Adult Learning Theory Portfolio Spring 2011 Beth Martin A synopsis of my readings for the semester.
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Stephen Brookfield - The Power of Critical Theory: Liberating Adult Learning and Teaching ................................................................................................................................................ 4 Ellinger - Contextual Factors Influencing Informal Learning in a Workplace Setting: The Case of “Reinventing Itself Company�................................................................................... 9 A Culture of Fear: Education and the Disconnected Life......................................................12 Peter Jarvis - The Social Context of Adult Learning................................................................ 15 John R. Rachel - The Social Context of Adult and Continuing Education..........................18 Boshier, et al - Market Socialism Meets the Lost Generation: Motivational Orientations of Adult Learners in Shanghai.............................................................................. 21 Cyril Houle - Two Educations......................................................................................................... 24 Establishing Inclusion Among Adult Learners......................................................................... 26 Boshier and Collins - The Houle Typology after Twenty-two years: a large scale empirical test...................................................................................................................................... 30 What Motivates Adults to Learn.................................................................................................... 32 Jennifer Sandlin - Andragogy and Its Discontents: An Analysis of Andragogy from Three Critical Perspecties.............................................................................................................. 35 Daniel D. Pratt - Andragogy After Twenty Five Years............................................................38 Patricia Cross - Facilitating Learning.......................................................................................... 40 Malcolm Knowles - Andragogy: An Emerging Technology for Adult Learning..............44 Kasworm, et al - Adult Learners in Higher Education............................................................48 Timothy G. Hatcher - The Ins and Outs of Self-Directed Learning......................................51
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Andrea D. Ellinger - The Concept of Self-Directed Learning and Its Implications for Human Resource Development.................................................................................................... 52 Sharan B. Merriam - Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory................................................................................................................................................... 58 Gerald A. Straka - Conditions promoting self-directed learning at the workplace.......60 Gerald Grow - Teaching Learners to be Self Directed............................................................61 Kiely, Sandmann, Truluck - Adult Learning Theory and the Pursuit of Adult Degrees ................................................................................................................................................................. 63
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Stephen Brookfield - The Power of Critical Theory: Liberating Adult Learning and Teaching Terms: Criticality Hegemony Lifeworld commodificationd
People to Explore Further: bell hooks Frankfurt school Gramsci HOrkheimer ARonowitz Habermas Cornel West Adorno Marcuse Foucault Althusser
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The Big Ideas Theory is important to practice and the domain of the academy Theory is useful to the extent that it provides us with understandings that illuminate what we observe and experience (5) Allows us to see how many of our private troubles are produces by systematic constraints and contradictions (5) Bringing relevant practice to the reflexive nature of critical theory (7) Theory can help us change (7) Theory offers radical hope (8) 4 traditions of criticality (12) •
Ideology critique – systemic critical reflection and allows for reflection on a variety of ideologies: capitalism, communism, facism, etc…
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Psychoanalytically and psychotherapeutically tradition – emphasizes criticality in adulthood as the indentification and reappraisal of inhibitions acquired in childhood as a result of various traumas
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Analytical philosophy and logic – the process by which we become more skillful in argument analysis
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Pragmatist constructivism – the way people learn to construct and deconstruct their own experiences and meanings
Brookfield follows ideology critique as the key critique Updating Marxist analysis in light of critical theory (18) 5 characteristics of critical theory
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Firmly grounded in political analysis (23)
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Concern to provide people with knowledge and understandings intended to free them from oppression (25)
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Breaks down the separation of subject and object (26)
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Normatively grounded (27) – situated somewhere between social science and practical philosophy
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There is no way to verify the theory until it comes to fruition (29) (couldn’t you say the same about a lot of things…there is no way to know adults learn until they learn?)
Centrality of learning (33) •
Investigate how dominate ideologies educate people to believe certain ways of organizing society are in their own best interests when the opposite is true
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Illuminate how the spirit of capitalism, and of technical and bureaucratic rationality, enters into and distorts everyday relationships
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Understand how people identify and then oppose the ideological forces and social processes that oppress them
Critial posture – adult learning should display a self-critical stance toward its own propositions (32) (guard against its own entombment as a “grand theory” meant to explain all social interaction, for all people and for all time) We must be self-critical and turn a self-referential and skeptical eye on our own conclusions Changes over the years (37)
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Class is no longer the only unit of analysis o Race, gender, etc
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Power analysis (Foucault) subject power has been displaced by disciplinary power (Foucault’s octagon – prison) (adult learning circle….)
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Called into question the modernist underpinnings (unproblematic possibility of individual and collective liberation, emancipation, and transformation)
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The legacy of critical pragmatism has encouraged a skepticism regarding any attempt to plunder methods and approaches that move from one context to another
Central Theories Critical theory Criticality
Connections to Readings Baudrillard ideas of consumption and commodification Foucault’s ideas of power (particularly the octagon and adult ed)
Connections to area of study Commidification of adult learning 7
Reflexive practice in adult learning Power in adult learning
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss Everything since I plan to take a critical perspective
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Ellinger - Contextual Factors Influencing Informal Learning in a Workplace Setting: The Case of “Reinventing Itself Company” Terms: •
Informal learning – learning resulting from the natural opportunities that occur in a person’s working life when the person controls his or her own learning (395)
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Organizational contextual factors – include any aspect of the organizational environment that influenced the process of informal learning
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Constructivist
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Study the organizational context and factors that influence employee’s informal learning (391) Case Study method Used the Critial Incident Technique (CIT) and semistructured in-depth interviews (397398). Though historically used to classify behaviors they collected learning incidents by incorporating a constructivist approach in forming questions to look at attributions and filters that shape the learning as well as those elements in the context that affect what is paid attention to and what is salient, to the learner. Four themes emerged in Positive Organizational Factors (400)
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Learning-committed leadership and management
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An internal culture committed to learning
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Work tools and resources
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People who form webs of relationship for learning
Eight themes for Negative Organizational Factors (404) •
Leadership and Management not committed to learning
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An internal culture of entitlement that is slowly changing
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Work tools and resources
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People who disrupt webs of relationships for learning
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Structural inhibitors
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Lack of time because of job pressures and responsibilities
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Too much change too fast
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Nor learning from learning
The internal culture that is committed to learning is key (409) leaders and managers must facilitate (so is the group we should be addressing…not our peer reviewed journals?) HRD professionals can educate managers and leaders about the conditions that trigger informal learning as well as the process of informal learning so that creation of learning opportunities can be enhanced for employees and the process of informal learning can be supported (412)
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Central Theories Theoretical framework came from Marsick and Watson, Watkins and MArsick models of informal and incidental learning. The framework was informed by Argyris and Schon who were informed by Dewey (394) The model is a problem solving approach – informal and incidental learning are influenced by how people frame a situation as a problem that is typically nonroutine (394). Constructivist approach Used content analysis (399)
Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study The method – content analysis – is useful for my interest area
What is unclear Not so much unclear as some of the graphs were poor representations and hard to read (401)
Application or Relevance to Diss The method
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A Culture of Fear: Education and the Disconnected Life Terms: alterity
People to Explore Further: CAmus
The Big Ideas Educational institutions divide us through fear as it shuts down “experiments with truth” which also shuts down our capacity to teach (36). (perhaps see with unions, fear of Michelle Ree, TFA – are we necessary, can we change?) We are tied to work – our self is our work (36) When students and teachers fear than education is paralyzed (37) Fear of power – institutional power (have to view this through a critical lens) (37) Fear of the other – (alterity). We hide behind our supposed objectivity to alleviate the fear (38). Essentially a call to remove the binaries between us and them – accepting the other and bringing the other into the conversation (38) We cannot transform with embracing the other 3 areas we shut down •
The lives of our students
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Self-protective hearts
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Our dominant way of knowing
Student aren’t as clueless as we think (41) We can’t just say they are “not good enough” (41) we stereotype instead of exploring (41). Consumers/consumption ideas (42) How do we know (50) how is fear grounded in the “way we know” – the dominant mode of knowing (which marginalizes the other) (50) Object/subject binaries (51) Objectivism both enlightens and minimizes can bring about advances and dictators (52) – it killed the “self” in order to find truth. “facts unbiased by personal feeling is characteristic of what may be termed the scientific frame of mind” (54) (Science is influenced – not completely objective) We can push into new ways of being by being honest about our fear instead of hiding
Central Theories Critical theory Social Construct/Context theories The Other – Alterity Marxist Objectivism
Connections to Readings Good example of theories – the other – relating to practice
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Connections to area of study Interested in the adult “other” and how we approach that in our practice. The student from hell – online and in person – the ones in the middle are the “other” in a sense the marginalized students
What is unclear Objectivism vs positivism
Application or Relevance to Diss I hope to explore the “other” in technology
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Peter Jarvis - The Social Context of Adult Learning Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas What is learning? Product vs process (2-3) Historically thought that behavior mod (process) produced learning – instead of saying that learning is both process and product (2-3) Learners don’t always act on what they have learned, but the failure to act doesn’t mean that learning didn’t occur (3) Learning was the result of observations (the positivist/objectivist view). Behaviorists more concerned with the technology of learning than understanding the process (creating knowledge) (5) Knowledge is created in the transformation of experience (6) experiential and reflective Marlon and Saljo report on 5 qualitatively different approaches to learning •
A quantitative increase in knowledge
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Memorizing
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Acquitision of facts, methods, etc, which can be retined and used when necessary
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Abstraction of meaning
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An interpretative process aimed at understanding reality
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Multiple processes (7) Adult Ed and Adult Learning are confused because learning was synonomous with enrolling in a course (8) education is an adjunct to learning (9) Questioned Knowles research – is experience a better description than age (10) (Knowles assumes that all adults are in a similar development phase – there may be children who are more “adult” – how do we educate and do we need to divide “adult and child” or should remove this binary as well) Social conditions in which learning occurs are paramount – the external processes that accompany the teaching and learning process (11) Adult is a social status rather than a biological age (11) We are born into a culture that shapes our learning and our teaching (12) because we are socialized into a culture it appears to be objective but we objective culture (we give it this appearance of normality by reinforcing the cultural norms) (12) Language is social (language creates the social – it describes and determines what is right and wrong – even language is right and wrong – ebonics/standard English) Language constrains by pushing the norm culture and language outside is essentially the language “other”. Language creates the “other” (12) People accept the culture and retransmit the culture, but in turn the culture can change upon retransmission – over time culture can change (14) Sociologists have as much to do with understanding learning as psychologists (where are the educators?) (14) Learning is social (14)
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Central Theories Behaviorist Objectivist/positivist Humanist Social Construction
Connections to Readings Knowles work as a humanist – explores the holes in his work Many of our readings explore the social construction of culture and knowledge. In addition there are connections with Searle,
Connections to area of study The language of adult learners and the cultural process again emphasizes the “other”. Are we perceiving the adult as the “other” should adult (andragogy) be emphasized any more than other forms of learning? How do we define adult
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss Language, the other, and technology
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John R. Rachel - The Social Context of Adult and Continuing Education Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Adult Education has a symbiotic relationship with the environment in which it occurs (3) Responds to and informs change (4) Promotes tolerance, acceptance and change and reacts to it – how is workplace learning pushing us to a more vocational ed and is that important Adult education should improve society (4) Examines demographic changes that affect adult learning (5) •
Age
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Ethinicity o Which takes us back to the other
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Income
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Rural to urban
Adult Ed is often work related and the importance is indicated by demand from the private sector (7) (Really we need the private sector to tell us it is important – I believe that change occurred through adults that led the private sector to finally recognize its importance). How do you make a non-voluntary and mandated experience worthwhile (8)
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Shifting roles of women and women in the workplace change adult ed (9) Adult Ed has helped change attitudes toward gender roles (9) The individual – pull yourself up - mentality affects adult ed because it assumes equal opportunity which is a myth (10). You cannot advance via merit if there is no equal opportunity (10) Often those who may benefit the most (less formally educated) may access adult ed the least (11) Often due to societal issues Adult ed should be proactive (12) Be careful of knowledge whose sole purpose is to promote conformity (the Pledge of Allegiance for small children – how can they understand what they are pledging?) Also promotes one particular world view that may be handed down by the elite (13)
Central Theories Marxist Social Construction
Connections to Readings Knowledge is socially constructed
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Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Boshier, et al - Market Socialism Meets the Lost Generation: Motivational Orientations of Adult Learners in Shanghai Terms: EPS – derived from Houle – Education Participation Scale All sorts of stat stuff that I’m getting this semester (coefficient alphas) Social contact vs Social stimulation
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Adult education in China was wedded to production (work) 202. Not the learners needs and desires Individuals were subordinate to the work unit (203) Chinese professors stated that learner needs should be addressed to keep up with the modernization203) Learners should enjoy educational democracy Study examined motivation of Shanghai adult learners (204) (Interesting that the EPS was translated – translation is change) Participants in three age groups •
Youngest
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Middle-Aged
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Oldest
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Respondents were most influenced by (in order) (212) •
Cognitive interest
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Social contact
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Educational preparation
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Family togetherness
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Commumication improvement
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Social stimulation
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Professional advancement
Gender and age are still good predictors in Shanghai (213) Younger adult motivations is impelled by pragmatic considerations pertaining to learning English, getting a job, securing admission to further education, and competing with the market economy (214) (anecdotally this sounds similar to many young adults today) Women were more influenced by social stimulation as a factor (216) Women were influenced by family togetherness (217) Cognitive interest is minimal – “learning for learnings sake” (218-219) Those motivated by social contact are less neurotic than those motivated by social stimulation (219) Gender and age differences were larger than those found in Western countries (220) Adult Ed is variously considered : (221) •
Individual
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Program 22
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Institutional
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Policy matter
The west focuses on the first two and the East the latter
Central Theories Radical functionalist (Marxist)
Connections to Readings I would like to read more in this area to find more connections with the different readings. Perhaps a qualitative study that could expand more for me In terms of the “other” which Chinese may be an other in the West it would be interesting to study the other in China
Connections to area of study As educators it is important to see the “other” in their context
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Cyril Houle - Two Educations Terms: Auto-didactics Self-education
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Some people have a desire to learn (3-4) The article focuses on those who are active in educational activities (4) Education programs are designed to limit clientele ( focusing on particular areas and such) (6) Essentially, age, background, culture, socio-economic status, gender and education level play a factor in the pursuit of more ed (7) Studies do not often address what people “think about what they do or why they do it” (8) Studies should look at the participant – the individual (9) Study examined the lives of those actively involved in education (13) Group very similar (15) •
Deeply engaged in learning and both outsiders and themselves are perceived this way
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Viewed cont ed as important
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Three subgroups (15-16) •
Goal-oriented – those who view education as a means of accomplishing clear cut objectives
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Activity-oriented – Those who like the circumstance of learning
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Learning-oriented – knowledge for knowledge sake
If the three subgroups are valid than adult education will benefit from study in this area (30)
Central Theories Individual vs. Society Behaviorism
Connections to Readings Appears to recognize some cultural differences (7) without a real cultural exploration. Similar to some of our critiques – critical theory
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Establishing Inclusion Among Adult Learners Terms: Immediacy Expressiveness Contact culture Individualism Collectivism Power distance Uncertainty High context Low context Positionality Positive interdependence Comfort zones Learning edge
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Motivation is constantly influenced by our acute awareness of the degree of our inclusion in a learning environment (90) Instructor Challenges (900
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Respect different cultures
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Maintain a common learning culture
Culture differs in (92) •
Use of Personal space
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Distances maintained
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Regard for territory
Along with genetics culture is a powerful shaper of our communication behavior (92) Cultures often vary between individualism and collectivism (93) – this can be seen in the same country among different ethnic groups (94) This affects communication and nonverbal behavior (94) Gender (95) – affect on communication behavior Power Distance (95) – affect in intercultural communication Uncertainty (96) – affects communication High and Low Context – affect communication (97) We must explore our positionality in the group our identity in the group and the effect it may hae on the group (99) Strategies (100•
Allow for introductions
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Provide an opportunity for multidimensional sharing
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Concretely indicate your cooperative intentions to help adults learn
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Share something of value with your adult learners
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Use collaborative and cooperative learning 27
o Positive interdependence o Individual accountability – (watch for hitchhiking) o Promote interaction o Social skills o Group processing •
Clearly identify the learning objectives and goals for instruction
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Emphasize the human purpose of what is being learned and its relationship to the learners’ personal lives and contemporary situations
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Assess learners current expectations and needs and their previous experience as it relates to your course or training
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Explicity introduce important norms and participation guidelines
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When issuing mandatory assignments or training requirments, give your rationale for these stipulations
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To the degree authentically possible, reflect the language, perspective, and attitudes of adult learners
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Introduce the concepts of comfort zones and learning edges to help learners accommodate more intense emotions during episodes of new learning
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Acknowledge different ways of knowing, different languages, and different levels of knowledge or skill to engender a safe learning environment
Central Theories cRitical theory
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Social construction
Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study Great tools for exploring adult learning classrooms from a cultural inclusive environment – create a learning culture -
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss Create an online learning culture
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Boshier and Collins - The Houle Typology after Twenty-two years: a large scale empirical test Terms: Cluster analysis Factor analysis 6 factor scoring key
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Houle created a typology to describe adult learner orientations (114) – Boshier created the EPS (116). Reluctance among the academy to discount Houles typology despite flaws (118). This study tested the veracity of Houle since Houle only used 22 respondents (119) and cluster analysis was performed (122) A solution of three clusters similar to Houles was discernable from the analysis (125) but Hould did not anticipate the complexity of learners reason for participation (125) EPS should use a 6 factor scoring key (127). Adult Ed needs to sort, classify, and label its phenomena of interest (129)
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Central Theories
Connections to Readings Better description of Houle’s work and easier to see why it may be dismissed now
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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What Motivates Adults to Learn Terms: Connectedness Attitude Least Effort Principle Change events Relevance and choice Deep Meaning Pedagogical alignment
People to Explore Further: Mezirow
The Big Ideas Both individual and socio-constructivist can inform ed practice (removing the binaries) (68) What an individual finds relevant is often directly related to individual values, which are social constructions (68) Instructor and student are respected by each other (69) Connectedness is essential (70) Learning atmospheres should include their own social and cultural consciousness (71) Exclusion is anthetic to learning (71) Attitudes help us deal with recurrent events (72) Attitudes are learned so they can be 32
modified and changed (73) (better living through chemistry – the science of changing attitudes) Alter learning situations to better accommodate us if we had the choice (74) Adults need to be seen personally endorsing their own learning (75) Adult development takes place in a sociocultural context (75) Meaning is the ordering of information that gives identity and clarity (76) Motivation occurs when adult learners asses their competence as authentic to their lives (78) competence allows them to become more confident (79) Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsible Teaching is a model that respects the inseparability of motivation and culture (79) 4 Essential conditions (81) •
Establishing inclusion
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Developing attitude
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Enhancing meaning
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Engendering competence
The MFCRT – is the foundation for a pedagogy that crosses disciplines and cultures to respectfully engage all learners (88)
Central Theories Socio-constructivism Competence Theory Situated Cognition
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Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study The “other” in adult ed – how to teach
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss The other and teaching again use this to examine technology
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Jennifer Sandlin - Andragogy and Its Discontents: An Analysis of Andragogy from Three Critical Perspecties Terms: Africentrism
People to Explore Further: Habermas Friere
The Big Ideas Critiques andragogy from a critical theory perspective through a literature review. Sandlin found 5 issues with andragogy that cut across most critical paradigms (27) •
Assumes wrongly that education is value neutral and apolitical
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Promotes a generic adult learner as universal with white middle-class values
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Ignores other ways of knowing and silences other voices
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Ignores the relationship between self and society
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Is reproductive of inequalities; it supports the status quo
Examines these alternative practices of adult ed that situates the practice as well as understands the power that is inherent in the practice (35). (Sandlin makes a convincing argument about the deficiencies of andragogy and its roots in hegemonic practice) (Biological and social differences must be addressed for true adult ed to occur otherwise
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we are not helping those that the need it the – those that rarely seek education because it is firmly grounded in white middle-class practices) Sandlin asks that educators include these perspectives along with the traditional one of andragogy
Central Theories Liberal humanism Critical Pedagogy Feminist Critique Africentric Critique
Connections to Readings The debate of andragogy and theory seems clear when contrasted with the pedagogies used for critique. The social context that permeates some of our reading is really defined in this article and displays a hard look at the issue (That being said I am a huge Sandlin fan from other articles) The other must be recognized as called for in previous readings
Connections to area of study As we look at the demographic changes we cannot ignore the other in terms of adult ed and the perspectives that their culture/critique brings/.
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What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Daniel D. Pratt - Andragogy After Twenty Five Years Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas What is the contribution of andragogy to the profession (15) Four questions that framed the debate (15-16) •
What is learning
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What are the antecedents to adult learning
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How can we facilitate adult learning
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What are the aims of adult learning
First since Lindeman to move beyond behaviorism (16) Knowles examined the relationship between facilitator and learner (19) Believes that the “widespread and uncritical adoption of a particular view of adults as learners should not be the only measure by which we assess andragogy’s contribution” (21) There is a tension between freedom and authority (22) with andragogy leaning toward learner freedom (22) There is no value neutral position with regards to adult learning and facilitation (22)
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Central Theories
Connections to Readings Connection to to Sandlin – particulary English speaking American (17) Seems to be a response to critics who question the hegemony and cultural situatedness of Knowles work
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Patricia Cross - Facilitating Learning Terms: Humanist Phase theory Disengagement theory Activity theory Theory of margin Theory of continuity
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Trying to build a theory of adult learning 3 ways (221-222) •
Conceptualize a framework broad enough to cover almost any situation in ad ed and then depend on a subsequent army of theorists and researchers to develop the specifics appropriate for the various classes of situations
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Start with a classroom of situations and attempt to develop some useful interactions of teachers and students in such situations
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Try to figure out what is unique and distinctive about adults as learners an then to build a theory of adult learning by contrasting adult learners with children as learners
Andragogy theory or not (223) Not sure if Knowles is advocating for a separate theory
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or as a theory that should supplant pedagogy There have been spirited debates about andragogy and whether it is a theory (225) Much of the debate surrounds the lack of empirical research surrounding andragogy (226) Many adult educators don’t like the idea of instruction because it is too controlled and manipulated (227) Still not sure if it is a foundation for a unifying theory of adult ed it does identify some characteristics of adult learners that deserve attention (227) Andragogy leads us to the questions (228) •
Is it useful to distinguish the learning needs of adults from those of children? If so are we talking about dichotomous differences or continuous differences?
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What are we really seeking? Theory of learning? Theory of teaching? Both?
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Do we have or an we develop, an initial framework on which successive generations of scholars can build?
Most existing learning theories examine what is learned rather than to who is doing the learning (233) Offers the CAL model (Characteristics of Adult Learners) (234) which seeks to elucidate differences between adult and child learners through personal and situational characteristics. CAL can also help account for the low level of self-direction on the part of some adults (238) Educators role on the sociocultural continuum on CAL is adaptive and adjustive (239) CAL incorporates andragogy, developmental stage and phase theory into a common
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framework (243) CAL provides a framework for thinking about what and how adults learn (248) The role of educators in the learning society is to develop gourmet learners an to e responsive to their interests by providing a wide range of high-quality educational options (251)
Central Theories Humanist (228) Developmental (229) Behaviorism (232) Phase theory Disengagement theory (244) Activity theory (245) Theory of margin (245) Theory of continuity (246)
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Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Malcolm Knowles - Andragogy: An Emerging Technology for Adult Learning Terms: Self-concept
People to Explore Further: Havighurst
The Big Ideas Takes issues with pedagogy being known as the art and science of teaching when its roots come from paid meaning child (37) Pedagogy is based on the archaic notion that education is about the transmittal of knowledge (37) Andragogy assumptions (39) •
His self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directing human being
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He accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes and increasing resource for learning
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His readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles
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His time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject centeredness to one of problem centeredness (lots of 44
he, him, no other gender in this world) Subject Centered Technological Implications (40) •
The learning climate
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Diagnosis of needs
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The planning process
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Conducting learning experiences
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Evaluation of learning
Experience Tech Implications (44) •
Emphasis on experiential techniques
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Emphasis on practical application
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Unfreezing and learning to learn from experience
Readiness to Learn (45) – adults have phases of growth like children (46) •
Changes in developmental tasks o Early adulthood 18-30 o Middle age 30-55 o Later maturity 55 and over
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Technological implications (47) o The timing of learnings o The grouping of learners
Orientation to Learning Tech Inplications (48) •
The orientation of adult eduators
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The organization of curriculum 45
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The design of learning experiences
Some assumptions about learning and teaching (49) •
Adults can learn
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Learning is an internal process
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There are superior conditions of learning and principles of teaching
Implications for youth education – needs a new set of assumptions about the purpose of youth education (54) The process of program development (54) •
The establishment of a climate conducive to adult learning
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Creation of an organizational structure for participative planning
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Diagnosis of needs for learning
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Formulation of directions of learning (objectives)
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Development of a design of activities
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Operation of the activities
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Rediagnosis of needs for learning (evaluation)
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Central Theories
Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Kasworm, et al - Adult Learners in Higher Education Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas Higher education has not benefitted from recent developments in learning theory, which is inhibiting adult education and policies toward adult education. 449 The business community finds higher ed often irrelevant
anecdotally I
have seen that the business community is interested in my degree, but not the actual knowledge from my degree. Is this common...a credentialing tool that means little to the "real world"? More and more adult learners, but little economic or policy interest around their contributions to the schools 450
I need to check the stats referenced in this section.
I am interested in the updated numbers. anecdotally I've found that smaller schools - often private - focus on adult learner, but as stated later in the article they are "cash cows" National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education
452
look for this
and more recent position papers Higher education has little in the way of policy research One quote "an understanding of higher education that emphasizes the joyful, spiritual, or social side of intellectual endeavor is moved to the periphery of our 48
vision...since these are not seen as contributing directly to economic productivity453 Are adult students coming up in the corporate era of higher ed is a credential, therefore they just want an economic justification? The link between FTE and money inhibits adult learners and subsequent programs because they are not counted for funding. Three paradoxes 1. Based in a new grounded understanding of access through the adult life span 455
context dependent
2. The issue of relationship and connectedness between the varied realities of adult learners and the diverse knowledge structures and outcomes across credits, noncredit, and community outreach.
456
facilitative model...not sage on the stage
3. Defining and reframing support for adults
457
money, services in
the evenings and weekends would be nice...so much support is still needed!!!! Missions need to reflect the changing world of higher ed and the changing student body. Not just the traditional 4-year student.
460
What is traditional
anymore...as the article states many "traditional" students work. "The fortuitous result can be knowledge and learner-centered universities and colleges that are accountable and responsive to changing needs in today's society. 461
Central Theories cognitive theory, distributed cognition, post-modernism...
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Connections to Readings
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Timothy G. Hatcher - The Ins and Outs of Self-Directed Learning Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas One definition of SDL is that “it’s a process in which trainees take responsibility for their own learning, including diagnosing needs, developing objectives, designing learning experiences, finding resources and evaluating learning outcomes� (36). Article is geared toward HRD; however, the principles can carry over to other adult learning environments Learning process moves from trainer controlled to learner controlled (36) Facilitators need to be prepared to teach in an SDL environment, understand the culture, and understand that people must adapt. IN particular a trainer must understand when their trainees are ready for SDL. Offers a list of facilitator compentencies (38), orientations and brainstorming sessions as ways to facilitate SDL. Companies had to understand its readiness for SDL ( this is necessary before a true project can begin) Learning Contracts are another artifact that is useful for SDL (39)
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Central Theories Andragogy – if it is a theory Practice around SDL
Connections to Readings Knowles work as well as Grow, STratka, Ellinger – this gives a practice view of SDL
Connections to area of study A practice view of ways to teach “adults”
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
Andrea D. Ellinger - The Concept of Self-Directed Learning and Its Implications for
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Human Resource Development Terms: Self Managed Learning (SML) – combines the notions of learners working together in small groups or action sets on real life problems with the practice of learners setting their own learning agendas and assuming responsibility for their own learning (160)
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas: SDL is a foundational multi-faceted adult learning concept that has been a prominent area of research for more than three decades (159). Goals of SDL •
Learners engage in SDL due to the desire to learn specific content or acquire knowledge or skills
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Enhance the learners ability to become a SDL o Instructors become facilitator o Criticisms include the focus on instrumental learning without attention to collective action or questioning the conditions that surround learning
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Foster transformation learning
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SDL can be focused on emancipatory and social action perspectives
Knowles description of learning has six steps (163) •
Climate setting
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Diagnosing learning needs
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Formulating learning goals
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Identifying human and material resources for learning
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Choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies
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Evaluating learning outcomes
Some nonlinear options to learning include an “organizing circumstance” as an impetus to learning (163) – the learning desire is dictated by circumstances in a non linear fashion Cavaliere’s 4 stages of learning •
Inquiring
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Modeling
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Experimenting and practicing
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Theorizing and perfecting
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Actualizing
Within the 5 stages there are 4 repetitive cognitive processes •
Goal setting
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Focusing
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Persevering
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Reformulation
Personal Responsibility Orientation (PRO) – focuses as a way to move beyond the conceptual confusion of SDL as an instructional process. The model focuses on the notion of learner SD as a personality characteristic to reflect a learner’s desire to 54
assume responsibility for their learning. Considers the social context in which the learning occurs as important Garrison views SDL from a collaborative constructivist position that integrates concepts of self-management, self-monitoring, and motivation but does not appear to have been tested. (164) Hammonds and Collins have a 7 step critical SDL model (165) •
Building a cooperative learning climate
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Analyzing and critically reflecting on themselves and the social, economic, and political contexts in which they are situated
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Generating competency profiles for themselves
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Diagnosing their learning needs within the framework of both the personal and social context
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Formulating socially relevant learning goals that result in learning agreements
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Implementing and managing their learning
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Reflecting on and evaluating their learning
SDL learners are a personality construct (165) who accept responsibility for themselves as learners Self Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) – Guglielmino’s scale – an instrument designed to assess the degree which individuals perceive themselves to possess attitudes and skills often associated with the notion of readiness, an internal state of psychological readiness for self-directed learning (165) Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) (165-166)
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Ultimately, a commitment to self-learning and development benefits both learners and the organizations that employ them (166) Learners who are self-directed are more likely to share others’ knowledge and build networks with others (167) SDL will incorporate into HRD practice with things such as assessing needs, setting goals, learning contracts‌etc (167) There is some research that shows some vocational learners are yet ready of wellprepared for SDL (168) Assessment tools are helpful for HRD managers to assess those who have lower SDL readiness (169). Are HRD managers doing this? SDL lit has been stagnant for a while despite the need for more research and perhaps partnerships with academics and business will help further research (171)
Central Theories Humanism Critical Theory
Connections to Readings Literature review of SDL
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Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Sharan B. Merriam - Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas: Andragogy and SDL as foundational theories of the field (3) History of adult learning – whether or not adults can learn – learners were compared with younger students who perhaps had more education. Malcolm Knowles created “a new technology” for adult learning (4) (describes perhaps an instrumental or positivist leaning in the early stages of the technology) Knowles eventually stated that his ideas were more a learning or conceptual framework instead of a theory (5). Eventually he moved away from the binary of andra/pedagogy to a continuum of learning that recognizes difference (6) Pastuovic finds that andragogy is learning toward positivism which may not be beneficial toward learners (6) Critical theorists examined the humanist underpinnings of Knowles work and its focus on the individual (7)
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Central Theories Humanism
Connections to Readings Knowles
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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Gerald A. Straka - Conditions promoting self-directed learning at the workplace Terms:
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas: SDL is a central theme in adult ed but validated concepts of general learning and instructional theory are scarcely considered (242) SDL takes place with the following (242): •
Interest – the interaction between learner and subject
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Strategies – the way to acquaint themselves with content
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Controls – manage the application of strategies
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Evaluation – subjects learning to assessment
Must examine the socio-historical context The Two-Shell model of motivated self-directed learning – differentiates socio-historical environmental conditions, internal conditions (for example, the developed declarative knowledge, values, etc., already present at the time of learning) and activities which belong with the concepts interest, learning, strategies, control and evaluation (243) These three experienced workplace conditions are not only related to an interest in selfdirected learning, but also to strategies of learning and control. (246) The experiencing of autonomy, competence and social relatedness, summarized as
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‘experience work conditions’, has an influence on interests. Interests have an effect on the strategies and control of learning. (248) Only the person doing the learning can determine if learning occurs (248). Self-directed learning may be viewed as an idiosyncratic interplay between interest, strategy and control. (249).
Central Theories
Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
Gerald Grow - Teaching Learners to be Self Directed
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Terms: Staged Self Directed Learning Model that suggests how teachers can actively equip students to become more self directed in their learning (126).
People to Explore Further:
The Big Ideas: Staged Self Directed Learning Model (SSDL) that suggests how teachers can actively equip students to become more self directed in their learning (126). 4 Stages of Learning/learners •
Stage 1 – directed – need an authority figure to give them explicit directions on what to do, how to do it, and when. Learning is teacher-centered. Teachers should function as coaching
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Stage 2 – interested – learners are available, interested or interestable, respond to motivational techniques. Teachers are Motivating
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Stage 3 – involved – learners has skill and knowledge and they see themselves as participants in their own education. The teachers are facilitators
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Stage 4 – self-directed – set their own goals and standards with or without help from experts. Learners are willing and able to take responsibility for their learning, direction and productivity. Teachers delegate – cultivate the learners ability to learn.
Some implications include the mismatch between teacher and learning styles (137)
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Good teaching is difficult and includes two things – matches the students stage of selfdirection, and it empowers the student to progress toward greater self-direction. Good teaching is situational, yet it promotes the long-term development of the student (140) Figure 3 provides a model for tying SSDL to curriculum and courses (143) While SSDL describes a progression – learning is rarely linear (144) SSDL doesn’t ask what learners think, teacher expectation may play a greater role than they think and dynamics are inherent in assignments, etc. (146).
Central Theories Humanism Critical theory
Connections to Readings
Connections to area of study How this may apply in online environments
What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
Kiely, Sandmann, Truluck - Adult Learning Theory and the Pursuit of Adult Degrees
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Terms: Andragogy – “the art and science of teaching adults” (20) Self-directed learning – (18) Transformative learning – (18) Situated cognition – “adults no longer learn from experience, they learn in it, as they act in situations and are acted upon by ‘situations’” – (24)
People to Explore Further: Merriam – (18) Mackeracher – (18) Mezirow – 22 Jarvis – 24 Wilson – 24
The Big Ideas The four lens model of adult learning (p. 19) •
Learner – focusing on a learner facilitator model of education, meets their individual needs
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Process – focuses on how adults learn (Mezirow transformational learning model the most prevalent) (22)
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Context – Adult learning through the context lens is fundamentally a social process that begins with adults as individuals and also as persons in society (24)
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Educator – Reflect on the philosophical assumptions that shape and influence the we approach our practice (26 – 27)
Central Theories Andragogy – if it is a theory transformational learning model Philosophical traditions •
Behaviorist
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Liberal
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Humanist
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Progressive
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Radical traditions
Connections to Readings Summary of earlier theory readings
Connections to area of study Provides a theoretical background and a lead in to the study of online learning with adults
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What is unclear
Application or Relevance to Diss
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