Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions 2010 Vol 1 by Barbados Labour Party

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions 2010 Volume 1: Human Development Challenges in a Global Crisis: Addressing Growth and Social Inclusion

Submitted to the Government of Barbados, National Assessment Team (NAT) and the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) on behalf of Team of Consultants (TOC)

Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies (SALISES) University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus, Barbados

December 2012

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies (SALISES) would like to thank the Government of Barbados and the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) for commissioning this study of living conditions in Barbados. The Instituteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s team was supported by the Barbados Statistical Services (BSS), Caribbean Development and Research Services (CADRES) and the National Nutrition Centre (NNC). Organisational support was provided by the Ministry of Social Care, Constituency Empowerment and Community Development, along with a National Assessment Team (NAT) and associated committees to cover different dimensions of the project. Several individuals within the Institute and the organizations mentioned above contributed greatly to the exercise. We would also like to thank our research assistants, field workers and participants in the SLC, PPA and the IA, along with those who attended the town hall meetings for supplying us with valuables information. The team would like to thank the reviewers and individuals who made comments on early drafts of the study. We have tried to incorporate as many of these suggestions as possible.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) 2010 Main Report TABLE OF CONTENTS Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... vi A Macro Socioeconomic Overview: 1995 to 2010 .............................................................................................. vi Living Conditions and Poverty in Barbados in 2010 .......................................................................................... vii Causes of Poverty in Barbados ............................................................................................................................. ix Addressing the Causes and Correlates of Poverty in Barbados ............................................................................ xi Recommendations .............................................................................................................................................. xiii 1.

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.

The Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) ...........................................................1

1.2.

Report Structure..........................................................................................................................................3

Barbados CALC Methodology ....................................................................................................... 5 2.1.

The Macro Social and Economic Assessment (MSEA) .............................................................................5

2.2.

The Survey of Living Conditions (SLC) ....................................................................................................5

2.3.

The Participator Poverty Assessments (PPAs) ...........................................................................................9

2.4.

The Institutional Assessment (IA) ............................................................................................................10

2.5.

Linking Components and Results .............................................................................................................11

A Macro Socioeconomic Overview of Barbados: 1995 to 2010 .................................................. 12 3.1.

Development Strategies and Policies .......................................................................................................12

3.2.

Growth and Structural Change .................................................................................................................14

3.3.

Macroeconomic Environment ..................................................................................................................14

3.4.

Labour Market Dynamics .........................................................................................................................15

3.5.

Social Sector Developments .....................................................................................................................18

3.6.

Crime and Violence ..................................................................................................................................22

3.7.

Governance ...............................................................................................................................................23

3.8.

Habitat Patterns and the Environment ......................................................................................................23

3.9.

Summary...................................................................................................................................................24

Poverty and Living Conditions in Barbados in 2010.................................................................... 25 4.1.

Definitions, Perceptions and Indicators ....................................................................................................25 i

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

4.2.

Describing Poverty and Living Conditions in Barbados ..........................................................................29

4.3.

Findings: The Correlates of Poverty in Barbados.....................................................................................50

4.4.

Examining the Causes of Poverty in Barbados ........................................................................................60

4.5.

Policy Development: Addressing the Causes and Correlates of Poverty in Barbados .............................63

An Ex Ante Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) ............................................................. 66

Conclusion and Recommendations: ............................................................................................. 69

Appendix I: Overview of Results from CALC 2010 and IDB Study 1996 .......................................... 72 Appendix II: Institutional Profiles from the Institutional Assessment ................................................. 73 Appendix III: Millennium Development Goals for Barbados: Targets and Indicators ........................ 85 TABLES Table 1: Main Poverty Indicators for Barbados (2010) .......................................................................................... viii Table 2: Policy Targets and Goals........................................................................................................................... xii Table 3: Response Rates by Strata .............................................................................................................................8 Table 4: Final List of Institutions .............................................................................................................................10 Table 5: The Millennium Development Goals and the Status of Barbados .............................................................12 Table 6: Sectoral Distribution of Real GDP 1995-2010 (1974 - base year) (%) ......................................................13 Table 7: Fiscal Balance and Balance of Payments 1995 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010 (%) .......................................................................15 Table 8: Employed Occupations by Expenditure Quintile (%) ................................................................................16 Table 9: Employment and Unemployment 1995-2010 ............................................................................................17 Table 10: Wage Increases and Inflation, 1990 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010 (%) ......................................................................................17 Table 11: Highest Examination Passed- Not Currently Enrolled by Expenditure Quintile (%) ..............................18 Table 12: Selected Social Indicators for Barbados 1990-2010 ................................................................................20 Table 13: Composite Matrix of Institutional Methodologies ...................................................................................21 Table 14: Main Poverty Indicators for Barbados (2010) ..........................................................................................26 Table 15: Regional Poverty Indicators .....................................................................................................................27 Table 16: Sex/Age Categories by Poverty Status (%) ..............................................................................................30 Table 17: Average Household Size and Overcrowding by Poverty Status ..............................................................30 Table 18: Households Owning Assets by Poverty Status (%) ..................................................................................31 Table 19: Type of Household and Poverty Level of PPA Households ....................................................................31 Table 20: Rating of Living Standard versus Childhood Household of Head of Household by Expenditure Quintile (%) ............................................................................................................................................................................32 Table 21: Material of Outer Walls- 1997 to 2010 (%) .............................................................................................33 Table 22: Material of Outer Walls by Expenditure Quintile (%) .............................................................................33 Table 23: Rating of adequacy of Water Supply by Strata (%) .................................................................................34 ii

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Table 24: Cross-tabulation of Presence of Mother and Father in the Household (%) ..............................................36 Table 25: Reported Medical Conditions Suffered (% of Cases) (multiple response) ..............................................37 Table 26: Average Waiting Time by Last Medical Facility Visited (minutes) ........................................................37 Table 27: Highest Examination Passed- Not Currently Enrolled by Expenditure Quintile (%) ..............................39 Table 28: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Sex (%) ............................................................................39 Table 29: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Age Group (%) ................................................................40 Table 30: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Expenditure Quintile (%) ................................................40 Table 31: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Sex (%) .......................................................................41 Table 32: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Age Group (%) ..........................................................41 Table 33: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Expenditure Quintile (%) ............................................42 Table 34: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Poverty Status (%) ......................................................42 Table 35: Employment Status of those Employed by Sex (%) ................................................................................42 Table 36: Employment Status of those Employed by Expenditure Quintile (%) .....................................................43 Table 37: Employed Occupations by Expenditure Quintile (%) ..............................................................................43 Table 38: Sex of Self-Employed by Expenditure Quintile (%) ................................................................................44 Table 39: Approximate Business Income in the Last Month (%) ............................................................................44 Table 40: Period Unemployed for those seeking work by Sex (%) .........................................................................45 Table 41: Reasons for Not Seeking Work for the Voluntarily Unemployed by Sex (%) .........................................46 Table 42: Level of Education Prior to Departure by Expenditure Quintile (%) .......................................................46 Table 43: Individuals Change in Key Economic Variables since mid-2007 (%) .....................................................47 Table 44: Net Income from Main Job in Last Month by Sex (%) ............................................................................47 Table 45: Net Income from Main Job in the Last Month by Strata (%) ...................................................................48 Table 46: Main Sources of Income by Expenditure Quintile (%) ............................................................................48 Table 47: Dependency Ratios and Household Size by Sex of Head of Household..................................................52 Table 48: Policy Targets and Goals..........................................................................................................................64 Table 50: Poverty and Social Impact Assessment (PSIA) Matrix ............................................................................68 Table 51: Millennium Development Goals and Status of Barbados ........................................................................85 Table 52: Millennium Development Goals and Indicators for Selected Years- Date and Data Gaps (various years) ..................................................................................................................................................................................86

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Acronyms and Abbreviations BCC BMC BNTF BOP BSS CADRES CALC CARICOM CBO CDB CNCD CPA CSEC CSME CXC ED GDP HDR HIV/AIDS IA IDB IMF MCFB MCNFB MDGs MSEA MSM/G NAT NGO NNC OECD PLHIV PoA PPA PSIA RDC SALISES SJPP SLC SMEs UDC UNDP UWI VAT WTO YES

Barbados Community College Borrowing Member Country Basic Needs Trust Fund Balance of Payments Barbados Statistical Service Caribbean Development Research Services Country Assessment of Living Conditions Caribbean Community Community-Based Organisation Caribbean Development Bank Chronic Non-Communicable Disease Country Poverty Assessment Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate CARICOM Single Market and Economy Caribbean Examination Council Enumeration District Gross Domestic Product Human Development Report Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Institutional Assessment Inter-American Development Bank International Monetary Fund Minimum Cost Food Basket Minimum Costs Non-Food Basket Millennium Development Goals Macro Social and Economic Assessment Men who have sex with men and gay men National Assessment Team Non-Governmental Organisation National Nutrition Centre Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Persons Living with HIV/AIDS Plan of Action Participatory Poverty Analysis Poverty and Social Impact Analysis Rural Development Commission Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies Samuel Jackman Prescott Polytechnic Survey of Living Conditions Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Urban Development Commission United Nations Development Program University of the West Indies Value-Added Tax World Trade Organisation Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) 2010

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) represents a comprehensive study of the state of living conditions in 2010 and the factors affecting this state. The study goes beyond the mere study of ‘poverty’ by examining the several dimensions of living in Barbados. Poverty can be defined as the inability to attain an acceptable minimal ‘standard of living’ with available resources at either the individual or the household level. Poverty analysis therefore focuses on the lower segments of the population in terms of assets, income or consumption. The minimal standard is reflected in the specification of a ‘poverty line’ defined in terms of assets, income or consumption/expenditure. ‘Living conditions’ however relate to the state, circumstances and relationships which affect the way the population of a country lives. Living conditions analysis covers the full distribution of the population (lower, middle and upper). As a multi-dimensional concept, living conditions cover such areas as education, health, housing, labour market status, human security, environment, governance, economic activity and social relations. Indeed, attempts have been made to develop indices of living conditions for several countries, based on a range of social, economic, governance and environmental indicators. While this CALC study examines the poverty situation in Barbados, it also focuses on the broader aspect of living conditions in the country. The CALC consisted of four (4) components: a Macro Socio-Economic Assessment (MSEA); a Survey of Living Conditions (SLC); a Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) of communities and households and vulnerable groups; and an Institutional Analysis (IA).

A Macro Socioeconomic Overview: 1995 to 2010 Over the period 1995 to 2010, Barbados was able to achieve a ‘very high human development’ status in terms of the UNDP’s human development index which combines indicators of health and education status and livelihood. Since 1990, it has been ranked among the top 50 countries in the world. Over the period 2005 to 2011, Barbados Human Development Index has fell from 0.89 to 0.79, while its ranking has fell from 31 in 2005 to 47 in 2011 (UN HDR, 2007; UN HDR, 2012). Despite these declines, Barbados is still considered to have a very high human development status. The country’s development strategy has been to facilitate the development of the private sector in the production of goods and services. In addition, to providing the regulatory framework for economic and social development, the Government has also sought to maintain macroeconomic stability and foster a Social Partnership involving the representatives of employers and workers. Several policy measures have been introduced to improve the living conditions of the population, covering such areas as health, education, housing, environment, livelihood and social welfare. The economy has seen a shift from being largely agricultural in the 1950s to a high services orientation at present. In addition, it has made the transition to an ‘innovation driven’ economy as defined by the World Economic Forum. While the services sector, led by tourism, international business and distribution, was the main driver of economic growth, such growth was modest by comparative standards - approximately 3 percent per annum over the 1995-2010 period. In general, there was an improvement in the standard and conditions of living over the study period. As a small, open developing country, Barbados is vulnerable to external shocks such as those which occurred in 2001 and vi

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2008-9, leading to a restriction in output, increase in unemployment and, as a consequence, an increase in transient poverty. Furthermore, given the commitments to the WTO and the CSME, policy measures have been taken to liberalise the economy which has meant some re-adjustment in the economy. The government adopted a policy stance to maintain equilibrium in the BOP and contain the fiscal deficit, while promoting economic growth and employment creation. Unemployment declined significantly over the 1995 to 2010 period and only spiked with the advent of the economic recessions. The labour market witnessed an increase in the educational attainment of workers and the growth in the number of professional females in employment. There is still a high percent of the employed labour force in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;low skillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; jobs (approximately 60 percent) and youth unemployment remains a challenge. While there was improvement in health and education, there were still challenges with the health status of the population with respect to chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) and the quality of the output of the school system. There were improvements in the quantity and quality of housing, but as the SLC and PPA studies indicate, there were still pockets of unsatisfactory living conditions among the poor and vulnerable sections of the population. The Government has also introduced a range of institutional and program initiatives to address the living conditions of the disadvantaged in the country. A review of 31 institutions (government, NGOs and development partners) which provide a range of services to enhance the living conditions of the population revealed that several approaches have been used over the years: training, technical assistance, funding, infrastructural support, advocacy, income support and care and counseling. These measures have sought to improve access to housing, education and health, provide a means to enhance livelihoods and reduce social exclusion and discrimination. It was noted that there was a high degree of overlap in the provision of services (some of which was justified) but also gaps in the provision of vital services to help raise the living conditions of persons especially the poor. Some of the gaps include access to production resources, and addressing morbidity/mortality from illnesses, homelessness, housing and social exclusion and discrimination. Some of these gaps are reflected in the response from the PPA involving vulnerable groups, households and communities.

Living Conditions and Poverty in Barbados in 2010 A stratified random sample of households and individuals conducted during the period January to April 2010 (2425 households and 6973 individuals with 5618 of them being adults 15 years and over) indicated that 15.0 percent of households and 19.3 percent of individuals were existing below the poverty line of BDS$7861. Although the Government sought to maintain employment levels in the face of an economic recession, it was expected that there would have been some increase in poverty in 2010. The data also indicate that the poverty gap (the extent to which the poor existed below the poverty line) was 6.0, while the severity of poverty was in the order of 3.2. These figures compare favourably with those in countries which conducted poverty assessments in the Caribbean around the same time. The degree of expenditure (income) inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient was 0.47, which suggests a possible increase in inequality when compared with 1979 (Gini of 0.46) and 1996/7 (Gini of 0.39). These figures must however be interpreted with caution given the differences in measurement used in the studies.

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Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 1: Main Poverty Indicators for Barbados (2010) Variable Poverty Line Vulnerability Line Household Poverty Rate Individual Poverty Rate Poverty Gap Poverty Severity Gini Coefficient Poor Household Size Non-Poor Household Size Poor Households Headed by Females (% of Poor Households) Non-poor Households Headed by Females (%Non-poor Households Poverty Rate for Female Headed Households Poverty Rate for Male Headed Households Overcrowding in Poor Households Overcrowding in Non-poor Households Unemployment Rate in Poor Households Unemployment Rate in Non-poor Households

Value BDS$$7,860.65 BDS$9,825.82 15.0% 19.3% 6.0 3.2 0.47 3.7 2.7 62.2% 47.0% 19.4% 11.5% 11.0% 3.0% 25.9% 8.9%

The features associated with the living conditions in Barbados, especially among the poor are not dissimilar to those in other Caribbean countries. Some of the prominent features include the poor being associated with larger household sizes, more children 15 years and under, overcrowding in households, low human capital, low paying jobs and unemployment, female-headed, concentrated in both urban and rural areas and engagement in informal sector activity. Poorer households have few material assets with insecure tenure of property and, although there is universal secondary level education, few children are able to take advantage of such education because of their economic circumstances. The CALC analysis reinforced the role of education in breaking the intergenerational transfer of poverty as some individuals sought to improve their living conditions through training and further education. The existence of a public health service via the polyclinic system has made access to the health system readily available, but with relatively longer waiting times than in private clinics. As indicated in the social and economic assessment, there is a high incidence of chronic non-communicable diseases among both the poor and non-poor. The poor depend much more than the non-poor on public assistance for income and household help (and in some cases, gifts and remittances from friends and family). An in-depth analysis of living conditions in 12 communities and among 12 vulnerable groups using a participatory method gave a rich narrative and voice to the secondary data collected for the MSEA and the survey data from the SLC. The community and household analysis pointed to the improvements in housing, health and educational facilities but the absence of community centres, rights of title to land/property and some overcrowding. As in the SLC, there was evidence that some households still use pit latrines or had no toilet facilities. Employment among the poor households in the communities was intermittent and in low paying jobs, thus resulting in transient poverty. While there was a high level of school attendance, there was a significant incidence of functional illiteracy among the youth. The drug trade and other forms of illegal activity were prevalent in some communities. There was also a lack of satisfaction with the services provided by the social services and there was little NGO/CBO activity in the communities. While the respondents indicated a general improvement in the living conditions over the past decade especially in health and education, the economic recession has caused a setback with the existence of transient poverty.

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The analysis of vulnerable groups reinforced many of the conclusions of the community and household analysis and the SLC, but emphasized the stigma, discrimination and social exclusion associated with being a member of a vulnerable group (sex worker, disabled, Rastafari, gay, homeless, persons with HIV/AIDS, to mention some). The attitudes of persons towards these groups has meant lack of access to several public amenities/services and therefore limiting their ability to enhance their living conditions.

Causes of Poverty in Barbados The results of the analysis of the data to emerge from the CALC revealed a number of interconnected issues as it related specifically to poverty, vulnerability and social and familial exclusion. In seeking to investigate the relationships between the issues identified, the CALC provided an analysis of the causes and correlates of poverty at different levels to inform the development of policy to address the issues identified. Reviewing the characteristics of poor households and individuals from the CALC, two main correlates were identified. In relation to the labour market, poor households experienced higher levels of unemployment and employment in low-paying or part-time jobs (underemployment). For household structure, poor households demonstrated high dependency ratios where earners were outnumbered by non-earners in the household. These high levels of dependency not only led to lower per capita income and expenditure, they also increased the burden of care which further curtailed participation in the labour market and in education. This was especially the case for female-headed households which had a greater number of children to care for as opposed to adult non-earners. Among the contributors to poor living conditions and to poverty were â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;coming from a poor familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, high fertility rates, large numbers of children and lack of support from childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fathers, unemployment and low wages, lack of education, and disability. Several respondents also indicated that the recent recession and the high cost of living, especially the cost of food and of high utility bills, were having a serious negative effect on their living conditions, on their ability to meet their basic needs, and to sustain their livelihoods. Respondents identified some of the devastating effects that living in poor conditions and living in poverty have on their health, on their relationships, on how they are treated by others in relation to social and familial exclusion, and on their self esteem. Many stressed the serious psychological and emotional damage that they experience, including stress, anxiety, depression, frustration, helplessness, and powerlessness. These issues are all strongly interrelated with three main characteristics: unemployment, low paying/part-time employment (underemployment), high levels of dependency in households, and social and familial exclusion. Following an analysis of the causes of these characteristics of poverty in Barbados, five main issues emerged, namely: a lack of desire to work; a lack of qualification/skills; a lack of opportunities in the labour market; a disproportionate burden of care; and stigma and discrimination. An overview of these issues is provided below.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

enough or they consider the type of work available to be ‘below them’. This issue of high reservation wages may also be linked to certification where, for those certified in some way, they expect a certain level of remuneration. In addition, if available employment opportunities are below the level of certification of the individual, they may be disinclined to enter employment. The results of the PPA give further insight into the lack of desire to work with the reasons given for not participating in the labour market being a preference for freedom and leisure. The specific comments arising from the PPA in relation to not wanting to work were: “get up when you want to” “you don’t have the stress of going to work” “pick up your children [from school] and spend time with them” “more time to lime, time to enjoy your freedom” “feeling good, like you on vacation” These results suggest that freedom, freedom from stress, and preference for leisure were among some of the reasons for not wanting to work.

Lack of Qualifications/Skills The lack of qualifications amongst the lowest expenditure groups is despite the high proportion of Government expenditure on education; approximately 20%. From the SLC, 56% of those in the lowest quintile had no qualifications. The question of quantity versus quality of education needs to be questioned in this light, as well as the reasons for not completing qualifications. The results of the SLC, in reviewing reasons for not completing technical/vocational training courses, suggest that this was related to financial problems, other work, home duties and simply ‘not worth attending’ (a quality/relevance issue). This suggests that there are other pressures on the individual (burden of care) which is precluding the attainment of qualifications and skills and leaving school early. The effects of a lack of qualifications/skills are unemployment, larger households (as dependents lack the resources to leave the household), and employment in low-paying sectors due to limited skill-sets.

Lack of Opportunities in the Labour Market While the lack of opportunities in the labour market can be attributable to general economic conditions and the industrial organisation of the country, there are other issues related to either a perceived or real lack of opportunities in the labour market: Lack of knowledge of available opportunities: While 9.8% of the voluntary unemployed indicated that they did not want to work because they knew of no vacancies, the related figure for the youth was 13.8%. In addition, in seeking jobs, information sources are predominantly newspapers (50.7%) or word of mouth (36.3%). There is limited utilisation of the National Employment Bureau (5.9%). While newspapers may provide a valid formal source of dissemination about available jobs, the reliance on word of mouth is inefficient as it will be related to a person’s social network which may be unable to provide the scope of opportunities persons consider suitable to their remuneration needs or qualification level. Lack of utilisation of self-employment as a career option: There are a number of issues affecting the uptake of self-employment including societal stigmatisation, lack of awareness and a lack of capital (human, physical, x

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

financial and social). While the level of stigmatisation of self-employment in Barbados has notably decreased in recent years in tandem with public sector support for self-employment (FundAccess and the Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme), the lack of awareness is still a barrier which needs to be addressed through the education system from the primary level. This approach is noted as useful as it not only raises awareness of selfemployment as a career option, but also increases the understanding of business among future employees to the benefit of their employer. The issue of lack of capital is however a more difficult issue to address as it does not simply relate to the provision of finance, but also to the generation of human and social capital (qualifications, experience, and building of networks).

Burden of care The issue of high dependency ratios in poor households, especially female headed households, is a matter of concern beyond the constraint it presents in terms of being able to exploit opportunities in the labour market. Even though persons in households with duty to care for children and the elderly are unable to enter the labour market or fully exploit the opportunities in the labour market beyond part-time or menial labour, there is also the issue of constraining educational opportunities. These occurrences subsequently lead to a cycle of persistent poverty as they are unable to achieve certification to obtain better paying employment or any employment, and break the cycle of poverty.

Stigma and Discrimination In addition to these constraints at the individual level, there is also the external barrier to access due to stigma and discrimination because of age, sex, area of residence, religion, disability, sexuality, migrant status or HIV status. This discrimination in the labour force constrains the opportunities available to the unemployed. In addition, stigma and discrimination also constrains access to social services and support frameworks with the family and community. The outcome of this social and familial exclusion is homelessness, poor housing conditions, ill-health, inadequate nutrition, drug and alcohol abuse, and a variety of psychological effects. All of these in turn can have detrimental effects on accessing support services or participation in the labour market or education, reinforcing and perpetuating the cycle of poverty and exclusion.

Addressing the Causes and Correlates of Poverty in Barbados There are a variety of mediums through which policy can address these issues, directly or indirectly. These mediums include the provision of employment (expanded economic opportunities and the reduction of stigma and discrimination), increases in real income (reduction of costs faced by poor households, increases in wages through transfers, or increased qualifications to obtain higher paying employment), provision of assets (physical, natural, social, human and financial), and access to social and developmental goods and services (institutional development and the reduction of social exclusion). Given these mediums for the alleviation of poverty in Barbados, the issues identified require a number of interventions at the personal and institutional level. In considering the development of these interventions, specific sub-groups that will require special consideration during any policy formulation will be females, the youth and the disabled. In terms of policy development, Table 2 outlines recommendations for the implementation of general interventions to reduce poverty in Barbados. Specific interventions are outlined in the various volumes of the CALC.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 2: Policy Targets and Goals Policy Targets Increase the desire to enter the labour market Increase the ability to enter and fully exploit opportunities in the labour market and social support services (personal and skill development, dissemination of information on vacancies and other opportunities, increased employment opportunities through economic growth and reduced stigmatisation)

Policy Goals Reduction in reservation wages/increases in real wages and the instillation of an industrious culture over a preference for leisure Increase the status of jobs available Increase the ease of access to educational opportunities through reducing the burden of care and work-related pressures. Enhance the relevance, effectiveness and quality of education. Increase investment, especially in agriculture and manufacturing, science and technology Increase dissemination of employment opportunities Enhance the status of self-employment as a career option and improve access to resources for enterprise development Reduce stigma and discrimination utilizing a participatory approach and sensitisation campaigns and training Reduce the burden of care experienced by poor households, especially femaleheaded households through the provision of support services and transfers, especially improved support for family care-givers Adult education programmes in communities related to personal development, self esteem, confidence building, interpersonal relationships, parent education, problem-solving and conflict resolution and anger management.

Of particular interest is the reduction of stigma and discrimination which has implications for all of those living in poverty. Recommendations include: 



 

Law reform to deal with gaps and inadequacies in legislation, legal practice and provide redress including anti-discrimination legislation, the decriminalization of buggery and the implementation of legal measures to eliminate sexual harassment. Public information and sensitisation to reduce stigma and discrimination against those living in poverty, to foster understanding and respect, and promote the notion of a life without stigma, social exclusion and poverty as a fundamental human right. Community interventions for stigma reduction and protection, general care and support and rebuilding a culture of volunteerism as well as promoting advocacy and action among persons in vulnerable groups. Comprehensive gender training programmes implemented for different groups of citizens including policy makers and programme planners as well as ordinary citizens. Such programmes are critical to raise awareness of gender socialization, of gender roles, responsibilities, and relationships, and to increase understanding of gender issues that need to be addressed to ensure gender equity, and gender equality and to decrease gender discrimination.

Further steps to be undertaken in constructing the development of these policy goals by the Government of Barbados and relevant agencies, given that the main issues have been identified, general policy recommendations made and beneficiaries identified, are as follows:  

Clarification of policy goals (direct impacts) and an indication of a time period for the achievement of goals (short, medium, long term) Indication of implementing institutions for the various policies recommended

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It is however critical that in the planning process that residents in communities, and especially those in poorer households, be involved in deciding, planning, implementing and evaluating programmes and projects intended to improve living conditions and alleviate poverty. Of primary importance in the development of policy in this area is the implementation of systems for Monitoring and Evaluation. This is especially as it relates to specific indicators being put in place to ensure that on-going monitoring of all initiatives, activities, programmes and projects intended to improve living conditions and to alleviate poverty, are being implemented in ways that will ensure that their objectives can be achieved. The current lack of Monitoring and Evaluation by support institutions was identified as a major shortcoming in the current social safety net framework by the Institutional Assessment (IA) component of the Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) and in seeking to implement effective policy interventions, monitoring and evaluation should be at the core.

Recommendations The empirical assessment of living conditions in Barbados over the 1995 to 2010 period and the results of an indepth examination via a SLC, a PPA and institutional analysis have led to several policy/programming recommendations:              

Greater investment to promote growth especially in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Such investment should include investment in science and technology; Greater production diversification especially within the services sector which can enhance the foreign exchange base of the country (e.g, creative sector); Implementation of the human resources development strategy and national training plan to complement initiatives in the productive sectors; Implement greater fiscal control via targeted government expenditure and incentives to sectors with growth potential; Develop a Productivity and Competitiveness strategy and program coupled with a marketing program for exporting goods and services; Establish measures to cushion the economy and society from the adverse effects of external shocks (social insurance mechanism); Develop and introduce adult and continuing education programs in various communities supported by programs for enhancing economic opportunities in entrepreneurial activities; Evaluate and monitor the range of poverty initiatives - institutions and programs to establish effectiveness and efficiency; Promote greater involvement in community activities, for example, through constituency councils; Develop a program of gender training through the country to educate persons on gender relationships and roles; Enact law reform with respect to discrimination, sexual harassment and domestic violence; Provide greater access to housing, health care and education, especially for the poor and vulnerable; Promote greater discussion and education on the social and economic conditions of persons via evidencebased research; Provide greater resources and greater articulation of the goals for institutions involved in the provision of social services.

Further details on the background to these issues and recommendations are included in the main body of this report and in the supplementary CALC volumes. xiii

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Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Main Report

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) 2010 Main Report

Introduction

The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), in an effort to develop more targeted interventions for poverty alleviation in its Borrowing Member Countries (BMCs), initiated a series of Country Poverty Assessments (CPAs) in 1995. The results of these CPAs across the region have been utilized to design poverty reduction interventions such as: the Social Investment Funds in Belize, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago; rural enterprise projects in Belize, Dominica, Grenada and St. Lucia; and human settlement projects in Belize and Grenada. The results have also been utilized in the development of projects in education, agriculture and health. In addition to these interventions, the results of the CPAs have also guided the reorganisation of social policies and institutions and the redesign of CDB programs such as the Basic Needs Trust Fund Program (BNTF). The overall objectives of the CPAs supported by the CDB are to assess the conditions affecting the welfare of people and identify policies, strategies, action programmes and projects that would reduce the extent and severity of poverty in BMCs. These studies were designed to analyse the poverty situation for men, women, youth and children, the processes that generate and maintain conditions conducive to poverty, existing responses to the poverty situation and the means available for more vigorous and effective actions to reduce poverty. Going beyond this rigorous analysis of poverty, the Barbados study sought to investigate living conditions at a broader level, hence the titling of the project as a Country Assessment of Living Conditions.

1.1.

The Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC)

The Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) represents a comprehensive study of the state of living conditions in 2010 and the factors affecting this state. The study goes beyond the mere study of ‘poverty’, by examining the multiple dimensions of living in Barbados. In quantitative terms, poverty can be defined as the inability to attain an acceptable minimal ‘standard of living’ with available resources at either the individual or the household levels. Poverty analysis therefore focuses on the lower segments of the population in terms of assets, income or consumption. The minimal standard is reflected in the specification of a ‘poverty line’ defined in terms of assets, income or consumption/expenditure. In addition to this quantitative definition of poverty, the Barbados CALC also delved into qualitative understandings of poverty in relation to both material and psychological contexts. ‘Living conditions’ relate to the state, circumstances and relationships which affect the way the population of a country lives. Living conditions analysis covers the full distribution of the population (lower, middle and upper). As a multi-dimensional concept, living conditions cover such areas as education, health, housing, labour market status, human security, environment, governance, economic activity and social relations. Indeed, attempts have been made to develop indices of living conditions for several countries, based on a range of social, economic, governance and environmental indicators. While this study examines the poverty situation in Barbados, it also focuses on the broader aspect of living conditions in the country. Whilst this study of living conditions is the first of its type in Barbados, a study of poverty and income distribution in Barbados was undertaken by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), covering the period August 1996 to June, l997, [see IDB, 1998]. This study found that the percentage of households existing below 1

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the poverty line of BDS$5,503 was 9.7 percent, while the percentage of individuals living below the line was 13.9 percent. The Gini coefficient, used to measure the degree of income inequality, was 0.39, which suggested a moderate degree of income inequality in the distribution of income at that time. A more limited study of poverty and income distribution in Barbados was undertaken by Saptagiri (2002) for the period October to November 2001. This study suggested that 27.9 percent of the households surveyed were below the poverty line. Although these studies examined various socio-economic aspects of poverty in Barbados, demographic, geographical, social and economic, they were not comprehensive in their analyses of the broader living conditions in Barbados. This study of living conditions in Barbados, including an examination of poverty, was commissioned by the Government of Barbados, through the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) in 2009. The field work on the living conditions was undertaken during the first quarter of 2010. The study was undertaken by a team of researchers from the Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies (SALISES) of the University of the West Indies (UWI), Cave Hill Campus, Barbados. The team was supported by Barbados Statistical Services (BSS), Caribbean Development and Research Services (CADRES) and the National Nutrition Centre (NNC). Organisational support was provided by the Ministry of Social Care, Constituency Empowerment and Community Development, along with a National Assessment Team (NAT) and associated committees to cover different dimensions of the project. The CALC consisted of four (4) components: a Macro Socio-Economic Assessment (MSEA); a Survey of Living Conditions (SLC); a Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) of communities, households and vulnerable groups; and an Institutional Analysis (IA). The MSEA provided an overview of the macro, social and economic environment in Barbados over the period 1995 to 2010. This assessment provided the backdrop against which the results of the other components of the study were analyzed. The MSEA covered such areas as economic growth and structural change, development strategies and policies, educational and health development, housing and the environment, labour market dynamics, social protection and human security. The SLC was implemented to provide estimates of poverty in the country since the last major study in l996/1997 and quantitative information on the living conditions of the population. It examined the various social, economic, geographical and demographic dimensions of poverty and living conditions in Barbados. The PPA of households, communities and vulnerable groups provides a rich narrative on the living conditions in Barbados through the voices of selected groups and persons. The IA examined the institutional effectiveness of agencies (governmental and non-governmental) that provided assistance with the living conditions of Barbadians. The IA complements the results of the PPA in that persons can identify agencies which have affected their living conditions which can be further analyzed. The study used various methods and techniques to collect and analyze the data. The MSEA used an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;analytical historicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approach and relied on historical data collected mainly from the following secondary sources: Barbados Statistical Service, Central Bank of Barbados, Ministries of Government and regional and international agencies such as the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB); World Bank, Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The SLC were undertaken via a random sample survey of households, using a random selection of enumeration of districts (EDs). Fieldwork for the SLC was undertaken via face-to-face interviews. The PPA was conducted via the purposive choice of households, communities and vulnerable groups. Qualitative information was obtained primarily through the use of focus groups and selected interviews. The IA

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utilizes the administrative records of selected agencies, along with ‘elite interviews’ of key persons in the respective agencies. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data collected for the study of living conditions in Barbados provides a comprehensive picture of living conditions in Barbados over the 1995 to 2010 period.

1.2.

Report Structure

The structure of this main report is as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of the various components of the study and the methodologies employed. In Section 3 a review of the macroeconomic and social environment of the country over the 1995 to 2010 period is undertaken. This section provides the contextual background for understanding the results of the other components of the study. This section however includes reference to the SLC and the PPA where appropriate. In addition, the IA is integrated into the discussion of social institutions. The rationale for this separation of the majority of the MSEA from the rest of the components is that it provides an overall context for the research by reviewing the period 1995 to 2010; the SLC and the PPAs all dealt with a specific time period, 2010. Following the setting of the macro socioeconomic context for the CALC over the period 1995 to 2010, the main section of the report provides an analysis of living conditions in 2010, with a particular reference to poverty and ‘being poor’. This section is structured as follows:  A review of the definitions, perceptions and indicators of poverty to emerge from the SLC and the PPAs. It is noted that the SLC definition of poverty is quantitative and externally imposed, while the definitions from the PPAs are internally defined and based on both material and psychological definitions.  The characteristics and manifestations of poverty at the individual, household and community level are then presented. This section describes the various aspects of poverty in Barbados through incorporating results from the SLC and the PPAs.  The causes and correlates of poverty in Barbados are discussed in relation to the identified characteristics of the poor and an analysis of the underlying causes. This subsection identifies the main factors which have been identified as correlated with poverty or causing poverty in Barbados. In addition to issues related to large households, high levels of dependency, employment and unemployment, and educational issues, this section also introduces the concept of exclusion, both social and familial. In seeking to provide a deeper understanding of the experience of poverty, subsections are included here which address the actual experience of exclusion, the effects of income poverty and exclusion, and mechanisms utilized to cope with poverty and exclusion. This information, while mainly drawn from the PPA with vulnerable groups, is relevant to all of those experiencing poverty.  Examining the Causes of Poverty. This section reviews the main issues highlighted in the previous subsection (unemployment, underemployment/unemployment, high dependency ratios and social and familial exclusion), and seeks to unveil the underlying causes of these occurrences. This analysis results in the identification of the following key issues: lack of desire to work; a lack of qualification/skills, a lack of opportunities in the labour market, the burden of care, and stigma and discrimination.  Following an analysis of the causes and correlates of poverty in Barbados, as identified in the previous subsection, the final subsection concludes with broad policy recommendations to emerge from an analysis of experiences of poverty in Barbados. Drawing on the recommendations to emerge from the lived experiences of poverty in Barbados from Section 4, and including the wider issues raised in the MSEA, a proposed framework for an ex-ante Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) is provided in the penultimate section. This PSIA provides an assessment of the impact of policy interventions on the living conditions of different social groups, especially the poor and vulnerable. The

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

main conclusions of the study are provided in the final section of the main volume of the CALC. This main volume is complemented by other volumes which provide more details on the other components of the Project: Volume 2:

Macro Socio-Economic Assessment

Volume 3:

Survey of Living Conditions

Volume 4:

Participatory Poverty Assessment: Activities Conducted in the Communities

Volume 5:

Participatory Poverty Assessment with Vulnerable Groups

Volume 6:

Institutional Analysis

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Barbados CALC Methodology

As noted in the previous section, the methodology employed for the CALC had four (4) main components: A Macro Social and Economic Assessment (MSEA); A Survey of Living Conditions; A Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) broken into two (2) components, a PPA for Communities and Households and a PPA for Vulnerable Groups; and an Institutional Assessment (IA). The specific methodologies employed in these components are outlined in the following subsections.

2.1.

The Macro Social and Economic Assessment (MSEA)

The main objectives of the macro social and economic assessment (MSEA) element of the CALC were to: i.

Identify and analyze the central social and economic changes which affected living conditions in Barbados over the 1995-2010 period ii. Develop a Plan of Action for enhancing the social and economic development of the country The MSEA used an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;analytical historicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approach and relied on historical data collected mainly from the following secondary sources: Barbados Statistical Service, Central Bank of Barbados, Ministries of Government and regional and international agencies such as the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), World Bank, InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The MSEA provided the backdrop against which the results of the other components of the study were analyzed. The MSEA covered such areas as economic growth and structural change, development strategies and policies, educational and health development, housing and the environment, labour market dynamics, social protection and human security. The main results of the MSEA are presented in Volume 2 of the CALC.

2.2.

The Survey of Living Conditions (SLC)

The main purpose of the SLC was to provide primary data for the construction of poverty estimates as it related to the annual minimum cost food basket (MCFB), an indigence line, a poverty line, and a variety of indicators to enable regional and international comparisons, including the headcount ratio, the poverty gap, the squared poverty gap and the Gini coefficient for the country. In addition, the data is utilised to provide representations of the spatial distribution of poverty. The SLC formed the main quantitative element of the Barbados CALC. The objectives of the SLC were to gather statistically representative household and individual data on basic demographics (age, sex, employment status, occupation, marital status, education/training), income and income sources, expenditure, household size and composition, dwelling type and resident status, asset ownership, and quality of amenities. The survey also sought to determine detailed expenditure in terms of food and drink, housing and related supplies, clothing, transportation, health, education and training, and recreation and leisure. The collection of this quantitative data allowed for the construction of the poverty estimates as it related to the minimum cost food basket (with information from the National Nutrition Centre), the indigence line (the MCFB), the poverty line (the MCFB plus the minimum cost non-food basket (MCNFB)), and the level of indigence, poverty and vulnerability in Barbados. Overall the Barbados SLC specifically sought to accomplish the following: 1. Measure the indigent and poverty lines for Barbados and determine the characteristics, extent, geographic concentration, severity and causes of poverty (by age and sex);

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

2. Analyse the different types of poverty manifested, for example, the chronically, new and transitory poor and to identify structural disadvantages faced by each group; 3. Identify and analyse the dynamic links between poverty and the following: a. Employment, unemployment, and conditions in the formal and informal sectors and poverty (e.g. size, composition and changes in the structure of employment, sectoral distribution, the relative position of men, women, and youth and their earnings/incomes) b. Social and economic inequality; 4. Undertake a comparative analysis of poverty, social and economic conditions in relation to results of previous Country Poverty Assessments (CPAs) or other poverty assessments; 5. Analyse the level of social vulnerability including the construction of an index and characteristics of vulnerable households; 6. Identify (in collaboration with the other elements of the CALC) current and propose additional priority civil society and public actions required to assist in moving households out of poverty; and 7. Develop a draft programme of action (PoA) (in collaboration with the other elements of the CALC) which sets out strategic options for addressing critical issues emerging from the research and proposals for improving existing social development programmes, or changes to social and economic policy, as well as investment projects to strengthen or enhance the effectiveness of Government, NGO and CBO efforts to sustainably reduce poverty. The research methodology for the SLC involved a survey of households and individuals. From these results, the calculation of poverty indicators and an analysis of the living conditions were undertaken. Previous to the execution of the SLC, a determination of the geographical distribution of households was undertaken. This exercise resulted in the division of the country into six (6) strata of similar population size as depicted in the figure below. Figure 1: Geographical Representation of Strata

The strata descriptions are: 1. Greater Bridgetown: the immediate area surrounding the capital in the parish of St. Michael 2. Outer Urban: other areas of St. Michael and adjacent areas of Christ Church 3. South East: majority of St. Philip and Christ Church 4. Central: majority comprised of St. Thomas and St. George with adjacent areas from St. Michael, Christ Church and St. Philip 5. West: majority comprised of St. James and adjacent areas of St. Peter and St. Michael 6. North and East: majority comprised of St. Lucy, St. Andrew, St. John and St. Joseph with adjacent areas from St. Peter and St. Philip. Following the identification of the appropriate number of strata, various options for the proportion of the population to sample were considered. A final targeted sample size of 2.5% of households was established, accounting for approximately 2476 households and 5469 individuals. To account for potential non-response, oversampling was undertaken and the ultimate 6

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

target sample was 3000 households and approximately 6,600 individuals. In order to achieve this sample size, at the strata level, a sample of 20 enumeration districts (EDs) were selected and 25 households from each ED. Households were selected using systematic sampling with a random start. In keeping with other such assessments in the region, the SLC for Barbados utilised two research instruments, a household questionnaire to be completed by the head of household covering items related to the characteristics of the household and information on persons in the household under the age of 15; and an individual questionnaire to be completed by all persons 15 years of age and over. The main elements of these survey instruments are outlined below. Household Questionnaire Structure 1. Background: Enumeration District Number, Household Number, Enumerator and Supervisor Number, Record of Visits. 2. Listing of Household Members: Name, Date of Birth, Sex, Relation to Head, Main Economic Activity, Employment Status, and Working Status. 3. Housing: Type of Dwelling, Characteristics, Number of Rooms. 4. Head of Household Background: change in standard of living from household grew up in, highest grade completed by father and mother. 5. Information on members that have left in last five (5) years. 6. Information on those under the age of 15. Individual Questionnaire Structure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

2.2.1

Demographics: sex, age, ethnicity, religion, etc. Migration Health Education Employment Marital Status Crime Expenditure Income

Response Rates and Geographical Coverage

The sample targets for the SLC were 3000 households and 6,600 individuals (15 years of age and over) spread across the six (6) strata. The survey was undertaken during the period January to April 2010. The actual numbers sampled were 2,426 households (98% of required target and 81% of oversampling target) and 5,618 individuals (103% of required target and 85% of oversampling target). These sample responses represent 2.4% of estimated households in Barbados and 2.6% of the adult population, with margins of error of +/-2.0% and +/-1.3% respectively. The responses by strata are shown in the table below. As the table shows, the South East and West strata were over-sampled, while the other strata were under-sampled, the most severe being the Central stratum. In terms of individuals, the largest proportion was seen in the West accounting for 19.7% of sample, while the Outer Urban and Central strata have the lowest with 14.9% of the sample. Given that the analysis at the strata level only refers to shares within the strata, and not across strata, this

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over- and under-sampling does not affect the analysis given that figures are as a percentage of the strata responses and not overall responses. Table 3: Response Rates by Strata Strata Greater Bridgetown Outer Urban South East Central West North and East Total

Frequency 391 401 451 361 447 375 2,426

Percent of Sample 16.1 16.5 18.6 14.9 18.4 15.5 100.0

Overall, the SLC 2010 collected data on a total of 6973 persons, including 1,355 persons under the age of 15 years and 5,618 persons 15 years of age or older. The average number of under-15s per household (for households with children) was 1.7. For those 15 years of age and over, the average number per household was 2.3. Overall, average household size was 2.9. In comparison, the average household size from the 2000 Census of Population and Housing was 3.1. The sex distribution was 45.6% males and 54.4% females. The corresponding shares from the 2000 Census were 48.0% and 52.0%. For adults the distribution was 44.4% male and 55.6% female, while for children it was 50.7% males and 49.3% females. Following the execution of the survey of households and individuals, and utilising supplementary information from the National Nutrition Centre (NNC) on dietary requirements of sex/age groups, various poverty indicators were constructed and poverty estimates calculated. The indicators included: 1. The Indigence Line. This is equivalent to the annual minimum cost food basket (MCFB) which is the minimum monetary requirement to meet basic nutritional needs for different demographic groups. 2. The Poverty Line. This is the MCFB plus the minimum monetary requirement to meet non-food costs for the basic needs of an individual. 3. The Vulnerability Line. This is an arbitrary amount used to indicate the level of vulnerability to poverty. It is usually expressed as 125% of the Poverty Line. These thresholds were then applied to the results of the SLC, and four (4) main poverty indicators that provide measures of the level and character of poverty and inequality were calculated: 1. The Headcount Ratio. Percentage of households or persons categorised as poor (indigent and nonindigent poor). 2. The Poverty Gap Index. The average distance below the poverty line measured as the difference between actual consumption and the poverty line as a percentage of the poverty line. If average consumption was zero, the index would be 100. 3. The Poverty Gap Squared. The same approach as the poverty gap but places greater emphasis on the poorest households by utilising the square of the difference between the poverty line and actual consumption. 4. The Gini Coefficient. A measure of inequality of consumption. The main results of the SLC are presented in Volume 3 of the CALC.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

2.3.

The Participator Poverty Assessments (PPAs)

The Participatory Poverty Assessments was designed to generate qualitative data about the conditions under which people in Barbados are living and about the type, nature, and distribution of poverty and social exclusion that exist in the society. It consisted of two components namely research in twelve communities and research with twelve vulnerable groups. A participatory methodology and participatory research methods were used to engage members of twelve vulnerable groups and residents in twelve communities in describing their living conditions and in a process of reflection on their experience of poverty, stigma, discrimination and social exclusion.

2.3.1

PPA for Households and Communities

The twelve communities selected for the PPA for households and communities were located within the six strata into which the country was divided and in the same Enumeration Districts in which the Survey of Living Conditions was carried out. Within these communities the heads of eighty households, twenty four community leaders, and five other individuals were interviewed. Discussions were also held with groups of men, women and youth in six of the communities. A Participatory Training methodology and an experiential learning model were used to train researchers and field research facilitators in the use of several data collection instruments including transect walks, observation, interviews, focus group discussions, case studies, and community workshops. The instruments produced a large amount of qualitative data that describe the actual lived experience of those who provided information, that is, the voices and everyday experiences of people. The information provided by persons in the vulnerable groups and by community residents reveals the link between poor living conditions and poverty as well as the multi-dimensionality of poverty. It shows that while there are material and economic dimensions of poverty, there are also social and spatial dimensions. At the same time the information obtained draws attention to and highlights the often severe, negative psychological and emotional impact that poverty has on those who are experiencing it. The main results of the PPA for households and communities is presented in Volume 4 of the CALC.

2.3.2

PPA for Vulnerable Groups

The following groups were selected for the Barbados PPA with Vulnerable Groups:            

Children Persons with Disabilities The Elderly Ex-prisoners The Homeless Migrants Men who have sex with men and gay men (MSM/G) Persons living with HIV (PLHIV) Poor and welfare households Rastafarians Sex workers Unemployed youth 9

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

The PPA with Vulnerable Groups focused on perceptions of poverty and social exclusion, perceived causes and effects, and responses and strategies for survival from each of the vulnerable groups. From these, a set of recommendations for building responsive policy and programming for the alleviation of poverty and the promotion of social inclusion were derived. A three-tier methodology was designed and consisted of Select Informant Interviews, Focus Groups and Case Study Interviews. These data collection approaches were conducted in chronological sequence. A Training Workshop was held and each researcher was assigned to specific vulnerable groups under the supervision of the Coordinator and Research Assistant. Ethical protocols for research were followed, consent forms were used and the confidentiality and anonymity of the informants maintained. The main results of the PPA for vulnerable groups are presented in Volume 5 of the CALC.

2.4. The Institutional Assessment (IA) The main objectives of the Institutional Assessment were to: 1. Identify a range of government institutions and civil society organisations whose work was contributing, or could contribute to poverty reduction and improved living conditions. 2. Assess their capacity and capability for implementing pro-poor programmes that will result in alleviating and/or reducing poverty. 3. Identify their interventions and the various types of projects, programmes and services that they offer and provide, and to whom. 4. Identify gaps and inefficiencies in the provision of services which are designed to improve living conditions. Following a period of consultation with the National Assessment Team (NAT), a sample of thirty-one (31) institutions was selected. The institutions selected are listed in the table below. Table 4: Final List of Institutions Institution Government Agencies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ministry of Education Welfare Department Schools Meals Programme National Housing Corporation (NHC) Child Care Board (CCB) Urban Development Commission (UDC) National Assistance Board (NAB) Vocational Training Board (VTB) National Cultural Foundation (NCF) Rural Development Commission (RDC) FundAccess TVET Council National Disabilities Unit National Employment Bureau (NEB) Bureau of Gender Affairs

BARP

NGOs

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17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 International Development Partners 28 29 30 31

Institution Loving Arms C.A.R.E Pinelands Creative Workshop (PCW) Teen Challenge CTUSAB UGLAAB Israel Lovell Foundation Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Needy Fund YMCA YWCA Barbados Red Cross UNICEF UNIFEM Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) UNDP

Face to face interviews were held with the head of each organisation, or with someone nominated by him/her. Participants were also asked to complete a Diagnostic Checklist of Organisational Health. This was done in order to obtain a self-assessment of the performance of each institution. The main results of the Institutional Analysis are presented in Volume 6 of the CALC, while brief institutional profiles are shown in Appendix 2.

2.5.

Linking Components and Results

Following the execution of the four main research components and an analysis of results, the final component of the methodology was the linking of the qualitative and quantitative results to provide an overall synthesis. The main outcome of this element of the research is a description of living conditions in Barbados from a qualitative and quantitative perspective, the identification of the causes of poverty in Barbados, and an identification of solutions to the issues identified. This synthesis is presented in the current report in the sections that follow.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

A Macro Socioeconomic Overview of Barbados: 1995 to 2010

The MSEA identified a number of overarching national issues that set the context of living conditions in Barbados over the period 1995 to 2010. The following subsections highlight these macroeconomic developments in relation to development strategies and policies, issues related to growth and structural change, and a general macroeconomic analysis. The MSEA provides the historical background from which the analysis of the SLC and PPAs is conducted and presented in Section 4.

3.1.

Development Strategies and Policies

Over the period 1995 to 2010, the strategic direction and vision for the development of the country was provided by the Development Plan 1993-2000, the National Strategic Plan 2006-2025 and the Medium-term Development Strategy 2010-2014. Barbados has adopted a largely indicative approach to planning, with the private sector propelling economic growth through the key sectors of agriculture, manufacturing and services (especially tourism and international business). The Government of Barbados has facilitated the development process by creating an ‘enabling environment’ through a series of incentives, infrastructural development and rules and regulations. The Government, through its planning process, has focused on improving productivity and promoting export of goods and services via several trading agreements. A deliberate effort has been made to reposition and diversify the economy, namely, from an agricultural to a services orientation. Over the years, the Government has been able to build its human and social capital and introduce several measures to reduce the incidence of poverty in the country. The vision in the National Strategic Plan 2006 to 2025 is to be fully developed and people-centred by the end of the planning period. By international standards, Barbados has been able to achieve a ‘very high human development’ status according to the UNDP’s human development index which combines indicators of health and education status and livelihood. Over the period 2005 to 2011, Barbados Human Development Index has fell from 0.89 to 0.79, while its ranking has fell from 31 in 2005 to 47 in 2011 (UN HDR, 2007; UN HDR, 2012). Despite these declines, Barbados is still considered to have a very high human development status. In relation to the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs), by 2007, the country had made good progress with the achievement of four of the eight MDGs and is expected to achieve the other unmet goals by 2015. The four MDGs which have been achieved include Goal 2 (universal primary level education), Goal 3 (Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women), Goal 4 (Reduction in Child Mortality) and Goal 5 (Improvement in Maternal Health). The current status for Barbados is shown in the table below while the background data (and data gaps) are presented in Appendix 3. Table 5: The Millennium Development Goals and the Status of Barbados Millennium Development Goal 1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger 2. Achieve Universal Primary Education 3. Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women 4. Reduce Child Mortality 5. Improve Maternal Health 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases 7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability 8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development

Barbados Status Partial Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Changes Needed Changes Needed Insufficient Information

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Over the period 1995 to 2010, there has only been a limited shift in the distribution of sectoral contributions to the Barbadian economy. While there was a decline in the contribution of the agricultural sector to overall domestic production from 6.5 percent in 1995 to 4.4 percent in 2010, the services sector increased from 74.1 percent in 1995 to 80.5 percent in 2010 (that is, distribution, tourism, transportation, business, general and government services) [see Table 6]. Table 6: Sectoral Distribution of Real GDP 1995-2010 (1974 - base year) (%) Sector

1995

2000

2005

2010p

Agriculture: Sugar : Non-sugar Mining and Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Construction Wholesale and Retail Trade Tourism Transport, Storage and Communication Business and General Services Government Services Total (%) Total (Bds $m) Source: Barbados Economic and Social Report, various issues

1.9 4.6 0.7 9.6 3.5 5.6 19.1 15.4 8.2 17.7 13.7 100.0 844.2

2.6 3.7 1.1 6.9 3.5 7.5 19.5 16.2 8.1 17.1 13.8 100.0 973.4

1.5 3.3 1.0 5.9 3.7 9.3 20.3 15.2 8.6 17.3 13.9 100.0 1063.2

1.0 3.4 0.5 4.7 4.1 6.0 21.8 14.8 9.4 19.0 15.5 100.0 1089.4

Economic policy measures have supported the development strategies adopted by the Government. Monetary policies have sought to anchor the fixed exchange parity between the Barbadian dollar and the USA dollar, to maintain balance of payments (BOP) equilibrium and to build up the financial sector especially with regard to support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Fiscal policies have been employed to support growth and development through the provision of subsidies and incentives and ‘crowding in’ via infrastructural expenditure, to support social welfare programmes and to engage in countercyclical activity. Barbados is a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), hence its trade policies have been supportive of gradual trade liberalization via the use of tariffication and the general reduction of tariffs. Social policy measures have involved a range of institutional and programme initiatives: the Rural and Urban Development Commissions, the Social Investment Fund, the poverty alleviation programme, the Youth Entrepreneurial Skills (YES) programme, general skills training (technical and vocational education and training), health services and housing. Through a Social Partnership among the Government, employers’ representatives and workers’ representatives, a series of Protocols have been developed to guide wage/salary increases and other related conditions of work. During the period since 1995, five Protocols amongst the three parties have been enforced. There is no national minimum wage policy, but shop assistants are subject to minimum wage guidelines established through a tripartite arrangement. In the area of the environmental policy, the Government has been promoting the need for sustainable development in a small, vulnerable developing economy. In recent times there has been a push to achieve a ‘green economy’ which would see an integration of environmental and economic policy measures.

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3.2.

Growth and Structural Change

Over the period 1995 to 2010, Barbados experienced two periods of recession which were largely externally induced: the 2001 recession associated with the events of September 11, 2001 in the USA and again in 2008-9 with the worldwide recession which had its origins in the USA. Prior to 2001, the average annual economic growth rate was 2.75 percent, while the post-2001, but pre-2008 period recorded an average annual growth rate of 3.2 percent. These were relatively low growth rates by world and historical standards. The ‘Great Recession’ resulted in a decline of real domestic output by 0.2 percent in 2008 and 4.8 percent in 2009 with a very modest recovery of 0.2 percent in 2010. The per capita real gross domestic product (GDP) of Barbados rose from BDS$3193 in 1995 to BDS$4161 in 2007, which suggests an improvement in the average living standards of the population. The 2008-9 recession however resulted in some reversal of the gains as real per capita GDP dropped to BDS$3940 in 2009. The fortunes of the Barbadian economy are closely linked to the more developed countries of the USA, Canada and Europe. External shocks associated with increases in oil prices and a fall in external incomes adversely affected the economy during the period. There was a general declining trend in the average annual growth rate in agriculture and manufacturing over the period. The main growth areas were in the non-tradeable sectors, namely construction, distribution and transportation. As noted earlier, there has been a steady decline in the contribution of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors to GDP over the years. While the share of the agricultural sector declined from 6.5 percent in 1995 to 4.4 percent in 2010, the share for the manufacturing sector fell from 9.6 percent in 1995 to 4.7 percent in 2010. The Government’s share in GDP was relatively constant over the period at approximately 14 percent. There was a rise in the Government’s share during the current recession as part of its counter-cyclical policy action in light of the decline in private sector output. There have been changes in the international market for sugar and other agricultural products with the push to dismantle a preferential system as part of the trade liberalization process. There has also been a fall-off in the regional and extra-regional markets for manufacturing products. While the tourism sector is a major contributor to GDP and foreign exchange earnings, there is still a high level of market concentration in the sector with the USA, UK, Canada and selected CARICOM countries being the main sources of tourist arrivals. As part of the diversification effort, the Government has actively promoted the international business and financial sector. However, the sector has been subject to threats from international organisations such as the OECD with regards to the tax concessions provided by the Government. The domestic financial services sector, especially the credit union sub-sector, has grown significantly over the years. Credit unions have become a major source of funds for personal loans for their members. In recent years, there has been a discussion on promoting the cultural sector as part of the productive diversification process.

3.3.

Macroeconomic Environment

The main focus areas of macroeconomic policy management over the period were maintaining balance on the Balance of Payments (BOP) and containing the deficit in the fiscal accounts - the so-called ‘twin deficits’. Barbados has generally experienced a chronic balance of visible trade deficit over the years as the exports of goods have usually been less than the import of goods. Services exports, namely tourism, have allowed the current account of the BOP to realize a surplus in some years. Net capital inflows have resulted in achieving a balance (surplus) in BOP. Over the period 1995 to 2010, the overall balance was in deficit in 1998, 2004-5 and 2008 as net international reserves declined in these years [see Table 7]. There has also been a fall in net capital 14

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

inflows as foreign direct investment steadily declined in recent years. These macroeconomic imbalances constrain Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to address the social imbalances that manifested themselves in the SLC and the PPAs. Table 7: Fiscal Balance and Balance of Payments 1995 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010 (%) Fiscal Balance

Balance of Payments

Overall Current Account Overall ($m) % of GDP ($m) ($m)a 1995 -29.1 1.9 85.8 73.8 1996 -127.6 2.4 142.4 226.4 1997 -45.7 0.1 -98.6 75.2 1998 -27.4 0.6 -124.9 -74.5 1999 -68.8 2.2 -294.9 111.0 2000 -99.2 1.2 -290.0 401.6 2001 -205.1 3.3 -221.1 452.9 2002 -279.5 6.0 -354.5 177.5 2003 -126.0 2.5 -335.2 375.9 2004 -144.3 2.1 -532.8 -340.6 2005 -180.3 3.5 -733.5 -138.3 2006 -233.5 1.6 -498.5 82.8 2007 -291.6 1.6 -356.4 558.4 2008 -447.9 5.1 -876.0 -497.8 2009 -733.3 9.4 -488.5 78.8 2010 -643.7 8.1 -729.1 60.6 Notes: a (+) represents an increase in reserves and a (-) indicates a decline in reserves on a Central Bank basis Source: Central Bank of Barbados Year

The overall fiscal deficit varied between 0.1 percent of GDP (1997) and 9.4 percent of GDP (2009). Spikes in the fiscal deficit to GDP ratio were occasioned by external shocks as the Government employed countercyclical fiscal policy measures: 2002 (due to the September 11, 2001 crisis in the USA) and 2009 (due to the Great International Recession). The public debt grew from 79 percent of GDP in 1995 to over 100 percent in 2010. In terms of international competitiveness, Barbados has performed well in terms of the Global Competitiveness Index ranking 41st out of 121 countries in 2006/7 and 43rd out of 139 countries in 2010/11. It has made the transition from the efficiency-driven to the innovation stage of development, but still has to overcome problems associated with productivity and red tape.

3.4.

Labour Market Dynamics

Barbados experienced a slight growth in the labour force over the 1995 to 2010 period, with males slightly outnumbering females. The labour force increased from 136,800 in 1995 to 142,300 in 2010. There has been a weak upward trend in labour force participation, with the female rate increasing faster than the male rate. Employment trends reflect production trends, with a decline in employment in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors and a steady rise in employment in the services sector. There has also been an improvement in the educational attainment of the labour force with a decline in the number of adults with no certification from 60 percent in 1990 to 57 percent in 2000 and an estimated 54 percent in 2009. While Barbados has had universal 15

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

secondary level education from the 1960s and a school leaving age of 17 years, several persons leave the school system with no certification than can signal their skills and competencies to the labour market. The labour force data indicate that the bulk of the employed labour force is employed in ‘relatively low’ skill jobs (service/shop, craft, service, elementary occupations). In 2009, 61 percent of the employed were classified in these occupations, while the SLC data from 2010 (see table below) revealed that 57% were classified in service and sales, craft, elementary and other1 occupations. As the table below also demonstrates, this classification was especially prevalent amongst the lowest expenditure quintile with 71% in these occupations. Table 8: Employed Occupations by Expenditure Quintile (%) Occupation Manager Professional Technician/Associate Professional Clerical Support Worker Service and Sales Worker Skilled Agricultural/Fishery Worker Craft and Related Trades Worker Plant and machine Operators/Assemblers Elementary Occupation Other Total Number

I 2.5 5.3 4.1 6.3 25.6 5.6 9.1 5.0 5.6 30.9 100.0 320

II 3.8 8.5 4.9 12.9 21.4 4.5 7.6 4.5 3.3 28.6 100.0 448

III 6.1 8.7 6.3 12.8 22.5 3.5 6.9 2.8 2.4 28.1 100.0 462

IV 8.8 16.1 7.5 10.8 20.7 2.6 4.0 3.3 2.9 23.3 100.0 454

V 17.6 20.5 5.9 9.4 16.2 1.2 4.2 1.6 1.6 21.6 100.0 425

Percent 8.0 12.1 5.8 10.7 21.1 3.4 6.2 3.4 3.0 26.3 100.0 2,109

Employment growth over the 1995 to 2010 period was 2.1% annum, compared with output growth of 2.6% per annum. This yields an employment-output elasticity of 0.8, which means that for every 1 percent rise in GDP, employment increases by 0.8 percent. Female employment growth has been higher than male employment growth, with females overtaking males in the professional categories in the late 1990s. From the SLC, 12% of females reported their occupation as professional as opposed to 10% for males. In addition, there has also been a growth in the number of persons reporting as self-employed. From the results of the SLC, 16% of employed respondents reported their status as employer or self-employed. There was a general decline in the unemployment rate over the period except those periods when there were shocks to the economy (2002/3 and 2008/10). The unemployment rate fell from 19.7 percent in 1995 to 7.4 percent in 2007, but rose to 10.8 percent in 2010 [see Table 9] The unemployment rate among females was generally higher than that for males except over the 2009-10 period when it was lower. Youth unemployment still remains a pressing problem with the youth rate generally twice the overall rate. The rise in unemployment insurance claims over the period suggests that several workers, especially ‘low skill’ service and clerical workers, experience short term unemployment spells, especially during declines in the economy.

It is noted that those in ‘other’ occupations may not be lower skilled, however the inference is made here due to the general trend of lower skills amongst lower income groups and the greater prevalence of ‘other’ occupations amongst the lower income groups.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 9: Employment and Unemployment 1995-2010 No of Persons Employed (000) Growth Year (%) Male Female Total 1995 57.7 52.1 109.9 4.17 1996 62.2 53.6 115.8 5.37 1997 62.8 54.9 117.7 1.64 1998 65.7 56.0 121.7 3.39 1999 67.2 58.0 125.2 2.87 2000 68.0 61.0 129.0 3.03 2001 68.9 61.9 130.9 1.47 2002 67.7 60.9 128.6 -1.75 2003 67.4 62.0 129.5 0.69 2004 68.3 63.8 132.0 1.93 2005 69.0 63.6 132.6 0.45 2006 67.8 63.2 131.0 -1.21 2007 69.7 63.4 133.1 1.60 2008 68.7 63.4 132.1 -0.76 2009 65.2 63.0 128.5 -2.72 2010 64.6 62.4 127.0 -1.17 Source: Barbados Economic and Social Report, Various Issues

Unemployment Rate (%) Male Female 16.5 22.9 11.4 18.0 11.5 17.8 8.3 16.3 7.7 13.2 7.5 11.4 8.0 11.9 8.7 12.1 9.6 12.6 9.0 10.1 8.0 11.4 7.7 9.8 6.4 8.5 6.9 9.5 10.1 9.8 10.8 10.6

Total 19.7 14.6 14.6 12.2 10.3 11.0 9.4 10.3 11.0 9.8 9.7 8.7 7.4 8.1 10.0 10.7

Generally, there has been modest nominal wage increases in the public and private sectors, with these increases more in line with inflation than productivity. Spikes in public sector wages were recorded in 1997 (with the introduction of the VAT) and in 2006 and 2008 (with increases in oil prices) [see Table 10]. There has been a general upward trend in real wages over the period, indicating an improvement in the average welfare of the working population. Table 10: Wage Increases and Inflation, 1990 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010 (%) Public Sector Wage Increases Year 1995 3.0 1996 3.0 1997 6.25 1998 3.0 1999 4.0 2000 2.5 2001 3.0 2002 2.75 2003 2.5 2004 3.0 2005 3.0 2006 7.5 2007 2.5 2008 6.0 2009 4.5 2010 n.a. Source: Central Bank of Barbados and Barbados Workers Union

Private Sector Wage Increases 3.2 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.6 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.8 3.7 3.5 3.9 4.8 4.1 3.2

Inflation 1.9 2.4 7.8 -1.2 1.5 2.5 2.8 0.2 1.6 1.4 6.1 7.3 4.0 8.1 3.7 5.1

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Remittances from workers abroad have been generally small, less than 5 percent of GDP, but there was some increase over the period. Remittances have been used largely for consumption purposes and tend to reduce the motivation to participate in domestic labour market activity.

3.5.

Social Sector Developments

Education constitutes an important element of human development with the Government contributing approximately 20 percent of its expenditure to all levels of education. As indicated earlier, Barbados enjoys universal secondary level education. Enrolment data indicate that there was a slight upward trend in primary level education from 26,400 in 1995 to 27,950 in 2008, with more male than female students. Secondary level educational enrolment was relatively constant, while there was a significant rise in enrolment at the tertiary level (UWI, SJPP and BCC). Such increased enrolment is reflected in the improved educational attainment of the labour force. However, this level of educational achievement varies by consumption level. From the results of the SLC, the poorer cohorts of the population have lower levels of human capital than the richer cohorts. In addition, Table 11 demonstrates a steady decrease in the share of those with no qualifications as expenditure increases, from 56% to 18%. At higher certification levels the opposite holds with 4% of those in the lowest quintile with a degree or higher and 29% in the highest quintile. Table 11: Highest Examination Passed- Not Currently Enrolled by Expenditure Quintile (%) Highest Examination Passed None BSSC -School Leaving O' Level/CXC General A-Level/CAPE Certificate Diploma Associate Degree Degree Post-Graduate Degree Professional Qualification Others Total Number

I 55.9 5.9 22.8 0.4 6.5 2.3 1.6 2.3 0.7 0.5 1.1 100.0 749

II 42.8 7.9 23.1 1.9 9.1 4.6 2.6 4.2 1.2 1.9 0.7 100.0 736

III 34.4 8.3 23.8 0.6 12.0 5.4 5.4 5.9 1.8 1.8 1.4 100.0 727

IV 28.4 5.8 20.2 2.0 13.0 7.9 4.1 8.4 3.6 3.6 1.3 100.0 687

V 18.4 5.9 19.4 2.4 11.9 7.8 4.8 13.5 7.8 7.8 1.1 100.0 630

Percent 36.7 6.8 22.0 1.4 10.4 5.5 3.6 6.6 2.9 3.0 1.1 100.0 3,529

In terms of performance, using passes in the CXC (CSEC) examinations, there has been a gradual rise in the number of passes, with females out-performing males. There has also been a growth in the number of female graduates from the UWI and BCC relative to males. At the SJPP male graduates generally outnumber female graduates. More males are enrolled in vocational training than females - plumbing, carpentry, electrical and occupational training. This was a trend clearly exhibited in the SLC data with the majority of males undertaking training in the skilled trades, such as plumbing, electrical work, mechanics, etc. (69%), and females mostly participating in training in business studies, upholstery/garments, hospitality and the caring vocations (teaching, nursing, child care) (67%). The public health sector accounts for 16 percent of government expenditure. There has been a steady growth in the number of health professionals (e.g., doctors, nurses, laboratory technicians) with the development of several specialty areas. Barbados has witnessed a decline in its birth rate and the degree of child mortality and a slight fall in the death rate. Much of the public facilities cater for curative care although there has been a push to 18

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

strengthen the preventative aspects of medicine in recent times. The health facilities have improved over the years with the strengthening of the polyclinic system. There is a very high (almost 100 percent) access to drinking water and improved sanitation. The public drug service provides a selection of free medication. While there has been a decline in the incidence of communicable diseases, there has a progressive rise in chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) such as hypertension and diabetes which are largely linked to the poor lifestyle of persons. These CNCDs are largely responsible for the main causes of death in Barbados - heart attacks and cancer. In terms of HIV/AIDS, there has been some variability in the number of cases over the past 15 years, with a generally declining trend. The Government has provided assistance to those affected by the disease in the form of free anti-retroviral drugs. There has been a significant growth in the housing sector which has in turn boosted the construction sector. The government has been very active in the housing sector by constructing low and middle-income housing through the National Housing Corporation and providing assistance to individuals through the Urban and Rural Development Commissions (UDC and RDC). A range of poverty and related social welfare programs were introduced by the Government during the 1995 to 2010 period. Several new institutional arrangements were established to complement the traditional institutions. For example the UDC and the RDC, along with special poverty alleviation programs were established to complement the traditional Welfare Department, National Assistance Board and the Child Care Board. The focus of several of the requests for social assistance were in the areas of house repairs and the payment of water arrears. The Government introduced a reverse tax credit for low income earners thus assisting the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;working poorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;; those persons that are employed but still living in relative poverty due to low incomes as a result of low pay or insufficient hours of work. Assistance is also provided to the disabled and the elderly through home help, meals on wheels, transportation and financial assistance. The unemployed are able to claim unemployment insurance once they qualify and children at the primary level receive free school meals and, in some cases, free uniforms. School children also have access to free text books and public bus transportation. The non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have also organised support programs to help alleviate the plight of the poor and needy. Table 12 provides a list of indicators of social development in Barbados over the 1990 to 2010 period.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 12: Selected Social Indicators for Barbados 1990-2010 Indicators 1 Vital Statistics

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Population (number)

260800

264400

268792

273400

280400

124700 136000

137800 126600

129241 139551

131900 141500

135100 145300

Population Growth Rate (%) Crude Birth Rate (%)

0.2 16.5

0.1 13.1

0.5 14.0

0.3 13.1

0.2 12.2

Crude Death Rate (%)

8.2

9.4

9.1

7.9

8.0

30295

29953

29409

27997

27953*

21042

23485

214

21542

20816*

19.1 16.9

22.0 18

17.6 16

15.1 15.9

n.a. n.a.

99.0

97.4

98.0

99.7

Infant Mortality Rate (%) Life Expectancy Rate (%)

18.2 74.9

13.2 76.0

17.0 76.6

9.3 77.5

10.1 77.7

Male Female

72.9 77.7

n.a. n.a.

73.9 78.9

n.a. n.a.

4 5

0.945(22)

0.909(24)

0.871(31)

0.892(31)

0.788(42)

Population below poverty line (%) Household below poverty line (%)

n.a. n.a.

13.9** 12.7**

n.a n.a.

n.a. n.a.

Gini Coefficient for Household

n.a.

0.38**

n.a.

Health Expenditure as % of GDP at market prices Education Expenditure as % of GDP

3.44 5.64

3.39 5.52

3.21 5.41

3.25 5.35

3.27a 5.39a

Social Security Expenditure as % of GDP

2.26

2.21

2.57

2.94

2.84a

Households with piped water (%) Households with access to flush toilets (%)

95.8 66.3

n.a. n.a.

96.5 81.8

99.5 n.a.

na na

Households with electricity (%)

92.6

n.a.

96.5

n.a.

Labour Force Participation Rate (%) Male

67.4 75.5

68.2 74.5

68.6 75.3

69.5 75.3

67.0 71.7

Female Distribution of Employment by Sector (%)

60.3

62.7

63.5

64.2

61.9

6.2 20.3

4.6 18.7

3.8 19.0

3.4 15.2

2.8 17.6

Male Female

Education

School Enrollment (number) Primary Secondary Pupil/Teacher Ratio (no.) Primary Secondary Adult Literacy Rate (%)

Health

Human Development Index(value/rank) Poverty/Inequality

Government Current Expenditure

Water/Sanitation

Labour Market

Sugar, other agriculture, fishing Industry

Services 73.5 76.7 77.2 81.4 79.6 Sources: Barbados Economic and Social Report (various issues), Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs; Economic and Social Indicators (various issues), Caribbean Development Bank Notes:

* is 2009 data; ** is 1996/7 data aThese figures represent 2007 expenditure

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

The institutional support for living conditions in Barbados was specifically addressed in the Institutional Assessment (IA) component of the CALC. An analysis of these institutions reveals that a variety of methodologies are employed in order to achieve the individual mandates of improving living conditions. The table below outlines, out of the 31 institutions analysed, the number of institutions that adopt the various approaches to improving specific living conditions. Table 13: Composite Matrix of Institutional Methodologies

Vocational Training

Other Skills Training

Advocacy

Technical Assistance to Individuals

Technical Assistance to Organisations

Infrastructure Provision

Finance/Resource Provision (individuals)

Finance / Resource Provision (organisations)

Research

Care and counselling

TOTAL

Methodologies used

Level of Income

Access to productive resources Access to education

Indicators of Living Condition

Morbidity/Mortality from illness Homelessness

Housing facilities

162

Physical and social environments Social discrimination and exclusion TOTAL

The IA compenent of the CALC revealed that there were areas of overlap in institutional focus as well as areas of neglect or gaps in support provision. These are illustrated in the table. The majority of the programmes address level of income, access to education, social discrimination and exclusion and access to productive resources. The majority of the methodologies used focus on advocacy, finance/resource provision to individuals, care and counselling and technical assistance to individuals. The main areas of overlap of services related to:     

Access to productive resources being addressed by technical assistance to individuals through six (6) institutions Housing facilities being addressed by infrastructure provision through six (6) institutions Level of income being addressed by vocational training through nine (9) institutions Level of income being addressed by other skills training through seven (7) institutions Social discrimination and exclusion being addressed by care and counselling through eight (8) institutions 21

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Not all areas of overlap were however deemed to be inefficient. However, those viewed as in need of attention were:   

Level of income being addressed by vocational training Level of income being addressed by other skills training Social discrimination and exclusion being addressed by care and counselling

The analysis also revealed a number of gaps in terms of methodologies used to address aspects of living conditions. The gaps identified were: 1. Access to productive resources: none of the institutions utlised vocational training, other skills training, research or care and counselling to address this issue 2. Morbidity/Mortality from illness: none of the institutions utlised Advocacy, technical assistance to organisations, finance/resource provision to organisations, research or care and counselling to address this issue 3. Homelessness: none of the institutions utilised technical assistance to organisations, finance/resource provision to organisations or research to address this issue 4. Housing facilities: none of the institutions utlised research to address this issue 5. Social discrimination and exclusion: none of the organisations utlised other skills training to address this issue Individual consultations revealed a number of issues which may affect the capacity of these institutions to improve living conditions. The main issues fall into three main categories:   

Lack of financial resources: Institutions lamented the lack of funds available to fulfill their mandates. Poor articulation of goals: A number of institutions were unable to provide a clear indication of either short or long term goals. Monitoring and evaluation: Of the thirty-one (31) institutions evaluated, only twelve (12) could provide evidence of monitoring and evaluation. This has serious implications for service provision.

It is within this institutional context that the main recommendations to emerge from the CALC should be considered. These recommendations are articulated in Sections 4 and 5 of the report.

3.6.

Crime and Violence

There was a decline in reported crimes over the 1995 to 2009 period. Acquisitive crimes (robbery, theft, burglary) were the main types of crime committed. There was also a high level of drug-related crimes, but these have been on a downward trend in recent years. Empirical research suggests that criminal activity is linked to economic performance and the availability of police resources. Poor economic performance generally results in an increase in criminal activity, while the increased availability of police resources leads to a decline in such activity. The high incidence of poverty and the low level of human capital are associated with a high probability of criminal activity among the youth, especially males. Domestic violence is also considered as a growing concern but there is need for more concrete data on its incidence. Several initiatives have been introduced to deal with the existence of criminal activity and violence. These include community policing, crime stoppers program and the Juvenile Liaison Scheme.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

3.7.

Governance

During the period 1995 to 2010, Barbados continued to experience a high level of political stability within the context of a democratic parliamentary system of government. It has a well-functioning legal and regulatory system. In the throes of the economic crisis in early 1990s, the Government established a Social Partnership with representatives of the private sector and the workers. Through the establishment of Protocols which govern the nature of agreements among the parties, the country has been able to find an institutional mechanism for dealing with crises and other socio-economic challenges. To date, six Protocols have been signed by the parties, with four of them covering the study period. The main objectives of the Protocols have been to maintain the existing parity of the exchange rate, maintain a stable industrial relations climate, achieve a sustainable expansion of the economy, reduce social disparities through increased employment, enhance productivity and improve efficiency, maintain balance between prices and incomes and consolidate the consultation process. In recent years, the government has introduced constituency councils in order to give voice to persons living in various political constituencies and improve the participation process. The country has produced a good governance record by all international indicators such as the rule of law, voice, accountability and the control of corruption. There is respect for law and order and the fulfillment of human rights. There is also freedom of the press and the right of association according to one’s free will.

3.8.

Habitat Patterns and the Environment

Over the years Barbados has witnessed a reduction in the amount of land used for agricultural purpose (especially sugar cane) and an increase in the allocation of land for residential purposes. This has been associated with the growth of the construction sector as persons have had ready access to mortgage finance and land. There has also been a shift of residents from the urban areas to the rural/suburban areas such as St Thomas and St Phillip. There seems to be a low incidence of squatting by the poor on government and private lands although the housing conditions of the poor are largely substandard. There has been an increase in vehicular traffic on the main roads in urban areas and this has resulted in pollution and congestion challenges. The ground water is protected through a zoning system which is closely monitored. A solid waste management system is also in place but there is growth in the volume of waste occasioned by increased domestic consumption and tourism activity. Recent attempts have been made to move the country a ‘green economy’ thus reducing the environmental burden on such a small vulnerable island state. As a small island in the Caribbean, Barbados is subject to such environmental/natural hazards such as storms, hurricanes and associated flooding. The Government has established the institutional framework to address any disasters arising from such natural/environmental hazards: a catastrophe Fund, Central Emergency Department and a National Disaster Management Plan. From a community perspective, obtained from the PPA, the preservation of the natural resources and the state of the physical environment are of concern to residents. In one particular community, Six Men’s in the north of the island which is highly dependent on the marine environment for livelihoods, residents are concerned about what they call “an environmental disaster”. Their particular concerns relate to the serious damage being done to their physical environment and the degradation and destruction of the beach and of the natural habitats of marine creatures. In other communities, there is a concern about the inappropriate accumulation of garbage, about open, overflowing wells and about dust and noise pollution.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

3.9.

Summary

There was a general improvement in the living conditions of Barbados over the 1995 to 2010 period with steady but moderate economic growth and a falling rate of unemployment, especially up to 2000. The economy however experienced some setback associated with the economic shocks of 2001 and 2008/9 when output declined and unemployment rose thus creating transient poverty. There was a fall in the so-called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;misery indexâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; which combines the unemployment and inflation rates from 22 percent in 1995 to 16 percent in 2010. There have been improvements in health, education and housing over the period, but the challenges still remain with respect to the quality of the educational output and the health status of the population as it related to CNCDs. The Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s macroeconomic management policy has been geared towards sustaining economic stability and balance with respect to the BOP and fiscal accounts, while finding ways of diversifying the economy and promoting economy growth and employment. It is within this context that the living conditions in Barbados are analysed in the following sections.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Poverty and Living Conditions in Barbados in 2010

The results of the various components of the Barbados CALC provided both quantitative and qualitative data that gave insights into the different perspectives on living conditions as well as information on the causes and correlates of poverty. This information, presented below, is utilized to identify potential solutions to poverty in Barbados. This section is structured to provide an overview of the main results of the SLC and PPA components of the project in relation to the differential definitions and perspectives of poverty in Barbados and the differential characteristics of households in relation to their living conditions. This information is then utilized to present an analysis of the causes and correlates of different living conditions in Barbados, followed by policy recommendations to alleviate poverty in Barbados given the limited fiscal space that the Government of Barbados has to operate within.

4.1.

Definitions, Perceptions and Indicators

The Barbados CALC, while focused on living conditions in general, had a special focus on poverty, from multiple perspectives, both qualitative and quantitative. For the SLC, both absolute and relative definitions of poverty were utilized, as well as a self-rating of standard of living from very low to very high. For relative poverty, expenditure data was analysed using expenditure quintiles. The analysis of absolute poverty was based in the calculation of a minimum cost food basket (MCFB) with data from the National Nutrition Centre (NNC) to provide an indigence line. This indigence line was utilized to then calculate the poverty line by estimating the minimum cost of non-food items and adding this to the MCFB. This provided an estimate of the level of expenditure that an individual would require to satisfy their basic nutritional and non-food needs. This figure was then utilized to provide estimates at the household level. These absolute and relative poverty estimates were calculated following the execution of the household and individual surveys of the SLC. Utilising data from the NNC in relation to the MCFB, and estimating the share of non-food expenditure from the SLC (estimated as 52% of total expenditure), allowed for the calculation of the indigence line, the poverty line and the vulnerability line. The average per capita indigence and poverty lines for Barbados were estimated as BDS$3970 and BDS$7861 respectively. In total 6.9% of households and 9.1% of individuals were categorised as indigent poor, while 8.1% of households and 10.2% of individuals were categorised as non-indigent poor. In effect, 15% of households lived below the poverty line, while 19.3% of individuals were below the line in 2010. In terms of geographical distribution, the Greater Bridgetown, Outer Urban and North and East strata had an above average population that was poor. The SLC was also used to calculate other poverty indicators. In terms of the depth and severity of poverty, the Poverty Gap and Squared Poverty Gap (Severity of Poverty) for Barbados were estimated at 6.0 and 3.2 respectively while the Gini coefficient was 0.47. The main indicators to emerge from the SLC are shown in the table below. Although, the approach taken in this study differs somewhat from the IDB (1997) study, a comparison of selected variables from the two studies is given in Appendix I.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 14: Main Poverty Indicators for Barbados (2010) Variable Poverty Line Vulnerability Line Household Poverty Rate Individual Poverty Rate Poverty Gap Poverty Severity Gini Coefficient Poor Household Size Non-Poor Household Size Poor Households Headed by Females (% of Poor Households) Non-poor Households Headed by Females (%Non-poor Households Poverty Rate for Female Headed Households Poverty Rate for Male Headed Households Overcrowding in Poor Households Overcrowding in Non-poor Households Unemployment Rate in Poor Households Unemployment Rate in Non-poor Households

Value BDS$$7,860.65 BDS$9,825.82 15.0% 19.3% 6.0 3.2 0.47 3.7 2.7 62.2% 47.0% 19.4% 11.5% 11.0% 3.0% 25.9% 8.9%

In relation to relative poverty, the SLC was also utilised to estimate annual expenditure quintiles per capita based on data provided from the income and expenditure module of the SLC. The annual expenditure quintiles per capita referenced in the report refer to the following expenditure ranges:     

Quintile I: less than BD$9,202 Quintile II: BD$9,202-BD$13,891 Quintile III: BD$13,892-BD$19,928 Quintile IV: BD$19,929-BD$32,950 Quintile V: More than BD$32,950

In relation to regional comparisons, the poverty levels in Barbados are somewhat lower than for other countries in the region with the exception of Antigua and Barbuda which had a household poverty rate of 13.4% and individual rate of 18.3% in 2007, the period immediately preceding the current economic crisis. The results indicate that, with the exception of Nevis, the Poverty Gap in Barbados is relatively low in comparison to other countries in the region [see Table 15]. The same can also be said for the degree of inequality amongst the poor (poverty severity), where Barbados has the third lowest level after St. Kitts and Nevis and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. However, in terms of inequality in consumption, as measured by the Gini coefficient, Barbados demonstrates the second highest level of inequality after Antigua and Barbuda. The lowest level of inequality in consumption was seen in Grenada with a Gini coefficient of 0.37. These results should however be treated with caution since they cover pre and post-crisis periods, which restrict the ability to make meaningful comparisons.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 15: Regional Poverty Indicators Country (year of data) Barbados (2010) Dominica (2010) St. Lucia (2007) Belize (2009) Grenada (2008) Antigua and Barbuda (2007) St. Vincent and the Grenadines (2008) St. Kitts and Nevis (2009) -St. Kitts -Nevis

Household Poverty 15.0 22.8 21.4 31.0 na 13.4 -

Individual Poverty 19.3 28.8 28.8 42.0 37.7 18.3 33.1 21.8 23.7 15.9

Poverty Gap 6.0 8.9 9.0 11.4 10.1 6.6 7.5 6.4 2.7

Poverty Severity 3.2 4.0 4.1 5.0 4.0 3.8 3.0 2.6 0.8

Gini 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.40 0.40 -

In terms of the correlates of poverty from the SLC, poor households were characterised as being larger (3.7 persons versus 2.7 for the non-poor), comprising a greater amount of children (2.3 children versus 1.5 for the nonpoor), experiencing more overcrowding (11% of poor households were overcrowded versus 3% for the non-poor), having members with lower levels of education in lower skilled jobs, and employed in lower paying sectors. From the PPAs, definitions and perceptions of poverty were qualitative in nature, given the general approach of the PPAs, and reflected much of the correlates identified from the SLC (large overcrowded households and the prevalence of unemployment and employment in low skilled jobs in low paying sectors). However, in contrast to the SLC, definitions or understanding of poverty was internally driven as opposed to externally imposed. The results of the PPA in Communities indicated that, as in other Caribbean countries, because of the stigma attached to being poor, people are hesitant to call themselves or to identify others as poor. In addition to understanding what being poor or living in poverty was, destitution was also mentioned and defined as owning nothing and being unable to eat regularly. While living conditions in most of the communities were regarded as fairly good, there are some communities in which some residents were living in unacceptable conditions. In addition while there are few wealthy people in the communities studies, there was some level of poverty in all of them. The data show that several of the communities can be regarded as “middle class” and that there are several persons who are better off than their neighbours. However, even in these communities, there are one or two persons who are poor. In several communities, poverty is seen as being moderate but some of the most severe incidences of poverty were seen in the Pine, the City and in the St John’s locales. In addition there are a small number of individuals who are destitute. It is within households that the effects of poor living conditions and of poverty are most keenly felt. Information provided by heads of households and obtained by using objective indicators reveals that 51.25% of the eighty households are either poor or very poor. Of these, just over a third are poor and under a quarter are very poor. However, 42.75% are better off and only four can be said to be relatively rich. The concept of destitution was also seen in the PPA for vulnerable groups, where persons rejected the label ‘poverty’ for themselves, but identified with being ‘poor’. Poverty, they claimed, meant destitution and “having nothing” and encompassed psychological dimensions of helplessness, depression and loss of hope and selfrespect. So while community respondents were able to differentiate between being poor and being destitute in material terms, respondents from vulnerable groups centred their definition on destitution in material and psychological terms. 27

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

This psychological definition of poverty for vulnerable groups is manifested in their desire to hide the outward signs of material poverty. Emphasizing “pride”, “self respect” and “dignity” as traditional Barbadian qualities, informants described the lengths to which persons would go to conceal their poverty from public view. Strategies included holding one’s head high in public, laundering and wearing the same clothing on a daily basis and denying others access to one’s home. Among the homeless were those who dress up and mingle as regular members of the public. Pride and shame were said to prevent persons, the elderly in particular and some persons with disabilities, from applying for financial and other assistance, and hungry children from accepting food from their friends at school. Informants were also critical of agencies that extract maximum media publicity when they provide support for individuals and insisted that they should be more discrete. However, some were said to beg openly and not to care. Notwithstanding these efforts at concealment, poverty in Barbados was perceived to be highly visible in dress and physical appearance and difficult to hide. Children were most vocal and adept at identifying the signs and symptoms of poverty in other children. They mentioned untidiness, uncleanliness, worn clothing, unkempt hair, as well as “smell”, “ugliness” and “nastiness”. Poor children, they stated, are also known to depend on public transportation or walk to school and have, therefore, to be early risers. In addition to these visual indicators, poverty was also associated with a range of social and psychological indicators:          

irregular school attendance, poor performance, and early school leaving homelessness, or poor and insecure housing conditions residence in communities with poor reputations exclusion from legal and police protection ill health, poor diets and hunger drug and alcohol dependency exposure to family conflict, abuse and violence social isolation from family and community emotional depression, helplessness powerlessness and the denial of human rights.

These characteristics supplement the range of economic indicators identified in the SLC. During the interviews in communities, respondents were asked whether they considered themselves to be poor and to identify some of the things that in their view had contributed to their poverty. Many of the respondents compared the situation in their households to what existed in other households that in their view were either worse or better off than they were; in essence a relative definition of poverty. Poor households were seen to be so when compared to those that were better off, and while they were not wealthy, some were said to be not as bad as some others in the communities; and because they were not as bad as some others they were not “poor, poor”. The results of the PPAs therefore provided several insights into understanding and defining poverty in Barbados; while vulnerable groups define poverty in both absolute material and psychological terms given their experiences, community respondents utilise relative material definitions. While the SLC provides externally defined absolute poverty categorisations in relation to indigent poor, poor, vulnerable and non-poor, as well as relative categorisations in relation to expenditure quintiles, the PPAs provided definitions used by individuals. These definitions ranged from destitute, poor-poor and poor; with poor being a more acceptable term than poverty.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Although the SLC provided strictly consumption definitions, the PPA with vulnerable groups revealed that poverty was seen as a social phenomenon, as well as having a spatial dimension. In relation to this social dimension in defining poverty, poverty was interconnected with social exclusion as a result of stigma and discrimination. However, as noted in the PPA with vulnerable groups, a distinction should be made between social exclusion from the wider society and the system of provision and social protection on the one hand, and exclusion by family and community, on the other. The PPA with vulnerable groups also revealed that poverty and social exclusion were deeply gendered. These issues are examined in detail below in the discussion of the experiences and effects of exclusion.

4.1.1

Summation

The Barbados CALC, in seeking to provide multiple perspectives on poverty established multiple measures and definitions of poverty. From the SLC, both relative and absolute measures were used and externally imposed on the results to categorise individuals and households. While some element of external imposition was used in the PPA for communities in terms of objective indicators, for the most part community members utilised internal definitions and conceptions in relation to absolute poverty used in defining destitution, as well as relative material poverty by comparing their standard of living to others. For vulnerable groups the definitions utilised were more absolute in relation to both material possessions and psychological manifestations of social exclusion in relation to feelings of helplessness, depression and loss of self-respect. Drawing on these definitions and understandings of poverty in Barbados, the following subsection reviews the main correlates and manifestations of poverty in Barbados as revealed from the SLC and the PPAs.

4.2.

Describing Poverty and Living Conditions in Barbados

The following section, drawing on the definitional issues addressed above and the macro socioeconomic context presented in the previous section, highlights the main descriptive results of the applied elements of the research. As the SLC was mainly concerned with describing the actual living conditions experienced in Barbados in 2010, and the PPAs with understanding underlying causes, the majority of this section draws on the results of the SLC with reference to the PPAs only where relevant.

4.2.1

Household Characteristics

From the SLC, the distribution of the population by age and sex as it relates to poverty status is shown in Table 16. The results demonstrate that persons under 15 years of age are overrepresented in poor households with 29.2% of the indigent poor and 29.8% of the non-indigent poor being in this age category. The related shares for vulnerable and non-poor households were 19.4% and 14.2% respectively. In addition, poor households had a lower share of males between the ages of 15 and 59 than non-poor households; 21.2% of individuals in indigent poor households and 30.9% in non-poor households are males between the ages of 15 and 59, as shown in the table below. In looking specifically at the youth category (those 15 to 24 years of age), the poverty rate was 23.0% as compared to 15% for those over 24 years of age.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 16: Sex/Age Categories by Poverty Status (%) Sex/Age Category

Indigent Poor

Male 0-5 Female 0-5 Male 6-14 Female 6-14 Male 15-59 Female 15-59 Male 60 and over Female 60 and over Total Number

4.0 4.6 10.6 10.0 21.2 32.3 7.2 10.2 100.0 501

NonIndigent Poor 5.2 5.2 9.7 9.7 20.8 33.6 6.3 9.5 100.0 557

Vulnerable

Non-poor

Total

2.7 2.5 7.1 7.1 27.5 33.6 8.0 11.5 100.0 563

2.9 2.8 4.3 4.2 30.9 35.4 8.4 11.0 100.0 3849

3.2 3.2 5.7 5.6 28.6 34.7 8.1 10.8 100.0 5470

As the results reveal, up to age 14 males and females are poor and vulnerable in roughly the same proportions, but above this age there is a strong gender difference. While the indigent poor and the non-indigent poor are comprised of 32% and 34% females respectively, the related figure for males is 21% in both instances. One of the main reasons for this occurrence is that poor households are more likely to be female headed; 19% of female heads were poor as opposed to 12% for male heads. The underlying reasons for these occurrences are explored in detail in Section 4.3 as it relates to differentials in the burden of care and access to the labour market and educational opportunities. As expected, average household size, average number of children and overcrowding (more than two persons per bedroom) varied considerably by poverty status. Table 17 below shows than poor households had on average 3.7 persons per household, 2.3 children and approximately 11% were overcrowded. The related figures for non-poor households were 2.7 persons, 1.5 children and 3.0% overcrowding respectively. Table 17: Average Household Size and Overcrowding by Poverty Status Poverty Status Indigent Poor Non-indigent Poor Vulnerable Non-poor Total Number

Average Household Size (number of persons) 3.8 3.6 2.9 2.7 2.89 1908

Average Number of Children 2.3 2.3 1.6 1.5 1.7 616

Overcrowded Households (%) 11.2 10.5 2.6 2.9 4.0 1871

The sex distribution of head of household was 49.3% male and 50.7% female. The mean head of household age for males was 54 years and 56 years for females. In relation to poverty status, 11.5% of male headed households were categorised as poor, while 19.4% of female headed households were poor. The possession of certain household assets or the number of these assets has also been used as an indicator of income levels. The SLC addressed this issue by asking households to indicate the number of certain assets they possessed. Reviewing the ownership of assets by poverty status reveals a number of areas where the poor are lacking, as shown in Table 18 below. These results act to support the poverty status allocations.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 18: Households Owning Assets by Poverty Status (%) Asset Telephones-Land Telephones-Cellular Washing Machines Motor Vehicles Computers Air Conditioners Solar Water Heaters Other Water Heaters Satellite TVs Number

Indigent Poor 70.3 68.8 56.3* 24.2* 35.9* 1.6 10.2 18.0 26.6* 128

Non-Indigent Poor 83.0 88.2 72.5* 37.3* 56.2* 3.3 21.6 20.3 39.2* 153

Vulnerable 88.4 86.3 75.8 39.5 53.2 7.4 31.1 22.1 39.5 190

Non-poor 90.3 94.1 83.0 66.3 70.2 13.7 48.2 20.4 59.2 1349

Total 88.1 91.0 79.5 58.1 64.8 11.3 41.5 20.4 53.1 1820

*While the possession of large or expensive items by poor households may seem anomalous, it should be noted that the results of the SLC are cross-sectional at a specific point in time and households may have acquired these items when they were better off, as a gift, or may consider them so essential that limited resources are directed towards their acquisition.

The issue of internet access was also explored in the SLC. While the majority of those with access obtained this from the home, 18% accessed from work. Overall, 40% did not access the internet. However, when these results are dissected by expenditure quintile, the lack of access to the internet is more pronounced for the two lowest quintiles, 57% and 47% respectively. The lack of access to computers for the poor, coupled with the lack of access to the internet, has implication for the education and development of those residing in these households. In relation to the 80 households interviewed for the PPA in communities, the data show that 43.75% of the households studied were better off, that just over one third were poor, that less than a quarter were very poor, and that only a small number of households were rich. However, just over half (51.25%) of the households studied are either very poor or poor. Table 19: Type of Household and Poverty Level of PPA Households Households Multi-generational Single parent female headed Nuclear Extended Single person/elderly Single parent male headed Sibling TOTAL

Very Poor 3 3 ---------4 3 1 14

Poor 8 6 5 3 1 3 1 27

Better Off 14 3 6 5 4 -----3 35

Rich ----1 1 2 ----------------4

Total 25 13 12 10 9 6 5 80

Chronic inter-generational poverty is a feature in several Caribbean countries a n d data from the PPA show that multi-generational households were poorer than other types of households. However, while 44% of the multi-generational households studied are either poor or very poor, 56% were better off. However, nine, nearly seventy percent (69.23%) of the thirteen single parent female headed households are either very poor or poor, and just half of the single person/single person elderly and poor and the single parent male households are also very poor or poor. In all, more households are poor than are better off or rich. These results suggest that the communities studied are mostly representative of lower income households in Barbados rather than wholly representative of all income groups.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

With respect to those that were better off in the communities, 36% indicated that their families were once poor but that they are now better off. This rise in standard of living was attributed to: working hard; having more educational opportunities; becoming self employed; owning businesses; obtaining better paying jobs; saving and owning land; owning and renting properties; family cooperated and helped each other; and adult children contributed. In returning to the issue of intergenerational poverty, data from the SLC can be utilised in relation to household headsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; comparison of their current standard of living to their childhood household. As Table 20 below demonstrates, on average 72.1% of households considered themselves better off. What is surprising is that despite 68.0% in lowest quintile indicating that they were better-off, they are still at the margins of poverty. Table 20: Rating of Living Standard versus Childhood Household of Head of Household by Expenditure Quintile (%) Rating Level Much Better Off Better Off Same Worse Off Much Worse Off Total Number

I 19.6 48.4 19.6 11.1 1.4 100.0 368

II 26.0 47.3 20.2 6.3 0.3 100.0 366

III 26.0 48.8 18.8 6.2 0.3 100.0 373

IV 25.7 45.0 22.3 6.2 0.8 100.0 373

V 29.9 43.4 20.1 5.6 1.1 100.0 378

Percentage of Responses 25.5 46.6 20.2 7.1 0.8 100.0 1858

In identifying changes over the last decade, community respondents agreed that the physical and material dimensions of living conditions were better. This view is corroborated by macroeconomic indicators such as real wages and per capita income prior to the recession in 2008. They identified the increase and availability of education opportunities and also the increase in health care facilities and services. On the other hand they are of the opinion that their economic situation is worst because of the recession, the high cost of living and the limited number of job opportunities. At the same time, they also provided information to show that their social environment had worsened and that it was now characterized by different and more serious problems including more drugs, crime, and violence, which make it more difficult to feel safe in their communities and in their homes.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

4.2.2

Housing, Utilities and Community Services

Information on the physical structure of dwelling units was also gathered during the execution of the SLC. While the materials of outer walls have remained fairly consistent over the period 1997 to 2010, there has been a slight decrease in the use of wood/timber and a slight increase in the use of concrete/concrete blocks [see Table 21]. Table 21: Material of Outer Walls- 1997 to 2010 (%) Material of Outer Walls

2010 SLC

2000 Census

23.0 48.2 22.8 1.8 3.8 0.3 0.1 0.1 100.0 2,391

26.9 46.2 24.9 1.8 0.2 100.0 83,026

Wood/Timber Concrete/Concrete Blocks Mix of Wood and Concrete Stone Brick/Blocks Plywood Makeshift Other Total Number

1997 Poverty Study 31.8 42.7 22.1 0.9 97.5 1,600

Examining these materials of outer walls by expenditure quintile demonstrates a wide differential between the lowest quintile and the highest quintile with wood/timber accounting for 34% in the lowest quintile and 12% in the highest quintile. Concrete/concrete blocks accounts for 34% of the lowest quintile and 65% of the highest quintile while a mixture of wood and concrete accounts for 27% in the lowest quintile and 16% in the highest quintile [see Table 22]. Table 22: Material of Outer Walls by Expenditure Quintile (%) Tenure Type for Dwelling Wood/Timber Concrete/Concrete Blocks Mix of Wood and Concrete Stone Brick/Blocks Plywood Makeshift Total Number

I 33.8 33.8 27.1 1.1 3.7 0.3 0.3 100.0 376

II 18.8 48.7 26.7 2.9 2.6 0.3 100.0 378

III 20.9 52.1 22.8 1.3 2.6 0.3 100.0 378

IV 17.8 56.6 18.6 1.9 4.8 0.3 100.0 376

V 11.9 64.6 15.6 2.6 5.0 0.3 100.0 378

Percent 20.6 51.2 22.2 2.0 3.8 0.3 0.1 100.0 1886

In terms of utilities, for water the average household had few shortages with only 10% of households experiencing 2 or more days per week without water over the last year. This is perhaps the reason for the high rating of adequacy of water supply with only 7.3% of households rating this as less than adequate, as shown in the table below. However, when these results are disaggregated by strata, there is a clear dissatisfaction seen in the Central, West and North and East stratums where 14%, 9% and 14% respectively rate their water supply as less than adequate [see Table 23].

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 23: Rating of adequacy of Water Supply by Strata (%) Rating of Water Supply Less than Adequate Adequate More than Adequate Total Number

Greater Bâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;town 1.8 81.8 16.3 100.0 380

Outer Urban 2.9 75.5 21.6 100.0 379

South East 2.8 77.0 20.2 100.0 426

Central

West

14.4 74.0 11.6 100.0 354

9.0 70.4 20.6 100.0 422

North and East 14.1 71.2 14.7 100.0 361

Percentage of Cases 7.3 75.0 17.7 100.0 2,322

One of the interesting trends to emerge from the SLC in comparison to the 2000 Census and the 1997 poverty study was the drastic reduction in the use of pit latrines. From the 1990 Census, 32.1% of households used pit latrines. There has subsequently been a significant downward trend where this was 22.0% in 1997, 16.5% in 2000 and 3.8% in 2010. This downward trend has been accompanied by an upward trend for water closets (WCs) where this increased from 74.1% in 1997 to 81.8% in 2000 and 95.4% in 2010. However, although there has been a dramatic decrease in the amount of households using pit-latrines, the distribution indicates this is still an issue in the Greater Bridgetown and South East Strata with 50% of the households still using pit latrines located in these areas: 26.1% of households using pit latrines are in Greater Bridgetown with 23.9% in the South East. The Outer Urban Strata only accounted for 3.3% of households with pit latrines. From the PPA, in all of the communities, while there has been a general improvement in the housing stock and many houses are in good condition, some are still small and several are in need of repairs, with a few households still using pit latrines and six houses having no toilet at all. While the Government has provided affordable housing in the form of housing units, and there are such units in seven of the communities, some of the units are quite old with faulty electrical wiring and fittings as well as poor plumbing. There is also serious overcrowding in some units and there is evidence of large numbers of persons, sometimes as many as twelve or fourteen persons, living in some two and three bedroom units. In terms of facilities and services available in the communities, as gleaned from the PPA, all of the communities were well served with education and health facilities. Formal education institutions and polyclinics are either in or situated within reach of all of the communities and there were recreational facilities in six. However, only in three areas were there community centres, with an absence of facilities for the elderly in all but one of the communities. While a wide variety of services are available, the data show that several service agencies are failing to provide services to those most in need. Residents in several of the communities depended on financial and other assistance from social service agencies but many are critical of the sometimes long and bureaucratic procedures for accessing the services. Many are also dissatisfied, outraged, and angered by the poor attitudes, the lack of respect, and the unprofessional behavior displayed by some of those who provide the services. While government institutions and/or agencies do operate in some way in all of the communities, opinions about their effect and impact vary from community to community. In some of the communities, residents praised the Sanitation Authority, the Water Authority, Health Inspectors and the Police outpost. However, in some other communities, young men cited police harassment and brutality. There are also some national NGOs, but few of them have outreach programmes or work at the community level. For example, while the use and abuse of illegal drugs is common in all of the communities, it is only in Deacons 34

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

that the National Council of Substance Abuse organizes a drug awareness programme. At the same time there are no CBOs in the majority of communities.

4.2.3

Social Relations

During the execution of the CALC a great deal of information was obtained about relationships that exist within households and in the communities. Several respondents were concerned about un-harmonious relationships within families. They cited inability of parents to provide for their children and some of the latter’s hostile reaction to this. They expressed concern about the deterioration of values and about indiscipline, about the lack of respect shown by some young people for parents and other adults, as well as the bad examples that some parents are setting their children. While some older people commented on the lack of respect that young people showed them, others recognized that the young people “are living in a different time.” At the same time, the young people also pointed out that the older generation did not respect them and often discriminated against them because of how they dress. Except for the “normal” disagreements and arguments, most male-female relationships are said to be fairly good, but some women did say that they were victims of abuse and domestic violence. Two aspects of gender relationships are mating patterns and fertility. The data show that serial mating2 is fairly common, but is more prevalent among women than among men. High levels of fertility, early and multiple pregnancies are present in several of the households studied. As is highlighted in one of the vignettes, these phenomena do not only have serious implications for women’s reproductive health but also for their ability to provide for their many children. In relation to social problems in communities, the existence and use of illegal drugs were identified as problems in all of the communities, and drug trafficking is a common activity in several. There is also evidence of gangs and gang violence, prostitution, gambling, theft, and alcoholism is several communities. According to some, their engagement in these illegal activities has resulted from their inability to obtain “regular” jobs and their need to generate income to sustain their livelihoods. However there is concern that some young children are also engaged in these activities. There is a significant amount of indiscipline and delinquency among people and, while not common, some of the information obtained suggests that there is some incest and sexual exploitation of young boys as well as young girls, by older men. At the same time, there is a concern about the existence of “Blocks” in some of the communities and about the unacceptable behaviour of block members. Many blocks have developed a sub-culture with distinctive characteristics and some of their activities do have negative outcomes and effects. However, the data show that in the absence of CBOs the blocks provide members with a sense of belonging that counteracts the sense of exclusion and rejection that they feel from the wider society. Blocks also provide opportunities for their members to build relationships and interact in positive ways, and their members provide support and assistance to each other.

Serial mating is the habitual engagement in sexual intercourse which can result in multiple pregnancies and multiple children from one or more partners. Within this definition, serial relates to non-concurrent relationship rather than simultaneous relationships. This behaviour is considered harmful as it has implications for women’s general health as well as their productive health including risks of contacting various STIs and the stress and anxiety of having to provide for multiple children.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

4.2.4 4.2.4.1.

Children, Health, Education and the Labour Market Children

One of the main matters of concern to emerge from the SLC data on children was the differential between the presence of mothers and fathers in the household. While 86% of mothers were present, only 40% of fathers were present, as shown in Table 24 below. Only 36% of children had both parents in the household. Table 24: Cross-tabulation of Presence of Mother and Father in the Household (%)

Mother Lives in Household Yes No Not Stated Total

Yes 35.7 4.2 0.1 39.9

Father Lives in Household No Not Stated 49.4 1.0 4.7 0.3 0.3 1.4 54.4 5.7

Total 86.1 9.1 4.8 100.0

This greater presence of mothers in the household presents a situation where there is a greater burden of care, a consequence of which is less opportunity for participation in the labour market or in education. This is evidenced by the fact that female headed households are more prevalent as poor households that those headed by males. These issues are examined in more detail in Section 4.3 in relation to the discussion of the burden of care. In relation to childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health, the majority did not suffer from any medical condition (77%), while 17% suffered from asthma. There were no significant differences here related to poverty status. For diagnosed disabilities, approximately 8% of children suffered some type of diagnosed disability with the most prevalent being speech (1.6%), learning/intellectual (1.2%) and sight (1.2%). For education, approximately 75% of children had the ability to read and 77% the ability to write. However, these figures included all children, including infants. In looking specifically at those children that had ever attended school (81%), 89.6% had the ability to read, and 92.4% the ability to write3. In total, 97.6% of children surveyed were currently enrolled in an educational institution, the majority of whom was full-time (99.9%). Approximately two-thirds (65.8%) were enrolled in primary schools and 32.1% in secondary schools, the majority of which were public institutions (89.7%).

4.2.4.2.

Health

The results of the SLC indicate that females reported that they were suffering from more medical conditions than males, particularly as it relates to high blood pressure and arthritis. Results demonstrate that 55% of females indicated that they did not suffer from any medical conditions while the corresponding percentage for males was 64.7% [see Table 25]. Investigating these conditions at the expenditure level reveals that diabetes, high blood pressure and cancer are most prevalent in the lowest and highest quintiles, whilst heart conditions are most prevalent in the highest quintile. These results reflect the growing incidence of chronic non-communicable diseases in Barbados associated mainly with the lifestyles of the population.

These figures should be treated with caution given that the level of competency was not tested.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 25: Reported Medical Conditions Suffered (% of Cases) (multiple response) Medical Condition Diabetes High Blood Pressure Heart Condition Cancer Asthma Other condition Arthritis No medical condition Total Number

Male 9.7 14.7 2.6 0.7 6.9 3.8 6.8 64.7 109.9 2500

Female 10.2 25.2 3.5 0.8 8.2 5.5 12.2 55.3 120.9 3137

Total 10.0 20.5 3.1 0.7 7.6 4.7 9.8 59.5 115.9 5637

In relation to disabilities, there is limited differentiation amongst the sample, with the marginal exception of sight where 4.6% of females and 3.7% of males having this disability. In total, only 2.0% of the sample revealed that they received any public assistance for any of their illnesses or disabilities. One of the interesting results to emerge from this element of the research relates to the issue of waiting time and satisfaction with service quality at health institutions. Table 26 below indicates that average waiting time was in excess of 2 hours at a public hospital and over 1.5 hours at a polyclinic. These waiting times fall steadily in relation to private medical facilities. Table 26: Average Waiting Time by Last Medical Facility Visited (minutes) Medical Facility Public Hospital Polyclinic Private Clinic/Hospital Private Doctor/Dentist Abroad Private Doctor/Dentist Traditional Healer Alternative Medicine Clinic Hospital Abroad Pharmacy/Chemist Total Number

Average Waiting Time (minutes) 127.90 104.41 42.90 37.84 37.49 5.00 26.88 5.00 53.21 60.55 3,546

Given these waiting times it is not surprising that this was one of the main areas of dissatisfaction among respondents with 74% citing this as one of their main areas of dissatisfaction, followed by attitude of staff (23%). This conclusion is supported by the results of the PPA which indicate concern with the quality of service delivery by social agencies. These results from the SLC are mostly reflected in the data from the PPA where interviewees in many of the communities are suffering from lifestyle diseases and respiratory diseases are also common. No specific information was obtained about HIV/AIDS but residents in a few communities said that there are a few people with the disease. Health services are widely available free of cost and residents in every community makes use of these services. These services are said to be generally good but long waiting hours, absence of some medication

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

and negative attitudes of some staff members were identified as problems from the PPA, as seen in the SLC data above.

4.2.4.3.

Education

In Barbados there is universal primary and secondary education and school attendance was very high in the communities studied for the PPA. This is reflected in the fact that nearly seventy percent of the household heads had some level of secondary education and twenty six had CXC/O Level certificates. Several also have some level of tertiary education and twenty four have participated in skills training and/or technical and vocational training. In spite of this and of the belief in a high literacy rate, there is evidence of functional illiteracy including among some young people. At the same time there is also evidence of a dearth of adult and continuing education programmes in communities. At a national level from the SLC, 99.2% of respondents had attended a formal education institution, on average starting their education at 4 years of age. This reflects the compulsory education required of persons up to the age of 16 years. In total, 14.3% were currently enrolled; 75.9% of which were at a public institution and 24.1% at a private institution. In terms of current status, 55.3% were full-time and 44.7% part-time. Turning to those not currently enrolled, the majority had at least completed secondary education (71%) while approximately 26% had gone on to get higher qualifications (9% technical/vocational and 16% tertiary). The division by sex shows that past the secondary school level, males were more likely to enter a technical/vocational college and females more likely to enter tertiary institutions, although the differential is small. This result is reflected in the general trend observed over the 1995 to 2010 period In looking at the highest examination passed in these institutions, there was little deviation by sex. However, when reviewed by expenditure quintile, the results are quite revealing, and suggest a link between educational achievement and consumption ability. Figure 2: Highest Examination Passed by Expenditure Quintile for those not currently enrolled

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

As Figure 2 demonstrates, as qualification levels rise, the proportion of those in the lower quintiles with such qualifications decreases. In effect, the poorer cohorts of the population have lower levels of human capital than the richer cohorts. In addition, Table 27 below demonstrates a steady decrease in the share of those with no qualifications as expenditure increases, from 56% to 18%. At higher certification levels the opposite holds with 4% of those in the lowest quintile with a degree or higher and 29% in the highest quintile. Table 27: Highest Examination Passed- Not Currently Enrolled by Expenditure Quintile (%) Highest Examination Passed None BSSC -School Leaving O' Level/CXC General A-Level/CAPE Certificate Diploma Associate Degree Degree Post-Graduate Degree Professional Qualification Others Total Number

I 55.9 5.9 22.8 0.4 6.5 2.3 1.6 2.3 0.7 0.5 1.1 100.0 749

III 34.4 8.3 23.8 0.6 12.0 5.4 5.4 5.9 1.8 1.8 1.4 100.0 727

42.8 7.9 23.1 1.9 9.1 4.6 2.6 4.2 1.2 1.9 0.7 100.0 736

28.4 5.8 20.2 2.0 13.0 7.9 4.1 8.4 3.6 3.6 1.3 100.0 687

18.4 5.9 19.4 2.4 11.9 7.8 4.8 13.5 7.8 7.8 1.1 100.0 630

Percent 36.7 6.8 22.0 1.4 10.4 5.5 3.6 6.6 2.9 3.0 1.1 100.0 3,529

For the area of technical/vocational training, 33.3% had undertaken this in the past with 93.1% completion. The main areas trained in by sex are shown in Table 28 below. Table 28: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Sex (%) Type of Vocational Training Agriculture Skilled Trade(plumbing, Elec.,etc) Upholstery/Garments Hairdressing/Cosmetology Teaching/Nursing/Child Care Hospitality Cultural Skills Business Studies Other Total Number

Males 2.9 69.4 2.9 0.1 3.1 4.8 0.5 7.8 8.6 100.0 770

Females 1.1 7.5 17.5 9.9 14.3 15.7 3.2 19.9 10.8 100.0 747

Percent 2.0 38.9 10.1 4.9 8.6 10.2 1.8 13.8 9.7 100.0 1,517

The variation in training by sex is quite stark and not surprising given the sexual division of labour in Barbados. As the table above demonstrates, the majority of males are undertaking training in the skilled trades, such as plumbing, electrical work, mechanics, etc. (69%), while females are mostly participating in training in business studies, upholstery/garments, hospitality and the caring vocations (teaching, nursing, child care) (67%). As indicated earlier, the enrolment pattern in the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tertiary institutions, especially the SJPP, reflects this pattern.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 29: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Age Group (%) Type of Vocational Training Agriculture Skilled Trade Upholstery/Garments Hairdressing/Cosmetology Teaching/Nursing/Child Care Hospitality Cultural Skills Business Studies Other Total Number

15 -24 years 2.0 47.7 3.3 10.5 3.3 13.1 1.3 11.1 7.8 100.0 153

25 to 65 years 1.6 39.0 9.1 4.8 8.3 10.2 2.2 15.1 9.7 100.0 1159

Over 65 years 4.4 31.7 20.5 1.5 14.6 7.8 0.5 8.3 10.7 100.0 205

Percent 2.0 38.9 10.1 4.9 8.6 10.2 1.8 13.8 9.7 100.0 1517

Analysing the results by age group reveals that the youth (15 to 24 years of age) undertook training in skilled trades, hospitality and business studies [see Table 30]. Table 30: Types of Vocational Training Undertaken by Expenditure Quintile (%) Type of Vocational Training Agriculture Skilled Trade Upholstery/Garments Hairdressing/Cosmetology Teaching/Nursing/Child Care Hospitality Cultural Skills Business Studies Other Total Number

I 2.9 44.0 12.9 3.3 4.8 12.0 2.4 9.1 8.6 100.0 209

II 2.5 40.5 9.9 5.0 11.2 9.1 2.1 12.0 7.9 100.0 242

III 1.5 43.0 9.2 5.1 8.5 10.7 1.1 12.9 8.1 100.0 272

IV 1.5 35.6 8.4 5.1 11.3 10.2 0.4 16.7 10.9 100.0 275

V 1.2 37.1 4.8 5.6 7.3 10.1 2.8 20.2 10.9 100.0 248

Percent 1.9 38.9 10.1 5.0 8.6 10.2 1.8 14.0 9.5 100.0 1,246

In addition to the division of training by sex and age-group, there is also a division seen in relation to expenditure levels where the lower quintiles dominate in skilled trades and upholstery/garments and the higher quintiles dominating in business studies and to a lesser degree hairdressing/cosmetology and the caring vocations [see Table 30]. The results of the analysis of education of individuals, and related issues, reveals a stark contrast between the higher and lower consumption indicators (expenditure quintiles) with lower levels of skill development qualifications seen in the lower quintiles, suggesting a strong link between education and consumption ability, and further revealed in the analysis of economic activity.

4.2.4.4.

Economic Activity

One of the main components of the SLC was to review the economic activity of respondents. As Table 31 below outlines, 63% of males and 55% of females were currently working while 17% were retired and 13% were unemployed. The unemployment rate is not significantly out of line with the national labour force survey data, given that the economy was in the throes of a recession at the time of the SLC.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 31: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Sex (%) Economic Activity Working Unemployed Keeping House At School Retired Incapacitated Other Total Number

Males 62.9 11.6 0.2 6.6 16.5 1.4 0.8 100.0 2,460

Females 54.7 14.3 4.5 6.7 17.5 1.4 0.9 100.0 3,073

Percent 58.4 13.1 2.6 6.7 17.0 1.4 0.9 100.0 5,533

Reviewing the results by age group (those 15 to 24 years and those over 24 years) reveals that 22.5% of the youth are categorised as unemployed while the related figure for the over 24s is 11.0%. Taking into consideration those actively seeking work suggests an unemployment rate amongst the youth of 27.6% as compared to 8.1% for those over 25 years of age4 [see Table 32]. This result confirms the existence of a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;youth unemployment problemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with the rate being twice the national rate. Table 32: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Age Group (%) Economic Activity Working Unemployed Keeping House At School Other Total Number

Youth (15 to 24 years) 41.2 22.5 0.6 33.7 2.0 100.0 996

Over 24s 62.1 11.0 3.0 0.7 23.1 100.0 4,537

Percent 58.4 13.1 2.6 6.7 19.3 100.0 5,533

Reviewing economic activity by expenditure quintile shows that while 43% of those in the lowest quintile were currently working, the equivalent percentage for the highest quintile was 69%. While 5% in the highest quintile were unemployed, the unemployed accounted for 23% of the lowest quintile [see Table 33].

From the sample, 410 youths were working and of the unemployed youth, 156 were actively seeking work. This suggests a youth labour force of 566 from the sample of which 156 were unemployed. For the over 25s, 2819 were working and 249 were actively seeking work. An over 25s labour force of 3,068 suggests an unemployment rate of 8.1% and an overall unemployment rate of 11.1%.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 33: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Expenditure Quintile (%) Economic Activity Working Unemployed Keeping House At School Retired Incapacitated Other Total Number

II 43.3 23.2 3.0 7.8 20.0 1.7 1.1 100.0 946

III 58.1 12.2 3.5 7.1 17.2 1.3 0.5 100.0 934

65.1 9.2 2.3 6.6 15.0 1.4 0.3 100.0 911

67.2 7.2 2.0 6.5 15.1 1.2 0.9 100.0 866

V 69.2 5.0 2.2 4.9 16.9 1.2 0.7 100.0 759

Percent 60.1 11.7 2.6 6.6 16.9 1.4 0.7 100.0 4,416

In seeking to dissect the lower quintiles, Table 34 below outlines main economic activity by poverty status. The table demonstrates that only 37% of the indigent poor and 46% of the non-indigent poor were currently working. For the non-poor this was 65%. Unemployment and poverty are therefore highly correlated. Table 34: Main Economic Activity in the Last 30 Days by Poverty Status (%) Economic Activity Working Unemployed Keeping House At School Retired Incapacitated Other Total Number

Indigent Poor 37.4 30.9 1.5 7.6 20.0 1.8 0.9 100.0 340

Non-Indigent Poor 45.5 21.4 3.6 9.0 16.8 2.1 1.6 100.0 387

Vulnerable 55.7 14.8 2.9 7.2 18.1 1.1 0.2 100.0 447

Non-Poor 64.8 8.1 2.6 6.2 16.4 1.3 0.6 100.0 3242

Percent 60.1 11.7 2.6 6.6 16.9 1.4 0.7 100.0 4,416

In relation to the other types of activity, 31% of the indigent poor and 21% of the non-indigent poor were unemployed while only 8% of the non-poor were unemployed. Looking specifically at employed respondents, 89% of those working were employed full-time, while 8% were part-time. The remaining 3% were undertaking seasonal or occasional employment. Transient poverty was seen to be present among those employed in the tourism sector and for whom work is available only around national festivals. There was limited deviation by sex with marginally more females working part-time and males working in occasional/odd jobs. Table 35: Employment Status of those Employed by Sex (%) Employment Status Employer/Self Employed Government Employee Private Employee Unpaid Family Worker Apprenticeship Other Total Number

Males 20.2 21.3 57.5 0.0 0.5 0.5 100.0 1,533

Females 13.2 21.7 64.3 0.1 0.1 0.7 100.0 1,670

Percent 16.5 21.5 61.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 100.0 3,203

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

In terms of employment status, the results above reveal that males were more likely to work for themselves while females were more likely to work for a private employer. Analysing the results by age group reveals that the youth are also more likely to work as private employees and less likely to be an employer or self-employed. In addition, they are also less likely to work for the Government with only 10% of the youth employed in Government as opposed to 24% for those between 25 and 65 years of age. Looking at the employment status results by expenditure shows that those in the highest expenditure quintiles were more likely to be work for themselves, while they were less likely to work as a private employee [see Table 36]. Table 36: Employment Status of those Employed by Expenditure Quintile (%) Employment Status Employer/Self Employed Government Employee Private Employee Unpaid Family Worker Apprenticeship Other Total Number

I 13.5 17.7 67.2 0.0 0.5 1.0 100.0 406

II 12.4 22.9 64.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 100.0 541

III 16.9 21.3 61.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 100.0 587

IV 16.0 23.6 58.9 0.3 0.2 1.0 100.0 576

V 22.8 21.8 55.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 100.0 522

Percent 16.4 21.7 61.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 100.0 2,632

The data on the occupation of respondents show that a large percentage of females are service or sales workers (26%), clerical support workers (17%) or professionals (12%), while for males the dominant occupations are more varied and seen in service and sales (15%), craft and related trades (10%), professions (10%), management (9%) or technical/associate professions (8%) [see Table 37]. This reflects the general structuring of the employed labour force, with the majority of employed workers in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;lower skillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; occupations. Considering that there is strong correlation between occupational level and income, and hence consumption, it is not surprising that reviewing the occupation data by expenditure level shows a high level of variation, as shown in Table 37 below. Table 37: Employed Occupations by Expenditure Quintile (%) Occupation Manager Professional Technician/Associate Professional Clerical Support Worker Service and Sales Worker Skilled Agricultural/Fishery Worker Craft and Related Trades Worker Plant and machine Operators/Assemblers Elementary Occupation Other Total Number

I 2.5 5.3 4.1 6.3 25.6 5.6 9.1 5.0 5.6 30.9 100.0 320

II 3.8 8.5 4.9 12.9 21.4 4.5 7.6 4.5 3.3 28.6 100.0 448

III 6.1 8.7 6.3 12.8 22.5 3.5 6.9 2.8 2.4 28.1 100.0 462

IV 8.8 16.1 7.5 10.8 20.7 2.6 4.0 3.3 2.9 23.3 100.0 454

V 17.6 20.5 5.9 9.4 16.2 1.2 4.2 1.6 1.6 21.6 100.0 425

Percent 8.0 12.1 5.8 10.7 21.1 3.4 6.2 3.4 3.0 26.3 100.0 2,109

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

As the results indicate, those in management or the professions comprise a larger percentage of the highest expenditure quintiles (38% of the highest quintile and 8% of the lowest quintile). Whilst not as drastic a difference, service and sales account for 26% of the lowest quintile and 16% of the highest. The employed mostly worked for 40 hours in the last week while 20% worked for 38 or less hours per week. The main reason for working less than 40 hours per week was that the work was only part-time or that the times worked were the only times allocated by the employer which dominated as reasons for 54% of females and 30% of males. This picture suggests a high degree of under-employment in the labour market. Of the 16.5% of respondents that were categorized as an employer or self-employed, 50.4% of their businesses were registered. In terms of sex, 58.5% of the self-employed were males. In terms of location of business operations, 47.0% operated from the home, 29.8% operated from a fixed location and 20.4% were mobile (suggesting a significant informal sector). The self-employed businesses employed on average 1.5 persons, with 90% employing 4 or less persons. The maximum amount of persons employed was 40. Table 38: Sex of Self-Employed by Expenditure Quintile (%) Sex Male Female Total Number Percentage of Total

I 50.9 49.1 100.0 55 12.7

II 55.2 44.8 100.0 67 15.5

III 58.6 41.4 100.0 99 22.9

IV 63.0 37.0 100.0 92 21.3

V 60.5 39.5 100.0 119 27.6

Total 58.6 41.4 100.0 432 100.0

Table 38 demonstrates that while self-employed males and females have equal shares at the lowest quintile level, males dominate at higher level quintiles. This suggests that consumption is higher for self-employed males than self-employed females. If consumption is considered as directly correlated with income then it can be inferred that male businesses are more profitable than female businesses as males are more prevalent in higher expenditure quintiles. This is an expected result given the differential types of businesses men and women engage in with females generally in lower value added activities due to such issues as lack of access to capital and a concentration on home-based activities due to the burden of care. This is supported by the results in relation to actual income from self-employment. Table 39: Approximate Business Income in the Last Month (%) Income Group Zero Less Than $800 $800 to $1999 $2000 to $3999 $4000 to $5200 Over $5200 Total Number

Males 3.3 13.4 22.0 30.5 8.1 22.8 100.0 246

Females 5.5 29.1 23.6 26.1 9.1 6.7 100.0 165

Percent 4.1 19.7 22.6 28.7 8.5 16.3 100.0 411

With regards to actual income from self-employment, 54% of respondents indicated that this was over $2000 in the last month, while 24% indicated that it was less than $800. If this data are viewed by sex, 42% of females had income over $2000 per month and 35% less than $800 while the comparable figures for males were 61% and 17%

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

[see Table 39]. These results suggest that self-employed males are overrepresented in higher earning categories and females overrepresented in lower earning categories. In the communities a large number of people worked in the informal economy and entrepreneurship was high in a couple of the communities. However many were still unable to generate enough income to meet basic needs or to sustain their livelihoods. In some of the eighty households studied only one person may be working for low wages, and in others, even though more than one person may be working, some at more than one job, their combined incomes are still insufficient to meet all of the householdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs or to improve their living conditions. This reflects the existence of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;working poorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in several communities. Some people also work in the underground economy and are involved in the drug trade, in prostitution, and in other criminal and illegal activities. However, because of their inability to obtain permanent jobs, many see this as their only option to earn some income. Of the unemployed, 405 were actively seeking work (57.2%). This suggests that the total number of persons in the labour force (sum of employed and unemployed persons who are seeking work) for the sample was 3,634, suggesting an unemployment rate of 11.1%. With reference to the Barbados Continuous Household Labour Force Survey for the period January to December 2010 (Barbados Statistical Service, 2010), the unemployment rate was referenced as 10.7%. The unemployed that are in the labour force (seeking work) are comprised of 46% males and 54% females, with females demonstrating a longer period unemployed that males, as shown in the table below. While 42.9% of males had been unemployed for 6 months or more, the equivalent percentage for females was 54% [see Table 40]. This suggests a higher rate of skill depreciation among females. Table 40: Period Unemployed for those seeking work by Sex (%) Unemployed Periods Never Worked 1 >= 3 Months 3>= 6 Months 6 > 12 Months 1 Year and More Total Number

Males 11.0 28.0 18.1 17.6 25.3 100.0 182

Females 9.7 25.5 11.1 18.1 35.6 100.0 216

Percent 10.3 26.6 14.3 17.8 30.9 100.0 398

For the unemployed youth (15 to 24 years old) that are currently seeking employment, 24% have never worked as opposed to 1.7% of those in the 25 to 65 years old category. In all of the communities studied, unemployment and underemployment are high especially, among young people. However, in many of the communities a few people are employed in the formal economy in the public service, the manufacturing and construction sectors, and in the tourism sector. Many of those who work in the tourism sector are employed on a seasonal basis in low skilled jobs for low wages. For those not seeking work (the voluntarily unemployed), a variety of reasons were given, as outlined below, and mainly related to long term illness, not wanting work or unavailable to work because of caring duties or pregnancy [see Table 41].

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 41: Reasons for Not Seeking Work for the Voluntarily Unemployed by Sex (%) Reason for Not Seeking Work Temporary Illness Long Term Illness Did Not Want Work Awaiting Results or Applications Knew of No Vacancy Discouraged Caring for Someone Pregnancy Other Total Number

Males 2.4 27.1 27.1 5.9 12.9 8.2 2.4 1.2 12.9 100.0 85

Females 5.0 19.8 18.8 2.5 8.4 7.9 15.3 5.4 16.8 100.0 202

Percent 4.2 22.0 21.3 3.5 9.8 8.0 11.5 4.2 15.7 100.0 287

As a matter of concern from the analysis by sex and age group for those not seeking work is that 27% of males and 38% of the youth cite that they did not want to work. The related percentages for females and those 25 to 65 years were 19% and 16% respectively. This self-exclusion from the labour market is discussed in depth in Section 4.3.

4.2.4.5.

Migration

In total, 12.6% of households indicated that at least one household member had moved out in the last 5 years; this ranged from one to five individuals and information was collected on a total of 393 individuals. There was a fairly even distribution by sex with males accounting for 51.1% of persons leaving. The majority of those leaving were children of the head of household which accounted for 40.1%, followed by son/daughter-in-law (15.4%) and spouse/partner (11.0%). The detailed results are shown in the table below. The average age of leaving the household was 31 years of age with 75% departing before the age of 38. In reviewing the level of education of the departing person by expenditure quintile, there appears to be limited deviation of consequence although 25% of persons departing the lowest quartile households had a tertiary education and this has implications for the householdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; future earning capacity, although it does reduce the consumption burden [see Table 42]. Table 42: Level of Education Prior to Departure by Expenditure Quintile (%) Level of Education None Complete Primary Incomplete Primary Complete Secondary Incomplete Secondary Tertiary Other Not Stated Don't Know Total Number

III

8.3 4.2 43.1 2.8 25.0 8.3 8.3 100.0 72

5.0 8.3 6.7 41.7 5.0 23.3 3.3 5.0 1.7 100.0 60

5.9 39.2 13.7 33.3 5.9 2.0 100.0 51

7.9 2.6 28.9 2.6 34.2 5.3 15.8 2.6 100.0 38

1.2 1.2 44.2 4.7 40.7 2.3 3.5 2.3 100.0 86

Percent 1.0 5.9 2.9 40.7 5.5 31.6 2.0 6.8 3.6 100.0 307

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

In terms of the economic activity of the person departing the lowest quartile, they were either working or looking for work (79.5%), detrimentally affecting the householdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; earning capacity while reducing the consumption burden.

4.2.4.6.

Income and Expenditure

The individual survey instrument for the SLC sought to gather information on changes and levels of income and expenditure. Table 43 below outlines the main results as it relates to the change in key variables since mid-2007, the period before the commencement of the global economic crisis. Table 43: Individuals Change in Key Economic Variables since mid-2007 (%) Variable Personal Income Hours Worked Overall Personal Expenditure Consumption of Food and Services Purchase of New Household Durables Spending on Transport

Increased 37.1 13.4 60.0 46.5 17.7 40.6

No Change 41.3 63.5 29.7 44.5 63.4 48.4

Decreased 21.6 23.1 10.3 9.0 18.9 11.0

Number 5282 4858 5294 5217 4925 5117

In terms of income and employment, approximately 20% of respondents indicated that personal income and hours worked had decreased, while 37% indicated that personal income had increased and 13% that hours worked had increased. In relation to expenditure, despite only 37% indicating that income had increased, 60% of respondents indicated that overall personal expenditure had increased. The main expenditure increase was seen with food and services (46%) [see Table 43]. For all individuals reporting some form of income (employment and other sources), monthly income averaged $2,496, with 50% of the sample having a monthly income of $2000 or less. Female monthly income was $2,340 while the related income for males was $2,690. In terms of net monthly income from employment, this was $1,604 for females and $1,781 for males. The results in relation to income categories are shown in the Tables 44 and 45 by sex and by strata, with limited deviation seen between males and females; 74% of males and 78% of females earned less than $2000 in the last month. Table 44: Net Income from Main Job in Last Month by Sex (%) Net Income Category Less than $800 $800 to $1999 $2000 to $3999 $4000 to $5200 More than $5200 Total Number

Male 13.0 60.9 20.2 3.7 2.3 100.0 1232

Female 15.9 62.2 18.0 2.4 1.5 100.0 1507

Total 14.6 61.6 19.0 3.0 1.8 100.0 2739

While 80% of those in the West and South East strata earned less than $2000 in the last month, the related share for the Central Strata was 64%. In looking at monthly earnings over $4000, approximately 9% of the Central strata are in this category as opposed to 2% in the North and East Strata and 4% in Greater Bridgetown [see Table 45].

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 45: Net Income from Main Job in the Last Month by Strata (%) Income Category Less than $800 $800 to $1999 $2000 to $3999 $4000 to $5200 > $5200 Total Number

Greater Bridgetown 10.0 68.5 18.0 2.3 1.2 100.0 482

Outer Urban 11.3 65.2 16.7 4.2 2.5 100.0 353

South East 12.6 68.2 15.6 2.1 1.6 100.0 437

Central

West

9.0 54.8 27.0 6.1 3.1 100.0 456

24.0 56.3 15.5 2.0 2.2 100.0 595

North and East 17.3 58.9 22.1 1.4 0.2 100.0 416

Total 14.6 61.6 19.0 3.0 1.8 100.0 2739

In terms of sources of income, the main sources were employment, which accounted for approximately 72% of the sample, contributory pensions (10%), public service Government pension (6%), remittances from abroad (6%), child support (5%) and dividends from investment (5%). All other income sources accounted for less than 5% of income sources. An analysis of income source by expenditure quintile demonstrates that while a lower proportion of those in the lowest quintile obtain income from employment than the other quintiles (58% versus an average of 72%), a larger proportion obtain income from a non-contributory pension (7% versus an average of 3%) and public assistance (4% versus 1%). In addition, it appears that those in the lowest quintile have limited investments with only 2% obtaining dividends from investments, 2% receiving deposit interest and less than 1% receiving interest from stocks or shares. The averages for the full sample were 6%, 5% and 3% while for the highest quintile these were 11%, 9% and 6% [see Table 46]. These results indicate the existence of a category of ‘working poor’ and also poverty among ‘fixed income’ persons, especially old age pensioners. Table 46: Main Sources of Income by Expenditure Quintile (%) Income Source Employment Rentals Government Pension (Public Servant) Pension from Other Employer Contributory Pension from NIS Non-Contributory Pension from NIS Social Security Public Assistance Child Support Allowances Remittances from Abroad Dividends from Investment Deposit Interest Insurance Annuities Interest from Stocks/Shares

4.2.5

I 58.3 1.0 5.8 1.2 11.1 7.2 2.7 3.8 7.0 2.5 4.9 1.5 1.8 0.0 0.5

II 71.0 4.5 6.0 1.1 10.7 3.0 1.8 1.7 4.6 2.7 5.8 3.2 3.2 1.1 1.3

III 76.6 4.3 5.9 1.5 7.1 3.1 2.4 1.7 4.6 2.4 6.5 5.7 4.7 0.6 1.8

IV 75.9 5.5 6.7 2.6 8.8 1.6 2.9 0.7 5.5 3.7 7.6 7.4 6.3 0.9 3.7

V 76.6 10.8 7.7 1.7 9.5 1.6 1.9 0.8 4.5 3.4 8.1 11.0 9.3 2.5 6.2

Total 72.1 5.2 6.4 1.6 9.4 3.2 2.3 1.7 5.2 2.9 6.6 5.7 5.1 1.0 2.7

Number 3574 3378 3359 3364 3352 3340 3347 3365 3366 3372 3324 3283 3267 3353 3325

Summary

Overall, the results of the SLC and the PPAs revealed that poor households were characterised as being larger (3.7 persons versus 2.7 for the non-poor), comprising a greater amount of children (2.3 children versus 1.5 for the non48

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

poor), experiencing more overcrowding (11% of poor households were overcrowded versus 3% for the non-poor), having members with lower levels of education in lower skilled jobs, and employed in lower paying sectors. There was a large percentage of intergenerational poverty with approximately 85% of heads of poor households indicating they were at the same level or better off than in the household they grew up in. Despite a proportion of them being better off, 85% of poor heads of households are still living in poverty. Overall, 37% of the indigent poor, 46% of the non-indigent poor and 56% of the vulnerable were currently employed. The related percentage for the non-poor was 65%. In terms of unemployment, for those unemployed and seeking work, the rate for the poor was 26.5% as opposed to 11.4% for the vulnerable and 6.3% for the nonpoor. For the working poor, 80% were working full-time as opposed to 87% for the vulnerable and 91% of the non-poor. These results suggest a strong link between employment and poverty status with the poor less likely to be employed, and for the employed poor, they are less likely to be employed full-time. In terms of occupation, the majority of the poor are in lower skill jobs (service/sales/assembly)(38.6%) and 11.1% employed as managers/professionals/ associate professionals. The related percentages for the non-poor were 25.1% and 29.7% respectively. Industrial classification of employment for the poor also showed differences from the non-poor. The poor were overrepresented in Wholesale/Retail, Manufacturing, Agriculture and Fisheries and Accommodation and Food Services with 52% employed in these sectors as opposed to 28% for the non-poor. The poor were also underrepresented in Financial Services and Professional/Technical Activities, with 4% of the poor employed in these sectors as opposed to 15% of the non-poor. It is considered that one of the main reasons for these differentials in the labour market is directly related to the level of qualifications of the poor. While 56.8% of the poor that were not enrolled in an educational institution had no qualifications, this was only 30.7% for the non-poor. Reviewing the labour market data by sex and age indicates that the unemployment rate for males was 10.7% and 11.5% for females. The unemployment rate for the youth (15 to 24 years) was 27.6% as opposed to 8.1% for those over 24 years of age. Other notable differences in relation to sex and age and the labour market were that males were more likely to work for themselves (20% versus 13%) and females were more likely to be a private employee (64% versus 58%). The youth were more likely to work as a private employee (84% versus 58%) and less likely to be self-employed (5% versus 18%). Industrial classification of employment also varied by sex with Accommodation and Food Services, Administration and Financial Services accounting for 40.5% of female employment and Construction/Mining/Quarrying, Professional/Technical Activities and Transport accounting for 33.7% of male employment. The only previous study of poverty in Barbados was undertaken in 1997 by the IDB. At that time the poverty rate was 8.7% of households and 13.9% of individuals. The Gini coefficient was 0.39 while the Poverty Gap and the Squared Poverty Gap were 2.3 and 1.0 respectively [See Appendix I]. Given the differences in methodology used in the two studies, a comparison of the numerical values must be undertaken with the highest caution. However, the characteristics of poverty in both studies are basically the same: large households, low human capital, unemployment/underemployment, high fertility and dispersed across the country (i.e. capital city and rural areas).

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Overall, these results demonstrate a strong link between poverty, unemployment, underemployment, employment in low skill and low pay sectors and low educational achievement. These links are examined in the following section.

4.3.

Findings: The Correlates of Poverty in Barbados

The results of the applied research components of the CALC revealed a number of characteristics of those living in poverty in Barbados. The SLC identified a number of characteristics of poor households relating to households being larger, having more children, and experiencing more overcrowding. In addition, household members suffered from lower levels of education and qualification and were in low skilled jobs in low paying sectors. In addition, female headed households were more likely to be poor than male-headed households with poverty rates of 19.4% and 11.5% respectively. These results were mostly mirrored in the PPA in communities. Community respondents identified a number of reasons for themselves and their households living in poverty: High fertility rates, large numbers of children, lack of support from children’s fathers and absence of a father figure “A lot of children.” “There were a lot of us and not much money.” “Mother had nothing to give the children.” “Father never took responsibility for the children.” “Dad died young and after that everything went so we grow up poor.” “Husband refuse to assist.” “He put me in debt and left me.” Unemployment and low wages “Work for very low wages on the plantation.” “There was a time when there was not much for women after leaving school other than domestic work or shop assistant. My mother was a shop assistant.” “No job and no money.” “Can’t provide for the children, can’t get anything to give them to eat.” “Money not enough so can’t meet basic needs.” “House falling down, but I not working so I can’t fix it.” Lack of education “No money to let the children get further education 50

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“Parents not educated.” “Lack of higher education.” “Education was not as affordable as it is now.” In addition to these issues which are indicative of quantitative findings from poverty studies across the region, the PPA in communities also identified a family history of poverty and disability as reasons for currently existing in poverty. Coming from a poor family “I came along and find father working in the field, struggling, and mother lost her sight.” “Grandfather was a plantation worker worked for very low wages.” “From childhood my family was poor.” “I grow up poor. Struggling from young.” “I grow up seeing poverty.” Disability “I am disabled so can’t do much.” “My disability and lack of education. “I am blind and very poor.” In looking at the disproportionate burden of poverty on females, Table 47 demonstrates that female headed poor households also experienced larger household sizes and higher dependency (74.8% of household members were non-earners) than other types of households, with the main components of dependency being children under 15 years and persons in education (31.6%). In addition to these non-earners, poor female-headed households also had a large proportion of unemployed persons (17.3%), although this was not significantly different from poor male-headed households (16.8%). While the main component of dependency in poor female-headed households was children under 15 years of age, the main components for poor male-headed households were the retired and the incapacitated, which accounted for 28.0% of household members versus 20.6% for poor female-headed households. However, as demonstrated in the quotations, household size, disability and gender all play a role as causes and correlates of poverty in Barbados. As expanded on below, education and employment also have critical roles to play, especially as it relates to monetary income.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 47: Dependency Ratios and Household Size by Sex of Head of Household

Poor Female Headed 74.8 25.3 49.5 17.3 6.3 Poor Male Headed 68.6 15.1 53.5 16.8 4.4 Non-poor Female Headed 48.0 11.8 36.1 8.9 4.9 Non-poor Male Headed 43.8 9.4 34.4 5.4 3.8 Total 49.9 12.2 37.7 8.6 4.5 *Overall Dependency is calculated as number of non-earners in the household divided by The same process is used for each sub-group. A dependency ratio for those ‘Keeping House’ was not included here.

Retired

Household Size Incapacitated

In Education (15 and over)

Unemployed

Adult

Overall

Household Status

Children (under 15)

Dependency Ratios*

1.5 19.1 4.1 3.1 24.9 3.2 1.5 17.6 2.8 1.1 20.1 2.7 1.4 19.3 2.9 the total number of persons in the household.

The two principal indicators of poverty in Barbados to emerge from the CALC are the absence of monetary income and the lack of social and family support. Persons who are poor are unemployed or engaged in menial, temporary, insecure labour; or dependent on pensions and other benefits. Menial employment was, in turn, associated with low education and the absence of qualifications and vocational skills. In addition, the conditions of poverty for vulnerable groups are exacerbated by dependency on family and official social services. The poor were said often to be without family support for various reasons including family poverty, neglect or rejection. However, Government, NGOs and other agencies do not fill this gap in services and support. Although the lack of jobs and job opportunities have contributed to high levels of unemployment, according to residents in at least two of the communities, stigma, discrimination and exclusion have also done so. In looking at these issues in detail utilising information from the PPA with vulnerable groups, social exclusion is seen as both a cause and an effect of poverty. The exclusion of persons in vulnerable groups from education, health and other services, reinforces poverty, while poverty in turn generates social exclusion. Familial exclusion also had a significant effect on the quality of life of persons in vulnerable groups. Stigma and discrimination persist and were closely correlated with social and familial exclusion. This was most evident among MSM/G, PLHIV, sex workers, ex-prisoners, the homeless and migrants, but residual effects continue to impact other vulnerable groups including the elderly, persons with disabilities, Rastafarians and unemployed youth. The following subsections detail the experience and effect of exclusion as revealed from the interviews with vulnerable groups which are relevant to all those experiencing poverty in all of its manifestations.

4.3.1 4.3.1.1.

The Experience of Exclusion Social Exclusion

Informants from virtually all of the vulnerable groups agreed that poverty had increasingly become an issue for public attention in Barbados and that the official response from the Government, NGOs and other agencies had markedly enhanced their material conditions of living and their well-being. A wide range of benefits and services were mentioned – financial in the form of pensions and other allowances; services in health, education, skillstraining and home-based care; and in-kind allocations in the form, for example, of food vouchers and school 52

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meals and educational supplies. Specialist services in the public and private sector for children, for persons with disabilities – adults and children, for unemployed youth and for PLHIV were highlighted. Informants expressed concern that assistance in the form of handouts should be kept to a minimum and stressed that poverty was best tackled by providing educational and employment opportunities so that people could remain independent and provide for themselves. Private sector and NGO interventions were less well known and their contributions were described as small-scale, in-kind, irregular, and targeted to specific social groups. Provisions and services over recent generations were perceived to be most extensive in response to the material conditions of children, of persons living with disabilities, and of the elderly. By contrast, informants from poor and welfare households tended to report a worsening situation as regards provisions for their poverty and welfare needs. Rastafarians were perceived to be consciously refusing to access services, including mainstream education and child development programmes, immunization and other health services. The impact of the recession was being felt as a decline in employment including opportunities for “odd jobs”, moonlighting and increases in the cost of living, including the price of basic needs, adversely affected the standard of living of persons. There were predictions of a worsening situation and criticisms of a perceived nonresponse on the part of the Government. Persistent gaps in service provision were also identified. Certain vulnerable groups such as sex workers, exprisoners, the homeless and migrant populations were seen to fall outside the reach of health, social and educational provisions and services. The result is that many persons in vulnerable groups living in poverty continue to depend heavily on their families, from whom care and support was not always adequate or consistent, or may not exist at all. Informants also made reference to their lived environments. While little change in the physical environment was noted, apart from increased vehicular traffic, informants emphasized significant deterioration in the social environment, in their communities and the wider society that placed persons in vulnerable groups at greater risk, especially children and the elderly. Police harassment was a concern for Rastafarians, some migrants and unemployed youth. The fragmentation of families and communities and a consequent decline in support was mentioned, but also noted were the poverty and burdens of family members with the result that they have less to give or share. In this regard, a decline in remittances from abroad was mentioned and also a reduced capacity for family members to assume roles as care-givers. Migration was generally seen as a consequence of poverty and to have negative effects on families and individuals. For some, children and the elderly in particular, personal deprivation is embedded in family poverty. Social isolation from family and friends was most evident among the more stigmatized vulnerable groups including ex-prisoners, the homeless, sex workers, migrants and MSM/G. Some evidence of improved family tolerance and support for PLHIV was reported, but less for the MSM/G population. Social exclusion was however perceived to have declined for some groups – persons with disabilities and the elderly in particular. However, persistent stigma and discrimination enforced social exclusion among other vulnerable groups, including MSM/G, PLHIV, sex workers, ex-prisoners, unemployed youth and migrants – especially those with visible East Indian origins. MSM/G reported a public response that reduces their identity to their sexuality, thereby denying their status as human beings. A reduction in stigma was reported by Rastafarians, though as a community, they have opted for a degree of self exclusion from mainstream society. Migrants,

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struggling to legalise their status, survive on the margins of society – excluded from social services, socially isolated from family and friends, and at risk of harassment, exploitation and deportation. The vulnerable groups selected for this assessment were not homogeneous; some persons were more exposed to poverty and social exclusion than others. At greater risk among children were those with disabilities and those with migrant parents; among migrants, those who are in Barbados without legal status; among persons with disabilities, those who are physically incapacitated; among sex workers, those who work from the streets. The homeless range from those described as “vagrants” who are “unclean and beg” to those who look after themselves, dress well and mix in public. Some members of vulnerable groups suffer dual stigma and double discrimination as a result, for example, of being both gay and living with HIV, being a sex worker and a migrant, being elderly and physically challenged. Given these lived realities for the various vulnerable groups, as with those identified as poor from the SLC and the PPA in communities, it is important to analyse the causes of poverty and social/familial exclusion for vulnerable groups. As with the poor identified in the other components of the CALC, unemployment and financial constraints were the major causes of poverty among vulnerable groups. The sudden loss of a job, the death or departure of main breadwinner or a large unexpected expense, such as a funeral, could plunge a household and family into poverty. Even those who were regularly employed, also engaged in work on the side to make ends meet. Multiple sources of income and the involvement in “odd jobs” were mentioned frequently. Included were gardening, weeding, cleaning, catering, babysitting, making and selling craft items, cleaning cars, collecting plastic bottles for recycling, and construction work (i.e. so-called elementary occupations). Informants also lamented the lack of start-up funding to establish small businesses. Although the physically-able members of vulnerable groups were actively and continuously seeking out incomegenerating opportunities, and were adept at doing so, the employment environment was not perceived to be providing equal and fair opportunities. Job scarcity was seen to generate conditions that facilitate exploitation and discrimination by employers. Informants reported that potential employers were more receptive and sympathetic to women from vulnerable groups than to men, especially ex-prisoners and migrants. Reported by women, though, were demands from employers for sex as a condition for employment. Persons in highly stigmatized vulnerable groups, including PLHIV and MSM/G, reported being dismissed from their jobs once their statuses had been discovered and exposed. Migrants, illegal migrants in particular, spoke of their experiences of high levels of exploitation as a source of cheap labour. Correlated with unemployment were low levels of education and vocational skills, especially among unemployed youth, many were said to have dropped out of school early and without qualifications, while persons with disabilities continue to be excluded from mainstream education. Other sources of income included remittances from family members abroad (e.g. farm labour programmes), but amounts received were irregular and minimal, reduced as a result of the recession, and enough only to “help pay a bill”. For women, child support constituted a source of income, but was irregular and not worth the embarrassment and effort of going through the courts. The high “cost of living” was frequently mentioned with informants reporting that the costs of basic necessities of food and accommodation were escalating. Some mention was made of misguided spending patterns, on fashion and leisure activities, rather than investments for the future in education, nutrition and housing, but most claimed that they lived from hand to mouth. The elderly, for example, were seen to survive from one pension cheque to the next. 54

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As a result, persons in vulnerable groups had low levels of savings and little to sell in their efforts to make ends meet. From a gender perspective, women were perceived to managing what money they have more efficiently than men. However, women’s financial commitments as mothers, often with sole responsibility for several children, were seen as more pressing than those of men. Migrants, including migrant female sex workers, were more adept at cutting down on their expenses so as to save and fulfil their obligations to remit money to their children and relatives at home. Members of vulnerable groups saw themselves as objects of social exclusion as a result of stigma and discrimination, a situation that increases their vulnerability to poverty. Distinctions were reported in this regard between different vulnerable groups and also within these groups. At one extreme, children experienced little stigma or discrimination and minimal social exclusion. Parents value education as an escape route from poverty and virtually all children benefit from comprehensive public education as well as health services, and are involved in social activities with their families including low cost activities in open spaces such as the beach. At the other extreme are Rastafarians who practice self-imposed exclusion from mainstream society – from Babylon. Public perceptions of the elderly and persons with disabilities as incapacitated continue to fuel stigma and social exclusion – the former reporting perceptions of their “has been” status. Among persons with disabilities, those less mobile were excluded from physical access to banks and other public buildings, as a result of transportation problems and also the absence of ramps and railings. Persons with disabilities are also stereotyped as asexual – without sexual needs or rights – and with neither the need nor the capacity for intimate relationships. However, as a result of public education and sensitization, some indication of a decline in overt discrimination was reported from representatives of vulnerable groups. Included were persons with disabilities, the elderly, and Rastafarians. Persons with disabilities reported being invisible, ignored and bypassed by service providers, while members of the public, albeit a minority, continue to see their disability as infectious and so avoid physical contact. At the other extreme, verbal assaults from members of the public were the experience of members of the most stigmatized vulnerable groups, perceived to be responsible for their own vulnerability, including ex-prisoners, migrants, the homeless, PLHIV, sex workers and MSM/G. They reported public jeering with labels such as “jailbirds”, “foreigners”, “vagrants”, “bullers” and “whores”. Rastafarians spoke of improvements in the public attitude and response, but claimed that some persons still saw them as “aliens” and “underdogs”. Sex workers and MSM/G are associated in the public mind with HIV infection which strengthens stigma and discrimination against them, though mention was also made of a growing public understanding that HIV is not a “gay disease”. Stigma induces the denial of HIV status and the consequent non-access to testing, treatment and care, driving the epidemic underground. Those PLHIV who do access treatment, go to great lengths to do so in secret and to conceal their status at church and in their communities, though generally their families are aware. The homeless, unemployed youth and Rastafarians spoke of police harassment. All referred to unprovoked stop, search and interrogation experiences. And migrants reported harassment, restrictions and poor treatment by immigration officials. They also experienced unexpected levels of stigma and discrimination, especially those of East Indian origin and spoke of self-imposed social isolation, assuming a low profile and changing their accents to hide nationality. Sex workers and migrants avoided reporting robberies and violence to the police and were generally without police protection. Illegal migrants reported social exclusion from health services and some were said to keep their children from school. In general, informants spoke of a spatial dimension to poverty in that certain places, such as restaurants, were seen as off limits to the poor. They tend to socialise within their own group.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Social exclusion was also attributed to problems of physical immobility and problems with transportation, especially for persons with disabilities and the elderly who are physically incapacitated.

4.3.1.2.

Familial Support and Exclusion

Vulnerable group members often depend heavily on their families and families, in turn, were seen to be critical in making a difference to their quality of life – material, social and psychological. The elderly placed great value on the love and company provided by family, more so than material support. Women in poor and welfare households identified family assistance with child care and support as critical. Professionals pointed to family support as a prerequisite for subsequent efforts on the part of vulnerable individuals to improve their own lives. Dependence on family was most apparent among children, persons with disabilities and the elderly. Others, such as unemployed young persons, PLHIV and MSM/G, also relied on family affection and support, even though they were seen to have a greater capacity for self-care and independent living. The relationships between vulnerable group members and their families varied widely, from strong and comprehensive care and support to outright rejection and ostracism. Children were generally accommodated and taken care of within their families; where parents had migrated or were otherwise incapacitated, women of the extended family assumed responsibility. Informants explained that, though adults may be denied accommodation and care by family and friends, a child would rarely be refused. The situation among the elderly and persons with disabilities varied with social isolation being most evident among those who are physically challenged and live alone – some were said to interact only with the government care-giver on a daily basis. Others are well integrated into their families and communities. But even they, though receiving some assistance from family, were intent on preserving their independence in their own homes for as long as possible. The reasons for this diversity relate to variations in: 



family poverty: evident especially in single parent households containing several children and three generations; single person homes, in particular elderly persons living alone; and households of migrants or ex-prisoners and attributed to the fragmentation of the extended family, the inability of family members to support each other, the burdens experienced by family care-givers, especially women, and in a persistent inter-generational cycle of family poverty, stigma in families: experienced as ostracism and eviction from the family home by highly stigmatised family members such as PLHIV and MSM/G. But the elderly and persons with disabilities also experienced stigma in the home. family conflict: not seen to be exclusively confined to poor families, but reports were frequent with women, children, the elderly and persons with disabilities specifically identified as the main targets of intra-family violence. Abuse was experienced in various forms including neglect, inconsistent and misguided care, verbal and physical abuse. Moving in with and dependency on family members were seen to generate vulnerability to care-givers who see them as a burden, exercise control in abusive ways and appropriate pensions and other benefits.

Gender distinctions in family support as well as violence were noted. Female members of families were said to be more tolerant of diverse sexual orientation and HIV status, especially in their sons, though some personal experiences contradicted this generalization. Age and gender distinctions correlated in the suggestion that mothers were more supportive of their girl children when young, but lavish care and attention on their sons when they reach adulthood. Paradoxically, the support of mothers was said to reinforce the joblessness and dependency among unemployed youth. Though both boys and girls were perceived to be vulnerable to physical abuse, sexual 56

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abuse was perceived to target girls and penalties for pregnancy were severe, while the males involved got off lightly. The view that poor women are provided for by men, not the other way round, and that these women seek out men for their money was expressed, especially by unemployed young men. Women were also said to be more embedded in supportive family networks and to receive care and support from their adult children, while men were reported to be more disconnected and isolated from their families, especially from their children. Among the elderly, men are less likely to have made preparations for old age. Female ex-prisoners are more easily reintegrated into their families and homelessness and destitution was significantly more prevalent among men. Within the PLHIV and MSM/G groups, stigma and rejection was more prevalent towards male members. On the other hand and importantly, within families, women and girls were much more likely to be the targets of abuse and violence and to carry the greater burden of family care and support, particularly in relation to children, the elderly and family members with disabilities.

4.3.1.3.

Community Support for Vulnerable Groups

Communities in Barbados were generally perceived as less caring and supportive than in past generations. Social interaction, shared child care within communities and the distribution and sharing of agricultural produce, cooked food and other basic needs were less prevalent today. These characteristics were attributed to residential instability – the out-migration of families and the influx of strangers. Specific vulnerable groups including exprisoners, PLHIV and MSM/G, were more socially isolated in some of their communities, unlikely to receive community support, and targeted by stigma and abuse. In terms of security and safety, some communities were also perceived to have deteriorated into “ghettos”. Although most informants felt safe in their communities, they abhorred the rise in violence and crime – including armed robberies, drug and alcohol use, “prostitution” and “cursing”, vehicular traffic and predators that placed vulnerable residents at risk. However, variations between communities were reported. The elderly and women of poor and welfare households recalled the care, assistance and support within their neighbourhoods, including those among the poorest and with the lowest reputations. Neighbours and the “boys on the block” provided protection and company for them and their children. The downside was that residence in these areas generates stigma and rejection in the wider society, especially in job applications and other formal situations. Persons living in these communities, the unemployed youth in particular, mentioned the lack of influential, inter-personal contacts as a drawback in applications for training and employment. However, migrants reported Barbados to be a safer and more secure place to live than their own countries and Rastafarians claimed that they had built a strong sense of identity and community among themselves, though they bemoaned a decline in their own group unity.

4.3.2

The Effects of Income Poverty and Exclusion

The effects of unemployment and the absence of family and community support were many and complex for those in vulnerable groups. Included were: 

Homelessness: mostly among men as a result of eviction by family members, especially among unemployed youth and migrants evicted by landlords. The homeless squat in shanties, “house hop” by finding temporary accommodation with friends, or sleep in old cars, abandoned buildings, on the beach or on the street. The direct effects of homelessness are ill health and an unkempt, unclean appearance that reinforce unemployment and social exclusion. 57

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

Poor housing conditions: attributed to housing shortage, high rental costs and exploitation by unscrupulous landlords. The result is overcrowding as families double up and migrants share accommodation. Ill-health, inadequate nutrition, drug and alcohol abuse: cutting back on expenditure by consuming inexpensive food items especially canned goods on sale and going without vegetables and fruits compounded the problems of ill health, leading to both under- and also over-weight. Hunger was mentioned by persons in most vulnerable groups, though not as a permanent, chronic condition. Persons revealed that they often went without meals, made food items stretch across several meals and were sometimes unsure of where their next meal was coming from. Poor nutrition was said to exacerbate the problems of ill health, including chronic disease and mental illness and, among persons living with HIV, to compromise their treatment, exposing them to other infections. Ill health was exacerbated by drug and alcohol dependency, a side-effect of coping with poor conditions of living. This was reported for the homeless and ex-prisoners. Sex workers spoke of their substance use and abuse in order to endure their work. They also admitted engaging in unprotected sex for higher remuneration and because the drugs and alcohol impaired their judgment. Psychological effects: varied from “sadness” and “loneliness” to “depression” and “helplessness”. Informants also spoke of low levels of motivation, low expectations and no sense of purpose. There was also mention of a “dependency syndrome” among many of the poor: At rock bottom are those that succumb and give up, refusing to engage in social activities when invited to do so. They were also said to have let themselves go and no longer care about their health and appearance; they have low self-worth and no self-respect. Many reported turning to alcohol and marijuana to deal with stress and pain. Selfstigma and self-blame were reported as prevalent within the most publicly stigmatized groups, Sex workers, PLHIV and MSM/G, occasionally resulting in suicidal tendencies. No significant gender distinction was identified though women were said to be more resilient.

Whatever their emotional response to poverty, members of vulnerable groups continue to be relatively powerless and invisible in Barbadian society and denied a voice in their own affairs, and without recourse for situations of harassment and abuse. Children are often silenced by their parents and families and denied participation in decision making on matters concerning their lives. The elderly were most articulate on this point as they spoke at length of being “the last to be considered”, “without a voice”, “having little value”, and “excluded from society”. They described themselves as “ostracized, pushed to one side”, as a “has been”, and without “the respect you deserve”. They, along with persons with disabilities, referred to being trapped in dependency. For vulnerable groups dependency meant being: “without life choices, in terms of what they wear, what they eat, where they go and when”. Among the most powerless in Barbadian society were ex-prisoners, sex workers and the homeless. Migrants, especially those without legal status, made sure to keep a low profile and stay clear of the police and other authority figures. Members of vulnerable groups reported that they had no recourse for situations of harassment and abuse. Their complaints to the police, courts and other authorities were not taken seriously and, they predicted, were likely to make the situation worse. They, therefore, tend to avoid these agencies for social protection. Women, including sex workers and heads of poor and welfare households, were said to be more submissive to ill treatment having nowhere to turn to. Men were more likely to retaliate, to meet violence with violence, as the experiences of the MSM/G and ex-prisoners showed. Such a reaction, however, was seen as more likely than not to further their troubles.

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4.3.3

Coping with Poverty and Exclusion

Coping with poverty and social exclusion involved a number of informal strategies from the individual level (selfhelp), to peers, to families and communities. In terms of institutional support, as outlined in the IA, this was provided by Government and NGOs [See Appendix 2 for profiles of institutions]. Strategies for self-help among persons in vulnerable groups included: 



 

Finding employment – persons were engaged in a continuous search for income generating opportunities in self-employment and doing “odd jobs” to “make a dollar bill”. Some, however, face limitations in employment capacity, either because they are elderly; physically and mentally challenged as is the case with persons with disabilities; or unwell as in the case of PLHIV who suffer the side-effects of medication; or, like the women who head poor and welfare households, because they are fully occupied as care givers for young children and other dependents (burden of care). Cutting back on expenditure included unpluging fridges and televisions and lighting candles and lanterns. More worrying was evidence of cutbacks on basic needs, including nutritious food and withdrawing children from pre-school. Resorting to begging and stealing was mentioned as a coping mechanism, especially among the poorest of the vulnerable groups such as the homeless and ex-prisoners. Illegal and pseudo-legal activities, such as hustling and drug trafficking were also mentioned, mostly by the unemployed youth who also spoke of “sponging off others”. Several denied that they were involved in any of these activities, arguing that they would “make do” with what they have. As regards a gender dimension, women, especially those more mature and with children, were seen to be more inclined to find productive, legally sanctioned ways of making money; men to avoid responsibility, lime on the block and engage in these practices Engaging in transactional sex was also mentioned as a survival strategy, most frequently in relation to women in poor and welfare households, MSM/G and PLHIV, though all informants denied their own involvement. There was less condemnation and more an understanding of transactional sex as a last resort strategy. Faith and prayer, especially among the elderly and among women more so than men, provided comfort and solace. Developing psychological resilience and maintaining an optimistic outlook on life was seen as critical. Informants were strong in their insistence that independence and the desire to lead as normal a life as possible underpinned their strategies to improve their quality of life. A critical factor was remaining in one’s own home and to have one’s own financial resources. Showing others that they were not helpless reduced stigma and the power of others to control their lives, and enabled them to maintain self-respect and dignity.

Group support was also important, but mainly informal. There was very little evidence of formal associations, rather members of vulnerable groups help each other out. Among the vulnerable groups, there was very little evidence of a culture of advocacy and action for their rights and needs. Few, other than persons with disabilities, have organized to take action on their own behalf. Families and communities also constituted social contexts for material support in sharing food and accommodation and, occasionally, money; social support in providing company and solace; services primarily in the care of children in particular; and protection from abuse and violence. But informants lamented that extended family members had themselves become over-burdened with poverty and the exigencies of survival, but also that,

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as a result of growing materialism, individualism and “selfishness”, families and communities had become fragmented and did not function as they had in earlier generations. The Government was the major source of assistance for persons in vulnerable groups. They spoke of taking full advantage of the range of services provided for poverty alleviation and well-being. In general, the financial and material assistance and social support service providers were seen to be more responsive to women than men. Service delivery, however, was said to be compromised by poor attitudes and treatment from front-line staff, the over-burdening of staff and systemic problems in service delivery. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and private sector agencies were mentioned, but mainly as providing occasional, small scale, in-kind support. Churches were seen to provide clothing and food, including hampers at Christmas, outings and social activities, and home visits for counselling and fellowship. But churches were generally perceived to be less community oriented than in the past, to be biased towards women and families, and to extend services only to members of their own congregations, and to be a source of stigma rather than support for some vulnerable groups. MSM/G, PLHIV and sex workers were most likely to be stigmatised and excluded. The preceding discussion highlighted the main correlates and experiences of poverty in Barbados by reviewing the results of the SLC and the qualitative results of the PPA in relation to the lived experience of poverty in Barbados, the effects of this lived experience and coping mechanisms employed. The following section highlights these experiences in a thematic manner to assist in the development of policy solutions to poverty in Barbados.

4.4.

Examining the Causes of Poverty in Barbados

The results of the analysis of the data to emerge from the CALC revealed a number of interconnected issues as it related specifically to poverty, vulnerability and social and familial exclusion. In seeking to investigate the relationships between the issues identified, the following section analyses the causes and correlates of poverty at different levels to inform the development of policy to address the root issues identified. Reviewing the characteristics of poor households and individuals from the CALC, two main correlates were identified. In relation to the labour market, poor households experienced higher levels of unemployment and employment in low-paying or part-time jobs (underemployment). For household structure, poor households demonstrated high Dependency Ratios where earners were outnumbered by non-earners in the household. These high levels of dependency not only led to lower per capita income and expenditure, they also increased the burden of care which further curtails participation in the labour market. This is especially the case for female-headed households which have a greater number of children to care for as opposed to adult non-earners. Among the things that are said to contribute to poor living conditions and to poverty are ‘coming from a poor family’, high fertility rates, large numbers of children and lack of support from children’s fathers, unemployment and low wages, lack of education, and disability. At the same time several respondents said that the recent recession and the high cost of living, especially the cost of food and of high utility bills, are having a serious negative effect on their living conditions, on their ability to meet their basic needs and to sustain their livelihoods. Respondents identified some of the devastating effects that living in poor conditions and living in poverty have on their health, on their relationships, on how they are treated by others in relation to social and familial exclusion, and on their self esteem. Many stressed the serious psychological and emotional damage that they experience, including stress, anxiety, depression, frustration, helplessness, and powerlessness. 60

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While these issues are strongly interrelated, with unemployment affecting dependency and hence a greater burden of care and perhaps underemployment, there are other issues for consideration given that the unemployed only comprise approximately 17% of household members. Due to the other components of household dependency, children, those in education, retirees and the incapacitated, it is necessary that these issues are considered separately, although their link is noted. Given this, the causes of the main issues are outlined below. 1. Causes of Unemployment: 1.1. High reservation wages and available employment considered unsuitable 1.2. Lack of qualifications/skills 1.3. Lack of opportunities in the labour market 1.4. Lack of awareness of opportunities in the labour market 1.5. Lack of desire to work 1.6. Stigma and Discrimination (age, sex, area of residence, religion, disability, sexuality, migrant status, HIV status) 1.7. Burden of care, especially for single-parent households, which prevents participation in the labour market 2. Causes of Employment in Low-paying/Part-time Jobs: 2.1. Lack of qualifications/skills 2.2. High levels of unemployment driving down wages/keeping wages low due to availability of labour 2.3. Burden of care, especially for single parent households, preventing full exploitation of opportunities in the labour market and in education 3. Causes of High Dependency Ratios: 3.1. Larger number of school-age children and persons still in education 3.2. Adult dependents lack resources to leave the household (due to unemployment/old age/disability/stigma and discrimination) 4. Causes of Social and Familial Exclusion: 4.1. Stigma and Discrimination From this list of proposed causes, five (5) main elements emerge, namely: a lack of desire to work; a lack of qualification/skills; a lack of opportunities in the labour market; the burden of care; and stigma and discrimination. These elements and main related issues are explored below.

Lack of Desire to Work The lack of desire to work is a worrying result to emerge from the SLC, especially for the youth. The data demonstrated that of the voluntary unemployed, 21% did not want to work and 8% were discouraged with the labour market. For the youth that were voluntarily unemployed, 38% did not want to work. Some of the reasons proffered for this occurrence are examined below, specifically high reservation wages, unsuitable employment and a preference for freedom and leisure. In relation to the issue of high reservation wages/available employment considered unsuitable, the disinclination to enter employment is partially linked with high levels of unemployment driving down wages (or keeping wages low). Potential entrants are disinclined to enter employment as the wages are not attractive enough or they consider the type of work available to be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;below themâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. This issue of high reservation wages may also be linked to certification where, for those certified in some way, they expect a certain level of remuneration. In addition, if available employment opportunities are below the level of certification of the individual, they may be disinclined to enter employment. 61

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The results of the PPA give further insight into the lack of desire to work with the reasons given for not participating in the labour market being a preference for freedom and leisure. The specific comments arising from the PPA in relation to not wanting to work were: “get up when you want to” “you don’t have the stress of going to work” “pick up your children [from school] and spend time with them” “more time to lime, time to enjoy your freedom” “feeling good, like you on vacation” These results suggest that freedom, freedom from stress, and preference for leisure were among some of the reasons for not wanting to work.

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employment as a career option, but also increases the understanding of business among future employees to the benefit of their employer. The issue of lack of capital is however a more difficult issue to address as it does not simply relate to the provision of finance, but also to the generation of human and social capital (qualifications, experience, and building of networks).

4.5.

Policy Development: Addressing the Causes and Correlates of Poverty in Barbados

The identified causes and correlates of poverty in Barbados can be summarised by the following: 1. Lack of desire to work because of low wages (high reservation wages), low status jobs, and a preference for leisure over employment. 2. Lack of qualifications due to the quality of the instruction supplied (content, relevance and mode of delivery) as well as domestic (burden of care) and work-related pressures that result in non-participation as well as non-completion. 3. Lack of opportunities in the labour market due to a lack of economic growth and diversification, lack of knowledge of opportunities, lack of utilization of self-employment as an income generating medium, and stigma and discrimination. 4. Inability to exploit employment and educational opportunities due to the burden of care and stigma and discrimination. 5. Social and familial exclusion due to stigma and discrimination and a reinforcement of cycle of poverty. These results suggest five (5) groups that will require attention in the development of any policies to reduce poverty in Barbados. These groups are: 1. Those who do not want to work 2. Those working in low-paying jobs 3. Those not working or underemployed because of lack of opportunities 63

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4. Those denied work due to stigma and discrimination 5. Those denying employment opportunities and support due to stigma and discrimination 6. Those without the ability to fully exploit opportunities due to the burden of care There are a variety of mediums through which policy can address these issues, directly or indirectly. These mediums include the provision of employment (expanded economic opportunities and the reduction of stigma and discrimination), increases in real income (reduction of costs faced by poor households, increases in wages through transfers, or increased qualifications to obtain higher paying employment), provision of assets (physical, natural, social, human and financial), and access to social and developmental goods and services (reduction of social exclusion). Given these mediums for the alleviation of poverty in Barbados, the issues identified require a number of interventions at the personal and institutional level. In considering the development of these interventions, specific sub-groups that will require special consideration during any policy formulation will be females, the youth and the disabled. In terms of policy development, Table 48 outlines recommendations for the implementation of general interventions to reduce poverty in Barbados. Specific interventions are outlined in the various volumes of the CALC. Table 48: Policy Targets and Goals Policy Targets Increase the desire to enter the labour market Increase the ability to enter and fully exploit opportunities in the labour market and social support services (personal and skill development, dissemination of information on vacancies and other opportunities, increased employment opportunities through economic growth and reduced stigmatisation)

Of particular interest is the reduction of stigma and discrimination which has implications for all of those living in poverty. Recommendations include: ď&#x201A;ˇ

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

Public information and sensitisation to reduce stigma and discrimination against vulnerable groups, to foster understanding and respect, and promote the notion of a life without stigma, social exclusion and poverty as a fundamental human right. Community interventions in terms stigma reduction and protection, general care and support and rebuilding a culture of volunteerism as well as promoting advocacy and action among persons in vulnerable groups. Comprehensive gender training programmes implemented for different groups of citizens including policy makers and programme planners as well as ordinary citizens. Such programmes are critical to raise awareness of gender socialization, of gender roles, responsibilities, and relationships, and to increase understanding of gender issues that need to be addressed to ensure gender equity, and gender equality and to decrease gender discrimination.

Clarification of policy goals (direct impacts) and indicate time period for the achievement of goals (short, medium, long term) Indicate implementing institutions for the various policies recommended

It is however critical that in the planning process that residents in communities, and especially those in poorer households, should be involved in deciding, planning, implementing and evaluating programmes and projects intended to improve living conditions and alleviate poverty. Of primary importance in the development of policy in this area is the implementation of systems for Monitoring and Evaluation. This is especially as it relates to specific indicators be put in place to ensure that on-going monitoring of all initiatives, activities, programmes and projects intended to improve living conditions and to alleviate poverty, are being implemented in ways that will ensure that their objectives can be achieved. The current lack of Monitoring and Evaluation by support institutions was identified as a major shortcoming in the current social safety net framework by the Institutional Assessment (IA) component of the Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions (CALC) and in seeking to implement effective policy interventions, monitoring and evaluation should be at the core.

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An Ex Ante Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA)

A Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) is a systematic approach used for analyzing the distribution impact of policy reforms on the living conditions or well-being of different social groups with a special focus on the poor and vulnerable. A PSIA is undertaken to maximize socio-economic gains by influencing the design of policy reforms. After a Country Poverty Assessment (CPA) is undertaken, a Poverty Reduction Strategy is developed, followed by the PSIA. The PSIA can therefore be ex ante, ex post or during the policy reform implementation period. In effect, the PSIA is applied to specific policy reforms. The key elements of a PSIA include: 1. the selection of the policy reform measures for analysis; 2. the identification of the social groups/stakeholders affected by the policy reform; 3. the analysis of the policy transmission channels, that is, the process by which the policy reform influences the respective social groups; 4. the assessment of the social and economic institutions which administer and provide services required by the policy reform; 5. the collection of data relating to the nature and input of the reform; 6. the empirical calculation of the impact of the policy reform using various socio-economic techniques; 7. the re-design of the policy reform in light of the empirical results of its past impact; 8. the assessment of the risks associated with the policy reform; 9. the monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the policy reform over time; 10. the dissemination and discussion of the results to encourage feedback on policy choice. The assessment of living conditions in Barbados over the 1995 to 2010 period has presented a number of suggested policy reforms which can be formulated with a PRS and evaluated through a PSIA. In effect, the structure of an ex ante PSIA can be developed in the absence of a PRS. The Survey of Living Conditions (SLC), the Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) of communities, households and vulnerable groups, along with the Institutional Analysis (IA), point to the need for poverty policy reform in the following areas: i. education and training; ii. employment generation; iii. social insurance and protection; iv. social services delivery; v. housing; vi. health and nutrition; vii. public information and education; viii. community development; ix. urban development; x. rural development; xi. fiscal (tax and expenditure) policy; xii. social legislation; xiii. counselling and mentoring

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Taking these issues into consideration, and drawing on the policy targets and goals discussed above, the following ex ante PSIA is specified. This framework consists of the specific policy reform, the social groups/stakeholders affected, the institutions involved, and the likely source of data/information or likely impact [see Table 49].

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 49: Poverty and Social Impact Assessment (PSIA) Matrix Targeted Social Protection Policy Reform (Conditional Measure cash transfers, Home help, etc.) Unemployed Unemployed, Single-parent Mothers, SOCIAL GROUP Youth, Single- Underemployed, parent Working Poor, Elderly, OR Vulnerable Groups Vulnerable STAKEHOLDERS Mothers, Vulnerable Groups AFFECTED Groups TVET Council, Employment NIS, Welfare BVTB, SJPP, Bureau, YES, Department, Sector, Poverty INSTITUTIONS NGOs, CBOs Private FundAccess, SBA Alleviation INVOLVED Bureau Education and Training Employment (Skills Creation Training)

Enhanced Human Capital, Improved LIKELY IMPACT Income

Enhanced Income/Earnings, Self-employment

Tracer Studies Tracer Labour DATA SOURCES Survey

Social Safety Net to alleviate poverty, Home Help to ease Burden of Care

Studies, Administrative Force Records, Survey

Housing

Community Development

Economic Development Programme

Legislative Reform

Public Education and Fiscal Policy Information

Homeless, Over- Poor All Citizens, Poor and All Citizens crowded Communities especially the Vulnerable Households and Households Poor Groups affected by Stigma and Discrimination

All Citizens, especially the Poor and Vulnerable

NHC, Ministry Community of Housing, Development UDC, RDC Department, UDC, RDC, Constituency Councils Improved Improved Housing Social Conditions and Relations, Sanitation Enhanced Social Capital, Community Business Development Administrative Purposive Records Survey

Government, Social Partnership, NGOs, CBOs, Counseling Services Enhanced Social Justice, Improved Growth and Reduced Stigma Awareness, Employment and Information Creation, Price Discrimination Sharing, Control Reduced Stigma

Government

National Qualitative Accounts, Studies Labour Force Survey

Government Budgetary Statements, Sample Survey

Private Sector, Social Partnership, Government

Government, Parliament, Advocacy Groups

Qualitative Studies

Fiscal Incentives, Expenditure on Social Services

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Over the period 1995 to 2010, Barbados was able to achieve a ‘very high human development’ status in terms of the UNDP’s human development index which combines indicators of health and education status and livelihood. Since 1990, it has been ranked among the top 50 countries in the world. The country’s development strategy has been to facilitate the development of the private sector in the production of goods and services. In addition to providing the regulatory framework for economic and social development, the Government has also sought to maintain macroeconomic stability and foster a Social Partnership involving the representatives of employers and workers. Several policy measures have been introduced to improve the living conditions of the population, covering such areas as health, education, housing, environment, livelihood and social welfare. The economy has seen a shift from being largely agricultural in the 1950s to a high service orientation at present. In addition, it has made the transition to an ‘innovation driven’ economy as defined by the World Economic Forum. While the services sector, led by tourism, international business and distribution, was the main driver of economic growth, such growth was modest by comparative standards - approximately 3 percent per annum over the 1995-2010 period. In general, there was an improvement in the standard and conditions of living over the study period. As a small, open developing country, Barbados is vulnerable to external shocks such as those which occurred in 2001 and 2008-9, leading to a restriction in output, increase in unemployment and, as a consequence, an increase in transient poverty. Furthermore, given the commitments to the WTO and the CSME, policy measures have been taken to liberalise the economy which has meant some re-adjustment in the economy. The government has adopted a policy stance to maintain equilibrium in the BOP and contain the fiscal deficit, while promoting economic growth and employment creation. Unemployment declined significantly over the 1995 to 2010 period and only spiked with the advent of the economic recessions. The labour market witnessed an increase in the educational attainment of workers and the growth in the number of professional females in employment. There is however still a high percent of the employed labour force in ‘low skill’ jobs (approximately 60 percent) and youth unemployment remains a challenge. While there was improvement in health and education, there were still challenges with the health status of the population with respect to chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) and the quality of the output of the school system. There were improvements in the quantity and quality of housing, but as the SLC and PPA studies indicate, there were still pockets of unsatisfactory living conditions among the poor and vulnerable sections of the population. The Government introduced a range of institutional and program initiatives to address the living conditions of the disadvantaged in the country. A stratified random sample of households and individuals conducted during the period January to April 2010 (2425 households and 6973 individuals with 5618 of them being adults 15 years and over) indicated that 15.0 percent of households and 19.3 percent of individuals were existing below the poverty line of BDS$7861. Although the Government sought to maintain employment levels in the face of an economic recession, it was expected that there would have been some increase in poverty in 2010. The data also indicate that the poverty gap (the extent to which the poor existed below the poverty line) was 6.0, while the severity of poverty was in the order of 3.2. These figures compare favourably with those in countries which conducted poverty assessments in the Caribbean around the same time. The degree of expenditure (income) inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient was 0.47 which suggests a possible increase in inequality 69

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when compared with 1979 (Gini of 0.46) and 1996/7 (Gini of 0.39). These figures must however be interpreted with caution given the differences in measurement used in the studies. The features associated with the living conditions in Barbados, especially among the poor, are not dissimilar to those in other Caribbean countries. Some of the prominent features include the poor being associated with larger household sizes, more children 15 years and under, overcrowding in households, low human capital, low paying jobs and unemployment, female-headed, concentrated in both urban and rural areas and engagement in informal sector activity. Poorer households have few material assets with insecure tenure of property and although there is universal secondary level education, few poor children are able to take advantage of such education because of their economic circumstances. The CALC reinforced the role of education in breaking the intergenerational transfer of poverty as some individuals sought to improve their living conditions through training and further education. The existence of a public health service via the polyclinic system has made access to the health system readily available, but with relatively longer waiting times than in private clinics. As indicated in the social and economic assessment, there is a high incidence of chronic non-communicable diseases among both the poor and non-poor. The poor depend much more than the non-poor on public assistance for income and household help (and in some cases, gifts and remittances from friends and family). An in-depth analysis of living conditions in 12 communities and among 12 vulnerable groups using the participatory method gave a rich narrative and voice to the secondary data collected for the MSEA and the survey data from the SLC. The community/household analysis pointed to the improvements in housing, health and educational facilities but the absence of community centres, rights of title to land/property and some overcrowding. As in the SLC, there was evidence that some households still use pit latrines or had no toilet facilities. Employment among the poor households in the communities was intermittent and in low paying jobs, thus resulting in transient poverty. While there was a high level of school attendance, there was a significant incidence of functional illiteracy among the youth. The drug trade and other forms of illegal activity were prevalent in some communities. There was also a lack of satisfaction with the services provided by the social services and there was little NGO/CBO activity in the communities. While the respondents indicated a general improvement in the living conditions over the past decade, especially in health and education, the economic recession has caused a setback with the existence of transient poverty. The analysis of vulnerable groups reinforced many of the conclusions of the community/household analysis but emphasized the stigma, discrimination and social exclusion associated with being a member of a vulnerable group (sex worker, disabled, Rastafari, gay, homeless, persons with HIV/AIDS, to mention some). The attitudes of persons towards these groups has meant the lack of access to several public amenities/services and therefore limiting their ability to enhance their living conditions. A review of 31 institutions (government, NGOs and development partners) which provide a range of services to enhance the living conditions of the population revealed that several approaches have been used over the years: training, technical assistance, funding, infrastructural support, advocacy, income support and care and counseling. These measures have sought to improve access to housing, education and health, provide a means to enhance livelihoods and reduce social exclusion and discrimination. It was however noted that there was a high degree of overlap in the provision of services (some of which was justified) but also gaps in the provision of vital services to help raise the living conditions of persons especially the poor. Some of the gaps include access to productive resources, morbidity/mortality from illnesses, homelessness, housing and social exclusion and discrimination.

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Some of these gaps are reflected in the response from the PPA involving vulnerable groups, households and communities. Overall, the research synthesis identified several characteristics of those living in poverty in Barbados; unemployment, underemployment; high household dependency; and social and familial exclusion. From an indepth examination of these characteristics and their underlying causes, five main issues arose: a lack of desire to work, a lack of qualifications/skills, a lack of opportunities in the labour market, a disproportionate burden of care and stigma and discrimination. The result of this in-depth examination has led to the formulation of several policy/programming recommendations which are outlined below: 

Greater investment to promote growth especially in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Such investment should include investment in science and technology;  Greater production diversification especially within the services sector which can enhance the foreign exchange base of the country (e.g. the creative sector);  Implementation of the human resources development strategy and national training plan to complement initiatives in the productive sectors;  Implement greater fiscal control via targeted government expenditure and incentives to sectors with growth potential;  Develop a Productivity and Competitiveness strategy and program coupled with a marketing program for exporting goods and services;  Establish measures to cushion the economy and society from the adverse effects of external shocks (social insurance mechanism);  Develop and introduce adult and continuing education programs in various communities supported by programs for enhancing economic opportunities in entrepreneurial activities;  Evaluate and monitor the range of poverty initiatives - institutions and programs to establish effectiveness and efficiency;  Promote greater involvement in community activities, for example, through constituency councils and volunteerism;  Develop a program of gender training through the country to educate persons on gender relationships and roles;  Enact law reform with respect to discrimination, sexual harassment and domestic violence;  Provide greater access to housing, health care and education, especially for the poor and vulnerable;  Promote greater discussion and education on the social and economic conditions of persons via evidencebased research;  Provide greater resources and greater articulation of the goals for institutions involved in the provision of social services. The ultimate goal of these interventions is to address the two main indicators of poverty in Barbados, a lack of monetary income and social exclusion. These goals should remain at the forefront in the mind of policy-makers and practitioners as these policies and programs are developed.

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Appendix I: Overview of Results from CALC 2010 and IDB Study 1996 Variable

Poverty Line Vulnerability Line Household Poverty Rate Individual Poverty Rate Poverty Gap Poverty Severity Gini Coefficient Poor Household Size Non-Poor Household Size Poor Households Headed by Females (% of Poor Households) Non-poor Households Headed by Females (%Non-poor Households Poverty Rate for Female Headed Households Poverty Rate for Male Headed Households Overcrowding in Poor Households Overcrowding in Non-poor Households Unemployment Rate in Poor Households Unemployment Rate in Non-poor Households

IDB (August 1996 to June 1997) BDS$5,503.00 BDS$6,878.75 8.7% 13.9% 2.3 1.0 0.39 5.0 2.9 58.5% 42.6% 11.5% 6.5% 17.6% 3.3% 30.8% 12.4%

SLC 2010 (January 2010 to April 2010) BDS$$7,860.65 BDS$9,825.82 15.0% 19.3% 6.0 3.2 0.47 3.7 2.7 62.2% 47.0% 19.4% 11.5% 11.0% 3.0% 25.9% 8.9%

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Appendix II: Institutional Profiles from the Institutional Assessment The following is a summary of the institutions sampled for evaluation:

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 1. The Needy Children’s Fund The Needy Children’s Fund (the Fund) has been in operation since1963. The head of the organisation worked in broadcasting in Guyana during which time a fund was started when assistance was solicited from the public for persons in need. The response received was extremely positive. When the head moved to Barbados around 1962 she again pursued a career in broadcasting. A similar plea to the public was made one year for assistance for needy persons. Here too, the public responded well and the trend continued where annually the public would be asked to send assistance for needy persons. The role of the fund is to help children by providing them with essentials, food and school supplies and toys at Christmas. The fund is driven by the statement “Ask Auntie Olga”. 2. Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) The Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) was formed 60 years ago to meet the needs of women and girls, to promote the Christian principles and to develop women’s leadership. It is primarily a women’s Christian movement which is voluntary in nature with a mandate to provide care on a community and global level. Previously the YWCA provided hostel facilities for women who lived in the rural areas, who might have to work in the urban area. It provided a shelter for the homeless including fire victims and evictees, traffic wardens for school children, skills training for the inmates of Summerville, summer day camps for children, a reading club, bible study and after-school care for the youth. The traffic warden programme is now implemented by the Ministry of Transport and Works.

3. Israel Lovell Foundation The Israel Lovell foundation is a non-governmental organisation performing community service. It was started in 1990 after the founders were requested by people in communities to provide services to the community. The founders were part of the Pan-African Organisation and witnessed high levels of illiteracy and discomfort among residents in the communities of Carrington Village, Britton’s Hill and New Orleans. There was a desire to assist and respond to the people of colour in the society who were experiencing poverty. As a result the organisation was formed to deliver services to people in need in communities. The organisation focuses on helping people realize their creative talent, through the provision of education and training to enhance the quality of life of the individual and to maximize the capability of the human capital.

4. The Barbados Red Cross Society The Barbados Red Cross Society is a voluntary organisation which conducts a number of activities geared toward alleviating the suffering of the most vulnerable in the community. It was founded in 1960 as part of the British Red Cross. The Parliament of Barbados passed the Barbados Red Cross Society Act in 1966 for the society to become independent of the British Red Cross Society. In 1984 the Society was admitted into membership of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

5. Congress of Trade Unions and Staff Associations of Barbados (CTUSAB) 73

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The Congress was started during the 1991 crisis when there was a threat to the devaluation of the Barbados dollar. The trade unions sought to have dialogue with the government and the private sector to ensure that the parity of the dollar was maintained and social dislocation avoided. A coalition of the trade unions and staff associations was formed to speak and negotiate on the fiscal measures to be adopted. An 8 per cent cut in pay of public servants was agreed to. The Congress was formally registered in 1995. The Congress’ protocol has since been broadened to look at labour market conditions, global and social issues, and national development (social and political issues). The Congress functions as an umbrella organisation of trade unions with a national focus. It solicits the views of members on issues to give a collective response. It attends to matters in which there may be disputes among its affiliates. The Congress engages in negotiations, such as for better wages for its members, bargaining and arbitration. As part of the social partnership, the Congress seeks to influence decision making particularly on employment.

6. Loving Arms The current Chairman and Treasurer of Loving Arms were organizers of community activity within the Flagstaff community for approximately one decade. They used their own funds to buy and distribute foodstuff and household appliances to a number of impoverished families. To increase assistance to the poor in the community, they liaised with the Office of the Advisor on Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals in 2008. An initial grant was given by the government in 2009. Periodic assistance in the form of foodstuff is also given by the Office of the Advisor on Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals. The organisation is not a registered charity.

7. Barbados Association of Retired persons (BARP) The Barbados Association of Retired Persons (BARP) is a non-profit, non-governmental organisation (NGO) which actively promotes the independence, dignity and purpose in the life of its members, representing and expressing their views and concerns and taking action to bring about change. Within its membership, there is a wealth of wisdom, experience and compassion, all of which help the Association achieve its aims and objectives. BARP was incorporated on 25 October 1995 with nine Founding Members who were mainly Attorneys, and approximately 200 members lead by Sir Carlyle Burton a Retired Public servant. The physical operations of the organisation took place in a donated location at Semgem House, Kings Street, Bridgetown. After two years BARP’s office relocated to Mandeville. In 2006, the organisation was able to acquire 3,350 sq. ft of land and two buildings at Collymore Rock, St. Michael at the cost of $22,000. One building was expected to provide adequate space for BARP’s business and leisure activities such as a library, recreational room, and an area for indoor activities such as conference meetings and administrative work. The other building, a commercial building, housed an already established restaurant of which BARP became landlords.

8. Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) The YMCA was started in the UK in 1844. The Barbados association was formed in 1925 with the objectiveof developing the spiritual, social, physical and intellectual well being of the youth of Barbados. There were problems associated with the world war and international depression was becoming a worldwide concern. At an international convention in Ohio in 1931 the YMCA became a worldwide fellowship for the purpose of building a Christian personality for the Christian society. 74

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

9. The Pinelands Creative workshop (PCW) The Pinelands Creative Workshop (PCW) evolved in 1978 from the Pinelands Development Council. The Council was founded in 1975 in response to a strong desire in the Pinelands/Wildey communities to reverse the negative images and reputation that had developed in the minds of Barbadians regarding this area of the island. The main activity was an annual cultural production. There was some involvement in sporting activities. The PCW's main tool is culture, particularly popular theatre and dance. The PCW has used its cultural product, not only as a tool for education, but also as a means for generating income which enables it to be self-sustaining and to promote development in its community. The organisation has gone beyond cultural production and has produced a number of developmental programmes in communities. There are projects for sustaining the organisation, such as a bicycle project which repairs broken bicycles and sells them. The organisation is sought after as a partner for national development programmes, using its model for outreach to other communities at national and regional levels.

10. Teen Challenge Barbados Teen Challenge is a nonprofit, faith-based programme for substance abusers. It has operations in over 78 countries. Teen Challenge Barbados (Teen Challenge) is a registered charity that was started in the parish of St John at Verdun House in 1996 with one student. It was started to help Barbados and the nations of the southern Caribbean deal with the problem of drug addiction facing families in the region. In 1997 it developed into a Teen Challenge “Induction and Training Centre” housing 25 students. The centre was later moved to Mapp’s College, Sanford, St. Philip, where it is located today. Teen Challenge is a men’s rehabilitation center and life-changing ministry. The Teen Challenge programme is a one-year residential treatment programme for persons between the age of 17 and 45. The programme has been developed to help students cope with everyday life issues. Students have little free time due to a busy schedule involving devotion, work projects, meal times, counselling, recreational activities, chapel service, and clean up duties. Students rise at 6:00 a.m. Counselling takes place weekly. Students first go through an induction phase in the programme with counselling and teaching on the basics of Christianity to help them understand dependency on drugs and alcohol and how to overcome dependency on drugs and alcohol. Students then go on to the latter phase of the programme which involves training, outreach to churches, more personal responsibility with less supervision and work on a farm project. The farm project involves the rearing of pigs and chickens where students could develop their various interests and skills in aspects of micro farming. Students are also counselled how to explore their interests, skills and career decisions. They are also counselled about how to repair relationships with their family. Upon graduation students are made aware of educational and ministry opportunities in their local community. Teen Challenge liaises with after school study providers to find out about teaching of subjects of interest to the student and the costs and other aspects of the programme.

11. Comfort, Assist, Reach-out, Educate (C.A.R.E) Barbados

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

The organisation was established in March 1993 by two dedicated nurses. They encouraged HIV positive persons that came to the clinic for treatment to identify with each other, to provide support and strength to each other, to become empowered, and to cope positively with their situation. Many were experiencing discrimination and victimization at home, in the community and in the work place while others were terrified of being identified as someone who was HIV positive and wanted to be able to talk to someone they could identify with and trust. The first location for C.A.R.E. Barbados was the former Nutrition Center at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. When C.A.R.E. Barbados was started, anti-retroviral medication was unavailable in Barbados and was very costly to source abroad. Many persons became ill quickly and subsequently passed away. In 1995 four persons from C.A.R.E. Barbados were selected to represent the organisation at an International Conference on HIV/AIDS in South Africa. It was for this conference that the name of the organisation was coined by one of its members. The influence of C.A.R.E. Barbados has been increasing and the organisation is now represented on major government committees on HIV and AIDS. In 2004, a Secretariat was set up.

12. United Gays and Lesbians Against AIDS Barbados (UGLAAB) The United Gays and Lesbians Against Aids Barbados (UGLAAB) is a non-profit organisation created to address the needs of a group which suffers from frequent discrimination. Homosexuals and lesbians, in Barbados, have been on the receiving end of many prejudiced practices such as vandalism, police harassment and poor treatment from health professionals. The formation of this organisation was designed to address these problems, beginning in 2001 with a group of four brought together by the President after seeing the mistreatment of close gay friends afflicted with the HIV virus. There are approximately 75 members within the organisation who pay a monthly subscription fee of five dollars. The Executive contributes ten dollars a month. The fee to become a member is twenty dollars. There is also a Youth Arm. UGLAAB educates its communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s men and women about life, love and safe sex practices. It seeks to strengthen the self esteem of those who visit UGLAAB by promoting the belief that one could be who he or she wants to be. There are trained counsellors in HIV coping to give support to members and persons who want to learn about lifestyles and sexuality. UGLAAB advocates the fair treatment of the gay and lesbian community in accessing services. Advocating for and raising awareness of the negative effects and implications of stigma and discrimination both outside and within the community is also a primary aim. UGLAAB advocates for individual rights and better treatment of persons with same sex preferences in the Barbadian Society.

Government Agencies/Departments 13. The National Assistance Board (NAB) The Board was established under the National Assistance Act Cap. 48 of the Laws of Barbados. It had no executive functions since such functions, covering an extensive range of Social Welfare Services, were carried out by professional staff of the Welfare Department. It had supervisory responsibility for the almshouses (District Hospitals) and Senior Citizens' Home. It also supervised a hostel where persons were housed for a few months whilst their homes were being repaired. More specialized functions, such as the provision of houses and repairs to the houses of private indigent persons were undertaken by the National Housing Corporation. Administration of the housing programme was vested in the Welfare Department during the 1970s. The National Assistance Board in 1980, was given responsibility for the housing programme, a Home Help Service and Day Care programmes for the aged. 76

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The staff of the Welfare Department who were responsible for the administration of the Housing Programme were re-assigned to the National Assistance Board and new staff recruited to undertake additional duties. Workers were later hired to carry out the functions of caring for the elderly, and providing assistance for daily living in their homes. Initially there was a housing welfare programme for the poor, indigent and elderly. Later, an assistance-in-kind programme was added which provided home furnishings. The Board was located in the Ministry of Labour, Community Development and Sports but was re-located to the Ministry of Social Transformation in the 1990s. In 2002, the Board’s Housing Program was allocated to the Urban and Rural Development Commissions as part of the Government's rationalisation process.

14. The Welfare Department The office was established in 1949 upon the recommendation for social welfare services by the Moyne Commission. Social welfare officers were trained in Jamaica and a Chief Welfare Officer appointed in 1952. Previously the church and other voluntary organisations provided relief. Under the 1954 Public Assistance Act, a board was charged with the control of all matters relating to the administration of public assistance in the Island. The Welfare Department is an instrument by which the government promotes social development and empowers individuals and families. It provides a variety of services for those who need assistance in resolving financial, material, personal and family problems. It is concerned with generating and sustaining change for beneficiaries, whether in behaviour, cognition, attitudes and skills levels, or in matters relating to the environment. The Welfare Department administers national assistance – monetary assistance and assistance in-kind under the National Assistance Act Cap 48, and provides a variety of services to families and individuals under the Family Law Act 1981, the Maintenance Act 1981-21 and the Domestic Violence (Protection Orders) Act 1992-4.

15. Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development (MOE) The foundations of education in Barbados were laid by the philanthropic efforts of private individuals and by the humanitarian interest of the Churches. In 1850 the first Education Act was passed. It provided for the establishment of an Education Committee with a part-time school Inspector as its Executive Officer and Head of the Central School for boys. The committee was charged with the responsibility for educational policy and the administering of an annual grant of £3,000.00. In 1943 a Director of Education was appointed and the Education Board became an Advisory Body following recommendations of a Marriot-Mayhew Report. A separate Ministry of Education was created in 1958 following the introduction of ministerial government in 1954. An integration of the Department of Education and the Ministry of Education happened in 1962. The post of Director of Education was re-designated Chief Education Officer. The 1983 Education Act resulted in an Education Board, consisting of 4 members of the House of Assembly, 3 of the legislative council and 2 others, all of whom were appointed by the governor, and replaced the former Committee. The first education development project financed by the Government and the World Bank was undertaken. In 1997 the Ministry officially opened its headquarters at Constitution Road, a move which facilitated all sections of the Ministry’s activities. The Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development is the Government agency responsible for the formulation of educational policies and for the administration and regulation of education.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

16. National Employment Bureau (NEB) The National Employment Bureau is a sub-division of the Labour Department. Before the Employment Exchange Act Cap 345 came into force, residents had been sent abroad on employment exchanges. Guided by the Employment Exchanges Act Cap 345, the Bureau has been sending residents abroad on different schemes to work as nurses, as drivers in the London transport system as well as to Florida to harvest fruit as a method of creating employment for people after the second world war. The Bureau has responsibility for the provision of local and overseas employment services.

17. Child Care Board (CCB) The Child Care Board was established on September 1st 1969 (Child Care Board Act Cap 381). It developed out of a concern for the care of children, the destitute of which had been living in alms houses since the 1930s. It was felt that children should be removed from the alms houses and put into residential care. The Board functioned as a division of the Welfare Department from its inception in 1969 to May 1978, when it received autonomy. It is now a statutory body under the Ministry of Family, Youth, Culture and Sports. The Board also has the responsibility of supervising adoption processes, registering, licensing and regulating private day care services. The Child Care Board operates 15 day care centres, 9 children’s homes and provides counselling to children.

18. Rural Development Commission (RDC) The RDC was established by an Act of Parliament in 1995 (Rural Development Commission Act Cap 238) to improve social amenities, assist small farmers, and establish and develop cottage industries in rural areas. The RDC currently falls within the Ministry of Social Care, Constituency Empowerment and Urban and Rural Development. The functions of the organisation are:     

to facilitate road improvement and the lighting of streets in rural districts of Barbados; to provide housing and ancillary services including the installation of sanitary facilities in rural areas; to provide assistance to small farmers in the areas of agricultural training and investment; equipment and machinery; and the production and marketing of agricultural produce; to allocate land under the control of Government to persons desirous of farming; and to give assistance in the establishment and development of cottage industries in rural areas.

19. Urban Development Commission (UDC) The Urban Development Commission (the UDC) was established in August 1997 by an Act of Parliament (Urban Development Commission Act, Cap 241 of the Laws of Barbados). The work of the UDC is confined to an urban area designated the Greater Bridgetown Area. The Government of Barbados in seeking to find solutions to such problems as population density, quality of life and the impact of poverty on urban dwellers, aesthetic appearance of dwellings against the urban landscape and patterns of ownership, inter alia, created an Urban Development Commission to execute a Programme of Urban Renewal.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

The UDC fell under the purview of the Ministry of Housing between 1997 and 1999. When the Ministry of Social Transformation was formed in 1999 the responsibility for the Commission was transferred to that Ministry. In 2006 it was transferred to the Ministry of Economic Development. After the new government came to power in 2008, the Ministry of Social Transformation was reformed and named Ministry of Social Care, Constituency Empowerment Urban and Rural Development. The Commission was then transferred to that Ministry.

20. National Housing Corporation (NHC) The National Housing Corporation (NHC) was established in 1973 by the Housing Act Cap 226 of the Laws of Barbados. It evolved out of the Housing Board (established in 1936) and the Housing Authority (established in 1955). The Housing Board was set up to construct low income houses and provide land for residents of Bridgetown. Its focus later expanded to other parts of the Island. The Board also facilitated the financing of housing through the Sugar Workers Housing Loan Fund and the Public Workers Housing Loans Scheme. The later Housing Authority played the role of acquiring land for building, erecting houses, clearing slums, redeveloping overcrowded areas, lending money for the repair and alteration of existing houses, and letting or leasing land and buildings to low income persons. The NHC when formed continued these activities. The Corporation’s activities have been expanded to non housing commercial activities and it has built offices financed by loans from the local financial sector.

21. TVET Council TVET Council is a statutory organisation dedicated to improving the competitive position of Barbados’ workforce. The Council was established by the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act Cap 43 in 1993 and is mandated to plan, coordinate and establish standards and qualifications for technical and vocational education and training. The Council administers the employment and Training Fund to provide grants for the support of technical and vocational education and training. The Employment Training Fund is financed out of the training levy, established by the Occupational Training Act and collected by the National Insurance Office. It currently falls under the MInistry of Labour.

22. School Meals Department In 1936, the nutritional status of school children received great attention when the Governor appointed a committee to consider and report on the question of nutrition in Barbados. The findings of the report indicated that children displayed signs of being lethargic and lacking concentration mainly due to hunger. It further stated that children did not have regular meals after Wednesdays in each week because the weekly wages of their parents were insufficient to feed the family. In 1961, the ruling government embarked on planning a school feeding programme and in March 1963 the programme was implemented. Six schools in St. Michael, Christ Church, and St. Lucy with an average enrolment of 1,600 students were piloted. These areas were strategically selected and consisted of at least one fishing area, an agricultural area and a low-income urban area. This was done in an effort to analyse the impact of the programme on children in different communities. Meals were prepared at the Westbury, St. Clements, and St. Christopher Centres and the cost per meal for participants was ten cents. In charge of the culinary preparations was the acting Inspector of Nutrition. Each meal was planned to supply one third of the daily nutritional requirements for each child. The then Minister of Education declared the scheme open following a short religious service by the vicar of St. Leonard’s Church. Under the scheme 73,055 meals were served to children during the period September to December 1963. 79

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

In 1970, the School Meals Office was established in the Ministry of Education with a staff of thirty-two persons. By 1971, the staff of the School Meals Service was reorganized into the School Meals Department. In 1974, another centre was opened at Country Road and by that time staff members averaged 602 with a participation of 24, 000 pupils in the school feeding programme. By 1976, participation increased to 34,000 meals daily. The Gun Hill Centre was closed in August 1979, and the Reed Street Centre was closed in March 1983. In 1984, a warehouse at the Harbour Road was converted into a centre and the operations of the Westbury Centre were transferred there. Today there are only four centres. Participation is 26,279 with 95 schools participating in the programme. The headquarters was relocated in 2003 to Bay Street in the city.

23. Barbados Vocational Training Board (BVTB) The Board began operations in 1980. It was set up in 1979 under the Occupational Training Act, Cap. 42 of the Laws of Barbados. The Board was originally set up as the National Training Board but changed its name in 1993 to the Barbados Vocational Training Board. The Board’s first training programme was the Apprenticeship Programme which was introduced in 1982. In 1983 the Board took on the added responsibility of the skills training programme, which was originally a department of the Ministry of Labour and Community Development. In the 1980s the country faced the challenge of unemployment among young people. There was also a shortage of skilled workers in manufacturing and construction. Programmes were developed to provide persons with employable skills in order to meet the needs of the market. The in-plant training programme was started in 1983 to improve the skills of trainers and the supervision of apprentices.

24. The Barbados Agency for Micro Enterprise Development (FundAccess) The Barbados Agency for Micro Enterprise Development (FundAccess) is a financial institution that assists persons who want to start-up or expand their small businesses. It was established to fill the void in development finance for micro enterprises arising from the closure of the Barbados Development Bank. It was incorporated under the Companies Act of Barbados on December 23, 1997 and trades under the name of FundAccess. FundAccess opened its doors to the public of Barbados on January 2, 1998.

25. National Disabilities Unit The National Disabilities Unit was established to address the needs of persons with disabilities. In 1974, as a result of recommendations in a Muller Report, the government established a National Advisory Council to plan and coordinate programmes in voluntary welfare work and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities. In 1982, a few organisations (the National Children’s Home, the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) and the Ministry of Health) sponsored a National Planning Workshop on the needs of the Handicapped Child in Barbados. One of the major outcomes of that workshop was a recommendation for the establishment of a National Coordinating body involving all the Ministries and private agencies, which provide services to Persons with Disabilities and representatives of the disabled community. The National Disabilities Unit was established in December 1997. It was the Government’s response to addressing the Rights of Person with Disabilities. The Unit was established to correlate and bring together all of the agencies which have responsibility for dealing with the issues associated with people with disabilities and falls within the Ministry of Social Care, Constituency 80

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Empowerment and Urban and Rural Development. It was also established to assist with the development of policies and programmes that would empower and protect the rights of persons with disabilities.

26. Bureau of Gender Affairs The Bureau of Gender Affairs was formerly the Bureau of Women’s Affairs. During the 1960’s there was great concern about the issues surrounding women. A national commission on the status of women was formed and the Bureau was formed in 1975 as a Secretariat to the commission. The Bureau focused on monitoring and providing advice and direction on legislative and other changes that affected women. In the mid 1990s it became clear that the Women in Development approach had done little to overcome the poverty and economic marginalization of women. There was global recognition that the status of both sexes needed to be looked at. In keeping with global trends the government ‘redesignated’ the Bureau of Women’s Affairs to the Bureau of Gender Affairs. The Bureau now looks at how masculinity is constructed and how it might be creating difficulties for women. The Bureau is not a direct intervention agency; its mandate is to integrate a gender perspective in all Government development plans and policies in order to bring about gender equity and equality between men and women in Barbados.

27. The National Cultural Foundation (NCF) The NCF is a statutory body established by an Act of Parliament in 1983. In 1984 and 1985 the National Cultural Foundation (NCF) worked in areas of community development and culture at a time when the island was divided into seven zones. There were field officers with responsibility for implementing development programmes in the communities of their zones, and coordinating Crop Over activities. There are now cultural officers attached to zones for various artistic disciplines. The NCF was first located at Culloden Farm, St Michael, but was relocated to West Terrace St. James in 1986. The NCF seeks to develop culture through its focus on programmes for training and developing the skills of the artist. Through developmental programmes, the artist is given opportunities to show his/her skill through national showcases. There is also a commercial, income-generating component of the NCF’s activities through the hosting of shows and festivals.

International Development Partners 28. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB or the Bank) is a regional financial institution. It was established by Charter in 1970 to respond to the lack of development in the region. Article 1 of the Agreement establishing the Bank states that its purpose was to contribute to the harmonious economic growth and development of the member countries in the Caribbean and promote economic cooperation and integration among them, having special and urgent regard to the needs of the less developed members of the region. At a Canada/Commonwealth Caribbean Conference in 1966 it was recommended that a study be conducted to investigate the possibility of establishing a financial institution to serve the Commonwealth Caribbean countries and territories. The report, submitted by a team of experts in July1967, recommended the establishment of a regional development bank to serve the countries of the region. Later that same year, in Georgetown Guyana, at a meeting of officials, the report was considered and accepted. A committee was formed to prepare the draft

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

agreement and finalise the details for the Bank's establishment. A committee for the Bank's establishment was also set up and a project director appointed. To help set up the Bank, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) provided technical assistance.

29. United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) UNIFEM’s office was launched in 1992. It is the agency within the UN system with the mandate for advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment. It is the women's fund at the United Nations. The advancement of women's human rights is at the centre of UNIFEM’s efforts. The organisation provides financial and technical assistance to innovative programmes and strategies to foster women's empowerment and gender equality. Providing policy support where applicable, it functions as a catalyst on issues that are central to gender equality which no one is addressing such as HIV and gender. There is a focus on four strategic areas: 1. Enhancing women's economic security and rights; 2. Reducing the prevalence of violence against women; 3. Reducing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women; 4. Increasing gender justice in democratic governance in stable and fragile states. UNIFEM concentrates on the most excluded or discriminated groups of women, particularly female headed lowincome households, indigenous women and disabled women.

30. United Nations Childrens’ Fund (UNICEF) UNICEF has been involved in assistance to Caribbean children since the 1950’s. Its first Caribbean Area Office was established in 1976 in Jamaica. The Office was transferred to Barbados in 1986. Today, UNICEF has offices in Barbados (which serves Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean), in Jamaica and in Guyana which serves Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname. UNICEF was founded in 1946 out of the Second World War. It operated under the UN charter. It is driven by two conventions: the human rights convention and the convention on the rights of the child. The convention has been ratified in most parts of the world apart from two countries. There are two multi-country offices: Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean and the Pacific. UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. UNICEF is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and strives to establish children's rights as enduring ethical principles and international standards of behaviour towards children. UNICEF insists that the survival, protection and development of children are universal development imperatives that are integral to human progress.

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UNICEF mobilizes political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing countries, ensure a "first call for children" and to build their capacity to form appropriate policies and deliver services for children and their families. UNICEF is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged children - victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation and those with disabilities. UNICEF responds in emergencies to protect the rights of children. In coordination with United Nations partners and humanitarian agencies, UNICEF makes its unique facilities for rapid response available to its partners to relieve the suffering of children and those who provide their care. UNICEF is non-partisan and its cooperation is free of discrimination. In everything it does, the most disadvantaged children and the countries in greatest need have priority. UNICEF aims, through its country programmes, to promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their full participation in the political, social, and economic development of their communities. UNICEF works with all its partners towards the attainment of the sustainable human development goals adopted by the world community and the realization of the vision of peace and social progress enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations. UNICEF is driven by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. There is a focus on evidenced based social policy relative to childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights where countries are developing policies with children at the centre of the policies. Programmes are centred around knowledge. UNICEF serves as a knowledge centre for children and shares knowledge about children. Children are the centre of polices on law, education, budgets and economic crises. Focus is also made on child protection so that children can grow and develop in a caring and loving environment to their fullest potential. It is the view that all children have rights, and that those rights should be reflected in legislation.

31. The United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) UNDP Barbados and the OECS is a part of the 166-country office UNDP network working with countries to assist the implementation of their own solutions to global and national development challenges. It is a subregional, multi-country office serving a total of 10 territories: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Christopher and Nevis (also called St. Kitts and Nevis), Saint Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. UNDP has a mandate to support governments of the Eastern Caribbean achieve their development goals through work at the regional, sub regional and national levels. This is to be done through support for the individual and collective development goals of Barbados and the nine Member States of the OECS as well as the achievement of results and outcomes that support sustainable peoplecentred development. The means by which UNDP achieves its mandate is through policy development and reform, technical capacity development, knowledge management, and mobilising finance for development. UNDP provides assistance within the scope of its Five Practice Areas:

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

    

Democratic governance; Poverty reduction; Crisis prevention and recovery; Environment and energy, and HIV/AIDS

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

Appendix III: Millennium Development Goals for Barbados: Targets and Indicators Table 50: Millennium Development Goals and Status of Barbados Millennium Development Goal 1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

Barbados Status Partial

Achieve Universal Primary Education

Achieved

Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women Reduce Child Mortality Improve Maternal Health

Achieved

Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases

Changes Needed

Ensure Environmental Sustainability

Changes Needed

Develop a Partnership Development

Insufficient Information

4. 5.

Global for

Achieved Achieved

Targets Halve between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than US$1 per day Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger Ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and to all levels of education no later than 2015 Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio Achieve by 2015, universal access to reproductive health Have Halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS Achieve by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss Halve by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water Address the special needs of landlocked countries and small island developing states Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Table 51: Millennium Development Goals and Indicators for Selected Years- Date and Data Gaps (various years) Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

1.45 1.44

1.45

1.41

1.5

1.7

-2.86

-3.2

1.12

Employment-to-population ratio, both sexes, percentage

57.3 54.8

62.8

61.6

Employment-to-population ratio, men, percentage

67.9 62.1

70.1

67.9

Employment-to-population ratio, women, percentage

48.1 48.2

56.3

1.1 Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day Population below $1 (PPP) per day, percentage Population below national poverty line, total, percentage Population below national poverty line, urban, percentage Population below national poverty line, rural, percentage Purchasing power parities (PPP) conversion factor, local currency unit to international dollar

1.2 Poverty gap ratio Poverty gap ratio at $1 a day (PPP), percentage

1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption Poorest quintile's share in national income or consumption, percentage

1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person employed Growth rate of GDP per person employed, percentage

1.5 Employment-to-population ratio

1.6 Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day, percentage

1.7 Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment, both sexes, percentage

0.8

0.2

Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment, women, percentage

0.6

0.2

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

2000

2003

0.1

Youth unemployment rate, aged 15-24, both sexes

21.8 33.3

17.6

24.1

Youth unemployment rate, aged 15-24, women

40.5 42.4

21.8

28.7

Youth unemployment rate, aged 15-24, men

21.8 33.3

17.6

24.1

Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment, men, percentage

1990 1995 1

2007

2010

1.8 Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age Children under 5 moderately or severely underweight, percentage Children under 5 severely underweight, percentage

[non-MDG] Unemployment rate of young people aged 15-24 years, each sex and total

Ratio of youth unemployment rate to adult unemployment rate, both sexes Ratio of youth unemployment rate to adult unemployment rate, women Ratio of youth unemployment rate to adult unemployment rate, men Share of youth unemployed to total unemployed, both sexes Share of youth unemployed to total unemployed, women Share of youth unemployed to total unemployed, men Share of youth unemployed to youth population, both sexes

3.1

2.5

2.7

3.1

2.4

2.3

2.8

3.5

2.8

3.5

51.6

36.2

33.8

50 36.4

29.9

30.3

54.5 42.6

44.4

20 24.4

Share of youth unemployed to youth population, women

25.2

15.5

Share of youth unemployed to youth population, men

14.8 22.7

14.4

1.9 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption Population undernourished, percentage

5.5

Total net enrolment ratio in primary education, both sexes

94.7

92.2

93.4

Total net enrolment ratio in primary education, boys

91.7

89.1

89.8

Total net enrolment ratio in primary education, girls

95.6

97.5

Population undernourished, millions

2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary education

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary Percentage of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary, both sexes

95.8

Percentage of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary, boys

Percentage of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary, girls

97.7

Primary completion rate, both sexes

99.1

106.7

91.6

101.2

Primary completion rate, boys

97.9

102.4

88.1

95.7

Primary completion rate, girls

100.5

111.3

95.4

107.3

Gender Parity Index in primary level enrolment

1.05

1.06

1.07

1.02

Gender Parity Index in secondary level enrolment

1.11

1.09

1.1

1.09

Gender Parity Index in tertiary level enrolment

2.85

2.35

2.38

2.3 Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men Literacy rates of 15-24 years old, both sexes, percentage Literacy rates of 15-24 years old, men, percentage Literacy rates of 15-24 years old, women, percentage Women to men parity index, as ratio of literacy rates, 15-24 years old

3.1 Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education

3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector

46.8 49.3

49.9

51.1

50.4

3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament Seats held by women in national parliament, percentage

3.7

10.7

13.3

Total number of seats in national parliament

Seats held by men in national parliament

Seats held by women in national parliament

4.1 Under-five mortality rate

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

Children under five mortality rate per 1,000 live births

17.9 16.5

17.2

17.7

18.7

19.3

15.7 14.5

15.1

15.6

16.6

17.2

4.2 Infant mortality rate Infant mortality rate (0-1 year) per 1,000 live births

4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles Children 1 year old immunized against measles, percentage

120

100

62.2

49.5

100

5.1 Maternal mortality ratio Maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live births

5.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel Births attended by skilled health personnel, percentage

5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate Current contraceptive use among married women 15-49 years old, any method, percentage Current contraceptive use among married women 15-49 years old, modern methods, percentage Current contraceptive use among married women 15-49 years old, condom, percentage

5.4 Adolescent birth rate Adolescent birth rate, per 1,000 women

57.1

5.5 Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits) Antenatal care coverage, at least one visit, percentage

100

Antenatal care coverage, at least four visits, percentage

5.6 Unmet need for family planning Unmet need for family planning, total, percentage Unmet need for family planning, spacing, percentage

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

Unmet need for family planning, limiting, percentage

6.1 HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years People living with HIV, 15-49 years old, percentage (lower bound)

0.4

0.6

People living with HIV, 15-49 years old, percentage

0.1

0.4

0.7

1.2

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.9

1.4

0 0.03

0.08

0.09

0.02 0.06

0.13

0.17

People living with HIV, 15-49 years old, percentage (upper bound) HIV prevalence rate, women 15-49 years old, in national based surveys HIV prevalence rate, men 15-49 years old, in national based surveys AIDS deaths (lower bound) AIDS deaths AIDS deaths (upper bound) HIV incidence rate, 15-49 years old, percentage (lower bound) HIV incidence rate, 15-49 years old, percentage (mid-point) HIV incidence rate, 15-49 years old, percentage (upper bound)

6.2 Condom use at the last high-risk sex Condom use at last high-risk sex, 15-24 years old, women, percentage Condom use at last high-risk sex, 15-24 years old, men, percentage Condom use to overall contraceptive use among currently married women 15-49 years old, percentage

6.3 Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS Men 15-24 years old with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS, percentage Women 15-24 years old with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS, percentage

6.4 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years Ratio of school attendance rate of orphans to school attendance rate of non orphans School attendance rate of orphans aged 10-14 School attendance rate of children aged 10-14 both of whose parents are alive and who live with at least one parent AIDS orphans (one or both parents)

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

6.5 Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to antiretroviral drugs Antiretroviral therapy coverage among people with advanced HIV infection, percentage (lower bound) Antiretroviral therapy coverage among people with advanced HIV infection, percentage Antiretroviral therapy coverage among people with advanced HIV infection, percentage (upper bound) Percentage of HIV-infected pregnant women who received antiretroviral drugs to reduce the risk for mother-to-child transmission (lower bound) Percentage of HIV-infected pregnant women who received antiretroviral drugs to reduce the risk for mother-to-child transmission (Mid point) Percentage of HIV-infected pregnant women who received antiretroviral drugs to reduce the risk for mother-to-child transmission (upper bound)

6.6 Incidence and death rates associated with malaria Notified cases of malaria per 100,000 population Malaria death rate per 100,000 population, all ages Malaria death rate per 100,000 population, ages 0-4

6.7 Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets Children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets, percentage

6.8 Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs Children under 5 with fever being treated with anti-malarial drugs, percentage

6.9 Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis Tuberculosis prevalence rate per 100,000 population (mid-point)

3.2

2.6

3.5

4.2

1.9

Tuberculosis prevalence rate per 100,000 population (lower bound)

1.2

1.1

1.6

1.2

1.6

0.5

Tuberculosis prevalence rate per 100,000 population (upper bound)

5.2

4.1

5.6

7.8

4.6

Tuberculosis death rate per year per 100,000 population (mid-point)

0.5

0.3

0.4

0.6

0.5

0.2

Tuberculosis death rate per year per 100,000 population (lower bound)

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.1

Tuberculosis death rate per year per 100,000 population (upper bound)

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.5

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

Tuberculosis incidence rate per year per 100,000 population (mid-point)

2.4

1.7

2.4

4.3

3.8

1.7

Tuberculosis incidence rate per year per 100,000 population (lower bound)

2.1

1.5

2.2

3.7

1.4

Tuberculosis incidence rate per year per 100,000 population (upper bound)

2.7

1.9

2.6

4.7

Tuberculosis detection rate under DOTS, percentage (lower bound)

120

110

Tuberculosis detection rate under DOTS, percentage (upper bound)

200

160

150

130

6.10 Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course Tuberculosis detection rate under DOTS, percentage (mid-point) Tuberculosis treatment success rate under DOTS, percentage

100

7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest Proportion of land area covered by forest, percentage

18.6

7.2 Carbon dioxide emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP) Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand metric tons of CO2 (CDIAC)

1074

829

1188

1269

1426

4.138 3.147 7 1 4.4409 4.7107

5.25

Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand metric tons of CO2 (UNFCCC) Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), metric tons of CO2 per capita (CDIAC) Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), metric tons of CO2 per capita (UNFCCC) 0.184 6 0.2399 0.2493 0.2695

Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), kg CO2 per $1 GDP (PPP) (CDIAC) Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), kg CO2 per $1 GDP (PPP) (UNFCCC) Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1,000 GDP (Constant 2005 PPP $)

7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances Consumption of all Ozone-Depleting Substances in ODP metric tons

25.5 26.4

9.8

11.5

4.8

2.3

Consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs in ODP metric tons

20.9

8.1

8.6

1.9

7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

58.3

76.1

2003

2007

2010

7.5 Proportion of total water resources used Proportion of total water resources used, percentage

[non-MDG] Proportion of population using solid fuels Population using solid fuels, percentage

7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected Terrestrial and marine areas protected to total territorial area, percentage

0.07 0.07

0.07

Terrestrial and marine areas protected, sq. km.

2.87 2.87

2.87

Terrestrial areas protected to total surface area, percentage

0.12 0.12

0.12

Terrestrial areas protected, sq. km.

0.55 0.55

0.55

0.1

Proportion of the population using improved drinking water sources, total

100

Proportion of the population using improved drinking water sources, urban

100

Proportion of the population using improved drinking water sources, rural

100

Proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities, total

100

Proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities, urban

100

Proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities, rural

100

Marine areas protected to territorial waters, percentage Marine areas protected, sq. km.

7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction Proportion of species threatened with extinction

7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source

7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility

7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

Slum population as percentage of urban, percentage Slum population in urban areas

8.1 Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors' gross national income Net ODA as percentage of OECD/DAC donors GNI Net ODA to LDCs as percentage of OECD/DAC donors GNI Net ODA, million US$ Net ODA to LDCs, million US$

8.10 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative) Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)

8.11 Debt relief committed under HIPC and MDRI Initiatives Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative, cumulative million US$ in end-2009 NPV terms Debt relief delivered in full under MDRI initiative, cumulative million US$ in end-2009 NPV terms

8.12 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services Debt service as percentage of exports of goods and services and net income

8.13 Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis Population with access to essential drugs, percentage

8.14 Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants Fixed telephone lines

27.8 34.22 46.29 49.74 49.43 50.3 7214 9013 1 2 123832 134000 134261 137486

8.15 Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

0 1.75

10.64

51.97

94.84 128.07

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx Mobile cellular subscriptions

1990 1995 0 4614

2000

2003

2007

2010

28467 140000 257596 350061

8.16 Internet users per 100 population Internet users per 100 population

0 0.01

3.97

39.69

5.81 1500 0

8.74

12.3

22000

31000

64.7

70.2

Internet users Personal computers per 100 population Personal computers

8.2 Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation) ODA to basic social services as percentage of sector-allocable ODA ODA to basic social services, million US$

8.3 Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied ODA that is untied, percentage ODA that is untied, million US$

8.4 ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their gross national incomes ODA received in landlocked developing countries as percentage of their GNI ODA received in landlocked developing countries, million US$

8.5 ODA received in small island developing States as a proportion of their gross national incomes ODA received in small islands developing States as percentage of their GNI

0.15 -0.06

0.01

0.77

0.57

ODA received in small islands developing States, million US$

2.63 -1.16

0.24

19.88

17.51

16.2

8.6 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and from the least developed countries, admitted free of duty 66.9652 76.4537 74.8392 98.2109 Developed country imports from developing countries, admitted duty free, percentage 2 5 9 4 Developed country imports from the LDCs, admitted duty free, percentage

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1 Source: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx

1990 1995

2000

2003

2007

2010

8.7 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing from developing countries Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products from developing countries Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on textiles from developing countries Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on clothings from developing countries

8.8 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of their gross domestic product Agriculture support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their GDP Agriculture support estimate for OECD countries, million US$

8.9 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity ODA provided to help build trade capacity, percentage

SEE: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx for full description of variables and references.

Barbados Country Assessment of Living Condition 2010: Volume 1

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