaboration with Charlie Paton, the inventor of Seawater Greenhouse24, Pawlyn designed an array of condensers and evaporators that are stacked on top of each other. Wind flaps are designed mimicking the open wing of a beetle that guide the sprayed seawater into condensation panels, optimizing this process according to the wind direction. The consistent winds all year around, proximity to seawater and plentiful sun made Las Palmas the ideal location to incorporate this strategy.

Although this project is not realized, three commercial

greenhouses25 are currently creating freshwater through this strategy.

Described in detail in section 6.1.9 www.seawatergreenhouse.com (accessed March 24, 2012) 25 Tenerife(1992), Abu Dhabi, UAE(2000),Muscat, Oman(2004) 24

F IGURE 9 S AND D OLLAR S TRUCTURE Analysis of sand dollar geometry Images: ICD/ITKE University of Stuttgart

2.3.2.4.

ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion

The institute of computational design (ICD) and the Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design (ITKE) from the University of Stuttgart have joined forces and formed a successful interdisciplinary collaboration between architecture, computational design, engineering, and biology. The pavilion 2011 is the result of a design studio as an embodiment of this collaboration.

The project explores the

architectural interpretation of biological principles of a sand dollar (Figure 9) by means

F IGURE 10 S TRUCTURAL A NALYSIS

F IGURE 11 ICD/ITKE 2011 P AVILION I NTERIOR

Image source: ICD/ITKE University of Stuttgart

of computer-based design, simulation, and manufacturing. The sand dollar has a modular structure and consists of polygonal sheets that interlock in the edges through finger-like projections. The sand dollar has two openings on top and bottom and towards these opening the modules become smaller. Three fundamental properties of this biological structure were applied to the wood structure: heterogeneity (varying cell size adapts to domeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s curve), anisotropy (loads directed through planar surfaces), and hierarchy (two types of connections for the respective shells) (Kaltenbach 2012). The pavilion is made of 6.5mm thick plywood and is extremely lightweight and its design can be applied to any geometrical form. The success of this project lies in its closed loop computational design and fabrication system, fundamentally identical the genetic algorithm described in section1.1.2.7. All the critical points in the project were modeled and optimized repeatedly through the constant exchange of data between design and simulation software. In addition, the joint systems were fabricated by robots and tested experimentally. The results of these tests were then fed back into the structural calculations. This project created the opportunity to explore the transference of a biological principle to an architectural design and construction and test it in full scale.

2.3.3. Different Approaches to Biomimicry in Architecture A comparative study of the current practice of biomimicry shows distinct approaches to architectural design. Each approach inherently has its own advantages and disadvantages. According to Jenine Benyus (Benyus 2002), biomimicry can be applied in three different levels within each approach, at the level of ecosystem, behavior, or

organism. The example of Lavasa Village by HOK (section 2.3.2.1) the design tried to mimic the ecosystem, the design of the Eastgate shopping center (section 2.3.2.2) mimics the behavioral properties of a termite mound, and the Water Theatre in Las Palmas (section 2.3.2.2) mimics at the organism level. As the examples in chapter 1 have shown and according to the products available on the market, the organism level is the most popular level in the biomimetic product design. Pederson Zari (Pederson Zari 2007) divides the different approaches into two categories: design looking to biology and biology influencing design.

In the first

approach, the designer has already identified the problem and looks to nature for solutions. For example in the case of the Mercedes bionic car, the approach improves the structure of the car and as a result, it is more fuel-efficient. However, the definition of the car as a mean for transport is not reexamined. One of the disadvantages of this process is that the relation between the design and its ecosystem is not considered. However, such an approach might be a good transition from an unsustainable to an effective model. In the second approach, a biological phenomenon inspires the design. For example observing the cleanliness of lotus leaves in their swampy context inspired designers to look for a new material that mimics that property. The advantage of this approach is that the biological phenomenon may inspire systems outside of the predetermined human problems. This approach requires a close collaboration between the biologists and architects as the biologist might not recognize the value of certain phenomenon in the field of architecture. The design process in the ICD/ITKE pavilion may fit in this category as the process of repeated input and simulation mimics the evolution process in nature.

The journal of Bioinspiration and biomimetics publishes the latest and most relevant papers in this field. Achim Menges of the ICD/ITKE studio published a paper (Menges 2012) in this journal.

In his paper, he distinguishes between biomimetic

building products and biomimetic architecture. He argues that for a building to be biomimetic, the design process in itself needs to be biomimetic. He describes this approach as nondeterministic and explorative in contrast to the well-established engineering process. Hence, he suggests that the computational design can bring about new opportunities to explore the biomimetic approach.

This process will rely on

modeling the process rather than the object, modeling the behavior rather than designing the behavior, and defining a platform that accommodates the reciprocal exchange of information rather than a static one-time information input. The model ideally includes all the spatial, climate regulating and load bearing requirements, coherency of form and material, structure, and function. This model will be able to create a heterogeneous architecture that incorporates all the forces, while responding to the complex and oftenconflicting requirements.

2.4. Nature and Architects This section selects examples of work from four architects and studies them comparatively. The common ground between them is that these architects all try to address nature in their design. Although some seemingly have the same outlook towards nature, its manifestation in their work is drastically different. Louis Sullivan was one of the founders of the modern archtiecture movement and, unlike his following modern architects, his buildings did not end up as boxes of glass and steel26. He was the first to coin the phrase â&#x20AC;&#x153;form ever follows functionâ&#x20AC;?27. In his book,

F IGURE 12 N ATIONAL F ARMERS B ANKS B Y L OUIS S ULLIVAN Combination of the multiple color tiling and the contrast and forms is clearly a metaphor of natural

F IGURE 13 G UARANTY / P RUDENTIAL B UILDING B Y L OUIS S ULLIVAN In this design, the building seems to be an add-on to the vegetal ornaments

Autobiography of an Idea,28 he explained that it is not so much that the form should be expressive of the function but that the function must create or organize its form. The form of a building should be predetermined and organized by its functions. In this book he also talked about his childhood fascination with nature, humans, and engineering . He 26

This group mainly belonged to the followers of the Beaux-Arts from whom Sullivan and Wright tried to distance themselves. 27 The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered, 1896 28 Autobiography of an Idea, first edition 1936

was interested in creating something new that formed the connection between human, nature and engineering, yet was nothing like the Neoclassicism that was the trend back then. The ideas he presented in this book and in the book Kindergarten Chats29 were what later came to be called organic architecture. He insisted that while accepting the modern materials and modern needs, architecture has to embody the human connection with nature, and so he designed with the principles of integrating natural ideas in buildings.

In the National Farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bank, he displayed elaborate and complicated

decoration and use of color (Figure 12).

He did not consider this architectural

polychromy as merely decorative; but rather, it functioned as a metaphor for nature and the forces that shaped it. Similarly, most of his buildings are detailed with foliage like organic ornamentations.

The contradiction here is his use of heavy ornamentation,

however tasteful and original compared to his neoclassical predecessors, are merely addons and sometimes overpower the building itself (Figure 13).

These colors and

ornamentations, although a step in the right direction, did not fully express his theory that the function must organize the form. Sullivan did not live long enough to see his theories flourish into what became organic architecture. It was not until later years that other architects, including his student Frank Lloyd Wright, incorporated this idea more profoundly in their architecture. Under the influence and mentorship of Sullvian, Frank Lloyd Wright established the basis of the prairie school movement of architecture.

The most prominent

characteristic of the work of architects belonging to this group was horizontal lines, hipped roofs, overhangs and, most importantly, integration with the landscape. Wright 29

Originally published in 1917

changed Sullivan’s phrase to “form and function are one” and he also introduced the term “organic” into the architectural lexicon. Sullivan was not his only influence. His unitarian upbringing had an effect on his view points and work. He belived in the divine quality of nature 30. Unlike Sullivan, he surpassed the formal manifestation of nature; he worked with natural elements and integrated them in his designs. He broke the boundary between built space and its natural surroundings. His buildings did not overpower nature but became a natural element. In his most famous work, Falling Water (Figure 15), it is hard to discern the boundary between the built space and the natural environment. Architecture welcomes nature, and nature welcomes architecture. Perhaps one of the most important aspects of organic architecture after its aim to connect with the natural landscape is the creation of unity between all elements and components. This concept is particularly evident in Frank Lloyds Wright’s houses. Every component, down to the details and ornaments and custom designed furniture, was

F IGURE 14 T HE R OBIE H OUSE B Y F RANK L. W RIGHT This house is one of the more prominent examples in the prairie movement.

F IGURE 15 T HE F ALLING W ATER BY F RANK L.W RIGHT

I believe in god, only I spell it Nature, Quote Magazine (14 August 1966)

deliberate, and followed one theme, reflecting the unity and synergy in nature itself. What Sullivan expressed in theory, Wright portrays in his built work. Sullivan and Wright strived for bringing nature into architecture.

In this

approach, nature and architecture remain two different realms, and architects create relations and dialogues between the two. They respect nature and try to integrate it with the architecture. They are not after copying any component but looking to unify with nature and in that sense, this approach can be considered a poetic one. Another manifestation of nature in architecture is the approach of taking an isolated natural phenomenon or organism and creating an architecture that simulates that specific organism. The success of this approach depends on the goal that the architecture is trying to fulfill. In Jorn Utzon’s Sydney opera house (Figure 16), seashells allegedly inspire the form. Although iconic and memorable, the form deviates from the complete dome shape and fails from an engineer’s point of view. This creates a non-optimal load distribution necessitating secondary supporting beams in the middle. Extra support adds cost and longer construction time, all concepts that contradict our aim of turning to natural inspiration in the first place.

F IGURE 16 S YDNEY ’ S O PERA H OUSE BY J ORN U TZON Inspired by sea shells

F IGURE 17 S EA S HELLS

This is an example of using natural forms in a way that is partial, out of context, and on a vastly divergent scale. As a result, it does not acquire original structural attributes of a seashell form. All that being said, no one can deny the uniqueness and elegance of this building, characteristics expected from an opera house. So is the opera house successful in emulating nature? If its goal was to take benefit from the inherent qualities of the seashell form, the answer is no. However, if Utzon aimed to create a memorable icon by taking a beautiful form out of its context and presenting it in a different light, he has definitely succeeded. The last example is the National Aquatic Center in Beijing (Figure 18), which lies on the opposite spectrum of the formal mimicry in the opera house. It uses the sciences of physics and chemistry to study the structure of foam and water molecules. This building has brought the designers to look into the same concept not only in uncovering the inner structure of this natural phenomenon but as in taking a direct formal inspiration from it. This approach blends the formal and the structural aspects of the building making them as one. The skin is made from lightweight ETFE fabric, which resembles

F IGURE 18 N ATIONAL A QUATIC C ENTER B EIJING A full emulation engages at least three levels of mimicry: form, process, and ecosystem (Benyus 2008). This center also called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;WaterCubeâ&#x20AC;? is the closest example in architecture that incorporates natural emulation at the level of form and process simultaneously.

the actual membranes of soap bubbles. The design blows the micro scale structure of a soap bubble into a much larger scale of a building. Whereas a traditional sports center structure would have consisted of large columns and beams, in this project the structure combines architectural space, structure, and façade all into one unified element. Unlike the opera house, the Aquatic Center in Beijing is designed in a way that the copied form carries all the inherent properties of the original organism. The idea is carried out in a holistic and non-linear way with all the technical and aesthetical aspects integrated into one concept. On this note, the prefix of “bio” is interchangeable with other natural sciences.

For example, John Harrison is an Australian scientist and part of Gaia

engineering group.

He introduces the term geomimicry to describe processes and

technologies that mimic long-term geological processes. Concluding from this study, the group proposes a process of building material production that follows the aim of sequestering atmospheric CO2, converting waste to valuable resources, and production of fresh water.

2.4.1. Conclusion This section showed that most architects have taken the biophilic approach rather than a biomimetic one. A biophilic design is one that “appreciates” nature instead of emulating its concepts and processes.

This approach involves using environmental

features such as water, light, plants, natural shapes, forms, pattern, and processes. These approaches have been mainly the result of a movement or the trends of a certain time period. Nature and architects shows that nature and all its elements have always been “appreciated” in architecture and the architects have tried to address it one way or

another. However, this interest has mostly stemmed from the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal views or the general trend. In this research, we are merely interested in biomimicry and wish to dismiss the superficial formal mimicry of nature. Biomimicry has become more popular amongst architects in the past few years with the promise of creating a more sustainable environment by way of mimicking nature in every imaginable manner. Although this promise is greatly appealing to all architects, to this day, there is no evidence of an actual biomimetic building that fulfills this promise on all levels. The studies show that, there are two distinct approaches to the biomimetic design process. ecosystem.

First involves mimicry at either levels of organism, behavior, and

Second is a holistic biomimetic approach that mimics the evolutionary

development of a system and because of the complexity of its process, relies heavily on creation of algorithms and computational processes. As Menges mentions, for a building to be completely biomimetic its design process must be biomimetic as well, following the complete developmental sequence of a biological system. It is quite possible that once software is developed, or properly implemented, to simulate the building performance in all levels a genetic algorithm (holistic approach) will be capable of designing a biomimetic building that fulfills this promise on all levels. In fact the more variable available, the better the performance of genetic algorithms in some cases (Parks 2012). This does not discredit other approaches but rather points out their limitations. Furthermore, although the first approach might not fulfill the ultimate promise of biomimicry, it could be a viable transition for the industry. Since the resources of a large company like HOK are not available to everyone, experimenting at the level of organisms may be something that is far more practical for most architects. This process could even

be part of the educational curriculum, which can raise awareness and generate models and ideas that further advance this field. We asserted that in this process the most challenging part is the availability of biological information researched from the point of view of architects. Whenever a designer stumbles across an interesting phenomenon, the available information is either too generic or from the point of view of a specific discipline (Gruber and Jeronimidis 2012). Realizing the importance of a targeted study, points out the deficiencies of a website like Asknature31. Although the idea of gathering all the information from nature in one place can potentially be helpful, the classifications appear too broad for the purpose of biomimicry in architecture. This is due to two factors, first the infinite pool of data and inspiration in nature and secondly the unidentified audience. This will create an irrelevant or intractably large search results.

Although these results might be

â&#x20AC;&#x153;interestingâ&#x20AC;?, they are often too general to be applicable to real problems. We also stated that the iterative process is crucial to the efficacy of biomimicry. Therefore, this thesis pertains to the development of an efficient means of iterating the process of biomimicry by utilizing input from architects, engineers, and biologists by way of the development of a shared database.

www.asknature.org (accessed March 24, 2012)

3. Finding the Path

3.1. A Systematic Process A systematic approach to design consists of step-by-step instructions that are repeatable and applicable to similar problems. Our research takes a reverse engineering approach by analyzing a successful biomimicry example. These examples are successful in that they have solved a previously unsolved problem by mimicking a natural organism. These examples include the Shinkansen bullet train inspired by kingfisher bird, creation of Velcro inspired by a geckoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feet, and the design of the Mercedes inspired by a boxfish. When Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) was working on designing a flying machine, he started sketching birds and studying their flying mechanisms.

In fact

watching the birds is probably the first thing that made man think about flying in the first place. Making the connection between the problem of flying machine and a creature that flies is very simple and intuitive. Yet, creating a connection between the problem of designing a fast train and a bird, would involve a more complicated process. How was this connection made and what were the steps involved? What makes the engineer think of the kingfisher bird when he is faced with the problem of train?

3.1.1. The Shinkansen Bullet Train The train traveled at 300km/h and interestingly enough its speed was not the greatest challenge in its design process. Firstly, the faster the train moved the more noise it produced when air hit the pantographs that collect electricity from the wires above. Secondly, to achieve this high speed any obstruction in its path needed to be eliminated. A series of tunnels created a straight path that allowed the train to run at its maximum

speed. This created the second challenge. When passing through the tunnel at high speed, atmospheric pressure waves that gradually grew created a loud noise upon its exit. These problems made the engineers rethink the train’s design. The engineers decided to design the head of the train mimicking the beak of the kingfisher bird. The alteration of this component resulted in solving the noise problem while decreasing the electricity use and increasing its speed. Eiji Nakatsu was part of the team of that came up with the idea. This is how he describes32 his process. Having these problems in mind he happened to attend a lecture by Seiichi Yajima, then an aircraft design engineer and a member of the Wild Bird Society of Japan. Through that, he learned that the aircraft industry studies the structure of birds and most of their technologies are based on these studies. He also learned that the owls are the quietest fliers. The local zoo provided them with a stuffed owl. They test it in the wind tunnel and found out the “saw-toothed” structure of their feathers helps the owls approach their prey quietly. This structure generated small vortexes that broke the large vortexes and reduced the noise.

Applying this concept to the pantograph took four years, but

ultimately resulted in reduction of the noise. This success compelled them to look for more solutions in nature. This time they approached the problem more systematically. The problem of the loud noise created by the emergence of the train from the tunnel was redefined as follows: “Is there a creature in nature that manages the sudden changes in air resistance?” This question led them to think of the kingfisher. To catch fish, this bird dives from air into water very quietly creating little to no splash. The difference in the resistance between these two entities 32

http://www.japanfs.org/en_/newsletter/200503-2.html (accessed January 29, 2012)

resembled the different air resistance created at the end of the tunnel due to the speed of train. Tests proved that amongst the different forms designed for the nose of the train, the form of kingfisherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s beak creates the least resistance in the wind tunnels. The nose of the train was then designed after this form not only solving the noise problem but also reducing electricity use by 15%.

3.1.2. Conclusion In summary, the following steps led to the success of the design: 1- Redefinition of the problem helped them arrive at the most applicable solution. Redefining the problem in abstract terms, helps create a common ground between different disciplines, which might otherwise have nothing in common. This facilitates the communication between the two and as a result exchange of applicable knowledge. 2- Attending the lecture, which happened by chance, led to experiments with the owl and the positive outcome, encouraged the designer to look for the solutions in living creatures. At the start of every problem, it helps to look for solutions in other disciplines. 3- The connection made between the abstract question and the specific species, was instant since the engineer, Seiichi Yajima, had picked up bird watching as a hobby. Observation may be the best way to learn from nature; however, most designers cannot afford the time to wander around and look for themselves. As the field of biomimicry expands to different disciplines and proves to satisfy its claims, it is worth the effort to collect all the relevant data

from nature in one place in a manner that is accessible to all designers in different disciplines. How this data is collected and organized contributes greatly to its applicability. 4- They first applied the ideas at an experimental level. The promising result in the case of an owl led to its application to the pantograph and its success motivated the design of the trainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nose. Testing the validity of the applied ideas in smaller scales, helps justify their application to a larger scale. It also brings about the importance of incremental improvements in design. 5- They applied the design principle to the final product. Through following the five steps in bold print, we try to repeat this process. In this chapter, we will explore the first step. Using analogy as a method, we attempt to redefine an architectural problem in terms of biological functions. The other steps 2 through 4, decreasing the element of chance in looking for the solution problems in living creatures, creating a connection made between the abstract question and the specific species, and applying the solution at an experimental level will be explored in the next chapters.

3.2. Retracing the Steps The example of the bullet train shows that improvement in the components can lead to the improvement of the overall design. Certainly all the other components will be affected by this change or improvement and hence should be changed or be addressed accordingly. For example, the reduction in drag forces reduces the electrical load and that in turn will change the requirements for the mechanical and electrical aspects of the

train. This should also be considered in any other design process that consists of multiple interacting components, more so in architecture, which is comprised of multitude of factors and constituents. Being aware of the effect of components on the overall design and visa-versa emphasizes the significance of a holistic approach that is aware of the relationship between the whole and the parts. An iterative design process, which gives feedback, is essential in achieving this goal. The building envelope especially in the past few years has gained great significance. Since most of the energy and material exchange (e.g. Air, moisture, fumes etc.) in a building takes place through its envelope, sustainable building strategies are mostly applicable to this component. Moreover, the perception of a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity is possible through its envelope, making it a significant communication component. These are a few reasons why the challenges in the envelope are a contemporary problem. The redefinition of this problem is done through identifying the challenges in an envelope. Using analogy as a method, we point out similar characteristics of both natural skin and architectural faĂ§ade and its evolution through time. We then conclude that, since the same forces shape both of these realms, the solutions in natural skin can be applied to architectural facades.

3.2.1. Analogy The word analogy carries with it the inference that if two objects or concepts are alike on some dimensions, they must be alike on certain other dimensions as well 33. An analogy drawn between two objects or concepts implies that they hold similarities or

American Heritage Dictionary

parallel functions in common but are otherwise dissimilar. The purpose is to be able to examine the problem from another angle and apply the tested solution. Biologically inspired design is based on analogies between the two realms of architecture and biology. Depending on the intellectual distance between two comparable domains, emulation can occur on different levels. A design can emulate a natural system in terms of physical appearance/form, material, its production process, the structure, and the process through which it achieves its functional purpose. On the same note, integration of living systems in architecture can occur anywhere from the urban scale to the technical details scale. A direct method of investigation actively seeks to define the nature of the design problem and the context of its creation and use. With a clear understanding of the design requirements, it is then possible to look to the natural world for examples that fulfill them.

3.2.2. Definition of Skin in Nature The definition of skin typically refers to the softer outer membrane of animals, mainly vertebrates. In this research, the definition of skin is expanded to any living species or its component that portrays characteristics of a membrane or a surface that takes characteristics such as protection, filtration, heat regulation, boundary definition, and connection.

In this sense, this definition will include non-vertebrate animal

coverings and organisms such as shells and leaves. Skin in multiple definitions is as follows: A: the external limiting tissue layer of an animal body, especially the 2-layered covering of a vertebrate body consisting of an outer epidermis and an inner dermis

B: an outer covering (as a rind or husk) of a fruit or seed C: a membranous film or scum (as on boiling milk or drying paint) 34

3.2.3. The Parallels To draw analogies between natural skin and a building envelope, we must first study the similarities and the parallels that exist between these two entities. This involves the study and interpretation of the common forces and criteria affecting both natural and architectural design processes.

3.2.3.1.

Function

The volatile nature of an architectural faĂ§adeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s function calls for flexibility of the design solution in various aspects like spatial arrangement, connectivity with the exterior, extensive and versatile noise, light and ventilation controls, conformity to different occupancy and circulation scenarios, and the need for a monumental and expressive identity.

Building skin or envelope is the boundary through which the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

interaction with the environment occurs. It can consist of layers and filters that respond to light, air, moisture, sound, and heat. The most common feature amongst most living forms is the ability to maintain the optimal internal conditions responsive to the functions they carry.

Building envelope like the natural skin is the boundary between the

controlled environment and the uncontrolled. Its formation is the result of internal and external forces. Building envelope or skin determines how exterior and interior interact, what is kept out, and what is let in.

Merriam Webster dictionary

The concept of inside outside, protection and filtration are recurrent in both nature and building envelope. Skin in nature deals with a similar kind of complexity and seems often to handle both functionality and aesthetics perfectly.

3.2.3.2.

The Evolutionary Process of Design

Nature has perfected35 the form and the solutions that natural systems provide to address different problems over years and years of evolution. The so-called “natural selection” ensures that the only survivors are the “successful” specimens. Evolution refers to the incremental change through millions of years of experience. Species evolve due to destabilization of the environment and internal needs to better adapt to conditions. As an integral part of the natural domain, architectural design has somewhat followed a similar evolutionary process. Natural selection in architectural design occurs in many different levels. Multiple factors cause instability in the environment and necessitate the need for the architecture to change. Some examples of these factors are technological advances, the speed of information transmission through current media, the emergence of rapid transit systems, and population growth. These factors directly reflect on human needs, culture, way of life and, consequently, the design that embodies them all.

3.2.3.3.

Complexity

In the battle for resources, natural systems learn to be efficient. Nature responds to this problem through developing multifunctional components. Obviously, efficiency is relative and context dependent both in nature and in architecture. For example, using

With reference to the definition of perfection in the “on evolution” section in Chapter 2

wood as a primary source of material for a building may be an efficient solution in countries with abundant forests, whereas in arid climates brick or stone make more sense. Further, architectural façade is a component that must address a diverse array of needs and therefore, has the potential for becoming a multi-functional element. Nature’s ability to find an excellent solution in the context of many, often seemingly conflicting requirements is highly applicable to architectural façade design.

3.2.3.4.

Soft Transition

Redefining the concepts and deviating from the rigid ideas of boundaries has enabled architects to create architectural spaces that offer unique experiences.

The

example of the blur building (Figure 19 and Figure 20) built for the Swiss Expo 2002 on Lake Neuchatel offers a unique experience. “Upon entering the fog mass, visual and acoustic references are erased, leaving only an optical "white-out" and the "white-noise" of pulsing nozzles.”36 These types of architecture play with the concepts of outside and inside and the level of separation and filtration. Nature is a master of soft transition and

F IGURE 19 T HE B LUR B UILDING A lightweight metal structure sprays water and creates a unique atmosphere. Image source: http://www.dillerscofidio.com/blur.html 36

http://www.dillerscofidio.com/blur.html

F IGURE 20 T HE B LUR B UILDING INSIDE

Image Source: http://www.dillerscofidio.com/blur.html

this quality is especially evident in skin. It has no beginning and no end and every component transforms seamlessly into another.

This quality in natural skin can be

inspirational specifically in the building envelope design.

3.2.4. Evolution of the Role of Architectural Façade This section is a brief preview that shows the evolution of the formal qualities and design requirements of building envelope. These changes have brought the building envelope to acquire a more “skin” like quality. Animal skins were one of the earliest types of shelters that man used to protect himself from the unwanted changes in climate (Figure 21). As building technology developed and societies and human needs evolved, this element, the building envelope, retained its fundamental role although it had acquired many forms.

3.2.5. Innovations in Form, Function, Material, and the Concept Le Corbusier claims: “The history of architecture was the same as the history of window” (Leatherbarrow and Mostafavi 2002). In 1930, he introduced the concept of

F IGURE 21 C ARIBOU T ENT C ONSTRUCTION Photo Courtesy of Helge Ingstad

free faรงade and liberated the windows, which then were the only defined openings, from the load-bearing wall. For the first time, the window is not a mere opening dictated by structural constraints. It has now become an element capable of acquiring a new poetic quality and creating an independent identity for the building (Figure 22).

F IGURE 22 V ILLA S AVOY BY L E C ORBUSIER Because the faรงade is free from structure, the windows can be continuous to create a panoramic view to the exterior landscape. It creates a visual continuity between the interior and exterior.

Buckminster Fuller in his geodesic dome37 transforms the scale and the range a facade can bear by spanning over a long range without any support from columns or bearing walls.

Interestingly enough, the icosahedral form of a virus protein at a

microscopic level inspired this dome (Figure 23) with a diameter of 250 feet and height of 200 feet. In this design, the envelope acquires the responsibility of the wall, the roof, and the structure all at once. The boundaries are dissolved, and the whole envelope transforms into one element. This type of seamless transition is a typical characteristic of a natural skin.

Walther Bauersfeld a German engineer first invented the geodesic dome more than 20 years earlier. The design was used in a planetarium in Jena for Zeiss corporations.

Renzo Piano with his partner Richard Rogers in the Pompidou Center (Figure 24) uses the envelope as a system-bearing component. They challenge the concepts of inside

F IGURE 23 M ONTREAL ' S G EODESIC D OME The skin acts as a piece of clothing for the different functions it serves. Originally built in US for an expo, this dome was later transferred to Montreal and served as a birds and plants exhibition.

F IGURE 24 G EORGE P OMPIDOU C ENTER Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers In 2007 when reporting about the Roger’s Pritzker prize the New York Times stated the design “turned the architecture world upside down”.

and outside and transform the meaning of envelope by bringing all the systems to the outside level. This design changes the whole concept of skin as a mere aesthetic element to a fully functional one. Frank Gehry has been one of the most influential architects of our time. He breaks the boundaries of formal and technological standards by practicing a very sculptural quality in his buildings. In Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim museum in Bilbao (Figure 25) and in his later works, the facade and specifically its material accommodates for the sculptural quality that the building is trying to convey. Titanium sheets as thin as a third of a millimeter wrap around the building and with their reflective quality are responsive to the changes in the surrounding lighting.

F IGURE 25 G UGGENHEIM M USEUM

B ILBAO

F IGURE 26 DE Y OUNG M USEUM S AN F RANCISCO H ERZOG & D E M EORON

Herzog and de Meuron in a number of their projects, through designing with light, material porosity, and different textures, bring about a poetic approach to building skin design. In the Museum of San Francisco (Figure 26), the semi-transparent skin of this museum uses a repeating pattern varying in scale, and the copper material well blends in with the natural surroundings.

3.2.6. From Façade to “Skin” The shared concepts and technical requirements between natural skin and building envelope create a solid ground for their association. Moreover, the separation of facade and structure after the modern period has transformed the role of the building façade from a load bearing mass to that of a conceptual one. The thickness, materials, form, levels of transparency, porosity, and many other characteristics of this element were not determined by structural constraints anymore.

It has been liberated from all its

prerequisite functions and enabled to carry new ones. It has become an independent element, a mere curtain, a “skin”.

F IGURE 27 T HE Y AS H OTEL BY A SYMPTOTE IN A BU D HABI , UAE The skin of this hotel-Formula one racetrack is the element that conveys the aesthetics associated with speed and movement the geometry is reminiscent of Islamic patterns. The façade is like a blanket thrown over the whole building, a concept far from the traditional heavy and constricted definition of a façade.

After the building façade became a skin, the possibilities became endless, ranging from a fully functional identity to that of a poetic and metaphoric one (Figure 27). The building skin became the buffer, redefining the concepts of “outside” and the “inside”. This new skin is responsible for controlling the nature and level of interaction between these two realms, creating transitory spaces that served purposes relating to new needs.

4. Design of the Database

4.1. Intro In section 3.1.1 the designer attends a lecture by chance; as a result, the basis for an idea is triggered. We have identified this as one of the crucial steps in listed in the summary chapter 3.1.2 and noted that this occurred largely “by chance”. Eliminating this factor of chance and making the biomimicry process repeatable is one of our primary aims. To that end, we wish to make the step of looking for natural phenomena, a part of every design process. However, this step in itself needs much direction. The abundance of information and the plentiful leading points will result in a chaotic and random procedure. An excellent solution may be found in the creation of an organizing tool that facilitates the gathering, organizing, and retrieving of information, in other words the three characteristics descriptive of a “database”. These three characteristics are important because, 1- Systematic collection of information based on specific goals This tool needs to be something other than a biological encyclopedia to be able to respond to an architect and his needs. 2- Categorizing and organizing the information This categorization involves creating labels for each group of information. 3- Easy retrieval of the information If the two previous steps are done correctly, the search engine can easily find relevant data for each problem. This chapter will first study the common attributes and the steps involved in planning a successful database. The second part studies an example of a database that is

aimed to be an inspirational tool for building designers and shares some of the goals pursued in this research. Finally, a web-based template is designed through which data from nature can be collected. The fields in this template are based on prominent context-related architectural faรงade design criteria and the technical functions this component embodies. With this template in hand, categorization of information is systemized at the level of collection; meaning it will guide the attributes that are relevant and need to be studied in each species.

4.2. Definition of a Database A database is a system that organizes large amounts of data. A database can be as simple as a table with rows and columns.

A good database will inevitably divide

information into subject-based tables to reduce redundancy. Its most important purpose is the convenient retrieval of the information. (Database Design Basics 2007). A good database must have two main characteristics: 1. Easy and efficient storage of information 2. Easy and efficient retrieval of information A general database planning and design involves these steps: 1- Determining the purpose 2- Finding and organizing the information required 3- Dividing the information into tables or major subject groups with attention paid to avoiding redundancy

4- Determining the relationship between each table, adding fields to tables, or creating new tables to clarify the relationships as necessary 5- Refining the design by examining the results and adjusting the design as needed.

4.3. Database Case Studies Vast arrays of databases meet the criteria set forth in section 4.2. Study of similar databases, specifically in the field of architecture, will assist in determining the particulars necessary for the design of our database. This study will investigate different types of database, how the data is collected, and through what methods the information is assessed.

4.3.1. Mc GrawHill Sweets Network38 4.3.1.1.

Overview

The Sweets Network is an online catalog of manufactured building products, construction details, and specifications. It is one of the largest sources of reference available for architects, engineers, and contractors. Access to the product information is available through two main fields. The first field is blank and can perform a search with any given word. The second field is accessible through a drop down menu listing the 16 main divisions39. Each division is then divided into sub sections; clicking on each section will list all the companies that carry products related to those sections. The results are presented in a table format displaying the resources available for each product (Figure 38

http://products.construction.com/ (accessed April 4, 2012) 16 Divisions refers to the 16 divisions of construction, as defined by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)'s MasterFormat they are 01-General Requirements, 02-Site Construction, 03Concrete, 04-Masonry, 05- Metals, 06- Wood and Plastics, 07- Thermal and Moisture Protection, 08Doors and Windows, 09- Finishes, 10- Specialties, 11-Equipment, 12- Furnishings, 13-Special Construction, 14-Conveying Systems, 15- Mechanical, 16-Electrical 39

28). These resources include the five categories of CAD or BIM files, 3D models, catalogs in PDF format, image gallery showing the product used in real context, downloadable specifications documents, and the available information on the green properties of the product. The search screens use a navigation technique called breadcrumbs. This means the user is able to keep track of their search process and return to their starting point. The significance of this database lies in its comprehensive network linking products to projects to people. Forums are an additional tool encouraging discussions and generating ideas relevant to the application of the products. Strength of this database lies in its comprehensive network, which embodies all the industry resources, creating a one-stop shop destination for designers, engineers, and contractors.

F IGURE 28 S WEETS T YPICAL S EARCH R ESULT S CREEN A glance at this table will show how much information is available on each product. Clicking on each result will provide the user with product specifications and company contact information.

4.3.1.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: This database provides a comprehensive, easy to access, and up to date source of information about building products through creating a network of providers, designers, and contractors. Basis of Data Categorization: The data is categorized based on the 16 divisions and relative sub-sections. Available resources: 1. Cad or BIM files 2. Catalogs 3. 3D Files 4. Gallery 5. Specifications 6. Links to providers, built cases and architects Database Access and Assessment: Access to the product network is available free of charge through an online registration process.

Paying members will have access to the projects and people

network. The project and people network is a parallel database that includes projects galleries, studies of building types, continuing education, architectural applications, and ideas.

Additionally, it provides connections to architects who used these products,

specifying the projects, and displaying product usage and performance. The public

cannot modify the database; companies can send requests via email and their information will be added to the database after approval.

4.3.2. Great Buildings Collection 4.3.2.1.

Overview

Great BuildingsTM is one of the largest collections containing images and basic information on all types of structures from all around the world and across history. The information on this website can be searched through three main fields: name of building, name of architect, name of place. There is also an advanced search option to optimize the search results.

4.3.2.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: This database aims to create a comprehensive collection of information about all buildings with links to related resources. Basis of Data Categorization: 1. Architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name 2. Location 3. Date 4. Building Type 5. Context 6. Style

Available Resources: 1. Images 2. Drawings 3. 3D Models 4. Links to related websites, books and additional images 5. Cross links to websites like Archiplanet (Section67), Architecture Week, and Wikipedia Database Access and Assessment: The submittal of images is done through a web-based template and is open to the public. The template takes in information about the contributor, information about the image, and its licensing options. The approval and consequent for publishing of the images depends on proof of ownership of the images or their copyright 40.

Kevin

Matthews41, the editor in chief of the Great Buildings Online, in cooperation with Architecture Week magazine42 will approve the images and edit the text provided.

4.3.3. Architonic43 4.3.3.1.

Overview

Architonic is a database that holds over 120,000 premium design products and materials. With over 16 million visitors per year44, it is one of the most prominent sources for architects, designers, and homeowners. With an international network of 40

http://www.greatbuildings.com/image_contrib.html (accessed April 4, 2012) http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgibin/glk?http://www.designlaboratory.com/faculty/matthews.k evin.html (accessed April 4, 2012) 42 http://www.architectureweek.com/ (accessed April 4, 2012) 43 http://www.architonic.com/ (accessed April 4, 2012) 44 http://www.architonic.com/about (accessed April 4, 2012) 41

architects and design professionals, the best and newest materials are handpicked and presented in this database. The database also links the furnishings, fittings, and materials to the architectural projects that have used those products. The search can be done through a blank field taking any keyword or through the main five categories. First category is product groups, broken down to 17 groups of materials belonging to different parts and components of building. Second category is manufacturers, which can be filtered, based on the manufacturer branch or its country. Third category is the name of the designers, which can be filtered based on their country of origin. The fourth category is retailer, which can be filtered based on the country. The fifth category is theme and it lists the new trends such as Design in Bamboo, Postmodern Strikes Again, Bauhaus: The Originals, etc.

Each product has an overview of its specification, links to the

manufacturersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; homepage, contact information, price request, and CAD request.

4.3.3.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: The database provides designers with the best and most up to date materials. Basis of Data Categorization: 1. Product Groups a. Bathroom/ Sanitary ware b. Home Furniture c. Office / Contract Furniture d. Garden / Terrace e. Exterior Lighting

f. Kitchen / Kitchen Furniture g. Interior Accessories h. Interior Fabric / Upholstery materials i. Flooring / Carpets j. Wall / Ceiling Finishes k. Interior Construction l. Entrance Area / Entrance Control m. Retail/Exhibition Construction n. Furniture Construction/Components o. Building Construction p. Public Space q. Materials/Finishing 2. Manufacturer 3. Designer 4. Retailer 5. Theme Available Resources: 1. Image Gallery 2. Links to Product websites 3. Links to projects

Database Access and Assessment: The Architonics team consists of a number of experts from all over the world in different areas who hand select and thoroughly research each product. Manufacturers can also suggest their products to this website, which will be published if they are in accordance to the websiteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s standards. There is also a section that takes in feedback from users alerting them of incorrect data, high quality products or buildings they might have overlooked.

4.3.4. Materials for Design 4.3.4.1.

Overview

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Materials for Designâ&#x20AC;? (Ballard Bell and Rand 2006) is a book that showcases the innovative use of materials through sixty case studies. In each section, the author gives an overview and history of each material followed by buildings that have used the material in an innovative fashion. Its aim is to display how material properties will affect the design process, in contrast to projects that often leave the material selection to the last stages of design.

4.3.4.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: This book aims to be an educational tool for students and an inspirational resource for designers as to how material properties should affect design process. Basis of Data Categorization: 1. Glass

2. Concrete 3. Wood 4. Metals 5. Plastic Available Resources: 1. Basics 2. History 3. Design considerations 4. Case Studies Database Access and Assessment: The data is published in a book format. Revisions will possibly be available in future editions.

4.3.5. Neufert Architects Data 4.3.5.1.

Overview

First published in Germany in 1936, Ernst Neufert's handbook Architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Data provides architects and designers with spatial requirements, planning criteria and considerations of function and siting.

4.3.5.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: The database provides designers with initial data required to plan and design different building types.

Basis of Data Categorization: Building Type Available Resources: 1. Overview of the requirements for each building type 2. Plans 3. Sections 4. Furniture Layout 5. Ergonomic requirements Database Access and Assessment: This reference book has been progressively revised and updated through 35 editions and many translations. Recent editions have included a section that contributes to sustainable building design.

4.3.6. High Performance Building Database 4.3.6.1.

Overview

The High Performance Buildings Database 45 is one of the most comprehensive building databases available online and is intended to improve building performance by measuring methods by collecting data on factors affecting a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance. One of its sub databases is the Zero Energy Buildings Database (Figure 29), which is a profile of commercial buildings that use as much energy as they produce over the course of one

This database is sponsored by the US Department of Energy and developed by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

year. Information is uploaded through web-based templates. Anyone can submit a project as long as he/she registers in the website.46

F IGURE 29 S CREEN S HOT O F T HE Z ERO E NERGY B UILDING â&#x20AC;&#x2122; S D ATABASE http://zeb.buildinggreen.com/index.cfm This database is the collection of commercial buildings that produce as much energy as they use. This is part of the High Performance Buildings Database.

4.3.6.2.

Summary of Database Structure

Purpose: To provide sustainable design ideas applicable to new buildings Basis of Data Categorization: 1. Project name 2. Owner

http://eere.buildinggreen.com/input/new_member.cfm (accessed April 4, 2012)

3. Location 4. Energy Data 5. Building Type and Size Available Resources: 1- Region 2- Context 3- Scope 4- Building Type 5- Building Size 6- Building Program 7- Keywords 8- Details Available 9- Last Updated Database Access and Assessment: A process of online registration will allow anyone to upload his or her building information through a web-based online form. The information is later reviewed by various groups and, if approved, would be uploaded to the database.

4.3.7. More Databases The following databases work very similar to the aforementioned cases, however are worth mentioning because of their size and scope.

4.3.7.1.

Emporis47

Emporis provides a connection between high value buildings and involved companies. It provides tools for research, image licensing and online advertisement for companies. 47

http://www.emporis.com/images (accessed April 4, 2012)

4.3.7.2.

ARCAT48

ARCAT is a manufacturing listing that works very similar to the SWEETS network4.3.1).

4.3.7.3.

archINFORM

archINFORM49 is an online database of built and unrealized building information worldwide with images and links to other websites.

4.3.7.4.

Materials Connexion50

The material Conexion is a group of international multidisciplinary experts that perform research and design and provide consultancy to different industries such as architecture, industrial design, packaging design, and landscape architecture.

Their

material database consists of special materials designed for specific industry challenges.

4.3.7.5.

Archiplanet51

Archiplanet is an online â&#x20AC;&#x153;community-constructedâ&#x20AC;? architectural database, meaning it is created in collaboration with over 12,000 pages and with the contribution of user-editors. Each page has information about a certain architectural building, images ad links to other websites.

4.3.8. The Wiki model Wiki is a web application whose users can add modify or delete its content via a web browser52. Launched by Jimmy Wales and philosopher Larry Sanger in 2001,

www.arcat.com (accessed April 4, 2012) http://eng.archinform.net/ (accessed April 4, 2012) 50 http://www.materialconnexion.com (accessed April 4, 2012) 51 http://www.archiplanet.org/wiki/Main_Page (accessed April 4, 2012) 49

Wikipedia.org is a very famous wiki. Anyone with access to internet can create a page in this encyclopedia and/or edit its content. Initially Wikipedia started as a website called Nupedia and it was intended to be an encyclopedia created by experts in each field with an elaborate peer review process. However, the very slow process of creating each article pushed the creators towards utilizing a platform like wiki. The most important issue raised in such a model is the reliability of its content. Wikipedia has three policies to help increase the articles reliability. First is verifiability; any information added to the page must be verifiable through published sources. The second policy is called no original research and it refers to facts or ideas for which no external published source exists. Inline citation will enable users to check the sources for themselves and make sure this requirement is met. The lack of citation will provide grounds for administrators to eliminate the information from the page. The third policy refers to the neutral point of view; writers must not take sides and explain the subject from all points of view. The enforcement of these policies relies largely on users/editors. Any editor who spots a violation can persuade the person to adhere to the acceptable norm of conduct. Disputes are resolved through administrators and stewards who are approved individuals who are granted special editing tools. Wikipedia makes no guarantee of its validity and it does not have a standardized process for fact checking. The repeated process of editing does not necessarily add to the accuracy of its content. In addition, the anonymity of its contributors creates a lack of accountability, which in turn adds to its unreliability. However, wikis can facilitate communication, collaboration, and website administration in a variety of arena (Frumkin 52

http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/cc700339.aspx (accessed April 4, 2012)

2005). In addition, the vast pool of its contributors creates a heterogeneous group that is less likely to be biased as opposed to an individual (Mattus 2009). The collective advantages and disadvantages of this model impel each individual to use Wikipedia for what it is, a source for general background on a specific topic, and to have a critical point of view and examine the information through given references.

4.4. Summary: Study of the most prominent databases available as a tool for designers shows that they possess three main characteristics: A distinct purpose that brings focus and prevents scattered collection of information, well-defined categories based on which the data is collected and organized, and a process of data assessment. The systemized collection of data contributes greatly to the easy retrieval of information. Identifying, grouping, and naming mechanisms in each species according to its relevant technical function and assigning corresponding labels to each piece of information at the source will contribute to a more objective search process and avoid a random collection (Figure 30).

F IGURE 30 T HE P ROCESS O F S YSTEMIZED C OLLECTION A ND O RGANIZATION O F D ATA At first glance the pool of data on the right belonging to different random species seems chaotic, with the right framework each piece will have an allocated space. In addition to easy accessibility this frameworks helps point out the empty slots where additional data may be needed.

The assessment and the validation of the data requires an iterative and collaborative process. This calls for both time and a developable platform through which new data can be added, old data can be modified, and/or a combination of these two. A

web-based template helps in creating a shared platform through which new information is added, tested, and refined.

5. The Biomimicry Driven Architectural Database

5.1. Planning the Database The general steps to database design previously mentioned are typically used when specific data is already available and this database acts as an organizing tool. For example, a supermarket already has the information such as employee records and product statistics. In this regard, we are one step behind since we need to figure out how to look for data and what to look for. As a result, for our design these steps come in a slightly different order. 1- Determining the purpose: This database seeks to create an inspirational tool for architects that will assist them in innovative design. This is done through collecting, classifying, and presenting living speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; skins. This collection is based on the architectural design criteria such as thermal regulation, protection, and water collection. 2- Dividing the information into tables or major subject groups: Before starting to collect information, we need to establish what criteria we should be seeking. Architectural design criteria are well defined and can be easily listed. 3- Finding and organizing the information: In the previous step, we have already decided on the major subjects and categories. We need to define a criteria based on which examples are chosen. One way to evaluate this is to look at the species in extreme conditions where their survival is dependent on those criteria. 4- Refining the result

As the collection of data progresses and the more results are tested, the limitations and the flaws in the workflow will emerge. Keeping a constant refining process will perfect and enrich the database.

5.2. Subject Groups Two main forces affect building skinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design criteria: context related conditions and interior requirements.

In addition to these forces, a building skin is a perfect

component for integrating sustainable design strategies such as energy production and water collection. The result of studying these criteria is that a list of subject groups will be created that entails the technical functions a building skin can embody.

5.3. Architectural Context Related Design Criteria 5.3.1. Koppen climate classification The climate classification determines the difference between the quality of outside air (temperature and humidity) and in comparison, helps design the comfortable condition in the interior. The primary role of a building skin is protecting the interior from the exterior.

Knowing the particular climate helps determine the material, shape, and

F IGURE 31 K OEPPEN ' S C LIMATE C LASSIFICATION source: http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at

orientation of the openings in the façade in order to achieve favorable indoor conditions.

5.3.2. Wind Direction and Speed The shape, size, and the orientation of the openings in the façade may be greatly affected by the wind speed and direction. The building design and orientation can accommodate for avoidance of prominent winds or embrace wind to harvest its energy; in either case, wind plays a key role in the envelope design.

5.3.3. Precipitation The amount and type of precipitation in each climate brings out the need for water harvesting strategies incorporated in the façade and/or the roof. In addition, the type of the precipitation must be factored into the structural attributes of the buildings skin.

5.3.4. Daylight Harvesting The number of sunny days and the angle of sun during different seasons changes depending on geographical location. Accordingly, the shape and orientation of the openings in a building need to accommodate to gain favorable amounts and quality of light. In addition, orientation of a building, design of the envelope (that includes the roof as well), altitudes, and geographical locations all contribute to photo-voltaic-cell efficiency.

5.3.5. Program A building’s skin is a representation of its program. Depending on the nature of the function, the form and concept differs.

An office building’s concept will be

completely different from that of a performing arts center.

5.3.6. Context Contextual constraints determine whether a building needs to blend in with the environment, spread out as much as it can, limit its disturbance, block out all the exterior forces, and become introverted. A natural setting with natural resources like lakes, forests, or wild species calls for minimum disturbance, both visually and physically.

5.4. Building Skinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Technical Functions The section will focus on the general building skin requirements as well as some unconventional additional strategies that can be integrated into building skin.

1- Structural Occupying great surface area, the skin of a building can become the structural element and free the plan.

2- Visual Connection As opposed to a mere barrier, a skin provides the level of visual connection required by the interior needs or functions. The level of porosity achieved through layering, patterns, and additional elements mounted on a faĂ§ade provide the visual connection. 3. Water collection Apart from the site and landscape design, the responsibility of water management is best carried out by the building envelope.

4. Lighting

Lighting control may be one of the most crucial roles of a building skin. It varies from the extreme of blocking the unwanted light to maximizing the penetration of light via various strategies such as controlling the color, intensity and pattern, and creating interior focal points.

5. Privacy Control Privacy is a value shared among many different cultures. It has been one of main factors shaping the architecture of a certain regions.

Architects address this issue

differently according to the society’s needs and functional requirements.

Another

interpretation for privacy is the need to segregate activities and create hierarchies in perception.

6. Energy Producing Sun and the wind are among nature’s greatest energy sources. A building’s outer surface is the ideal medium for harvesting these unlimited energy sources. High-rise buildings, in particular, are the most suitable candidates for this purpose. First, they have an extensive contact surface, and second, their height enables them with proximity to where the sources like wind and sun are most efficiently accessible.

7. Expressive A façade as the term itself suggests is the face of a building.

As humans

communicate through facial expressions, a building is able to communicate through its facade. Perception of a building’s identity is possible through its façade, making its aesthetic a significant factor.

8. Thermal Regulator

By incorporating temperature sensors in the outside layer and regulating the opening and closing of fenestration, the load on the air conditioning is reduced.

9. Multifunctional Multitasking and multi-functionality is a recurring concept in nature. Through natural selection, systems in nature have chosen the most efficient forms to respond to the greatest number of functions. This enables systems to use less material resulting in increased efficiency and sustainability. Using less material in a building means less construction time, less maintenance, and hence, less cost and waste of natural resources

5.4.1. Resulting Subject Groups After studying the architectural faรงade design criteria, we arrive at the subject groups listed below Subject groups: 1. Energy production 2. Environmental responsiveness 3. Knowledge gathering, 4. Light harvesting, 5. Multiple function integration, 6. Structure, 7. Thermal insulation, 8. Thermal regulation, 9. Ventilation, 10. Water collection

5.5. Data Collection Interface The web-based template is an interactive tool for collecting data based on the subject groups discussed in 5.4.1. Figure shows how these subject groups are organized. Below is a detailed explanation of each field.

5.5.1. Row 1: 1-a- Name: This field is for entering the name of the species. 1-b-Related Building Component: This research is only interested in the relation between building skin and natural skin, but this field can be further expanded to other components in building and other strategies or species in nature. A predetermined drop down list enables the selection of this field. 1-c-Habitat: The Habitat is one of the main shaping factors in the characteristics of species as it is for architectural design. The drop down list is based on the Koppen climate classification. Choosing a natural phenomenon from a similar context will be greatly beneficial especially when dealing with building skin.

5.5.2. Row 2: Overview: This is a short descriptive account of each species.

5.5.3. Row 3: 3-a-Images: This section is for uploading images related to the species technical properties. This could include photographs, graphs, and technical sections. 3-a-Captions: Each image comes with a brief description.

5.5.4. Row 4:

Keywords: Keywords are any terms considered highly relevant to the specie or architectural problem. In addition to technical functions available in the subject group, this keyword enables users to search for other qualities such as tessellation, permeability, porosity, etc. This field can be filled by choosing predetermined words from a drop down list or typing a new keyword to add to the collection. By checking one or more boxes, one can search the database for species that are related to multiple keywords.

5.5.5. Row 5: This row consists of one main field, referred to as the relevant characteristic, and four related sub categories. After selecting and filling in all the boxes in this row, the characteristic field is created. The â&#x20AC;&#x153;add characteristicâ&#x20AC;? button uploads the data and resets all the boxes so that a new characteristic may be started. 5-a-Relevant Characteristic: This section describes the characteristic in the species that is relevant to architectural skin design. Selection can be made through a predefined drop down list or new characteristics can be added to the list. 5-b-Significance: This section explains why this characteristic is significant. 5-c-Evaluation of the Characteristic: For each species, a characteristic in comparison is stronger than that of others. Evaluation of each characteristic is made possible through a 1-4 scale selectable from a drop down list. This will help compare different species in a specific search result. 5-d-Mechanism: This field explains the mechanism and the technical details of how this characteristic is created. Ideally, this field will be based on quantitative data, for example the U value, the optical transmission and reflection coefficients, elastic moduli,

density among other relevant material properties. The database users will be able to update the material library in this regard and entry clearly stating the source will be optionally included in a manner reminiscent of Wikipedia. We must clarify however, that for the time being our database does not include these quantities, but we foresee this as an important future addition. We do however; provide an example simulation that utilizes the database to arrive at a bio-inspired material for which the thermal and optical values are readily available. 5-e-Related Field: This part suggests different science fields that should be consulted in an effort to develop a reasonably accurate simulation.

5.5.6. Row 6: Related Building Idea: This section is like a chalkboard where possible building ideas related to that specie can be recorded.

F IGURE 32 S PE CIE S RE CORD C OLLEC TION F IE LDS AND U SE R I NTE RFAC E

6. The Architectural Building Skin Database

6.1. Examples of Skin in Nature To reach the final step of testing the process, this section studies a few cases in nature that bear the aforementioned definition of skin to generate our database. Later, using the energy simulation software, Ecotect, a sample design inspired by our database is simulated and presented in chapter 7. Few factors were involved in the selection of these species amongst the millions possible. The first factor was the attempt to cover a variety of creatures to point out the wide spectrum of inspirational possibilities. Secondly, they are examples of creatures whose survival depends on the specific mechanisms in their skin. These cases show how each organism shall be studied so that the data collected is relevant to architecture. A biologist alone does not know what to look for, and an architect alone cannot fully explain what he or she sees.

6.1.1. Human Skin Overview “Skin is […] our largest organ: the dermis alone makes up 15 to 20 percent of body weight. Skin is necessary for maintaining body temperature and fluid balance. […] Natural skin also carries nerve endings, providing our sense of touch. Skin communicates emotional and physical states: it can blush and blanch, get goose pimples and sweat, go blue with cold, red with anger, or metaphorically green with envy” (Lupton 2002). Living skin consist of multiple layers, each in a constant state of synthesis and transformation. It is a heterogeneous organ with various thicknesses over different organs. Skin is a flexible container defining the inside and outside of our bodies in a seamless transition (Figure 33).

F IGURE 33 H UMAN E AR Ear is the continuation of face’s skin wrapped around a structure to form another element with different properties.

F IGURE 34 H UMAN S KIN AND H AIR , M ICROSCOPIC V IEW Photo by: David Scharf Source: http://www.sciencefaction.com/?service=gallery&acti on=show_slideshow_page&language=en&gallery=1& set=28

Characteristics Thermoregulation The human body has a low tolerance for thermal change. Skin has the leading role in maintaining the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s favorable temperature. In warmer weather, blood flow is directed to the surface of the skin, and then the vessels are widened, creating more surface area and allowing heat to escape. In addition, sweat glands in our skin excrete water, minerals, and

F IGURE 35 L AYERS I N T HE H UMAN S KIN

proteins. Once on the surface of the skin, sweat evaporates into the air. This cools the skin and helps us control our body temperature. In cold weather, the opposite happens to the blood vessels.

By constricting in lower temperature, the vessels preserve body heat.

Shivering is another reaction in cold weather where heat is produced through rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles. Sensation There are many nerve endings on the surface of our skin allowing us to feel textures, pain, pressure, and temperature. Protection Since the skin covers our whole body and is a continuous layer, it acts as a barrier and protects the body from injury and infection. It also shields against light and radiation from the sun and prevents us from dehydration. Waste Disposal Sweating not only helps regulate body temperature, but it carries out unwanted elements out to the surface through channels.

Building Equivalent The main concept of human skin lies in its layering, perforation, and vessels. A building skin can mimic these actions through layering and by incorporating canals to carry fluids that can absorb heat as well as purify the interior air.

Skin pores open and close to adjust to heat. A flexible perforated faรงade can be responsive to heat and air quality through a set of sensors. Just as the pores in human skin dispose of waste, these pores can exchange fresh air with indoor air.

6.1.2. Shark Skin Overview The shark is one of the fastest swimmers in the ocean, in part a result of the microstructure of its skin. The form and mechanism of its skin as explained in Figure 36 and Figure 37 highlight these characteristics below.

F IGURE 36 S HARK SKIN C ROSS S ECTION The vortices created by denticles make friction, keeping the flow close to the skin, hence decreasing the drag effect.

F IGURE 37 S HARK â&#x20AC;&#x2122; S D ENTICLE U NDER M ICROSCOPE

Characteristics Aerodynamic The aerodynamic quality of sharkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin not only enables a shark to chase its prey quickly but also allows it to do so with little noise and thus helps the shark hunt more stealthily.

Bacteria free The structure and the pattern of a shark’s denticles keep bacteria from landing and adhering to its skin. Contextual Response A shark’s skin has two distinct color tones with his back much darker than his belly to help the shark blend in with its context. When viewed from the top, once can note that the shark’s dark back color blends against the dark depth of the ocean floor; however, when looked upon from the bottom, the light color of its belly blends with the light color of the sky.

Building Equivalent The micro texture that provides the aerodynamic quality can be used in buildings in different ways. A direct mimicry could mean a skin that moves easily through fluids. For example, wind turbines with this texture mounted on the surface of a building can move with the smallest wind power. The other characteristic of this skin is its repelling quality, which can be used to repel things a building wants to keep away from itself such as water, dirt, or oil. In another scale, this form can be used to keep snow off surfaces.

6.1.3. Lotus Leaf Overview The lotus leaf, better known as the water lily, is considered sacred in Asian religions for its ability to stay dry and clean. When water drops on the leaf, it beads up and rolls off the waxy surface, washing away dirt as it goes.

F IGURE 38 T HE L OTUS EFFECT The water stays in large droplets that slide off easily.

F IGURE 39 L OTUS L EAF U NDER T HE M ICROS COPE The high water repellency of a lotus leaf is due to the nanoscopic structure of the surface, which minimizes friction. This same concept is used in wall paints to instigate a self-cleansing characteristic.

Characteristics Water resistant When Barthlott, the German botanist who discovered the "lotus effect" in 1997, examined a lotus leaf under a high-powered microscope (Figure 39), he discovered that it did not have the waxy, smooth surface that appeared to the naked eye. Rather, it was covered in microscopic bumps, a characteristic that aids in water repellency.

Self-Cleaning When water droplets fall on the lotus leaf, they touch the surface at only a few points, resting on these microscopic "bumpsâ&#x20AC;? (Figure 40). A slight tilt to a leaf enables water droplets to roll off under their own weight and take any dirt that might be resting on the surface.

F IGURE 40 L OTUS L EAF D IAGRAM

Building equivalent The cost and energy used to clean the facades of high-rise buildings is very high. A self-cleaning material that can be used in the facades of these building types will keep their maintenance easy and affordable and reduce the energy that may otherwise be consumed for cleaning or resurfacing. Furthermore, this quality in a material not only can keep dirt and oil off the faĂ§ade, but since it is water repellent, it can contribute to an ice and snow free surface where needed, such as outdoor walkways.

6.1.4. Cuttlefish Overview Cuttlefish are the masters of disguise in the underwater world. They can go from invisible to visible in a matter of seconds. Their skin allows them to blend into any context seamlessly.

F IGURE 41 C UTTLEFISH I N T HE P ROCESS O F B LENDING A T T HE B OTTOM O F T HE O CEAN A cuttlefish in process of changing color to match the context

Characteristics Camouflage The skin of the cuttlefish changes color rapidly in order to help it to evade predators by using elastic pigment sacs called chromatophores. Sacs of red, yellow, or brown pigment in the skin are made visible (or invisible) by muscles around their circumference. These muscles are under the direct control of neurons in the motor centers of the brain, which is why they can blend into the background so quickly. Another aid to camouflage is the changeable texture of cuttlefish skin, which contains papillae bundles of muscles able to

alter the surface of the animal from smooth to spiky. This will further help the cuttlefish to blend into rocky or textured environments. In addition to pigment sacs, cuttlefish have another mechanism that helps them achieve this seamless invisibility.

Leucophores are reflector plates, which reflect light

across a wide range of wavelengths so that they can reflect whatever light is available at the time, white light in shallow waters, and blue light at depth. Cuttlefish can turn these reflectors on or off in seconds to minutes, controlling the spacing of the platelets to select

F IGURE 42 C UTTLEFISH S KIN L AYERS Pigment sacs in the skin called chromatophore, are under direct neural control and can open or close in the blink of an eye. Iridophores and leucophores both reflect ambient light, and iridophores can produce iridescent colors by changing spacing between reflectin plates. Source: Roger Hanlon, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

the color. They can also combine these iridescent hues with those of the chromatophores to make shimmering purples and oranges (Brooks 2008). Communication This quality not only helps them in camouflage but also acts as a communicating device. For example, the male changes color when he is trying to attract a female for mating or when he is angry and trying to challenge another animal.

Building Equivalent The expressive quality in the skin of a cuttlefish can also easily be used in a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s faĂ§ade. This can be made possible with the aid of a camera as the eye, which scans the environment, and a computer as the brain that processes the information and sends orders to a layered LED facade acting as pigment sacs. This can create a communicative facade that either responds to outside stimuli such as weather, crowd movement, and traffic, to make a statement.

This is especially appropriate for buildings like museums and

performing art centers. A temperature sensor could be used to initiate a building skin to change from optically absorbing to reflecting based on the immediate needs.

6.1.5. Polar Bear Overview During their eight months of fast, female polar bears can lose as much as 45 percent of their weight. Polar bears have mastered two characteristics: energy conservation and heat retention. Polar bears need to overcome two great obstacles during winter, scarcity of food and extreme cold weather. Both of these require them to gain as much energy as possible and spend the least amount.

F IGURE 43 P OLAR B EAR I N S UMMER Polar bearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fur changes color in summer due to the structure of each hair and the dark color of the underlying layer of skin.

F IGURE 44 M ICROSCOPIC V IEW O F P OLAR B EAR H AIR Each hair is clear and hollow to allow light in.

Characteristics Energy Conservation A polar bearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fur consists of three main layers: the clear hollow hair, a dark color skin, and a wooly fur layer underneath it all. Light penetrates the clear hollow hair, while

the dark skin increases heat absorption and after that, the heat is preserved in the wooly fur layer and insulated by the 10cm layer of fat underneath it all (Figure 45). Environmental Responsiveness Polar bear hair is clear and can scatter light and create a white effect. This color helps the bear blend in with the environment during winter when the dominant color is white. Light Transmission The hollow structure of a polar bearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hair allows the rays of sun to penetrate the layers of skin, yet the low infrared emissivity of these hairs prevents heat from radiating

F IGURE 45 P OLAR B EAR S KIN C ROSS S ECTION

away.

6.1.5.1.

Building Equivalent

Energy Conservation and Light Transmission Considering the high price of energy and the limited amount of conventional energy sources, conserving energy is the most important role that a building has, and most of this responsibility falls upon its skin. The concept of layering the faรงade so that the first layer increases energy penetration and the interior layers trap the heat in can easily be incorporated into building facades. The concept of a clear layer on the outside of a building compensates for the need for a visual connection between the interior and exterior of a building. Further, the arrangement of the hair scatters light, which can be translated into building shades that can control penetration of the light to create the desired effect.

6.1.6. Chameleon Overview Chameleons are lizards, most of which change color depending on their environment or emotional state.

Characteristics

F IGURE 46 C LOSEUP O F C HAMELEON ’ S S KIN

F IGURE 47 C HAMELEON ’ S C HANGE O F C OLOR F OR S OCIAL S IGNALING

Camouflage The skin of a chameleon consists of four transparent layers: two are yellow and red, while the others are light reflecting of blue and white. In addition to four layers of color, there are also tentacles that release a black color. Its cells are full of pigment granules, which move in the cytoplasm. The quality of their distribution adjusts the amount of color. Pigment cells along with light reflectors and the dark colored melanin cells work together with the neural system to create the “correct” color.

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Communication The primary purpose of the chameleonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s color change is for social signaling. The colored layers are all connected to the nervous system, which receives information from outside like light, temperature, and emotions. Color change is also used as an expression of the physiological condition of the lizard and as a social indicator to other chameleons. Thermoregulation A desert dwelling chameleon uses this color change to adjust its heat gain.

becomes darker in the morning to increase its heat absorption and lighter during the day to reflect light.

Building Equivalent The faĂ§ade of a building can change color to adjust heat gain during the day and the change of the seasons. Also similar to the cuttlefish, a building skin can use a composition of color layers and reflectors to create moods and communicate with the outside.

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6.1.7. Crocodile skin Overview Crocodiles and alligators have rather different scales from those of other reptiles. Called â&#x20AC;&#x153;scutesâ&#x20AC;?, they are bony and quite massive but are not fused together and joined to the underlying skeleton. As a result, flexible fast movement is still possible. Each scute develops on its own and is replaced by layers from below.

F IGURE 48 C OMPLEX C URVE Tessellation makes covering complex curved surface with flat panels possible Source: Marc Fornes&Theverymany http://theverymany.com/tag/tessellation/

F IGURE 49 T HE D IFFERENCE I N S IZE A ND S HAPE I N M OBILE A ND F IXED A REAS

Characteristics Water loss The scutes are particularly massive on the back (Figure 49), perhaps because this is the area most exposed to the sun and most at risk of drying out. The area of less waterproof skin between is smallest, so large scutes provide a good seal against water loss.

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Protection plus mobility Areas of small scutes occur on the sides and around the shoulders and hips where great flexibility is needed during movement (Foy 1982). Thermoregulation â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sweat glands play an extremely important part in temperature control. Shaped like a tube, knotted at the bottom, and opening out of the epidermis at a 'pore', sweat glands secrete a colorless liquid which evaporates on the surface of the skin removing excess heatâ&#x20AC;? (Foy 1982).

Building Equivalent: Sun protection The tessellation in building texture can create elements that vary in size and shade according to the movement of the sun. Thermoregulation Sealing a building completely results in the running of the air conditioner all year around, which is not sustainable, so the building needs to take advantage of the natural air to condition whenever possible. Furthermore, a building needs to breathe. By making a balance between the permeable and impermeable surfaces and calculating the proportions in relation to each other and the whole building, it is possible that the building can exchange air and moisture both ways wherever it is needed the most.

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Flexibility and movement A building skin can expand or contract depending on the space needed inside; the texture of the skin provides this mobility. Complex surfaces Tiling “is the act of rationalizing highly complex form by breaking it up into smaller continuous components” (Oxman 2009). The tessellation in alligator’s skin is according to mobility criteria and water conservation.

In buildings, this tessellation can occur on

different levels such as performance criteria, tiling due to fabrication constraints, or tiling according to the material’s properties.

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6.1.8. Thorny Devil Overview The thorny devil lives in the central Australian deserts where obtaining water is a crucial task. “The thorny devil (Moloch horridus) can gather all the water it needs directly from rain, standing water, or from soil moisture, against gravity without using energy or a pumping device” (Attenborough 1979).

F IGURE 51 T HE T HORNY D EVIL T OP V IEW Grooves on spikes of thorny devil lizard provide drinking water by drawing condensed dew to mouth by capillary action

F IGURE 50 T HORNY D EVIL ’ S F AKE HEAD AND B UMPS

Characteristics Water collection “Water is conveyed to this desert lizard’s mouth by capillary action during cold nights; dew condenses on them and is drawn by capillary action along the grooves and eventually down to the tiny creature's mouth" (Attenborough 1979). The small semicircular

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channels run between scales. These channels are convoluted to increase surface area and create capillary action. Protection The thorny appearance of this lizard makes it an unappealing prey to birds. Its skin has scales enlarged and drawn out to a point in the center and is scored with very thin grooves radiating from the central peak.

Building Equivalent: Passive Water Collection Passive water collection in a building can provide water especially in dry arid climates without consuming much energy. Fire Barrier A “wet” façade can be a great barrier against outside fire. It can slow down the process of fire spread from neighboring buildings. Thermoregulation Water has one of the highest heat capacities amongst materials. Incorporating water into building facades can mean a passive, evaporative cooling system. This could eliminate or minimize the load on the building’s air conditioning system.

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6.1.9. Namibian Desert Beetle Overview The Namibian Desert beetle lives in one of the most arid areas with only one and half inch (40 mm) of rain per year. It has developed a unique technique to survive by obtaining water from early morning fogs.

F IGURE 53 N AMIBINAN D ESERT B EETLE

F IGURE 52 D IAGRAM OF D ESERT B EETLE â&#x20AC;&#x2122; S W ATER C OLLECTION M ECHANISM

Characteristics: Water Collection: It drinks by the means of its own bumpy back surface, which provides for accumulation of water droplets of fifteen to twenty micrometers in diameter. Opening its wings, this creature faces the wind direction and small droplets are attracted to the hydrophilic bumps on its back. As the droplets accumulate and as they get heavier, they slide to the hydrophobic groves and roll down its back to its mouth (Figure 53).

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Building Equivalent: Water Collection A texture created by two hydrophobic and hydrophilic materials can be used in building facades to collect moisture from air. Fog and Frost Free Windows A coating inspired by the material on the beetleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s back will help keep water off windows, which will result in fog and frost-free surfaces.

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6.2. Additional Subject Groups The study of natural skins inspires a few more technical functions that can be added to the subject groups of the template. This shows the iterative workflow and the need for its refinery for completion of the database. Some of these subjects include the following: 11. Repellent surface 12. Aerodynamic 13. Formal flexibility 14. Protection 15. Communicative The resulting tables from these species can be organized in two main databases. First table (Figure 54) includes the species categorized based on their technical functions and the subject groups obtained the previous sections. Second table (Figure 55) is a more descriptive database that explains the mechanisms, significances, and ideas applicable to architecture.

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F IGURE 54 E VALUATING DE SIGN C RITE RIA E XISTING I N THE N ATURAL S P ECIE S

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Context

Chameleon

Arid

Relevant Characteristics

Mechanism

Significance

Related Building Idea

Related Field

 Camouflage in the forest  Communicating emotion  Intimidating opponent

 Four transparent layers yellow, red, blue and white that reflect light cells, open and close to adjust the amount of color plus tentacles that release a black color.  The nervous system controls these levels and gets its information from the environment in form of light, temperature, and emotion

 Protection by blending into the environment  Communicating through an automated system  Color change serves multiple functions

    

Blending into the context Media facades, Communicating with outside Responsive façade to the environment Change color to control heat gain and loss

 Biology  Optics  Chemistry

 Variation of element in size and rigidity  Permeability possible through borders of each tile

 Single motif varying in size minimizes use of various materials

   

Tessellating to build complex surfaces Sun protection Thermoregulation Expandable surface

 Physics  Geometry

Crocodile Skin

Tropical

 Control over Mobility  Impact protection  Water loss protection

Cuttlefish

Oceans

 Camouflage underwater  Communication

 A dense layer of elastic pigment sacs (chromatophore) under the skin  Along with reflector plates

 Protection by blending into the environment

 Expressive façade  Reduce visual pollution

 Material sciences  Physics

     

 Sensors; nerve endings communicate with brain  Blood flow regulates heat  Sweat glands release water cool down by evaporation

 Integration of multiple functions  Seamless  Adaptive to interior forms

 Integration of multiple functions into building skin  Flexible envelope

 Biology  Chemistry  Physics

Knowledge gathering device Protects from heat, moisture loss, injury Produces vitamin D with sun rays Regulates body temperature Disposes of waste through sweat Resilient

Human

All

Lotus Leaves

Tropical

Namibian Desert Beetle

Desert

 Collects water from fog

Polar Bear Fur

Polar

 Insulation  Color change

Shark Skin

All Seas

Thorny Devil

Desert

F IGURE 55 T HE D E SC RIP TIVE D ATABASE

 Self-cleaning  Water resistant

   

 Texture in two nano and micro scale, dirt does not stick to the texture hence everything washes off  Two opposite surface properties of hydrophilic and hydrophobic attract smallest drops of water  Low Emissivity in infrared  Each hair, hollow, clear and scatters light  Three differently textured layers collect, store, and insulate heat

 Material property no additional strategies needed  Collecting water in driest weather  Energy conservation  Responsiveness

Bacteria control Reduction in turbulence Aerodynamic Blending into context

 Shape of each denticle reduces drag  Different color on top and bottom

 Noiseless movements  Effortless movement  Blending into environment

 Water collection in desert  Protection

 Capillary action due to skin texture  Protection via thorny appearance  False head

 Reduction of water use  Collecting water and moving it without the use of pumps

 Self-cleaning facades especially for high rise building and buildings with difficult accessibility  Screens with this material property faced in the wind direction can collect water with minimal effort  Shading  Light harvesting  Cooling and heating  Insulation  Repel Snow  Wind turbine surfaces responsive to slow winds  Oil, dirt free surface  Façade consisting of this texture in the nanoscale can collect water in dry climate

 Nano Physics  Material Science  Physics  Material Science  Biology  Optics

 Nano Physics

 Physics

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6.3. Summary We have set the framework for a database that is intended to facilitate the use of biomimicry in the architectural design process. The database is primarily intended as a tool for inspiration and should be used in conjunction with simulation or experimentation, analogous to the wind tunnel test of kingfisher beak prior to the actual bullet train construction. As stated in chapter 5.5 there is a need for a more quantitative data inclusion to enable the simulation process. We trust that when the database is made available to the public in an open source fashion this problem will be resolved.

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7. Designerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Simulation

Application

and

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7.1. Search Screen Our hope is that architects will use the database we have developed as a means of structuring systematic brainstorming sessions. A designer with a special problem in mind will select the relevant keywords narrowing down the search results to the most likely organisms from which inspiration may be drawn. A sample search screen (Figure 56) has four main fields that are in accordance with the species record page (Figure 32). Amongst the few search results, each species is presented with an evaluation based on how well it relates to a specific challenge on the scale of 1-4. For now, this scale is subjective and relative to other species.

Some of these characteristics can be

quantitatively evaluated and consequently compared. This necessitates the development of a database that collects the results of tests done on species skin to generate numerical values. The architectural problem considered is to improve the solar heat gain through passive solar strategy. The question is first redefined in biological functions: Which species collects and traps solar heat? Figure 56 is a sample search where the criterion asks for species that address light harvesting or thermal insulation. The first page (Figure 54) lists the result of all the species in the database arranged according to their relevance. Another column that is used to sort this data is the number of times each species has been viewed in searches. This search result shows all the other characteristics of each species but highlights the search criteria. Clicking on each species expands each item in a more descriptive manner (Figure 58).

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F IGURE 56 S AMPLE S EARCH S CREEN

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F IGURE 57 S AMP LE S E ARCH RE SULT , LIST O F I TE MS S ORTE D A C CORDING T O R E LE VANC E

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F IGURE 58 S AMP LE S E ARCH RE SULT EXP ANDED I TE M V IE W

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7.2. Test Design Biomimicry is still at its infancy and to ensure its extension, convincing industries of its benefit, we must provide substantial proof that it truly satisfies these claims. Few examples of practical application of biomimicry have been successful at satisfying some of its claims. Some of these claims are quantifiable such as reduction in energy use; some simply address a specific problem and energy reduction or any other sustainability strategy might or might not be a by-product. Problem: Improving passive solar heat gain systems, e.g. Trombe wall (Figure 59) Redefinition: What animal skin protects it from extreme cold with the help of solar heat gain? Best result in the database: Polar bear, it addresses both insulation and light harvesting two main factors in solar passive design.

F IGURE 59 T ROMBE WALL , P OLAR BEAR , P OLAR BEAR INSPIRED T ROMBE WALL

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7.2.1. Test Conditions and Results Our database framework was queried for thermal insulation properties and clearly indicates that the polar bear skin has potential as shown in Figure 58. This leads us to consider what mechanism causes the polar bear skin to be effective in this regard. An understanding of the mechanism will help ensure that we are not misled, for example we would not wish to utilize the polar bear inspired skin in a basement given that the primary mechanism is that of the Greenhouse effect. This fact will quickly become apparent when we inspect the quantitative material properties, which we hope will soon be added to the database. To test effectiveness of the wall section in Figure 59, a simple cube with the dimensions of w=8.3m, l=6.4 h=3m is considered as the basis for the model. To simulate and compare the conventional Trombe wall with the modified one, materials with the appropriate criteria are assigned to each model. The modified section only changes the glass layer and accepts the other two layers as constants. For the time being, we have found the relevant material properties that polar bear hair possesses (Stegmaier, Linke and Planck 2009) elsewhere, namely the specific heat, conductivity, density, and light transmittance. We then utilize these values in the Ecotect software and simulate the three layers with their relative material properties. This test is done in the weather conditions of December 28, one of the coldest winter days, in Denver, Colorado. The following figures show the process and the comparison between the two models.

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F IGURE 60 T ROMBE W ALL W ITH G LASS S ECTION W ITH M ATERIAL P ROPERTIES

F IGURE 61 M ODIFIED T ROMBE W ALL S ECTION W ITH M ATERIAL P ROPERTIES

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F IGURE 62 G LASS T ROMBE W ALL The model shows the mean radiant temperature of 9.36 degrees Celsius.

F IGURE 63 T HE M ODIFIED T ROMBE W ALL The model shows an average of 17 degrees Celsius, which is a significant amount above the other model.

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Result: In comparison, the room with the clear insulated layer instead of glass showed greater heat gain. In the future test, the other layers can be modified to resemble the material qualities of the wooly fur and the fat layer in the polar bear. Limitation: The high heat gain can be a favorable condition in the extreme cold, yet creating the favorable conditions in the summer requires additional strategies. One solution is to limit the use of this material in limited locations to avoid overheating. Integrating movable panels that can provide natural ventilation can be another solution.

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8. Conclusion

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8.1. Summary We began with the aim of exploring the application of biomimicry within the field of architecture. Through analysis and following a successful example in another field, we have created a systematic, easy to follow process that is repeatable and applicable to architectural problems. The web-based template and the resulting database encourage the use of biomimicry, helps redefine questions and provides promising solutions. The test design proves that ideas resulting from the use of the database can be applied in an architectural context and contribute to energy conservation. The key to the success of the database is that it is an open source and is accessible for modification and edition. This creates a collaborative environment through which sharing, experimenting and exchange of knowledge is possible.

8.2. Future Research Further development of this research may take several directions. One of these topics is the implementation of a system that controls the content. One of the most important aspects of an open source database is to ensure the validity of the data. The lack of moderation can cause insertion of false or redundant data that will create confusion and defy the primary purpose of the database. In section 4.3.8 we mentioned the deficiencies in a system such as Wikipedia, which can often only be used as a resource for general background on any topic. These deficiencies become more evident in a specialized field like architectural design. While acquiring a general background is useful, it is rarely sufficient and beneficial to the design process. On the other hand, the experience of Nupedia proved the production of expert reviewed articles and materials

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will take excessively long. The solution perhaps is a combination of these two systems. While the data can be added, edited, and monitored by everyone, a group of experts will edit and approve the “finalized version” for each record. The finalized versions will have the “seal of approval” and will be locked to public editions. This helps differentiate the specialized content from an overview.

Systemizing the data validation process,

characteristics that need to be met to call a record “final”, multi-level editorial process, and the possible automation of fact checking will be a topic for future research. One of the factors that contribute to the success of each database is the creation of a network that connects the users to all the related external references. For instance, the test design showed us that the technical material properties in nature are required to create a valid computer generated simulation. This necessitates a parallel database that collects the data of tests and measurements taken from the technical values of different species materials. These numerical values help create a more accurate simulation and as a result lead to a better design. Other instances of related databases include the contact information of contributing experts in related fields such as physics, biology, and material design, mentioned in field 5-e of section 5.5.5, and facilitation of interdisciplinary discussions. Creation of such parallel databases will be another future direction for further development.

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