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Chapter 8: Emerging Issues and DVI Research in Malaysia
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Chapter Eight
Emerging Issues and DVI Research in Malaysia
Dr Khoo Lay See Associate Prof Dr Mohd Yusmiaidil Putera Mohd Yusof Associate Prof Dr Mansharan Kaur Chainchel Singh Prof Dr Noorita Md Tahir Dr Amirul Afif Muhamat Datuk Dr Mohd Shah Mahmood Prof Datin Dr Hapizah Md Nawawi
Introduction
Mass disasters with a large number of unidentified victims are among the biggest challenges for the police and forensic disciplines. Historical events illustrate the development of different methods of identification which can be used in such circumstances. Identification has always been one of the most important roles of forensic experts. The INTERPOL has developed and implemented standards to allow for quality control and assurance during scientific based identification operations. One of the most important requirements for victim identification is the application of international standards, which aims to promote a consistent and widely understood approach, especially in multinational DVI operations [4], such as that in the MH17 incident. A DVI team works in an interdisciplinary manner, engaging the services of experts in various disciplines, as required, to work collaboratively towards the identification of victims [5]. The core business of DVI is dealing with dead bodies or human remains whether or not they are complete bodies, body parts or skeletonised remains [6].
The structure, set up and organisation of DVI teams around the world differs, with some countries adopting the INTERPOL DVI Guide completely, while others such as Spain and Malaysia adhering to it partially. It is the norm for deployment of multiple international DVI teams from various countries to give assistance to the affected country [4] and thus the INTERPOL standards and guidelines will be adopted as a common practice for all countries to communicate
effectively in terms of coordinating mortuary activities among different DVI teams.
In the Asia region, the Korean DVI team adopted the INTERPOL DVI Guide, modified accordingly [7]. The Korean DVI team is a task force team which is organised when there are many victims, classically more than 20 victims in a single disaster. The procedures for victim identification in Korea have an additional two phases after reconciliation, i.e. identity documentation and release of the bodies [7]. Korea has a permanent DVI team under the National Forensic Service Korea that abide by the core principles of the INTERPOL DVI Guide, where identification methods must be reliable and scientifically sound. The fundamental principle that is applied is that, all victims have the right to be identified and must be treated equally during the entire DVI process [7]. The DVI team setup is originally within the INTERPOL. Many countries including Malaysia do not have an official DVI team setup within the police organisation. An official DVI setup is not stipulated in the Malaysia Police Act 1967. The Royal Malaysian Police have adopted the INTERPOL DVI guide as part of their investigative task during the disaster. Thus, police responders developed a set of their own SOP in the police organisation for the disaster investigation and management.
Following that, there are disparities in conducting DVI operations, particularly in homogenising both the police and forensic experts into the DVI operation. Similarly, several other different agencies responsible for first responders in Malaysia have engaged their own SOP for search and rescue tasks during disasters. Furthermore, it is almost impossible for the forensic experts to meet the first responders’ team at disaster scenes since it is not a standard practice to have forensic experts on-site. Consequently, the experts do not have the opportunity to communicate effectively with the first responders on-site. In addition, there is also a lack of guidance and training in dead body management provided to first responders by the forensic experts.
Primary Forensic Identifiers
In mass fatality incidents, it is important to identify victims rapidly and accurately before decomposition sets in. The decomposition usually commences after 48 hours, thus, making the identification process more laborious and time consuming. This step is essential both for judicial reasons and to provide closure for family members.
Human identification, however, is one of the most challenging problems especially when bodies are mutilated or even fragmented [8].
The human identification methods, according to INTERPOL, must be scientifically trustworthy, solid, applicable in field situations and able to be implemented in a reasonable amount of time [8,9]. Thus, identification of victims is conducted by collecting and analysing a series of scientific identifiers known as primary identifiers which include fingerprints, dental and DNA analysis. These primary identifiers can also be supported by secondary identifiers such as tattoos, scars, medical devices or other physically distinguishing features (Figure 1). However, in most large-scale disasters, the forensic community has moved away from relying on such contextual clues which may be subjected to errors [10].
According to INTERPOL, there are four phases of DVI process, namely:
• Phase 1: Scene (processing human remains and property at the disaster site).
• Phase 2: Postmortem (detailed examination of human remains in mortuary).
Figure 1:
Primary and secondary identifiers in DVI
• Phase 3: Antemortem (collection of missing person data from various sources).
• Phase 4: Reconciliation (matching postmortem and antemortem data).
In Phase 1, the scene processing activity needs to be coordinated with other personnel associated with the recovery, storage and transportation of human remains and property as well as tasks involving evidence preservation and storage [4]. At the Scene Phase, human remains are processed and property at the disaster site are treated as evidence collection and preservation by the police responders.
These include photography of the overall scene and the human remains to show location and condition of the bodies [4].
The second phase, which is the Postmortem Phase, involves procedures inside a mortuary, be it an established mortuary or one which has been constructed temporarily for the operation.
The examination processes and methods applied during this phase include forensic photography, ridgeology (fingerprinting), radiology, odontology, DNA sampling and autopsy procedures conventional autopsy and virtual autopsy procedures. Forensic radiology procedures such as PMCT and x rays provide non invasive techniques in assisting DVI. In addition to the examination of the human remains, property is to be meticulously examined, cleaned and stored. In order to collect missing persons data to match against victim data, an antemortem (AM) collection process needs to be established, in the next phase. This process can involve many complex dimensions as the task involves interviewing families, relatives or friends to obtain sufficient facts on a potentially deceased loved one.
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
The AM team functions to collect detailed descriptions of each missing person or potential victim, including specific details such as jewellery, clothing, or other property items as well as dental and medical records, radiographs, photographs, DNA, fingerprint and other identifying particulars [4]. The AM team will usually obtain all necessary information during the first interview.
The function of Phase 4, the Reconciliation Phase, is to match postmortem data with antemortem data with the view to identifying the deceased [4]. In cases where there are reliable primary identifiers available, such as dental, ridgeology (fingerprints) or DNA and other identifiers which meet the requisite standards, it is important to prepare these cases for presentation to an Identification Board for identity determination (Figure 2). The use of fingerprints for victim identification is often the fastest and easiest primary identification method in DVI work. This is because fingerprints are the most commonly used biometric identifier in passports and visas having been seamlessly integrated into our daily lives, making it easy to obtain antemortem (AM) fingerprint records. Teeth are also considered excellent postmortem material for identification with enough points of agreement to get to a significant comparison in addition to the fact that it is the hardest tissue in the human body and is able to bear ante and postmortem changes. For the use of dental records to identify a victim, there must be, however, a presumed identity of the decedent so that AM records can be located. However, it must be noted that obtaining dental records and knowing who to contact for medical information can be challenging, especially in cases where the entire family may be victims in the disaster [10].
Victim Data
Missing Person Data
Identification
Postprocessing Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Phase 5
Scene (Processing of human bodies and body parts, and personal effects at the disaster site)
Postmortem investigation (examining bodies and remains in the temporary morgue)
Antemortem investigation (Collecting missing person’AM data from various sources)
reconciliation (comparing AM and PM data)
Debriefing (reviewing and reporting results)
Figure 2:
Overall phases in DVI process (Source: Chung, N.E. & Seo, J.S. 2015. Waiting and Condolence – DVI Manual. National Forensic Service: Korea DVI. ISBN: 978-89-967070-8-0)
DNA is a proven source of material used for identification, as a significant portion of the genetic information contained within a cell is unique to a specific individual and thus differs from one person to the other, except in identical twins. DNA technology, therefore, is normally used in the identification of victims of mass disasters especially when there are body fragments or when dental comparisons and fingerprints are not possible [9]. It can be concluded, thus, that primary identification methods are capable and effective for the accomplishment of victim identification in mass disasters, either being used separately or in combination.
At present, the primary and most reliable means of identification are friction ridge, comparative dental analysis, and DNA analysis [4, 7], thus highlighting the fact that expert teams from forensic odontology, fingerprint and DNA experts are crucial in determining the identity of disaster victims. Unique serial numbers from medical implants may also be reliable identifiers in terms of proving identity [4, 7]. These suggest that secondary means of identification which include personal descriptions, medical findings, tattoos, as well as property and clothing found on the body are as important as the primary identifiers, where useful information can be obtained [11]. An integrated approach of bringing different experts to work together is the essential and the core activity in any DVI operation (Figure 3).
Select and Recovery Unit
Family Assistance Center
Information Collection Unit
DNA
Forensic Odontology
Fingerprint
Forensic Antropology
Forensic Radiology Result Analysis
Related Examinations Temporary Morgue
Victim Management DVI
Forensic Examinations
Personal Effects Examination
Select Appropriate Methods
Collect Samples
Review Results and Make Final Decisions
Death Certificate
Release of the bodies
Figure 3:
Overall flow of victim identification (Source: Chung, N.E. & Seo, J.S. 2015. Waiting and Condolence – DVI Manual. National Forensic Service: Korea DVI. ISBN: 978-89-967070-8-0)
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
Malaysian DVI in Perspective
Examination and identification of dead bodies are essential for the overall investigation of any disaster. They provide helpful interpretation of human factor findings as an integral part of the whole investigation. DVI is therefore a pre-eminent tool of investigation with major medicolegal significance and judicial application.
According to the ICAO [5], participation of the DVI team is recommended in investigation tasks at the accident site; tasks at the mortuary; and findings to be derived from the pathological examination. Even before the commencement of the identification of the remains, forensic investigation of human remains is to recover and examine the remains for criminal investigations particularly in armed conflicts and other situations of armed violence [12]. Driven by the observation, during the DVI operations for the Flight MH17 incident, the Postmortem Phase was divided into two main activities to cover for victim identification as well as criminal investigation [13]. As mentioned in the Dutch Safety Board Report, the crash of the Flight MH17 was not an ‘ordinary’ aviation accident as it involved detonation and in-flight disintegration above the left side of the cockpit by a weapon known as the 9N314M-model warhead carried on the 9M38-series of missiles, as installed on the Buk surfaceto-air missile system [1]. Thus, DVI has contributed in the criminal investigation involving cooperation among multi-agencies and multidisciplines in the DVI operation [5].
On another aspect, as of current practice, there is no other standard method or similar storage item besides the cadaver body bag [14]. However, Khoo et al. [15] have discovered a possibility to use a new method for preservation of dead bodies and their personal belongings on-site by using a cling film plastic wrap. Cling film plastic wrap is a thin transparent plastic film widely used in many sectors ranging from small household, commercial to industrial applications. It is a multipurpose wrap commonly used for sealing food items in containers, securing and protecting luggage before checking-in to aircraft cargo as well as wrapping of arms and stomach areas in slimming centres. These plastic wraps are also easily available at any hardware shops and they are so much cheaper compared to the cadaver body bags. During a large scale disaster, the cling film plastic wrap can be an alternative to cadaver body bags due to its water and body fluid resistant properties. It is also ideal for wrapping any size or human remains, be it whole body, body parts or even skeletal remains [15]. The cling film plastic wrap is easy to be used by the first responders to preserve the dead body in situ as an evidence by itself. Besides that, other evidence found at the scene such as personal belongings and clothing can also be wrapped with the cling film plastic wrap with documentation and ID tags secured within the layers of wraps. The cling film plastic wrap has proven to be practical to be applied in large-scale disasters where local capacities are overwhelmed and cadaver body bags supplies may not be sufficient to accommodate an escalating number of deaths [15]. The possibility of using cling film plastic wrap as an alternative, provides a means for other methods to be explored further in order to preserve dead bodies during disasters.
Another issue encountered concerns the reality that forensic experts may not be available in the immediate aftermath of a very large disaster [16]. As a result, trained first responders on-site will have to manage the dead bodies, racing against time, to recover, photograph as well as properly tag the dead
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
bodies which will then facilitate the DVI or identification process later in the mortuary [16]. Here once again the innovation of the cling film plastic wrap is suitable and may be easily used by first responders during the ‘Golden 48 hours’ rule is the first 48 hours’ post disaster to ensure collection and retention of information relevant for identification before the decomposition process commences [15].
During the recovery, proper management of the dead by first responders involves allocation of a unique code to each body; taking of photographs and data recording of each body as soon as practicable; placing each body in a body bag; and transporting the dead bodies to the temporary body storage [14, 16].
As it may take several days or longer for the forensic experts to be mobilised, it will be the first responders who will have the early opportunities to take valuable photographs and collect and record data from the dead bodies [16].
These valuable opportunities will be lost as the bodies decompose. First responders can photograph and label each body or body part recovered before wrapping them up with the cling film plastic wrap [15]. With this early intervention by first responders, the dead are managed in a dignified way where potential identifiable characteristics can be documented and prevented from loss, hence maximising their chances for identification later [16].
The correct identification and subsequent return of the remains to their next-of-kin is a crucial aspect of addressing the psychosocial needs as well as the legal aspect of the bereaved families, allowing for proper grief and closure.
As another option, facial recognition technology can form a new perspective in managing the dead and facilitating human identification needs especially in large scale disasters [17].
The conventional disaster victim identification (DVI) process is conducted through the primary identifiers, namely, friction ridge analysis, forensic odontology and DNA comparison, which have been internationally accepted as the most reliable methods by which identification can be confirmed. The possibility of acquiring and securing facial photos of the disaster victims, captured within the first 48 hours post disaster, allows for the opportunity to match the faces of the victims to any possible available database such as image data generated at the airport immigration gate, leading to positive identification [17].
A conventional off-site DVI operation will be the temporary field mortuary set up near the disaster site or at a local mortuary nearby or the hospital facility of the affected area [8]. The traditional DVI setup is the preparation of the mortuary where forensic experts would wait for the dead bodies to arrive for further identification. In many countries including Malaysia and Australia, it is not usual for forensic experts to be part of the first responders’ team to give expert guidance during a disaster. On the contrary, in Korea, besides the emergency and first responders who are the initial responders to arrive on-site, there is also an advance team which joins the Scene Phase immediately [7].
The advance team consists of the head of the DVI team, a forensic pathologist and relevant forensic experts to assess the extent of the disaster area, condition of the human bodies, methods to recover the dead victims, means of transportation and options for storage of the bodies and evidence [7].
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
The On-site DVI team can be mobilised to the scene together with the first responders to manage the evidence and the dead bodies at the Scene Phase.
To further enhance the role of the On-site DVI team at disaster sites, the use of drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has been proposed to promote better response.
The UAV has been widely used in telecommunications, mining, power and energy, agriculture, surveillance and construction. In relation to the management of dead bodies, the UAV is suggested to serve as an extension of assistance for first responders in large scale disasters, particularly in search and recovery of the dead victims, in which the UAV extends the senses of the responders by providing a bird’s eye view or geo-mapping of the area, real-time video, information gathering and relaying, security and safety of the disaster site, and logistic support as well as goods transport.
With the capability of the UAV, initial processing of the disaster scene can be done in real-time by quick mapping with low resolution photos to allow for an overview of the whole disaster site. The initial assessment of the site will alert the first responders of any possible hazards or secondary disaster and may assist in increasing the safety of the personnel.
As mentioned earlier, the ‘Golden 48 hours’ rule is a critical factor, which refers to the first 48 hours’ post-disaster period, to ensure the collection and retention of information relevant for identification are done well before decomposition sets in. [15]. In relation to this, the 3D and real-time mapping will allow the position of the dead bodies to be located accurately and marked with GPS coordinate.
A UAV attached with a high resolution camera will enable high resolution photos to be taken from each dead body, providing important basic information for the forensic experts.
Close-up photographs of personal belongings and secondary identifiers such as tattoos, marks or scars can be recorded by the UAV to facilitate the identification process in the mortuary later on and to document the evidence on-site within a time frame of 48 hours. Furthermore, the latest drone technologies can be adopted to assist DVI work to link fingerprint impressions and DNA samples taken on-site to a data centre or DVI command centre for immediate identification using fingerprint comparison and Rapid DNA identification method respectively. In this manner, weight-carrying drones with payload capacity could be considered as an alternative to be used to transport print impression index cards or buccal swabs samples taken by first responders to the DVI command centre. Nevertheless, more data and research are needed before this alternative can be conclusively utilised.
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
Current and Future Direction of DVI Research
There are various aspects of DVI which are currently of intense research interest. Several research projects on DVI are ongoing globally, in the Asia-Pacific region and in Malaysia, which hopefully will fill in the gaps in knowledge, develop new technologies, and provide some solution to problems faced in DVI.
Identification of disaster victims using various methods such as the use of drones have been initiated by several investigators. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or commonly known as drones, are small aircrafts which can fly autonomously. Initially meant for military purposes, their uses have been investigated in various research for decades. Besides the UAV, drones are also known as a UAS (Unmanned Aerial Systems), Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV) and Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS). However, Restas (2015) concluded that the name “drone” is more relatable for public’s understanding instead of UAV, UAS, RPV or RPAS [18]. A scoping review pertinent to the topic has been performed by a research team from Institute of Pathology, Laboratory, and Forensic Medicine (I-PPerForM), Universiti Teknologi MARA and the Institut Perubatan Forensik Negara (IPFN), Kuala Lumpur Hospital. This review showed a significant increase in the number of publications within the last 5 years which indicates a meaningful growth in the knowledge, awareness and popularity of drone application
Figure 4:
Drone supported disaster management to timely detect disaster victims, survivors, provide support, and notify first responders (Adapted from Furst et al. 2018) in disaster context. However, much of the existing literature is experimental and may be unreliable as the performance of the drones studied was not based on any real disaster. This study also presented that mapping or disaster management contributed the most in disaster drone research. Specifically, the majority of the studies demonstrated the technical capabilities of their drones or that such innovation is being driven by computer and software engineering or computer science that could improve the drones performance (Figure 4) .
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
There were limited reports on healthcare and health-related applications and most studies predominantly focused on transportation of medical equipment or emergency supplies.
There is an extreme lack of study conducted on the use of drones post disaster for healthrelated applications. It is envisaged that with sufficient development, the drone systems could be utilised vastly in many areas including chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) disaster incidents [29](Figure 5).
The use of more comprehensive measures across studies is particularly identified as a gap. Such studies would undoubtedly be advantageous to improve the effectiveness of drones and their interventions especially in disaster context. Therefore, our research team from I-PPerForM, Universiti Teknologi MARA and IPFN, Ministry of Health, in collaboration with several governmental agencies and industries have embarked on a research programme funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Transdisciplinary Research Grant Scheme (TRGS), on the use of drone technology in DVI. Optimal camera specifications and drone heights
CBRN
Chemical Biological Radiogical Nuclear Substances
Figure 5:
Utilisation of smart drone in DVI: Recovery of victims caused by chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear substances (Source: Chung, N.E. & Seo, J.S. 2015. Waiting and Condolence – DVI Manual. National Forensic Service: Korea DVI. ISBN: 978-89-967070-8-0)
in capturing good resolution photographs for facial recognition and identification of secondary identifiers have been reported in the study. It is envisaged that this research project will enhance the search and recovery activities of DVI missions, particularly in the development and use of smart drones with regards to autonomous piloting, acquisition of high resolution photos, facial recognition, geo-mapping, hyperspectral sensing system, weight carrying capability, logistics and supplies (Figures 6a and 6b).
Furthermore, image processing techniques will be deployed using drones with infra-red
Figure 6a:
Smart drone with high resolution camera (Courtesy of Aerodyne Group)
Figure 6b:
Smart drone with weight carrying capability (Courtesy of Aerodyne Group)
high resolution thermal camera to augment early on-site forensic victim identification and efficient drone-assisted technological framework incorporating field-based mortuary.
In terms of weight carrying capability, drones have a high potential in securing primary identifiers including DNA samples, thumbprints, and dental photos which will rapidly aid DVI processes. This will be particularly helpful in gathering information within the 48-hour golden rule, facilitating opportunities for rapid identification and reconciliation, and hence expediting the release of the bodies of the victims to their loved ones.
In addition, the efficiency, cost-effectiveness and social benefits of the drone technology will be assessed compared to current conventional DVI procedures, including those involving difficult-to-access sites. An improved SOP for all first responders in DVI, standardised across various national agencies, will also be produced.
On another note, the use of the digital capture of fingerprints in the setting of DVI
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
is discussed by Johnson and Riemen [10] as this technology has revolutionised the whole science and application of ridgeology. They describe the development of fingerprint technology and demonstrate how the recent advances utilising digital fingerprint capture have dramatically improved both the accuracy and efficiency of the use of this methodology in the context of mass fatality investigation.
While sometimes considered the slowest and most expensive procedure to implement within the context of mass fatality investigation, genetic profiling is also the technology probably undergoing the most rapid and dramatic improvements and advancement over recent years. Tillmar et al. [19] have presented an impressive introduction to the use of massive parallel sequencing (MPS) in the context of the DNA identification of compromised biological samples. This is of particular importance as the very nature of mass fatality incidents is such that many of the remains are degraded and/ or decomposed and obtaining good detailed DNA profiles from such samples may present significant challenges. This technology is still in its infancy but it is of immense interest that it can be introduced at this early stage so that positive comparative investigations can be effectively conducted. Our research group is currently examining the use of rapid DNA profiling for DVI using drone technology, with samples delivered to field and hospital mortuary.
The use of forensic odontology frequently plays a major role in identification after many multifatality incidents. As with all applied methods, it is dependent on the availability of adequate antemortem dental records together with the skill and methodology of the postmortem examination of the structures of the dentition and surrounding tissues and finally upon effective and accurate comparison of these antemortem and postmortem observations. In his comprehensive review, Forrest [20] has outlined not only the widespread current practice of forensic odontology in the context of DVI but also introduces some recent advances, many of which involve imaging technology, which are bringing this procedure to the forefront of efficient and accurate identification. In closed disaster such as tsunami and flood, the use of dental profiling through age estimation may help in narrowing the search for potential antemortem dental
records retrieval. Studies by Mohammad et al. using artificial intelligence and machine learning to estimate the dental age not only shorten the time of assessment but are also significantly free from subjective assessment bias by the experts [21,22]. Prior studies leading to machine learning innovations by Mohd Yusof et al., contributed significant values to the Malaysian context by assessing the population-specific for dental age estimation methods validation [23-26].
Many disasters result in the significant destruction and fragmentation of human remains thereby making examination and especially identification very challenging. The role of the forensic anthropologist continues to be enhanced by the presence of everimproving methodologies together with the application of significant primary and applied research which allows this scientific approach to be particularly enhancing in the context of such an investigative process. In an extensive summary of the role of forensic anthropology in DVI, de Boer et al. [27] have illustrated the value of quality forensic anthropological expertise both at the scene of the disaster and in subsequent postmortem examination. This has been endorsed in the recent appendix on the use of forensic anthropology in DVI in the 2018 INTERPOL DVI Guide [4]. de Boer et al. [24] have also included the value of education and training in this specialty together with the advantage of including the identification of survivors in the context of many mass fatality incidents. In Malaysia, training for DVI first responders across relevant agencies intandem with technological advancement is essential. The training should also be done in collaboration with the Medical Forensic team. Finally, Barone and Di Maggio [28] have prepared an interesting review of ground penetrating radar (GPR). Although it is a technique not frequently considered in the aftermath of mass fatality incidents, it can be very useful when the investigation undertaken includes the exhumation of human remains, particularly when those remains have been interred in locations that are not well documented. Such situations could include historical burials especially when identification of those interred remains is considered to be desirable or necessary. The location of such remains is a very obvious essential prerequisite to the long process in identification.
Chapter Eight Emerging Issues and DVI research in Malaysia
Summary
The humanitarian community recognises that proper management of the dead is a key component of disaster response, together with the recovery and care of survivors and the provision of basic services. It must be an essential area to consider during pre-disaster planning in all cities or communities that value disaster resilience, as well-coordinated and integrated processes of managing death in mass disasters would never be a spontaneous response. Thus, first responders constitute a major source which could be deployed to handle the dead in disasters right after the rescue.
Management of the dead body and the whole DVI operation are complex team work activities involving various stakeholders. The early work by the first responders would facilitate the later work of the forensic experts to be more effective. Forensic information and knowledge have developed to be a useful tool for disaster preparedness and risk management. This hidden discovery of the strength of the forensic medical sciences, particularly the DVI processes and knowledge are pivotal in the search and recovery activities of DVI, and the safety of the first responders. Furthermore, this output is tantamount to an approach that can be used as a tool to reduce disaster risk, which has been part of the effort pursued under The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 and in line with the Sustainable Development Goals and Revolutionised Industry (IR) 4.0.
The use of smart drones in DVI is an area of intense research interest, in terms of autonomous piloting, acquisition of high resolution photos, facial recognition, geomapping, hyperspectral sensing system, weight carrying capability, logistics and supplies.
Future research may also investigate the possible use of smart drone in CBRN disaster incidents. Rapid and efficient acquisition of primary and secondary identifiers is potentially helpful in gathering information within the 48-hour golden rule, facilitating opportunities for rapid identification and release of the bodies of the victims to their loved ones. It is important for future studies to address the efficiency, cost-effectiveness and social benefits of the drone assisted technology in DVI.
