Crosswinds and Trains……………………………… 1 Isomerism in metal complexes………………….. 2 Flower Power…………………………………………. 4 Testing our Aspirin…………………………………. 5 Gold Crest Award on Dentistry…………………. 6 Brain Injuries…………………………………………. 7 Junior Science Club………………………………… 8 Mass Spectrometry…………………………………. 9 Polymerisation Placement……………………….. 10 Thyroid Cancer………………………………………. 12 CERN……………………………………………………. 13 Lasers…………………………………………………… 14 Super Drugs for Superbugs………………………. 15 One Cell To Rule Them All…………………………16 Oxford Natural History Museum………………...17 Willem Kolff..……………………………………..….. 18 The Point of Pencils………………………………… 20
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Crosswinds and Trains
Vedika Bedi, U6th Student My project was to investigate how crosswinds affect trains. During the project I saw how the application of flow physics had a significant impact on train design. The high pressure on the surface of a train can lead to derailment or overturning, so it is important that it is reduced to a minimum. Crosswinds are increasingly becoming an issue, since development is leading to a decrease in the mass of trains in order to increase energy efficiency. By understanding train aerodynamics in different situations, innovative solutions can be found to combat these problems.
Anam informed me that a 1:25 scale model of the train was to be tested. Seeing the wind tunnel in operation proved to be a most interesting experience, as I observed the data being measured and recorded on a data logger and consequently loaded onto a laptop with software that would interpret the results. The project proved to be fascinating and taught me a lot about the significance of crosswinds on trains.
PhD Student Anam helped me greatly during the first day of the project in understanding the problems and using the literature reviews to appreciate experimental methodologies. The effect of crosswinds may be assessed using models. The most realistic would obviously be a full-scale moving model, however this not at all practicable, so smaller scaled down models are used. The University of Birmingham has a similar test facility in Derby, in which they investigate different size scale models on a moving track and in a wind tunnel. .
Isomerism in Transition Metal Complexes Ten Lower Sixth students attended a Gold CREST placement in the Chemistry Department at the University of Warwick. They spent one week investigating the ratio of fac and mer isomers in iron complexes. Many practical techniques were learnt, including refluxing and recrystallization. One of the most challenging elements was interpreting NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectra and UV-Vis (ultra violet/visible) spectra. They were provided with excellent support by the Chemistry Department staff and technicians. A big ‘thank you’ goes to Professor Michael Ward, Dr Russ Kitson, Rob, Sam, Dani and Raj for this fantastic opportunity.
Here are some of the reflections from the students who attended the placement. Ellie Aitchison said: ‘It was a thrilling opportunity to spend a week with the Chemistry Department at the University of Warwick, which offered us an introduction into the world of degree level chemistry. Throughout the week we were privileged to complete several experiments using complex compounds, and in some cases create new, previously unknown, samples.
With the assistance of the team we were able to use and become familiar with advanced technology, such as infra-red and UV-Vis spectrometry, to analyse our products from each experiment. These reveal the different bonds and the overall structures of the samples. During the week the professors and researchers gave us detailed information on the transition metals, explaining complex mechanisms and energy level diagrams to help us with our understanding of the project. We managed to complete difficult and complex calculations from measurements collected in experiments and were given the independence to choose which compounds to use, making the whole process even more rewarding.
Charlotte Merry commented: ‘During the CREST project and placement, I learnt some useful techniques such as how to carry out my own NMR, IR and magnetic susceptibility investigations and I also further enhanced my scientific method. I really enjoyed the experiments and investigating what we made by carrying out the various tests. I found some of the calculations tough, but with the help of the researchers, Mr Kalsi and Dr Casey, I was able to complete all of the calculations myself by the end of the week. The variations of experiments we did were amazing and in our group we made something that had never been made before! It was interesting to find out what we had actually produced and carry out experiments which had, most probably, never been done before. I found it fascinating to see how the experiments we did could be applied to real life and used in the manufacture of anti-cancer and anti-HIV drugs. The CREST project gives you a real insight into a different field and offers you the opportunity to be
able to work at undergraduate and sometimes graduate level alongside professionals in that field’.
It is so much easier to understand and remember something you have done yourself!
Group members Kogulan, Viren, Siddhant and Sandeep reported the following: ‘During this placement, we learned the fundamentals of synthesising a transition metal complex and how this provides the basis for selfassembled co-ordination cages that can be used for drug delivery. This put into practice and reinforced some of our existing A Level Chemistry knowledge such as refluxing, Buchner filtration and preparation of a volumetric solution. As well as this, we were given the chance to acquire new analytical techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and use state-ofthe-art equipment worth up to half a million pounds! The experiment that we conducted was based upon a self-assembly template reaction. This means that the ligand (an ion or molecule that binds to a central metal atom) formed spontaneously at a metal ion. The reactants were mixed together in a round-bottomed flask fitted with a condenser and then refluxed on a hot plate. The product (complex) that we had formed was isolated using Buchner filtration and then dried.
Our main conclusion from this project was that this is a promising area of nanotechnology that has a lot of potential for future development. The nature of this project meant that we were making chemicals that were the first of their type in the world! Persistent and methodical trials and adjustments to the practical procedure could mean that one day we may create something that has far more worth than we first anticipate.
We would like to thank the academics at Warwick University for allowing us to use their world-class facilities and for providing excellent guidance and support throughout the placement. Many thanks also to our Chemistry teacher, Mr Kalsi, who arranged this placement. Without him we would not be enlightening you today with all this new science!’ Spectroscopic analysis of the complex was carried out after each experiment. This included an infra-red spectrum which identifies the functional groups present. Crucially we expected an imine functional group (C= N) to be present in all of our products and the results of the spectra did confirm this. Further tests included NMR and UV–Vis spectroscopic investigation of the samples. The opportunity to see these machines operate was a very beneficial experience and very much complemented the theory – it is difficult to fully appreciate a concept just from a textbook!
Ellie Aitchison, U6th Student
Flower Power Is your garden in need of stimulation? Mr. Kalsi, Chemistry Teacher
The idea of a Science newsletter came to mind when I looked at the large number of Science activities Bablake pupils are involved in. These don’t always manage to get a mention in existing publications. I’m sure you are all aware of the need to recycle objects/materials to reduce waste. Whilst visiting the Morrisons’ store in Leamington Spa, I came across a sign saying ‘used coffee grounds work as a natural fertiliser if your garden is in need of stimulation’. Many people choose to place used coffee grounds directly onto the soil, thinking that it will act as a fertiliser. However, this may not the case. Coffee grounds need to be composted with other waste organic matter in order to provide nitrogen compounds that the plants may use. Others say that the benefit of using coffee grounds is as a soil conditioner, improving drainage, water retention and aeration in the soil.
In reality, it seems from the vast number of posts and stories on the Internet that many gardeners have indeed enjoyed success using used ground coffee as a natural fertiliser. They suggest that, to work best, the used coffee grounds should be mixed with the soil rather than placed on top.
Some think that coffee grounds lower the pH (raise the acidity) of the soil, which benefits certain plants. However, although fresh coffee grounds are acidic, used coffee grounds are almost neutral. If you rinse your used coffee grounds, they will have a pH of around 6.5 and the effect of this acid level(s) on the soil will be negligible.
All of this calls for a scientific investigation to find out if the coffee grounds do stimulate plant growth and how - is anyone up for the challenge?!
Other gardeners suggest that using coffee grounds could be ineffective or, worse, harmful to plants. The reason for this could be that coffee beans contain caffeine, which is said to be produced by the coffee plant to suppress the growth of other plants in competition for space, nutrients, water and sunlight. How much caffeine actually remains in used coffee grounds is, however, debatable.
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Testing our Aspirin Aspirin is synthesised from salicylic acid (2hydroxybenzoic acid) and ethanoic anhydride. Towards the end of the Lower Sixth, students who study A level Chemistry make aspirin following a procedure provided by the exam board.
During the Gold CREST placement at the Chemistry Department of the University of Warwick, some Lower Sixth students were allowed to analyse the aspirin that they had made. They recorded an infra-red spectrum of their aspirin, tablet aspirin and pure aspirin (brought from a chemical supplier). The NMR spectrums of each sample was recorded and the results compared.
The infra-red spectra for the sample, tablet and pure form were virtually identical, showing that the aspirin synthesised at School was relatively pure. This was a fantastic opportunity for the students to test their sample and use their knowledge of spectroscopy to comment on the purity – something that they simply couldn’t do in school! Mr Kalsi, Chemistry Teacher
GOLD CREST AWARD ON DENTISTRY I spent one week in the biomolecular research labs at the University of Birmingham School of Dentistry. Here I observed and worked alongside academics and professors, who put together a series of experiments for me to participate in. Dental Pulp Cavity My project was to determine if low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS), a form of ultrasound therapy, could stimulate cell growth, proliferation and differentiation and if so, how this could be applied to clinical dental practice.
Ultrasound radiation Enamel Dentine Gum Maxillary Bone
The initial aim of the project was to prepare some odontoblast stem cells, subject them to LIPUS and compare the result against non-treated cells. Images of each sample could be recorded and compared to determine cell quantity and structure. If the LIPUS worked in this particular scenario, it could then possibly be applied to the tooth to stimulate the odontoblasts cells to regrow dentine, which is a tough layer designed to support the enamel.
The results from the series of experiments were promising, indicating that there was a 71% increase in number of cells present from LIPUS treatment compared to the non-treated sample. This was supporting evidence that the ultrasound treatment does in fact stimulate cell growth and proliferation, and that LIPUS treatment could be used in a supporting role in restorative treatments, as an additional method of building up tooth structure and in increasing longevity of the tooth. It is hoped that LIPUS treatment could be used as a supporting role in restorative treatments, as an additional method of building up tooth structure and in increasing longevity of the tooth. Overall, my CREST placement was very enjoyable and interesting, allowing me to gain an insight into my future career choice as well as broadening my knowledge of dental research. Furthermore, it gave me a once in a lifetime experience to work alongside academics and researchers to produce a report close to undergraduate level! Khushi Dhadda, U6th Student
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Brain Injuries
We spent one week at the University of Birmingham under the guidance of Antonio Belli and his research team. During our time, we learnt about the methods used to assess and monitor severe traumatic brain injuries (TBI). These included functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, electroencephalogram (EEG) and a new method called near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). We also looked at computerised tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of patients, learnt about the aftercare given to them and shadowed a sport concussion clinician. The final two days were used to look at how biomarkers could be used to create an objective way of diagnosing concussion. We extracted microRNA from a saliva sample of a patient and converted it to complementary DNA (CDNA) which is more stable. We then compared this with a control sample to check for biomarkers present that may indicate concussion. Dhru commented that the highlight of the week for him was their visit to the Sports Concussion clinic. He said it was inspiring to watch how the doctors calmly interacted with their patients and never lost their composure. He also enjoyed watching the thorough tests that the patients went through before their appointments, in order to assess the extent of their injuries.
commercialised. Being allowed to use specialist equipment to extract and purify RNA was amazing and some of the machinery was amongst the first of its kind in the world, so it was a once in a lifetime experience.’ Kaess talked about the week following their experience: ‘Professor Belli allowed us to shadow in a neurological theatre ward. The operations we observed were a vagus nerve stimulation and a temporal lobectomy. The aims of these procedures were to reduce seizure frequency and severity in an epileptic patient. It was fascinating to see a temporal lobectomy in real life, after having researched this previously as part of my EPQ.’
Will said: ‘My favourite part was looking at CT and MRI scans of the patients’ brains.’ It was interesting to learn about damage caused by different bleeds in the brain and apply existing clinical knowledge to understand how patients would be treated following surgery. I also found near- infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) research fascinating and it will be exciting to see it put to use in hospitals in a few years’ time.’ Jack commented: ‘I particularly enjoyed going to the labs and looking at how scientific research is Charlotte Merry, U6th Student.
Junior Science Club The second Junior Science Club session was all about making a marshmallow catapult from marshmallows, sticks and a spoon! Mrs Sharkey (Senior Science Technician) showed the pupils how to construct the catapult and pupils worked individually and in small groups to make the catapult.
Some pupils found it challenging! Once assembled, pupils were allowed to launch a projectile (the marshmallow) from the catapult. However, after the marshmallows had been pierced by the sticks, they became soft, causing many problems. In addition, the tension produced by the spoon being pulled
back caused some of the catapults to break and a little tape was needed to strengthen them. Finally, after testing, last minute modifications were made. Then came the competition and the rules were made clear. Each catapult could have three attempts and the winning catapult would be the one which launched the projectile the furthest.
We were amazed by the distance achieved by some of the projectiles. However, one group had decided to ‘cheat’ and tape their catapult to the bench. This in theory would make it easier to pull back the spoon without the worry of the catapult collapsing. Eventually they came second and despite being challenged by the others, no rule to say they could not use tape was found, so the result was allowed to stand. The eventual winner was Elizabeth Greenway who managed to launch the projectile from the first bench to the fourth bench. Throughout the entire session, pupils were very tempted to eat the marshmallows! Mr Kalsi, Chemistry Teacher
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Mass Spectrometry
Abinaya Muraleetharan and Sara Gill, U6th Students.
As amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, gaining information about the amino acid sequences helps to identify and provide information about the protein involved. For example, on our second day, we used liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA) MS, to directly analyse fatty acid binding protein one (FABPI) from rat liver tissue. FABPI is a biomarker, which is a molecule that can indicate whether a disease has commenced, that identifies non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). While early stage NAFLD is not often harmful, it can get worse if not managed. Therefore, by analysing the structure of FABPI using mass spectrometric methods, in future it may be easier to identify and diagnose the disease.
During the summer, we completed a placement at the School of Biosciences at Birmingham University. We were offered an opportunity to shadow Professor Helen J. Cooper and her research group who were investigating the role of proteins in disease using mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. One of the first topics we covered in AS Chemistry was mass spectrometry and we had looked at the basics of how a mass spectrometer worked. There are many different types of mass spectrometer, each deigned to analyse particular types of sample.
The placement did make us feel as if we had ‘been thrown in at the deep end’ in terms of the knowledge we already possessed and the information we were taking in every day, but through asking many questions and doing some extra reading, we can say that it was a fantastic way to learn. It was a huge privilege to get to know the researchers in the Cooper Mass Spectrometry Group and incredible to be able to share the enthusiasm they held for mass spectrometry. We are immensely grateful for the experience!
When inserting a sample into a mass spectrometer the sample, in our case a protein digest mixture, is ionised to produce positively charged ions which may be detected. The sample is then further analysed by tandem mass spectrometric amino acid sequencing techniques.
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Polymerisation Placement
Fiona Chung, U6th Student This summer, I was fortunate enough to have completed my Gold CREST placement at the University of Birmingham from 27th to 30th of August. I had to opportunity to shadow chemists and PhD students from the Dove Research Group, run by Professor Andrew Dove. The group work on sustainable polymers and plastic recycling, polymer stereochemistry and degradable biomaterials. I found this extremely interesting because they were looking at solving issues that are very relevant to our everyday lives and impact the future of our planet.
Biohazards room
When I arrived, I was greeted by the team leader, Dr Chiara Arno, who explained what research the group does and the basics of polymerisation. In the morning, I watched Chiara prepare a polymer in a glove box. A glove box makes it possible to set up reactions without oxygen present (as oxygen can react with the reactants and prevent them forming the desired product). Instead of containing air, the box is filled with nitrogen. I even got a chance to set up an experiment, which made me appreciate how difficult it was to create this environment and how it hard it was to work in a glove box with its restricted mobility issues. Part of the group’s work is to 3D print biodegradable scaffolding to stimulate cell growth in the body. In the afternoon, I had the chance to reactivate some cells from storage in liquid nitrogen (they were frozen to -196°C!) which would then be used to see how compatible they would be with polymers in the body. On Wednesday, I followed Simon, a PhD student, with his project to make a lubricant for oil which used reversible addition−fragmentation chain transfer polymerisation (RAFT) to create the polymer. We were looking at the kinetics, or the rate of reaction, of the process to investigate how long it would take to create the amount of product required for industry. I saw for the firsttime different techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) to determine the molecules present in the sample and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) to test its purity. It was a slow process, but it made me appreciate what life is like as a PhD student and how hard Simon works in order to carry out his research.
Glove box
At the University of Birmingham with the Dove Research Group
NMR
NMR Sample
GPC Sample
On Thursday, I shadowed Kayla, a post doc student, carrying out her project on depolymerisation. It is important that techniques like these are developed so that we don’t use up all the earth’s resources and leave so much waste in landfills. We wanted to break down waste polymers (we used a compact disc and frozen food packaging) into monomers that could then be used to create new, useful polymers. We used NMR to detect that the polymer had broken down into monomers. On Friday morning, I followed Cinzia, a PhD student, in her research to make a lubricant for oil, using a different polymer and type of polymerisation to Simon’s. The reaction was set up in the glove box and NMR readings were taken periodically in order to calculate the conversion over time. The gas phase chromatogram (GPC), which measures molecular weight, was also used. In the afternoon, I followed Anisa who was also a PhD student, looking at 3D printing with resins that had different stereochemistry (same molecular mass but different 3D spatial arrangement of the atoms) and therefore varying mechanical properties. This could then be used to access which resin to use for things like cell scaffolding.
3D Printer
Overall, it was one of the best experiences of my summer and I would like to thank all of the Dove Research Group for their time. I really appreciated the opportunity to see how a chemistry department in a university is run and also experience the research that is happening that demonstrates the real life applications of things we learn in the classroom.
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Thyroid Cancer Over the summer of 2019, our Gold CREST group (Ashley, Lawou and Zaynah) undertook a two-week placement at the University of Birmingham School of Medical and Dental Sciences, in the Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research. The aim of our project was to evaluate whether dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) affected protein levels of sodium iodide symporter (NIS), or instead increased transport of NIS to the plasma membrane of follicular thyroid cells. Our hypothesis was that increasing DMSO concentration leads to an accumulation of NIS protein in the cell. To prove our hypothesis, we carried out a Western Blot to detect the levels of NIS protein in solution with samples which were exposed to increasing concentrations of DMSO. If our results displayed bands of NIS protein increasing in size, we would prove our hypothesis.
Our aims for this project were to become familiar with a range of molecular research techniques and understand how they may be applied to medical research. This we did successfully! We really enjoyed our CREST project - it improved our research skills, our practical technique, and has given us an insight into our future careers! This project was completed under the supervision and guidance of Dr Vicki Smith, Dr Paul Foster and PhD Student Caitlin Thornton. Our investigation focused on thyroid cancer, and how certain drugs or solvents increase or decrease the effectiveness of cancer treatment.
Ashley Kabue, U6th Student
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CERN Prana Karthikesu, U6th Student Before arriving at CERN I had a lot of expectations about what it would be like. I imagined towering, futuristic buildings, scientists in white lab coats and everything looking a little like a set from Star Trek! On the first day I met Dr Barney and the other interns from Zurich. The canteen at CERN felt more like a Spanish bar! It was full of physicists wearing t-shirts, Bermuda shorts and sandals, chatting in French and English. I even saw a 2008 Nobel Prize winner in Physics who was responsible for predicting the existence of 3 families of quarks in nature. I was also able to meet the former director general Rolf Heuer, a German physicist who won the Nature’s 10 award. Over the course of the week, Dr Barney took us on the 15-minute car ride to the site of the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) detector, which is 100 metres underground and located over the border in France. On arrival we met the safety coordinator who gave us clearance. We then passed through the control room, which was dormant as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was currently turned off and all the experimental physicists were doing maintenance operations on the CMS. We then passed through an iris scanning machine in order to proceed to the elevator shaft. My job was to test each high voltage power supply by connecting it to the main hardware in the underground service cavern (USC). I used some software called gecko to monitor the current and voltage outputs to see if they were constant for each of 5288 silicon detectors making up the preshower detector. At the end of the test, David told me that my data would actually be used by CMS.
This experience completely changed my life. It felt amazing collaborating with physicists on an international scale. The energy and passion the physicists had at CERN has motivated me to work harder. I felt proud by the end of the week to able to confidently conduct various test on the preshower detector.
NEWS|GOLD CREST
Lasers
Tarun Lalli and Dathusan Partheepan, U6th Students As part of our Gold CREST project, we spent around two weeks at the University of Birmingham under the guidance of Dr Vincent Boyer and PhD student Eleanor Fradgley, participating in the practical element required as part of the project. During our time there, we learnt about the quantum nature of light, quantum and classical noise of laser light and how noise level of laser light can be reduced by squeezing light. We started the placement by using our knowledge of A level Physics to gain a better understanding of the concept of quantum, classical noise and squeezing light. Already knowing that light is made up of photons made this easier to understand. We then participated in the PhD student’s research into this to gain a better understanding of this concept and I believe experiencing what was going on made it easier to understand the concept of noise power. We were then, with assistance, able to carry out our own practical and look at how classical/quantum noise is
affected by altering the signal’s power and produce a set of results. Overall, we thoroughly enjoyed our placement at the university, and we felt privileged to be given this spectacular opportunity to take a step up from A level and delve more into the world of Physics. Our favourite part of the placement was being able to experience equipment that we have never come across before, such as the optical equipment that we used in our practical and in collecting results from the experiment. We also enjoyed learning some programming in Python which we were able to use to plot the results of our experiment.
The British Science Festival Coventry and Warwickshire 2019 took place between Tuesday 10th and Friday 13th September. It featured a diverse programme of talks, debates, performances and activities at the University of Warwick and around the city.
The lecture was highly informative and allowed the lecturers from a range of backgrounds to address the common misconceptions surrounding antibiotic resistance, as well as talk about new methods to combat the problem.
One of the lecturers, specialising in microbiology at Warwick, talked to us about phages (an alternative to antibiotics). These are naturally occurring viruses (that are safe to humans) that kill bacteria by getting into bacterial cells and replicating their DNA until it kills the host.
On Wednesday 11th September, a group of Lower Sixth students attended a lecture at the University of Warwick called ‘Super Drugs for Superbugs’ about antimicrobial resistance and new ways to overcome this problem. Lower Sixth student Charlotte Bull said, ‘It was an excellent opportunity for us to gain further knowledge about biological problems currently faced by the scientific community.’
The whole panel eloquently presented their points and answered the questions from the public well. It was a great experience and has helped us to understand a problem that will be faced in the future as well as what could be done to reduce the severity of this issue. Charlotte Merry, U6th Student
Charlotte Merry, U6th Student On Friday 13 September, a group of Lower Sixth students attended a second lecture at the University of Warwick entitled ‘One Cell to rule them all’ about chromosomes and cells. It was an excellent opportunity for the students to gain further knowledge about chromosomes and the process of cell division, both of which will be covered in A-level Biology.
Lower Sixth student, Charlotte Bull said, ‘The lecturer was extremely passionate about his research and was excited to show us footage from his electron microscope, that is yet to be published. We were all extremely shocked by the staggering number of cells (50 trillion) that we have in our body, and the fact that one billion cells are born and die every day!
’He also told us about a way to clearly see parts of the cell which was extremely interesting. They use fluorescent proteins, originating from a jellyfish that radiate bright colours when blue light is shone at the cell. This made the chromosomes much more visible and helped us see the process of cell division and where it can go wrong, resulting in genetic complications.’
Lower Sixth student, Nithisa said ‘It was a great experience for us all and we really appreciate the opportunity to widen our knowledge’. The two lectures we attended were thoroughly interesting and the students learnt many new things which stretched and challenged them beyond the A level syllabus.’
Oxford Natural History Museum
Mr Kalsi, Chemistry Teacher. Over the summer holiday I visited the Oxford Museum of Natural History and was amazed by what I saw. I would strongly encourage you to go!
What particularly intrigued me was the large range of skeletons on display, especially those of the dinosaurs, which were very impressive. There was also a large collection of minerals and rocks to look at. A few pictures from my trip may hopefully stimulate your interest and encourage you to visit and learn more about Science and History!
The Museum’s website says ‘the parade of skeletons in the main court is one of the Museum’s most photogenic displays. Even just a quick glance at the line-up reveals some of the great diversity of evolutionary adaptations of these large mammals.
Willem Kolff: Machinery, not Weaponry Upper Sixth student, Viren Thandi wrote a short article for the Oxford science writing competition. Although he was not selected as a winner, his article is very interesting to read.
Willem Kolff lived in wartime Germany but did not experience bloodshed from the front line; instead, he came into contact with it through a machine. This machine would be developed in the future to save many lives - millions, in fact - yet during the early days of the invention, it received little praise The early dialysis machine must have seemed no more extraordinary than a whirring barrel in a laundry tub. Kolff’s discoveries are often overlooked by more ‘revolutionary’ developments in medicine, such as mass-producing the first antibiotic; for a nephrologist, however, to suggest that Kolff’s invention was not vitally important would be akin to dismissing the invention of the pacemaker in cardiology. Therefore, this begs the question: how did such a brilliant, impactful invention come to be?
‘This machine would be known in the future to save many lives – millions in fact.’ Like many brilliant inventions, Kolff’s invention was the result of an observation made in 1938, and quite an unfortunate one at that. Whilst in his prime as a young student physician, studying at university, Dr. Kolff observed the suffering and ultimate death of a young man. The cause of death was temporary renal failure. This was undoubtedly a moment of great insight in Dr. Kolff’s life, as he was about to theorize an idea which would permanently change nephrology; by providing the build-up of waste products within the bloodstream following renal failure, he would be able to provide the patient with extra precious time in the absence of kidney functionality. This would allow the tissues within the kidney to regenerate sufficiently. Evidently, Dr. Kolff could not wait to perform post-doctoral research; he immediately began work on his designs for an
‘Kolff’s contribution to the field of nephrology is extremely fascinating, and is still very relevant in present day healthcare’ artificial kidney whilst still studying at the University of Groningen. Following his graduation from the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, Dr. Kolff began working within a small hospital in the same city where he had graduated. However, he was soon to encounter a difficult predicament; his hospital had had undergone a leadership change during German occupation of the Netherlands, a change which he naturally disagreed with, and he was forced to move from Groningen to a small hospital in Kampen. After moving to Kampen, in 1943, during the climax of the second World War, Willem Kolff developed the first functioning artificial kidney, but resources were limited; the first dialysis machine was constructed using a wooden barrel, a metal tub, an electric motor, a semi-permeable sausage casing - anything which Kolff had access to. The casing was filled with ions usually found in the
blood (magnesium and sodium ions) to prevent oxygen starvation, but no urea was present in the dialysate fluid. The dialysis fluid, in practice was brilliant - molecules of urea would diffuse into the dialysate fluid through multiple membranes, removing waste products from the blood, yet keeping useful ions within the bloodstream. The first artificial kidney undoubtedly had functionality, but not necessarily aesthetics! However, the first patients to use the artificial kidney encountered little success. The machine was only able to prolong their life by a couple of days in its early stages, meaning the machine failed to attract much acclaim in a time where money was better spent on rehabilitating soldiers and mass-producing medication. Despite this, improvements to the dialysis machine showed significant extensions to life post-1945. In 1945, a woman had an extra seven years of life with the aid of the artificial kidney; highlighting the dialysis machine as a suitable treatment of acute renal failure. Over the length of his career, Dr Kolff attained a total of 12 honorary doctorates and 120 international awards. The dedication of an individual to his profession during a time of warfare where his research was limited by the resources available. Personally, I find Kolff’s contribution to the field of nephrology is extremely fascinating and is still very relevant in present day healthcare; globally, approximately 1 in 10 people have chronic kidney disease. If access to this vital life-saving piece of medical equipment improves, it has the potential to save millions of lives on a global scale.
Upper Sixth student, Ashley Kabue entered a short article titled ‘The Point of Pencils’ in the
The Point of Pencils Oxford Schools Writing Competition Oxford Schools Writing Competition Hilary Term 2019. She was one of the runners up for the competition and her article is below.
Often viewed as a mundane writing utensil used primarily by young children and artists, pencils are a highly underappreciated tool. For hundreds of years, they have enabled students and scientists alike to record discoveries, quickly note their observations, and most importantly, erase their mistakes. However, they have a long, and at times toxic, history.
other carbons forming an hexagonal arrangement. The uniqueness of graphite is due to the layered arrangement of the sheets of hexagons. The layers are arranged one on top of the other, and have weak Van der Waals intermolecular forces between them, that are easily broken - indeed, these weak forces are the reason we can write with graphite. The friction between the pencil and paper creates enough pressure to remove one layer from the pencil and onto the paper, leaving a trace behind. Erasing pencil marks is simple, with the invention of rubbers in 1770. Before this time, people used
The early ancestor of the modern pencil was the stylus, as used by the ancient Romans. It was a thin metal rod which left a light, but visible, mark on their papyrus sheets. A few millennia later, a vast graphite deposit was discovered in Cumbria, England. The deposit was the largest and purest source of graphite found in the 1500’s and from this, the production of the pencil was set into action. However, at that time, graphite sticks with sharpened ends but no wooden casing were used as writing devices - similar to large crayons!
Over the next few centuries, developments were made. In the late 1500’s, they were fashioned with wooden casings; in the 1790’s, the hardness of the graphite could be varied by mixing powdered graphite and clay and heating it in a kiln. The eraser was patented, and then added to pencils by Hymen Lipman in 1858. Graphite is a unique substance - it is non-toxic, inexpensive, and has a chemical structure perfect for its role in pencils. It has a giant covalent structure. Each carbon atom has strong covalent bonds with three
rolled-up pieces of white bread to remove unwanted pencil marks. The dubious origin story behind erasers is that Edward Naime, a British engineer, accidentally picked up a piece of rubber instead of white bread - and thus, the rubber was born. Despite the veracity of that story, the eraser was one pivotal development that increased the ease with which pencils could be used. As they are rubbed against the paper, heat is generated from the friction. This warms the rubber enough for it to stick to the graphite particles on the outer surface of the paper and lift them.
To conclude, it is easy to take for granted the tools we have: without pencils, the day to day life of myself and my peers would be much more difficult. Progressing in scientific advancements is important...but so is stopping to take a look back at the less exciting, but essential, components of our life - like pencils!
A common misconception held by many – including myself at one time – is that the core of pencils was once lead, which resulted in the name ‘lead pencils’. This is indeed a misnomer, as upon its discovery in Cumbria it was named plumbago (‘lead ore ’in Latin) as it was presumed to be a form of lead. However, occasional cases of lead poisoning from pencils were reported until its use in pencils was banned in the mid 20th century - it was not the core, which was made of graphite, but the lead paint on the wooden casing! Simply chewing pencils absentmindedly could result in toxic lead entering the body, causing often fatal effects. Large exposure to lead can easily cause brain damage. The body ‘mistakes’ lead for calcium, and therefore allows it to enter the brain. It then affects the storage of calcium inside cells which can lead to the death of neurons and brain cells. It can also intercept and hijack calcium’s role within the brain, interrupting the release of neurotransmitters within the brain, which affects learning and memory in children. Thankfully, it is now illegal to use paint coating lead in compound for pencils, meaning that it is highly unlikely for this to occur ever again.
The science writing competition should encourage school students to think about science outside of the classroom, and it gives them the opportunity to explore their own scientific interests in a creative way.
I hope the Lower Sixth students take the opportunity to submit a short article for the science writing competition. Each term has a new theme and more information can be found at http://oxsci.org/schools/
About the Editors Special regards to the main editor
Mr Mike Masters Mr Kalsi
Areej Raza
Head Editor
Head Designer
Ellie Aitchison ‘Isomerism in Transition Metal Complexes’
Vedika Bedi ‘Crosswinds and Trains’
Khushi Dhadda ‘Gold Crest Placement on Dentistry’
Charlotte Merry British Science Festival Articles
Fiona Chung ‘Polymerisation Placement’
Viren Thandi ‘Willem Kolff’
Angel Ma ‘Oxford Natural History Museum’
Ashley Kabue ‘The Point of Pencils’
