Colette Mazzola-Randles

The Realm(s) of Belongingness (Online)

Colette Mazzola-Randles

Abstract

A contentious debate amongst educators, the implementation and impact of sense of belonging; this debate is typically defined in campus rich interactions, with little to no notion of online interactions. For many institutions and individual staff members, it is an incredible challenge and has made a significant impact on staff making meaningful, emotional connections with their students in an online learning environment. Creating emotional connections and a sense of belonging is perplexed and convoluted. This paper brings together a wide range of primary data in order to define and analyse the literature around this topic.

This study used a phenomenological methodology with semi-structured interviews. The participants were from a variety of universities and curriculum areas in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The results of this study indicate that creating emotional connections and a sense of belonging is fundamental to teaching and learning online. In addition, the findings indicate that not all staff used visible interactions (via web cameras) to develop emotional connections online, the non-visible interactions were also noted as successful, as the asynchronous environment appeared to support students to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis & Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999). The recommendation is the importance of more robust, focused training to ensure teachers and students have knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks to emotional connections and sense of belonging, which should alleviate some of the implications and barriers to learning and teaching online, which are outlined in this paper.

Introduction

A controversial debate amongst educators is the implementation and impact of a sense of belonging (Sense of belonging); this debate is typically defined in campus rich interactions, with little to no notion of online interactions. For many institutions and individual staff members, this has been an incredible challenge and made a significant impact on staff making meaningful, emotional connections with their students.

A significant strength of digital learning is that individuals can learn at their own pace and prioritise the areas of a course they find more applicable to themselves. However, these same strengths can also present very real challenges, especially for new students who can feel unconfident about their academic skills and abilities and find immersion in the online educational space to be alien, even threatening - particularly when they are expected to post in online discussions and engage in online group work (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993).

In the digital environment, students can often miss out on interactions they might otherwise have had if they attended physically. Studies have shown that studying remotely can leave some students feeling isolated and lonely; emotions which significantly impact on their motivation to learn (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). This would appear to be why some Massive Open On-line

Courses (MOOCs) can have extremely high dropout rates, with Sandee (2017) suggesting that completing rates hovered below the ten percent marker (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Simpson, 2003).

In addition, not all students will possess the skills necessary to learn independently. Repeated demographic studies of those who successfully study online demonstrate that they tend to be already well educated, with the skills to read through materials and complete assessments. Furthermore, there must be consideration that not all students have the same level of access to the internet and technology as others (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). Therefore, it is vital that digital courses and delivery are inclusive, supportive and afford students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities.

This research could be important, as it will investigate and outline how emotional connections are made in an online space. In addition, it is imperative to define what mechanisms are in place to support staff and students to establish supportive communities. The Office for Students writes that for individuals to unlock their potential, they need not just to gain access to a degree, but also have mechanisms and support to become successful (Davey, 2019). This focus of this study has not been undertaken before and could contribute to the knowledge currently known on creating emotional connection online, furthermore the psychological perspectives of online learning and teaching does not feature heavily in the research, and there are key factors that need to be addressed in order to create a fully inclusive, supportive environment, that affords students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities.

Research Questions

RQ1: To what extent do emotional connections impact learning and teaching in an online environment? • How do teachers describe their experiences of emotional connections in online learning? • How important do they feel emotional connections are, and why?

RQ2: What mechanisms are used to build and implement emotional connections in an online environment? • How would teachers develop more emotional connections in online learning, and why would they do it in these ways? • Are there emotional connections that teachers feel would be difficult to develop in an online environment? Why would these be important or crucial?

The Focus of the Research (Literature)

This research will contribute to the wealth of knowledge on creating emotional connections online. In addition, it aims to touch on the psychological perspectives of human-to-human visible and non-visible interactions online, in order to develop practical applications with current topical tools and techniques, which educators could take advantage of whilst teaching and learning in online learning environments. Emotional connections and a Sense of belonging have been researched extensively (Goodenow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). However, the psychological perspectives of online learning and teaching does not feature heavily in the research, and there are key factors that need to be addressed in order to create a fully inclusive, supportive environment, that affords students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities.

Belonging and Engagement

Belonging: a simple word for a huge concept. It is a basic human need, just like the need for food and shelter. Maslow (1943) proposed his Hierarchy of Needs, that indicates that physiological need is a basis to foster motivation. This theory has been emphatically contested and modified over the years (Neher, 1991). However, one could deduce that if a person’s physiological needs are not met, it could be incredibly detrimental to their intrinsic motivation and overall Sense of belonging. Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it is personally rewarding, without external reward or punishment (Maslow, 1962).

Maslow’s hierarchical diagram (see Figure 1) illustrates to achieve Sense of belonging, one must firstly satisfy their physiological and security needs.

Figure 1 - Maslow Hierarchy of Need (Maslow, 1962)

Maslow infers that a Sense of belonging involves how a person emotionally feels and that they are accepted in a group; for example, social groups, community groups and friendships all satisfy a person’s physiological need to belong. People need personal connections to feel accepted, comfortable, supported, and safe (Maslow, 1962; Thomas, 2012). Goodenow (2003) defines Sense of belonging as involving feelings of being accepted, needed, mattering, valued, feeling of fitting in, being connected to a group, class, subject or institution. Matheson and Sutcliffe (2017) suggest Sense of belonging is based on relationships and will only be established if others truly care about them. In the absence of Sense of belonging, people could become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression (Meehan and Howells, 2018).

Learning Environments

Learning environments is an area that needs to be considered when attempting to create a Sense of belonging. The online space is void of walls, seating plans and replaced by informal discussion fora. In some learning instances, academic staff are not always present, resulting in the curriculum being delivered through pre-recorded content. This raises concerns for creating Sense of belonging, as the whole premise to creating Sense of belonging is formal and informal interactions (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Thomas et al, 2014). Hurtado and Carter’s (1997) work indicated that using a holistic socio-affective strategy, where the learning is a joint responsibility, improves senses of student attainment, increased learner satisfaction and persistence (Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008).

Research found that engagement and wellbeing are factors that support a learner’s motivation and improve self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-efficacy which link to creating a positive Sense of belonging. However, this research was completed only in an on-campus environment with no indication to an online presence. Therefore, there needs to a focus to engagement and wellbeing in online learning environments (Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008; Maestas et al., 2007; Tovar and Simon, 2010, Yoo and Huang, 2013).

One consideration in potentially supporting engagement and wellbeing is remote learning through meetings via webcams and screenshare. Whilst this is relatively new to many educators, some universities have been operating in this manner for many years, for example, via MOOCs. A MOOC is a course of study made available over the internet to a very large number of people. MOOCs are documented as having extremely high dropout rates, which could be deemed as a negative for creating a Sense of belonging (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Simpson, 2003). Whilst MOOCS typically have low completion rates compared to enrolments, the course structure seems to be the issue (Rovai, 2003; Simpson, 2003). Content is representing more monologue than dialogue, stocked with pre-recorded lectures, directed to an anonymous class, online discussion forums, swamped by thousands of students, which is noted as ethically unmanageable for the student and the teacher (Martinez, 2003; Simpson, 2003; Thomas et al., 2014).

In order to avoid what Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig (2000) call the intellectual IV drip of facts, there needs more focus on questions, synthesis of answers, discussion, debate and to form an intellectual community which students feel they are part of. Creating conversation and community depends on a personal connection which is said to be much harder to replicate online (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000).

Online learning has received ambivalent responses from scholars over the years, many stating the positives, for example, the ability to bring people together that otherwise may not have the opportunity (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000) and the ability to alleviate feelings of isolation (Hough, Smithey, and Evertson, 2004). Furthermore, online learning in an asynchronous style could allow participants time to respond, allowing for more calculated discussions. Whereas synchronous conversations offer the possibility for immediate collaboration, both mediums afford students to have their own voice, which is occasionally missing in a face-to-face environment (Beeghly, 2005; Tiene 2000; Suler, 2004).

Greenland and Moore’s (2014) analysis of 200 qualitative student interviews found that lack of flexibility in assessment policies negatively impacted a student’s Sense of belonging in an online learning environment. In addition, Strayhorn (2012) cites the work of Hagerty, Williams, and Oe (2002) and affirms that the absence of a Sense of belonging is typically described as alienation, rejection, social isolation and can lead to low self-esteem and depression. In contrast, Beeghly and Huang’s (2013) study found that regular online student engagement improved retention, motivation, and Sense of belonging. Therefore, one could conclude that the use of regular online sessions is a fundamental element that needs to be incorporated into learning online and creating a community, to ensure students feel accepted, safe and belong.

Community of Inquiry (CoI) Framework

Community and the creation of community features heavily in the research. Scholars imply that building a community in an online environment helps create Sense of belonging; therefore it is essential to explore this element further (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003; Li et al., 2009; Wenger, 2000).

In order to understand the concept of Community of Inquiry (CoI), we must firstly define community. In this specific context, it describes people in a group who share a common interest of communicating knowledge and believe that people can learn in a collaborative environment. The term ‘Learning community’ emerged from the research in the early 19th century and the concept of community embedded in a social context by pragmatist philosophers C.S. Peirce and John Dewey. Lipman (2003, pp. 20–21) applied the concept to the educational setting and argued that the classroom environment is a type of CoI which leads to “questioning, reasoning, connecting, deliberating, challenging, and developing problem-solving techniques.” In addition, Garrison,

Anderson and Archer (1999) applied this concept to computer mediated communication (CMC) and found that conferencing via a computer over the internet has a potential to create a CoI in an educational context (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999).

Using a CMC, there are documented techniques to improve Sense of belonging; one example is that teachers should take a step back and act as a facilitator, to equalise the roles between teacher and student in a community as this often maximises collaboration. However, the research does indicate that this can be a struggle for some students, and they may feel a sense of discomfort and insecurity. To alleviate these potential issues, developing a high level of trust amongst participants is suggested (Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003).

Garrison is a respected and well recognised scholar, who expresses the need for students to belong and collaborate, to create a community of learners: “this sense of belonging and security facilitates open communication and creates group cohesion… crucial that each student feels welcomed and is given the reassurance that they are part of a purposeful community of learners” (Garrison, 2017, pp. 114-115).

Garrison’s research implies a number of suggestions that could achieve Sense of belonging: the importance of creating a community that has a common purpose, where students can feel a sense of connection; recurring regular communications to establish trust and group cohesion, with the tutor modelling appropriate messages and responses to give participants Sense of belonging; early chances for participants to get to know each other and share personal experiences in introductory activities. These points are essential to create Sense of belonging and improve the feeling of being accepted (Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003).

Wenger’s (2000) research agrees with the aforementioned and further adds that mutual engagement represents the interaction between individuals, which leads to the creation of shared meaning on issues or problems. Similarly, joint enterprise is the process in which people are engaged and working together towards a common goal (Li et al., 2009; Wenger, 2000). Both mutual engagement and joint enterprise can support and enhance the emotional connections and Sense of belonging in an online learning environment.

Visible and nonvisible Interactions (Online)

High level interactions in an online learning environment are suggested as ways to increase the effectiveness of the learning (Fulford and Zhang, 1993). There is knowledge to suggest that in order for learning to occur in online environments the students must be visible and actively participate (Gonzales, 1995; Kearsley, 1995). One main argument that is present and contextualised is what equates to learning. If students are not actively participating and contributing, are they passive and not learning? Holmberg and Ortner suggest that participation should consist of a mediated two-way conversation (1992). In contrast, Bernath and Rubin (1999) developed the theory that is called ‘witness learning’: “students who were not actively participating via written contributions at a particular point, but who nevertheless were still engaged in the process as observers (witnesses) of the written exchanges taking place online between other students” (Holmberg and Ortner, 1992 p.7).

It is suggested that these students are still actively learning, simply lurking in the background of the participation. Dennen (2008) found a similar concept and describes it as “pedagogical lurking” (Dennen, 2008, p.1624).

Online, people do and say things that they otherwise would not in a face-to-face situation, suggesting that online

interactions have the potential to relieve anxieties. People feel less restrained and loosen up expressing themselves more openly. Research suggests that this could help a student to participate in an online environment (Suler, 2020; Wu et al., 2017). This phenomenon is named ‘The Online Disinhibition Effect’. It is documented as having two opposing sides: benign and toxic disinhibition. Benign can be described as a person going out of their way to show kindness and helping others, while toxic disinhibition is antagonistic and hostile where crime, violence and internet bullying is situated. Benign disinhibition has the capabilities to help people develop their interpersonal and intrapsychic problems, explore their identity and connect with their emotions. Toxic and benign disinhibition are a conceptual dichotomy, which can be complex and ambiguous. However, in some cases, it could support people to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment, which could support students and teachers in creating emotional connections and Sense of belonging (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis and Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999).

Epistemology and ontology

The ontological and epistemological perspectives that have been adopted in the research are from a relativism constructivist view (Raskin and Debany, 2018). This paper has used a phenomenological methodology, which explores the common perceptions among groups and/or subgroups of people. Using semi-structured interviews allowed accounts to be formed and contextualised based on the tutor’s experiences. The epistemological perspectives took an interpretivist paradigm, as they were discovered according to the context of the teacher’s experiences, and it used semi-structured interviews, which allowed the researcher to talk to the participants and dig deep into the ideologies and concepts that were exposed (Grix, 2010, p. 84; Grix, 2018, p.53).

Methodology

This paper will use a phenomenological methodology, since the fundamental interest is learning from lived experiences. Phenomenologists tend to explore the common perceptions among groups or subgroups of people. Moran (2000) suggests that phenomenology aims for fresh, complex, rich description of phenomena as concretely lived. There is one unifying point behind the idea of phenomenology, it is an intense concern about the way the world appears to the person experiencing the world (Moran, 2000).

Data Collection

This study used semi-structured interviews as the data collection method. The reason for this was so the questions could be prepared ahead of time and shared with the participants before the interview (Creswell and Creswell, 2017). The use of semi-structured interviews allows participants the freedom to express their views, and links with the interpretivist paradigm that had been adopted in this study. Additionally, Cohen and Crabtree (2006) suggest that semi-structured interviews could provide reliable, comparable, qualitative data that offer reasons for the answers in a narrative account. The questions used were open questions, to allow participants to share their own perspectives without being led. A downside to semi-structured interviews is the time that needs to be allocated to the transcribing and analysing the data. In order to combat this issue, the researcher used Microsoft Teams to record the interviews, and then uploaded the interviews to Microsoft Stream to autogenerate the transcripts. The next step was to download the transcripts and load them into NVivo, where a manual thematic analysis was conducted. This method supported the researcher as the data were recorded exactly and efficiently (Grix, 2010, p. 127).

Sample

A purposive, convenience sample was used in this research, as it allows for a specific set of participants to be handpicked, and in this case the sample was six teachers, teaching in higher education (Bickman and Rog, 2009, p.7).

The participants were from a variety of universities and curriculum areas in the United Kingdom and Ireland, consisting of representatives from Queen’s University Belfast, in the Social Sciences, Education and Social Work department; Northumbria University from the Leadership and Human Resource Management department; Liverpool University from the Teacher Education department and Blackpool and The Fylde College from the Leadership, Management and Lifestyle department. Whilst a purposive, convenience sample could be deemed as having a negative connotation due to low level reliability and the inability to generalise the findings, it is felt that the diverse sample of participants captured robust and multi-dimensional data (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2013, p.143).

Data Analysis and Validity

The semi-structured interviews were recorded via a Microsoft Teams Meeting and uploaded to Microsoft Stream to auto-generate the transcripts. The transcripts were then downloaded and loaded into NVivo, where a manual thematic analysis was conducted. A thematic analysis is typically used in connection with interview transcripts, which allows the data to be organised into themes and interpret meaning. The data were coded in NVivo manually to ensure the validity of the themes identified. In addition, some researchers code their transcripts using colour coding; this was used by the researcher to support the analysis (Bazeley, 2020, p.212).

Findings

This paper used a phenomenological methodology and semi-structured interviews to gather qualitative data to answer the main research questions: • To what extent do emotional connections impact learning and teaching in an online environment? • What mechanisms are used to build and implement emotional connections in an online environment?

A thematic analysis was completed using NVivo software, where four themes emerged from the data. Firstly, a description of emotional connections, secondly, the development of emotional connections, thirdly, the limitations to developing emotional connections, and finally, the mechanisms to develop emotional connections. This section will use the four themes as headings, and a discussion will be offered linking to the literature provided on each theme, in an attempt to provide clear, robust, and valid accounts of the data.

Description of emotional connections

The data supports the literature and participants express the importance of creating emotional connections and sense of belonging. The participants stated that community, connections, and relationships are key drivers. In addition, one participant noted that there is more of a mentorship relationship in the online setting due to the support that they have had to provide. Another participant described sense of belonging using the word ‘fundamental’, and that if the connections with students are not developed, retention could be very poor and

that creating emotional connections does not feature in training. One could deduce that Sense of belonging and emotional connections are an essential aspect of learning and teaching in an online setting and should be at the forefront of all training. An emotional connection or sense of belonging is described in the literature in a plethora of ways, this paper acknowledges sense of belonging and emotional connections as involving feelings of acceptance, feeling needed, mattering, and valued, also feeling of fitting in, connected to a group, class, subject or institution or all of these (Goodenow, 2003). Moreover, the psychological and sociological need to connect with a person socially is essential for creating emotional connections and it is based on building a relationship, where it is established if others truly care (Matheson and Sutcliffe, 2017; Thomas, 2012).

Development of emotional connections

The study data lean towards these ideologies of motivation and meaningful partnership in learning; one participant offered, “it is a journey, a journey we are going on together” linking with the literature Li et al. (2009) and Wenger (2000) confirm this and suggest learning and teaching is a ‘Joint enterprise’, the process in which people are engaged and working together towards a common goal.

Another participant noted that their philosophy in teaching is that she assures students that she is not the “font of all knowledge” and that they are on a discovery of learning. This could suggest that teachers must adopt a flexible approach to teaching and learning to support student attainment, increased student satisfaction and persistence (Carter, 1997; Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008). Three of the participants alluded to using socio-affective strategies to engage their students, they noted this was successful and supported the development of motivation and community. Motivation is a term that is used extensively in the literature, there is research to suggest that learning and teaching should adopt socio-affective strategies, where the learning is a joint responsibility, similarly, it is essential that each student feels welcomed and is given the reassurance that they are part of a purposeful community of learners and also participate in the learning environment (Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Garrison, 2017, pp. 114-115). Whilst learning and teaching is a historic and contested field, the realm of online learning is still very much in its infancy and there is a lot to learn.

Mechanisms to develop emotional connections

The data gathered on mechanisms was diverse and context driven based on the curriculum area. However, this does not dilute the value of this section as the mechanisms are adaptable and versatile in terms of use. One participant used a web tool called ‘Flipgrid’ (https://info.flipgrid.com/) to allow their students to create a video introduction of themselves. Early chances to participate are documented as largely essential to allow students to get to know each other and share personal experiences (Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003). Another participant added that they had created a channel on Microsoft Teams called “Coffee Lounge”, where students were able to socialise and the teachers would not participate, in order to create a peer-to-peer environment, and this was said to improve the students’ Sense of belonging. The research implies that regular online action-based sessions are fundamental, in order to avoid the intellectual IV drip of facts, and create improved engagement to build a community, where students feel accepted and that they belong (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999; Beeghly and Huang, 2013).

Three of the participants expressed that if they could not see their students (via web cameras) they felt they were not connecting with the students, whereas one participant noted that their students spoke more openly in the online space without their cameras on. Research from Holmberg and Ortner (1992) suggests that two-way communications are essential, regardless of visibility. This could bring the online disinhibition effect to the

forefront of interaction. Suler (2004) suggests that asynchronous communication could support people to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment. However, this area needs to be further developed with the addition of student data (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis and Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999).

Learning and teaching in an online setting is distinctively incommensurable compared to teaching face-to-face. Therefore, there needs to be adapted, rigorous and dynamic mechanisms in place to ensure that digital courses and delivery are inclusive, supportive and afford students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities. Scholars allude to the barriers to replicating emotional connections online, the points offered here could enhance the development of emotional connections and sense of belonging (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000).

Limitations to developing emotional connections

This paper would not be a complete analysis if we did not explore the limitations and problematic areas to creating an emotional connection in an online environment. The body of knowledge regarding emotional connection and creating sense of belonging is substantial and often implies that if emotional connection or sense of belonging is absent in the online environment, it could impact negatively, causing students or staff to feel isolated, rejected, leading to low self-esteem and depression (Hough, Smithey, and Evertson, 2004; Staythorn, 2012; Greenland and Moore, 2014). One of the participants alluded to these feelings and noted that she does not feel that she is making a connection with her students in an online setting, as the students were not comfortable putting their cameras on for the online session and the participation was minimal. This could be deemed as a concern, as teachers who are passionate educators are left feeling that the learning environment is not dynamic or engaging, and confirms the aforementioned point that sense of belonging and emotional connections are an essential aspect of learning and teaching in an online setting, and should be at the forefront of all training for staff and students.

Discussion and Conclusions

This paper adds to the knowledge about creating emotional connections and sense of belonging in an online environment, by providing discussions on descriptions, development, mechanism, and limitations in the current climate. Highlighting the importance for more robust focus on training is required, as the data found that creating emotional connections does not feature in training. This could ensure teachers and students have knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks to emotional connections and sense of belonging; this should alleviate some of the limitations. Additionally, providing example of ‘good practice’ could improve staff and student’s confidence and motivation to engage in the online learning environment.

Whilst creating emotional connections and sense of belonging could be deemed as perplexed and a somewhat convoluted ideology to perfect, the research and combined data from professional teachers across the United Kingdom and Ireland, offers a discussion with pertinent examples of useful practice, (two examples are, the use of Flipgrid to engage students early to get to know the cohort and the teachers, the use of an optional channel in the VLE to engage in peer to peer learning where it is an open platform that could alleviate some anxieties of learning online) this could support teachers and students creating emotional connections and sense of belonging in online learning environments.

This project has brought to light some of the barriers that teachers are facing (not feeling there is such open

discussion in an online medium, or not feeling connected if students did not use a camera) whilst attempting to create emotional connection and sense of belonging online. The main contribution of this paper is to bring to the forefront the importance of ways to support sense of belonging in training and development.

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