Biosecurity Guide EN _English_version by BASF_P-SS

Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Ricard Parés

BASF Española S.L.U C/Can Rábia 3-5 08017. Barcelona. España Teléfono: +34 934964000 Professional & Specialty Solutions pestinfo@basf.com

Biosecurity in livestock holdings Author: Ricard Parés

Biosecurity in livestock holdings Ricard Parés

Translated version for the Spanish guide. For BASF internal use only.

Why is biosecurity so important?

Author

Ricard Parés Ricard Parés (Badalona, 1971) holds a degree in veterinary medicine from the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB). He began his career in the small ruminants sector, and he has been the director of the Catalan Pig Producers Association (PORCAT) since the year 2000. He is an associate professor in the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at the UAB, and in the Department of Animal and Food Science, and an associate professor at the Food and Nutrition Torribera Campus of the University of Barcelona (UB). He has written numerous publications on animal welfare, health and biosecurity in the livestock sector.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 3

Why is biosecurity so important?

Contents 01 Why is biosecurity so important?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Biosecurity is a series of measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Biosecurity is an investment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

ZOONOSIS: biosecurity also protects people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

It is necessary to train workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Regulations establish biosecurity obligations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

02 Is the farm well-designed?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

What does the ideal farm look like?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

The risks are different depending on the location of the farm . . . . . . . . . 17

The farm must have a clearly defined clean zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Design and maintenance of facilities

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

03 How are diseases introduced to the farm? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Via farm personnel and visitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Entry of wild animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Via the restocking of animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Entry of lorries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Via water

Grazing on semi-extensive systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Via rodents and insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

04 Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Water control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Cleaning and disinfecting the facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Pig holdings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Poultry farming

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dairy cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Beef ruminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Organic production holdings

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rodent control

Insect control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Handling dead animals on the holding

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

05 Animal transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

The lorry can transmit many pathogenic microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Critical points in the cleaning and disinfection of the lorry

The cleaning and disinfection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Thermal disinfection, an alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Cleaning and disinfection centres

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

06 Hygiene and biosecurity in the meat industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Arrival of animals at the slaughterhouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Slaughter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Personal hygiene measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

07 Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Comprehensive solutions. BASF products. See the accompanying sales brochure

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 5

6 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Why is biosecurity so important? Livestock holdings are always vulnerable to disease, whether bacterial, viral or parasitic. Some diseases must be totally eradicated, such as swine fever or foot-and-mouth disease. Others, like PRRS in pigs, coccidiosis in poultry or mastitis in dairy cattle, can emerge even when good biosecurity measures are in place. However, reducing the risk of such diseases, or slowing their spread, can have a positive effect on the farm’s productivity. Nowadays, diseases know no borders. Globalisation and climate change mean that any disease has the potential to spread through a great number of countries, and even throughout the world. In addition to all the problems they cause, the presence of diseases in a country or a region can pose a barrier to trade, something that is especially relevant to the production of foods for export.

Nor must we forget about the importance of diseases when it comes to human health. Many animal diseases are transmittable to humans (so-called zoonoses). Therefore, disease control at farms not only concerns animal health, but also human health. It is not possible to completely eliminate the risk of the introduction of disease. However, by optimising biosecurity measures, we can reduce the risk as much as possible, and, in turn, optimise the profitability of our livestock holding.

Biosecurity is also particularly important in terms of the major challenge of reducing the use of antibiotics. The prevention of disease is fundamental in this regard. While many diseases can be prevented with a vaccine, biosecurity is extremely important, particularly in some critical areas, such as pig weaning, livestock assembly centres and hygienic milking practices.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 7

Why is biosecurity so important?

Biosecurity is a series of measures Biosecurity is defined as a series of measures that are adopted at a farm to prevent the introduction of microorganisms, or to reduce their spread in the event they are introduced. Biosecurity encompasses numerous measures, but we can highlight the following:

Location of the farm

Control of entry of goods

the proximity of the farm to other holdings and the distance from the farm to roads or the surrounding area are factors that determine the risk of the emergence of diseases.

semen doses, materials for repairing the farm, etc. Anything is a potential transmitter of disease.

The design of the farm

Measures to prevent contact with wild animals

the type of access for vehicles and people or the materials used at the farm can also determine the risk of the emergence of diseases and their spread within the farm.

wild animals are a significant source of diseases and farms are hotspots for them as they come in search of food or mates.

Standards to be met by workers the training of workers is an aspect often overlooked, but it is one of the most important factors for improving biosecurity.

Pest control rodents and insects are another huge source of disease, often invisible, but very prevalent in most cases. A good pest control system and suitable products are essential on any farm.

Control of entry of people and other vectors visits, maintenance personnel, vehicles, etc. Anything that comes into the farm is a possible vector that could transmit any disease.

8 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

The cleaning and disinfection system is essential for proper cleaning and disinfection. The cleaning protocol, personnel training and the product being used must be taken into account.

It is important to bear in mind: At intensive farms (poultry, rabbit and pig farms): high concentrations enable the rapid spread of disease. Protections in the clean zone, cleaning and disinfection and pest control must be strengthened. At farms with access to the exterior: special attention must be paid to contact with wild animals and rodent control. At extensive farms: there is an increased risk of parasitic infestations; it is important to regularly check the health of the animals. At dairy farms: hygiene is especially important to prevent the emergence of mastitis.

Biosecurity is an investment Biosecurity prevents or reduces the incidence of diseases, which always have a financial impact on the farm, whether directly or indirectly. Therefore, biosecurity must never be considered a cost, but rather an investment: we recover every euro we invest in biosecurity in the form of reduced costs and increased productivity. Here are some examples:

DAIRY SHEEP The economic cost of an abortion due to Toxoplasma gondii in a flock of milk sheep has been valued at €287 per lamb, due to the loss of milk production and suckling lambs (F. Tejerina, 2019).

PIG FARMS Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) presents a different clinical picture depending on the strain of the virus and the size of the farm. The economic cost per suckling pig varies depending on the strain. However, the approximate economic costs range between €5 and €12 per sucking pig (E. Marco, 2018). In a study of nine farms with outbreaks of PRRS, an 18% reduction in the sale of pigs was detected. Such losses, alongside the costs of medicine, vaccination, diagnosis and overtime, translate to an average cost of €126/sow for the period of 18 weeks that it takes to recover (Nieuwenhuis et al., 2012). For respiratory processes, the economic cost has been valued at €13.72/pig (AVPA, 2008).

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 9

Why is biosecurity so important?

LAYING HENS Some studies have identified the following costs: ■ Infectious bronchitis: €3.20/hen (Inprovo, 2018). ■ Salpingoperitonitis: €0.50/hen (Inprovo, 2018). ■ Clostridiosis: €0.95/hen (Prohealth Consortium, 2016). ■ Coccidiosis: €0.21/hen (Prohealth Consortium, 2016). ■ Tibial dyschondroplasia: €0.05/hen (Prohealth Consortium, 2016). ■ Ascites: €0.03/hen (Prohealth Consortium, 2016). ■ Keel bone damage: €4.00/hen (Prohealth Consortium, 2016). ■ Red mite: €1.16/hen (Van Emous et al., 2005).

DAIRY CATTLE According to various studies, losses caused by mastitis range from €60 to €519: ■ Nielsen et al., 2009 (Sweden): €413 ■ Bar

et al., 2008 (USA): €146

■ Huijps et al., 2008 (Netherlands): €205 ■ Ostergaard

et al., 2005 (Denmark): €360

■ Kossaibati

and Esslemont, 1997

(UK): €519 ■ Nielsen

et al., 2009 (Sweden): €60

The losses caused by an outbreak of BVD are estimated to range from €20 and €337 per cow. Some studies mention losses of between €11 and €39 for every 1000 litres of milk produced, which would be higher than the losses caused by mastitis, valued at €11/1000 litres (Boehringer, 2014). The direct costs generated by an outbreak of BRD (bovine respiratory disease) in the milking process are valued at between €49 and €125 per affected animal. These costs include: weight loss, medicines, veterinary costs, labour, mortality, materials and other additional costs (Andrews, 2000). Van Der Fels-Klerx et al. (2002) indicate that a heifer affected by BRD suffers an average delay of two weeks in the first birth, representing an average additional cost of €29 compared to a healthy heifer. Subsequently, a 4% reduction in yield from an affected heifer is observed in the first lactation, translating to €87.50, and up to an 8% reduction in the second lactation, with a cost of €201.

10 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

FEEDER CATTLE Between 3.5% and 4% of the production costs for a calf corresponds to healthcare expense (P. Salse Bernadó et al., 2018). The costs have also been assessed for bovine respiratory disease (BRD), of which some of the main causal agents are respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza-3 virus (PI3), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), due to the direct pathogenesis, and bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), due to the immunosuppressive and predisposing effect. The main bacteria involved are Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica and Mycoplasma bovis. In feedlots of between 600 and 800 animals fed on straw and hay, the rise in mortality from BRD results in economic costs of between €40 and €50/animal (J. Alcázar Triviño, 2016), estimated on the basis of: ■ Higher

healthcare expenditure (€3-6/treatment) ■ Lower average daily gain (0.03-0.05 kg/day) ■ Fewer kg of meat produced (€3.65/carcass) ■ Increased length of stay (2.30 €/day)

ZOONOSIS: biosecurity also protects people There are various livestock diseases that can be transmitted to those professionals who come into contact with them, and they can even be spread through rodents. These diseases are called zoonoses, and they mainly affect farmers and veterinarians.

Diseases

Enteric

Skin

Pulmonary

Disease caused in humans

Microorganism

Salmonellosis

Salmonella spp.

Droppings

Campylobacteriosis

Campylobacter jejuni

Droppings

Coccidiosis

Eimeria, Isospora and Cryptosporidium genera of parasites

Droppings

Ringworm

Dermophytes (fungi)

Contact with the skin

Scabies

Mites

Contact with the skin

Contagious ecthyma

Parapoxvirus

Contact with the skin

Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Aerogenous transmission and fluids

Q fever

Coxiella burnetii

Droppings, urine, placenta

Brucellosis

Brucella spp.

Bodily fluids

Listeriosis

Listeria monocytogenes

Bodily fluids

Tularemia

Francisella tularensis

Bodily fluids

Leptospirosis

Leptospira spp.

Droppings and urine

Hepatitis E

HeV virus

Bodily fluids

Transmitter species

Transmission route

Systemic

TABLE 1. Main zoonoses transmitted by farm animals. Biosecurity in livestock holdings 11

Why is biosecurity so important?

It is necessary to train workers Training workers is essential. Both farm workers and owners need to be aware of the important role they play. Studies carried out at the University of Iowa (D. Holtkamp, 2017) demonstrate the importance of workers as carriers of microorganisms on shoes. The presence of a bench in the changing area, which obliges workers to change their shoes (Danish entry system), significantly reduces the introduction of microorganisms. In these studies, the number of microorganisms detected before shoes were changed was between 261 and 264 (based on counting the number of contaminated squares). After shoes were changed, the number differed greatly depending on whether or not the farm had benches in the changing area. If shoes were changed correctly, the number of contaminated squares found was 115 when there was a bench available, and 223 when there was no bench. There is a series of routine practices that workers must follow at all times. The main ones are as follows: ■ Avoid

bringing uncontrolled food produce to the farm, particularly cold meats. ■ Strictly comply with the protocol for showering and changing clothes. ■ Keep doors closed at all times. ■ Never rush, especially during the cleaning and disinfection processes. ■ Report any incidents observed (presence of rodents, droppings, gnawed materials, etc.) and take the appropriate measures.

12 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Training is required by European regulations Article 11 of Regulation 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council lays down the minimal knowledge of animal health that workers with animals of all species much have: Animal diseases, including those that are transmissible to humans. Biosecurity principles. The interaction between animal health, animal welfare and human health. Good practice of animal husbandry for the animal species under their care. Resistance to treatments, including antimicrobial resistance, and its implications.

A biosecurity training plan is required by Spanish law For pig holdings, Royal Decree 306/2020 lays down a mandatory biosecurity training plan, defined in Annex 4 of the Royal Decree.

Regulations establish biosecurity obligations There are European and Spanish regulations concerning biosecurity. These regulations lay down a set of obligations that apply to farm workers and owners. It is important to know about these

obligations, not only from a strictly legal standpoint, but also to better understand how a livestock holding must be managed. The full texts of the articles mentioned below are available in Annex I of this guide.

REGULATION (EU) 2016/429 of the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 9 March 2016 on transmissible animal diseases and amending and repealing certain acts in the area of animal health. Lays down the responsibilities of the farm operators (Article 10) ■ The

health of kept animals. and responsible use of veterinary medicines, without prejudice to the role and responsibility of veterinarians. ■ Minimising the risk of the spread of diseases. ■ Good animal husbandry. ■ Prudent

Lays down the measures that must be established at a holding Physical protection measures: ■ Enclosures, fencing, roofing, netting as appropriate. ■ Cleaning, disinfection and control of insects and rodents. Management measures: ■ Procedures for entering and exiting the establishment for animals, products, vehicles and persons. ■ Procedures for using equipment. ■ Conditions for movement based on the risks involved. ■ Conditions for introducing animals or products into the establishment. ■ Quarantine, isolation or separation of newly introduced or sick animals. ■ A system for safe disposal of dead animals and other animal by–products.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 13

Why is biosecurity so important?

ACT 8/2003 ON ANIMAL HEALTH Lays down a set of general measures (Article 7) The owners or persons responsible for animals must implement and carry out all health measures to prevent animal diseases, or otherwise consent to their implementation. They must also provide the necessary means for said measures to be carried out, both for the animals subject to them and the personnel who execute them.

Lays down the responsibilities of the integrator and integrating partner (Article 16) INTEGRATOR: must ensure that the animals or products obtained at the farm are found to be in adequate sanitary conditions when they are put on the market and that their transport complies with the animal health and protection conditions established by applicable regulations. INTEGRATING PARTNER: must ensure the sanitary care of the livestock delivered to its holding by the integrator, in conjunction with that party, especially with regard to suitable handling and hygiene.

14 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Lays down the obligations of the owners of livestock holdings (Article 16) ■ Maintain

the animals in good health. the mandatory health measures laid down to combat, control and eradicate animal diseases, or otherwise consent to their implementation. ■ Provide the necessary means for said measures to be carried out with due safety guarantees, both for the animals the personnel who execute them. ■ Carry out checks and modifications at the facilities to reduce the risk of the emergence of diseases. ■ Implement

ROYAL DECREE 306/2020

establishing the basic standards for the management of intensive pig farms

Lays down a series of mandatory requirements (Article 5) Facilities

■ Permanently isolated from the exterior ■ Enclosed or with perimeter fencing ■ Mesh netting on all exterior openings

Pests

■ Facilities ■ Effective

in a good state of conservation insect and rodent extermination

■ Regular cleaning and disinfection of facilities and equipment Cleaning and disinfection ■ Disinfection arches or drive-through sanitation baths ■ Footbaths at entrances to the farm and entrances to the premises

Changing rooms

■ Suitable changing rooms, with a separation ■ Facilities and hand-washing equipment ■ Sink and toilet ■ Shower or equivalent system

between the clean zone and dirty zone

Vehicle control

■ Minimise the entry of vehicles ■ Establish a parking area outside the fence ■ Loading and unloading operations outside

Visits

■ Limit visits and always make a record of visitors ■ Cleaning and disinfection tools and clothes for individual

Water

■ From the municipal mains ■ Quality and purification checks

the fence (new holdings) use

if it comes from other sources.

Lays down a series of mandatory plans (Annex 4) biosecurity plan. documented cleaning and disinfection and insect and rodent extermination plan for the facilities.

■ A

facility maintenance plan.

■ A

All these requirements reflect the need, at all farms, to have a biosecurity manager and to perform regular audits.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 15

16 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Is the farm well-designed? We can plan for all aspects related to biosecurity at a newly-built livestock holding. But at existing ones, we must adapt the facilities we currently have. And we must adapt ourselves to the environment in which the farm is located. The entry of potential disease vectors must be prevented at all times. At open farms, we must define different safety zones, but at intensive farms, we must be strict in establishing the clean zone and dirty zone. However, biosecurity is not only a question of design: checking and maintaining the facilities regularly is important.

What does the ideal farm look like? Before we can know if our farm has deficiencies in its design, we need to know what an ideal farm looks like. To understand the ideal design for a farm, we need to look at three aspects: is it isolated?; how are its clean zones and dirty zones defined?; and what construction materials were used?

Isolated The farm must be located in an area away from other holdings, slaughterhouses and other places where there are animals or animal products. The ideal minimum distance is 3 km. It must be away from roads, especially those with a high volume of traffic, also at an ideal distance of 3 km. Access to

the farm must be closed to vehicles, bicycles or other people.

Well-defined clean zone The farm must have a clearly defined perimeter for the clean zone, which is the area that only farm workers, veterinarians and authorised personnel enter, and always following a disinfection procedure.

Materials used at the facilities The type of material used must allow for proper hygiene at the farm, but it must also prevent the entry or shelter of rodents and other undesired animals.

The risks are different depending on the location of the farm Farms located in heavily wooded areas. The presence of wild animals is always a threat. Some species, such as wild boars or foxes, are present in most habitats. Other species, such as deer or roe deer, can also be found in abundance depending on the area. In these cases, although it is difficult to prevent these species approaching the farm, some measures must be taken:

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 17

Is the farm well-designed?

■ Clear

the vegetation around the entire perimeter of the clean zone: preferably to 2 metres from the edge. ■ Reinforce the fencing: a buried fence with a solid base will always be more robust against the entry of wild animals, especially wild boars. A double fence can also be effective. ■ Check the perimeter fence regularly: the only way to effectively check the fence is to verify its entire length, paying special attention to any imperfections.

Semi-extensive farms The risk of entry of wild animals is even greater at this type of farm. In addition to the measures described above (heavily wooded areas), other measures must be taken: ■ Prevent

access to water: the drinking troughs must not be easy to access for wild fauna. Puddles of water must also be prevented. ■ Prevent access to mangers: access to food is often the main attraction for wild animals. Above all, easy access to fodder must be prevented. ■ Have an enclosed storehouse: feed sacks, straw, tools, etc., must be locked in a storehouse. At extensive pig holdings, these conditions are laid down in Royal Decree 1221/2009 (see Annex 1).

Farms located in areas with high livestock concentrations It is very difficult to reduce the risks in these cases. However, some measures can be taken: ■ Prevent

the transit of people and vehicles from nearby farms. ■ Pay special attention to the entry of dogs.

18 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

■ Pay

special attention to mesh. the application of slurry from other holdings near the farm.

■ Avoid

Farms located close to slaughterhouses As in the previous case, it is difficult to reduce the risks. However, some measures can be taken: ■ Prevent

slaughterhouse-bound lorries from driving close to the farm. ■ Prevent the transit of people or vehicles coming from the slaughterhouse.

For pigs, Royal Decree 306/2020 (see Annex 1) lays down the minimum distances between farms and also between farms and slaughterhouses, as well as other sites of potential disease transmission.

Farms close to hiking trails Hiking trails are often traversed by people who have respect for nature but who are unfamiliar with farms. Simple curiosity may cause them to approach or even try to enter. To prevent this, some precautions must be taken: ■ Put

up warning signs indicating private property. lock access gates. ■ Make sure the carcass waste container cannot be opened easily. ■ At intensive farms, avoid windows that allow a direct view of the livestock. ■ Avoid the presence of animals outside the pens. ■ Always

Farms close to roads The proximity to roads must not be the only factor considered, but also the intensity of traffic, especially with regard to live-animal transport vehicles. All vehicles can be vectors of disease, particularly those caused by aerogenous microorganisms, such as classical swine fever. When farms are located close

to roads, it is difficult to reduce the risk, but some measures can be taken: ■ Provide

alternative routes for vehicles not provide parking to unknown vehicles ■ Thoroughly clean the surroundings of the farm ■ Do

The farm must have a clearly defined clean zone The clean zone is the part of the farm that, apart from restocking animals, can only be access by authorised persons, always in accordance with a set of hygiene and disinfection standards.

Intensive farms Access must be via a changing room. This must be located so that it is accessed from the dirty zone and it leads directly to the clean zone. The entire clean zone must be defined by a perimeter fence, which must prevent the entry of wild animals, domestic animals and rodents.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 19

Is the farm well-designed?

Vehicles must be prevented from entering the clean zone. The following elements must be employed correctly to this end:

Silos

Loading bay

Carcass waste container

Must be located in the clean zone, but close to the perimeter fence to allow the feed lorry to fill them without crossing the fence.

Must be located at the edge of the clean zone so that the animals enter the clean zone directly after being unloaded from the lorry.

Must be located in the dirty zone so that the carcass waste collection lorry does not cross the fence.

IMAGE 1. Design of the clean zone and dirty zone at an intensive farm.

Dirty zone Loading bay

Clean zone

Building

Carcass waste container Building Silos Hatch for genetic material Changing room

Car park

20 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Semi-intensive farms

The perimeter fence must be effective

At semi-intensive farms, such as ruminant farms, it may be useful to define 3 zones:

The perimeter fence must effectively block the entry of unwanted animals (wild animals, dogs), or unauthorised persons, which could be transmitters of disease.

■ Clean

zone: where the animals are located. It must be as isolated as possible. ■ Supply zone: the inner-most area must hold the silos and feed stores; the outer-most area must be where the manure and the allocated area for deposing carcasses is located, as well as the changing room. ■ Protection zone: variable in size depending on the farm. Semi-intensive farms must also be protected by a perimeter fence.

IMAGE 2. Design of sanitary protection zones at a semi-intensive farm.

Protection zone Supply zone Manure Feed

Dead animals

Clean zone

Silos

Changing room

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 21

Is the farm well-designed?

To this end, the fence must meet the following conditions: Correct

Incorrect

Continuous fence:

the walls of the buildings must not form part of the perimeter enclosure.

Size of mesh:

sufficiently small to prevent access by rats and other rodents.

Solid base:

to prevent wild animals (wild boars) from breaking the lower part of the fence and gaining entry to the farm, it must be buried in the ground with hard materials.

Minimum heights:

approximately 1.5 metres.

Free of vegetation:

the perimeter of the fence must be accessible; it is advisable to clear away the vegetation regularly.

is very important to regularly check the fence and repair any defects. ■ At ruminant farms, it could be useful to employ electric fences. ■ It

22 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

■ The

obligation to have a perimeter fence is included in European regulations (Regulation 2016/429, Article 10) and Spanish regulations (Royal Decree 306/2020 on the management of pig farms).

Location of different farm elements LOADING BAY: a significant point of access for diseases and pests at pig farms. It must be located on the edge of the clean zone so that the lorry never crosses the perimeter fence under any circumstances. During unloading, the driver must remain in the dirty zone at all times and the farm worker must not leave the clean zone.

PARKING: the entry of all vehicles must be prevented. We must ensure that workers never access the clean zone with their own vehicles. Vehicles must always be left outside the fence. HATCH FOR DEPOSITING GENETIC MATERIAL: at pig farms, a hatch located in the dirty zone at the edge of the fence may be sufficient to prevent the van delivering genetic material from entering the clean zone. The farmer must access the material deposited from the clean zone. FEED LORRY ACCESS: the feed lorry must never enter the clean zone. At pig farms, the feed must be unloaded from the lorry without it crossing the perimeter fence. In addition to preventing the entry of the lorry, access must also be prevented for the driver, who is one of the most significant disease vectors. At semi-intensive farms, the lorry must enter the supply zone, so it must drive through a wheel washing system.

The changing room At old farms, it is not uncommon that the lorry must enter the clean zone for loading and unloading. In these cases, the risk to health increases substantially. Although it is often difficult to restructure a farm, the loading bay should be relocated. CARCASS WASTE CONTAINER: at intensive farms, it must be located in the dirty zone and the farmer must access it from the clean zone: in this way, the farm worker can transfer dead animals to the container without leaving the clean zone. In addition, the collection lorry will be able to collect the container without entering the clean zone. At semi-intensive farms, it is not possible to use containers: a paved surface located in the supply zone must be allocated for this purpose.

The location of the changing room is very important at intensive farms. It must be located at the edge of the fence, so that the entrance is in the dirty zone and it leads directly into the clean zone. The visitor or veterinarian must not enter the clean zone without first passing through the changing room. At many farms, particularly older ones, the changing room is located near the shed, i.e. inside the clean zone. To solve this problem, in many cases, the only solution is to build a new changing room located in the correct zone. There are pre-fabricated changing rooms which may provide a good and economical solution. In other cases, the perimeter of the clean zone can be adapted without the need to build a new changing room. It would be sufficient (where

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 23

Is the farm well-designed?

possible) to design a corridor that allows the worker or visitor to access the changing room without having to pass through the clean zone:

IMAGE 3. Adaptation of access to a changing room located within the clean zone.

Clean zone

Clean zone Building

Changing room

Design and maintenance of facilities The facilities must be designed in a manner that prevents the entry of wild animals or, should they enter, prevents their proliferation. To do this, different structures must be considered: MESH: at intensive farms, all windows must be fitted with effective mesh to prevent the entry of wild birds, bats or rodents. Preferably solid to prevent breakage or gaps. The mesh should be checked regularly, and quick action must be taken if any impairment is found. In open systems, although the entry of birds, bats and rodents is inevitable, their proliferation must be minimised. The mesh must not only be fitted to windows, but to all openings, including chimneys and ventilation systems.

24 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Building

Changing room

CEILINGS: poorly designed ceilings can facilitate the proliferation of rodents. Empty spaces must be prevented as much as possible, as they serve as the perfect habitat for rodents. The following images show a ceiling with empty spaces, which encourages the presence of rodents (left), and a ceiling without empty spaces, which reduces their presence (right).

SILOS: it must not be forgotten that feed is what entices any animal the most. Silos must not leak any feed whatsoever, and they must be protected by a fence to prevent access by animals. How they are handled is also important: the upper opening must be closed at all times; an open silo is the ideal attraction for birds, which could contaminate the feed with their droppings.

FARM CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: the general condition of the construction could influence the presence of rodents: water tightness; state of conservation; existence of structural flaws; condition of the insulation. Proper cleaning and disinfection conditions are also determining factors.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 25

Is the farm well-designed?

MAINTENANCE OF EXTERIOR AREAS: there must be no vegetation or materials around the perimeter of the farm that might encourage the presence of wild animals, particularly rodents (top image). Junk or construction waste must not be left around. Ideally, the surrounding areas of the farm should be fields or areas without vegetation (bottom image).

VENTILATION: the movement of air from side windows must occur at a certain height above the animals. Hot air rises and is released through upper openings (duct), and it is replaced with cool air from below. This generates an airflow that allows the air to be renewed without causing excessive currents of air at the height of the animals.

26 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

LIQUID FEEDING CIRCUITS: the circuits for liquid feed or formula milk solutions must be cleaned frequently following use, with a suitable detergent that eliminates residual organic materials stuck to the surface. They must also be disinfected with a disinfectant that is approved for use in the food industry, since, according to biocide legislation, this applies to this type of circuits due to their contact with food or animal feed. The design of the circuit must allow for proper cleaning and disinfection. WATER CIRCUIT: to allow for the proper treatment of water, the design of the circuit must include a number of elements: 1 drinking water lines, 2 medicated water lines, 3 pools and pipelines and 4 intermediate tanks. For proper cleaning and disinfection, the system must allow for high-pressure flushing in order to remove sediment from the pipes and ensure there is no air inside. To ensure that this is done correctly, it must be carried out at the water intake and include the storage tank and the pipes that run to the farm; the end of the line and the drinking troughs must also be flushed.

MILKING EQUIPMENT: must be cleaned and disinfected after each milking. It is important that the process is carried out correctly, as it carries a significant risk of mastitis. Although cleaning and disinfection systems are often automated, it is advisable to ensure that the feeding bottles remain well-connected to the cleaning system, as these are the elements that come into direct contact with the teat and may transmit microorganisms. It is also important that the room is easy to clean: organic residue must be removed after every milking, and the floor must be pressure-washed to facilitate drainage. MATERIAL STORE: the materials used in the farmer’s daily operations must not be scattered throughout the farm. There must be specific rooms to store the material, and it must be organised. These rooms must be locked at all times. TOOLS FOR CLEANING BOOTS: there must always be a system for cleaning boots. At farms with various buildings, boots must be disinfected at the entrance of each building.

The importance of design and maintenance of facilities for RODENT CONTROL Discarded materials around buildings: must be avoided at all times. Feed sacks: located in protected areas; checks must be carried out to ensure there are no broken or open sacks or traces of droppings. Feed residue: around silos. Water leaks: particularly at drinking troughs, but also any water pipes. Areas of insulation: rodents can damage and notably reduce insulation. Empty spaces: ventilation ducts, feed circuits, etc. Rodents are always looking for empty spaces.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 27

28 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

How are diseases introduced? There is no such thing as zero risk. Some routes of transmission for diseases, such as aerogenous transmission, are almost impossible to control. But we know about many disease vectors and we are able to minimise their effect: the entry of people, animals or lorries. Other factors, like controlling the quality of the water or rodent control, are just as important.

Via farm personnel and visitors FARM PERSONNEL: farm personnel are, without doubt, one of the main risk factors. It is important to ensure that: ■ They

do not work at other farms do not bring food onto the farm ■ They follow the established routines and hygiene standards at all times ■ They

On returning from holiday, workers pose a greater risk, especially if they have visited countries

VISITORS: the entry of non-farm personnel must be kept to an absolute minimum. It is important to remember that there can be many types of external visitors. All must be required to comply with the biosecurity standards: ■ Maintenance

personnel: a plumber, electrician, etc. are also essential for carrying out maintenance repairs. Although it is unusual for them, they must be required to comply with the biosecurity standards. ■ Inspections: inspectors are always a concern, especially when they make unscheduled visits. It must not be forgotten that, when on the farm, the true authority is the farmer, who must, politely, demand that the inspector comply with biosecurity standards. ■ External visits: technical visits, student groups, etc. must be kept to an absolute minimum. It is important to ensure that they have not recently been in contact with other farms. ■ Suppliers, consultants and services personnel. ■ Veterinarian: must comply with all biosecurity standards at all times. Before entry, visitors:

affected by certain diseases.

■ Must

It is advisable to give them a

■ Must

few days off before they come back to the farm.

have authorisation sign the visitor sheet (time of arrival/ time of departure) ■ Must read the conditions of entry

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 29

How are diseases introduced?

■ Must

leave their mobile phones outside; they may only be taken onto the farm with permission from the farm manager

DANISH ENTRY SYSTEM

What measures must be taken to prevent the entry of disease? AT A SEMI-EXTENSIVE FARM: visitors’ cars must be parked off site. There must be a changing room for personnel and visitors, and they must be provided with overalls and boots. It is important to bear in mind that different people present different levels of risk:

2 Dirty zone

■ High: people often in contact with animals (farmers,

veterinarians, etc.). people who often visit farms, but who do not come into contact with animals (sales representatives, inspectors, etc.). ■ Low: people who do not have contact with other farms. ■ Medium:

AT AN INTENSIVE FARM WITHOUT A SHOWER: a Danish entry system must be implemented (bench system). This considerably reduces the entry of microorganisms if used correctly. It can also be used as a pre-shower procedure. The dry shower entails having a bench that signals the boundary between the clean zone and the dirty zone. Upon entry, the person sits on the bench keeping both feet on the side from which they just entered (dirty zone). Once seated, the person removes one shoe and moves the corresponding leg over the bench to the other side. Then, they remove the other shoe and do the same with the other leg. When both feet are on the other side of the bench, the person puts on new footwear (boots). During this process, the person’s hands must not touch the soles of their shoes.

30 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Dirty zone

Clean zone

Using UV light, the image shows the huge quantity of microorganisms that can be carried on the soles of shoes. The Danish entry system obliges people to change their shoes, thereby preventing the entry of microorganisms.

AT AN INTENSIVE FARM WITH A SHOWER: the shower should be part of a one-way circuit. The person must enter the shower from the dirty zone and go directly into the clean zone as they leave the shower:

ACCESS TO THE DIRTY ZONE

Items deposited in this area:

Clothes, shoes and objects (mobile phone, watch, etc. )

Maintenance of showers and baths We have observed the importance of following a linear circuit for correct showering and the importance of having toilets and a sink. Here we note the need to keeping these facilities hygienic. To do this, we must carry out daily cleaning and disinfection of:

ACCESS TO THE CLEAN ZONE

The person is provided with:

Towel, clean clothes, clean boots, disposable socks and underwear

Entry of wild animals and rodents Many wild animals could come onto the farm and transmit disease: mammals (wild boars, deer, foxes, rodents, etc.), birds (pigeons, sparrows, magpies, etc.) and insects. Domestic animals that may move between farms (dogs and cats) must also be taken into account.

■ The

floor of each shower seats and bowls of the toilets ■ The bins in the toilets (emptied daily) ■ The floor of the room ■ The

We must also regularly check: ■ Supply

of clothes (check damaged clothing) hygiene ■ Availability of soap and toilet paper ■ Working order of the showers ■ Cleanliness of the shower curtains ■ Boot

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 31

How are diseases introduced?

The following table summarises the diseases that can be transmitted by wild animals:

Disease

Transmitter species

African swine fever

Wild boars

Classical swine fever

Wild boars

Aujeszky’s disease

Wild boar, carnivores

Hepatitis E

Wild boar, deer

Food-and-mouth disease

Wild boar, deer

Diseases transmitted by ticks

Wild boar, deer

Tuberculosis

Wild boar, deer

Pasteurellosis

Deer

Keratoconjunctivitis

Deer

Scabies

Deer, carnivores, wild rabbit

Haemorrhagic disease

Wild rabbit

Myxomatosis

Wild rabbit

Tularemia and yersiniosis

Wild rabbit

Avian flu

Wild birds

Newcastle disease

Wild birds

West Nile fever

Wild birds

Salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and coccidiosis

All species

Toxoplasmosis

Cat

Echinococcosis

Dog

TABLE 2. Diseases transmitted by wild animals. 32 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Livestock species affected

Via the restocking of animals The introduction of restocking animals presents an obvious risk. All farms must impose quarantines to effectively prevent the introduction of disease. The quarantine takes place at the facilities located as far as possible from the destination farm, and in a well-isolated area; for pigs, a minimum distance of one kilometre is recommended. There are many diseases that can be introduced via restocking animals, particularly those that can be carried sub-clinically. However, we must pay special attention to the diseases that are not present on the farm. In pigs, it is important to ensure that the restocking animals do not have brucellosis, PRRS, transmissible gastroenteritis, swine flue, leptospirosis, contagious pleuropneumonia, atrophic rhinitis or dysentery. In cows, we must prevent the entry of animals with positive results in tests for BVD (bovine viral diarrhoea) and IBR (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis), as infected yet asymptomatic animals may be introduced. To do this, it is important to limit the different origins of the animals purchased as much as possible, to monitor their transportation (preferably transported by the destination farm itself) and to try to ascertain the state of health of the herd of origin. The younger the animal, the better: a prepubescent heifer is preferable to an in-calf or primiparous heifer. Testing is recommended before transporting the animals. In dairy cattle, the results of bacterial studies and the somatic cell count in the milk in the tank at the farm of origin can give us valuable information. In the production of laying hens, we must ensure the breeding stock does not have any of the 5 serotypes of Salmonella (SE, ST, SV, SI, SH) covered in the inspection program (health inspection certificate). A test for Salmonella (SE and ST) must be carried

out upon the arrival of the birds, during rearing and production (Inprovo and MAPAMA - Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food and the Environment).

Entry of lorries and vehicles As seen in the previous chapter, the design of the farm must prevent lorries from accessing the clean zone, as they could transmit pathogenic microorganisms, as well as other living organisms that could result in pests: insects, larvae and even rodents. When we talk about lorries, we are referring to: ■ The

feed lorry with repair materials (electrician, plumber, etc.) ■ Cars and vans belonging to sales representatives (medicines, genetics, etc.). ■ Cars belonging to visitors (veterinarian, inspectors, etc.) ■ Carcass waste collection lorry ■ Live animal and slaughterhouse transport lorries ■ Vans

However, the main risk to health comes from the carcass waste collection lorry and the animal loading and unloading lorries. CARCASS WASTE COLLECTION LORRY: good practices in the handling of dead animals substantially reduces the risk to health (see Chapter 4), but it is impossible to eliminate all risk associated with the lorry. At many farms, depending on their size, the lorry usually visits the farm once a week and even twice a week during warm conditions, due to the decomposition of the matter. There are carcass waste storage systems available that substantially reduce the number of visits made by the lorries: ■ Freezing:

for small species (birds and rabbits), dead animals can be frozen, using the usual freezing systems available on the market.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 33

How are diseases introduced?

Depending on the capacity of the container, they can be stored for several months. ■ Refrigerated container: can be used for midsized animals like feeder pigs or small ruminants. Storage capacity could also last several months. At closed-cycle pig holdings, it may be useful to have both systems (normal container and refrigerated container), and to use refrigeration only for the piglets and placentas. The refrigerated container prevents foul odours and access by wild animals. It also increases the value of the carcasses, which could be used to obtain biodiesel or to produce fertilizers. ■ Hydrolysis systems: large-format containers with a hermetic seal that can store decomposing carcasses for months. The gases are filtered and released via a chimney. With these systems, the correct handling of the carcasses when depositing them in the containers is important.

LOADING ANIMALS FOR LIVE-ANIMAL OR SLAUGHTERHOUSE TRANSPORT: at pig farms, the entry of lorries can be a frequent occurrence, resulting in a higher risk to health. For example: a farm with 2500 sows with three independent sites (sows, transition and feeding) and three weanings a week carries out 312 transports a year to weaning

34 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

and 208 transports to the slaughterhouse. Although the risk of the lorry being contaminated with PRRS is very low (e.g. 0.5%), the annual risk amounts to 4 contaminated lorries (A. Romagosa, 2019). Chapter 5 explains the good cleaning and disinfection practices for the lorries.

Via water and food Water could become contaminated by bacteria, viruses, protozoans or eggs of intestinal parasites. Contaminated water can transmit, among others, the diseases caused by E. coli, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella and Leptospira. The general recommendation is fewer than 100 bacteria per millilitre and fewer than 50 coliforms per millilitre. However, it is also important to monitor the presence of free-living protozoans: the presence of amoebas, for example, is also very important as they can shelter different pathogenic microorganisms and protect them from disinfectants. Some amoebas have been found to shelter different types of viruses (adenoviruses, enteroviruses), bacteria (Campylobacter, E. coli, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Salmonella), fungi (Cryptococcus) and protozoans (Cryptosporidium). In semi-extensive systems, stagnant and nutrient-rich waters present the risk of cyanobacteria, which can produce various types of

toxins: neurotoxins, which can cause rapid death, and hepatotoxins, which can result in death within hours or days. THE BIOFILM PROBLEM: microorganisms in water are not only found in free form. Sometimes they stick to the inner surface of the plumbing, forming a population that grows adherent and becomes surrounded by a layer of glycosaminoglycans that are difficult to break down, protecting the microorganisms from disinfectants. These are known as biofilms. Biofilms can be formed in 12 to 24 hours, so it is necessary to clear them from the water system continuously.

Grazing on semi-extensive systems Grazing entails contact with the outside, during which time it is difficult to control contact with pathogenic microorganisms. However, grazing must be avoided in areas used by other flocks and herds, as the grass may be contaminated by droppings, which could transmit infections (paratuberculosis, cryptosporidiosis, etc.), and urine (leptospirosis). At ruminant farms, poor preservation of fodder can lead to the emergence of microorganisms or toxins that cause diseases like listeriosis, mycoses and botulism.

It is important to perform routine sampling of water sources at least once a year. In the event of problems with disease or decreased production, the microbiological quality of the water must always be checked. The level of disinfectant should also be checked regularly. Feed can also carry pathogenic microorganisms. To prevent this, they can be treated with organic acids, which prevent the entry of fungi, bacteria and even mycotoxins. Feed is the main source of mycotoxin contamination, although it depends on its composition. In poultry farming, feed tends to be treated to prevent the presence of Salmonella, usually with formic acid.

The greatest risk involved in grazing concerns internal and external parasitoses. At sheep farms, where grazing is common, the main external parasitosis contracted by the animals when they graze is ticks during the warm months (normally between February and July). When sheep suffer severe parasitoses, ticks tend to accumulate mainly in the perianal and vulvar regions, as well as the inner auricle, although they can be found anywhere

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 35

How are diseases introduced?

on the body. Such cases can lead to allergic reactions and even anaemia, but only in truly severe cases. In many cases, the farmer is convinced that the animals do not have ticks because they are not visible. However, an inspection of the auricles of a significant number of animals is sufficient to establish the presence of this parasite. In these cases, the problem is not the ticks themselves, but the diseases they may carry, such as babesiosis, Q fever or encephalitis. In pigs, ticks can be a route of transmission for African swine fever. Scabies is another external parasitosis that could be contracted when grazing, particularly when mixing with animals from different herds or flocks during the communal grazing months. Grazing is also a source of various species of gastrointestinal nematode infections (Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides, Ostertagia, Dyctiocaulus, etc.). On the pasture, animals ingest the parasites as larvae, which then evolve into their adult form and cause various clinical symptoms. Grazing in very wet areas poses a risk of infection from Fasciola hepatica, a parasite that relies on snails as intermediate hosts. When livestock – ruminants in particular – are infected, it can result in various clinical pictures (from severe acute cases to asymptomatic cases) caused by the affect on the liver. However, productivity is affected in all cases.

Transmission of disease Rodents transmit diseases via their droppings, claws, fur, urine, saliva and blood, affecting: ■ The

livestock, workers and domestic animals. ■ The food and water used for healthy animals. The most common disease transmitted by rodents is Salmonella.

Rodents pose a high risk to biosecurity They can spread over 200 human pathogens 1 and they are carriers of 45 diseases.

A mouse produces 40 to 100 droppings a day, while a rat produces 20 to 50. Rodents can be a threat to biosecurity measures and negatively impact the health of employees, livestock and the environment, and they can contaminate food reserves.

Negative impact on farm costs

Via rodents and insects

1 rat

100 kg/year

Rodents

200 rats

20 tons/year

Rodents pose a serious threat as they can carry and spread up to 200 human pathogens and 45 diseases. These diseases include typhus, rat-bite fever, Weil’s disease, rickettsialpox, leptospirosis, salmonellosis and rabies, among others. They can be transmitted by excrement, urine and saliva.

36 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

ingests and contaminates

ingest and contaminate

of stored grain and feed

Feed represents between 60% to 75% of a farm’s operating costs. Every year, rodents eat and contaminate 20% of the world’s food stores 2 (1) http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/pcpestcntrl.htm (2) https://www.pestworld.org/news-hub/pest-articles/fascinatingfactsyou-never-knew-about-mice/

Although there are over 2000 species of rodent in the world, three are commonly found on farms. Based on the size and shape of the droppings, it is possible to quickly identify the pest and arrange the suitable control measures.

Rattus norvegicus: brown rat, sewer rat, street rat, common rat, Norway rat

Rattus rattus: roof rat, ship rat, black rat

Mus musculus: house mouse

Rats can travel over 1 km in one night. They can travel in three dimensions: up, down and across. However, the average distances they travel in one night, which serve as a guide to determine the area that must be investigated if damage is detected, can vary depending on the species (Image 4).

IMAGE 4. Distance a rodent can cover in one night.

Black rat 0m -5 15

Brown rat

15 3-

00 m 100-7

House mouse

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 37

How are diseases introduced?

Structural damage and destructive fires Rural settings like farms, with their abundant food, water and covered spaces, become a very attractive habitat for rodents. These animals also prey on livestock. The health of the livestock, the minimal contamination of grain and feed and wellmaintained facilities and structures are crucial elements for a profitable business, but rodents can put everything at risk.

Rodents cause significant damage to farms: ■ Gnawed

electric cables: this often causes equipment faults, power failures and even outages. In some cases, it can even lead to dangerous fires. ■ Damage to the structure of walls, floors and ceilings: rodents gnaw through walls to find food and they degrade insulating building materials to nest within them.

Insects The housefly (Musca domestica) is usually the most common insect found on cattle, pig and poultry farms, but there are other species, as well. On cattle farms, the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) can be found. It feeds off the animals’ blood. On pig farms, the lesser house fly (Fannia canicularis) is abundant. It gathers in large numbers where food is fermenting, in passageways and pipes, and it is often confused with the small house fly. It is important to remember that fly infestations can invade residential areas in nearby towns, which can generate social aversion towards farms in the area. Beetles may also be found. Darkling beetles, black or dark brown in colour and oval-shaped, can be found on poultry farms. Darkling beetles are in fact a family of beetles that encompasses many species. Its larvae are known as 38 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

mealworms. Both adults and larvae feed on grain. Cockroaches can be found on pig farms. They can move between slurry and feed, and they can carry pathogenic microorganisms such as enterococci. Mites, red mites in particular, are a problem found on poultry farms. They mainly affect laying hens as these are the birds that are kept the longest. Mites spend much of their lives in cracks and crevices, and they are very difficult to control. Their presence can cause stress in the animals, which can lead to aggression, decreased egg production and lower egg quality, blood loss and the spread of pathogenic microorganisms.

The relation between chronic stress and productivity Poor environmental conditions, the presence of rodents or poor handling are causes of chronic stress, which negatively affects productivity in the following ways: Decreases the animal’s immune response: stressful situations are conducive to the emergence of certain illnesses, such as respiratory diseases like pneumonia caused by Pasteurella, salmonellosis in pigs or mastitis in dairy cattle. Decreases food intake and rumination: the decrease in food intake is probably due to interaction between the glucocorticoids, leptin and the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). The decrease in rumination causes a reduction in the digestibility of the food and an increased risk of ruminal acidosis. Decreases the effect of oxytocin: the adrenaline released as a stress response blocks the oxytocin receptors of the mammary alveoli, impeding the secretion of alveolar milk to the mammary gland cistern. Decreases fertility: stress causes a decrease in the synthesis and release of the LH and GnRH hormones, inhibiting ovulation and the expression of rutting behaviour.

The impacts on the farm’s productivity include: ■ Decrease

in average daily gain in milk production ■ Decrease in reproduction rates ■ Decrease

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 39

04 01

40 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control Hygiene within the holding is critical: cleaning and disinfection tasks reduce the microbial load and prevent the spread of disease; however, we must undertake these tasks correctly and adapt the routine to the actual circumstances on the farm. Hygiene must also include overlooked aspects, such as water control and disinfection of containers used to store carcasses. Pest control is of equal importance: both rodents and insects can carry disease and only a strong control system can reduce their population, thus reducing the risk to health.

Water control It is important to perform periodic checks on microbiological quality. The following criteria must be taken into account: ■ Presence

of faecal coliforms: control of water for human consumption is limited to the detection of the presence of Escherichia coli. However, on farms, it is recommended to include other types of bacteria, such as Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter. The presence of faecal coliforms may be a sign of contamination by other microorganisms, such as Salmonella, Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, Shigella and flagellated protozoans. Although ideally, no coliforms should be present, some authors consider a maximum level of 50 CFU/100 ml as acceptable. ■ Enterococci: also an indicator of faecal contamination.

The ratio of faecal coliforms to enterococci can provide an indication as to the source of the contamination: a value of > 4 indicates faecal contamination of human origin and < 4, of animal origin. ■ Clostridia: Their presence, combined with faecal coliforms and enterococci, strengthen the likelihood of faecal contamination. A count of 10 CFU/100 ml may indicate the presence of decomposing organic material, lack of oxygen, water filtration issues, the presence of biofilms due to poor disinfection or the presence of old iron pipes. ■ Aerobic germs at 22 °C: these are a sign of microbiological contamination in general. An acceptable value would be 100 CFU/ml at the start of the water distribution circuit. ■ Cyanobacteria: as mentioned previously, they can produce very powerful toxins (microcystin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermin) that can be toxic to the liver, kidneys and the nervous system.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 41

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Products suitable for use in the disinfection of water are defined as TP5 products (Annex V of Regulation 528/2012 on the use of biocides). The Spanish regulations (Order SSI 304/2013) authorise the following TP5 products: ■ Hydrogen

peroxide: an oxidant. One drawback is that very high doses must be used; it is only recommended when using chlorine or chlorine dioxide is not recommended, as a combined final disinfectant. ■ Chlorine and derivatives: based on the disinfection capacity of the hypochloric oxide, which can be generated through different processes. Its mechanism of action, as is the case with hydrogen peroxide, is the inactivation of the enzymes needed for the bacteria to reproduce. ■ Chlorine dioxide: has a greater biocidal efficacy than the previous two products. It attacks all kinds of pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and protozoans), including during the spore and oocyst phases as the mechanism of action is to penetrate the cells. Another benefit is its efficacy in a broad pH range (3-10) and in the presence of organic matter. ■ Potassium monopersulphate: oxidises different cell structures of microorganisms, damaging the cell wall. It is odourless, water-soluble and slowrelease. It is active in the presence of organic matter and has a high biocidal action against bacteria, fungi and viruses. ■ Sulphur dioxide: not widely used. The regulations do not allow for the use of organic acids, peracetic acid, quaternary ammoniums and silver derivatives, such as TP5 products.

42 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

CLEANING AND DISINFECTION OF PIPES: as mentioned in Chapter 3, if water is not disinfected properly, biofilms may form. The spread of these microorganisms results in the emergence of a gelatinous mucus that can serve as the base for the accumulation of organic matter in the pipe. Accumulated organic matter can result in the inactivation of disinfectants; furthermore, residual organic matter can break free and transport microorganisms to other parts of the pipes. To clean the pipes properly, it is important to use products that are capable of emulsifying organic matter without damaging the surface. One recommendation would be to use a foam-free, chlorine soap to facilitate the rinse and, afterwards, an acid to prevent the incrustation of limescale deposits.

Cleaning and disinfecting the facilities To clean and disinfect the facilities properly, it is important to apply the basic principles in the following order: 1 First, eliminate all organic matter mechanically

using low-pressure water (do not splash the surrounding area). 2 Then, clean the entire surface with soap and water, allowing the soap to act for 15-20 minutes, then rinse. 3 Apply the disinfectant and allow it to dry. If you do not follow these steps, in this order, the disinfection process will not be effective.

What types of soap should be used? (Regulation EC No. 648/2004) or, when they are corrosive, soaps that contain corrosion inhibitors ■ Non-flammable ■ Compliant with occupational risk legislation ■ Can be applied either diluted or concentrated ■ With or without foam, depending on the sector and function ■ Soaps that in addition to cleaning, disinfect beforehand, depending on the sector and functions ■ Clean both in doses at ambient temperature and high temperatures ■ Leave a pleasant odour ■ To save time when cleaning, it is important that organic matter is eliminated quickly ■ Clean with smaller doses (cost savings)

■ Do

not contain glutaraldehyde (highly toxic)

■ Biodegradable ■ Non-corrosive

What types of disinfectant should be used? ■ Biodegradable

(Regulation EC No. 648/2004) not contain formaldehydes (substances considered carcinogenic pursuant to Regulation 605/2014)

■ Do

■ Approved

by the official authorities broad spectrum of activity: ■ Bactericidal ■ Viricidal ■ Fungicidal ■ Yeasticidal ■ Sporicidal ■ Non-flammable ■ Non-corrosive, contains corrosion inhibitors ■ Compliant with occupational risk legislation ■ A

METHOD FOR APPLYING THE DISINFECTANT: ■ Aerosol: the most effective method. The disinfectant can penetrate pores or cracks in the structure, including wood. ■ Thermonebulisation: the product is applied in the form of a fog, with a high capability for dissemination. ■ F u m i g a t i o n : t h i s o p t i o n i s n o t h i g h l y recommended, as it can be hazardous for workers and unsafe for the environment. ■ Electrostatic: sprayed using charged particles that stick to the surface to be disinfected; they can reach zones that are inaccessible when applying other procedures. ■ Foam: facilitates a longer contact time than when applied in the form of a liquid. ■ One alternative that should be considered is the thermal treatment of the building, followed by chemical disinfection.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 43

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Main errors during cleaning and disinfection Considering cleaning and disinfection as a routine, insignificant task during which the operator merely counts down the clock without worrying about its efficacy is a major error. The following practical aspects must be taken into consideration: 1 Wash thoroughly before disinfecting. Eliminate any organic residues during the prior cleaning phase,

otherwise, the disinfectant will not be able to act effectively. Also, remove any moving objects and pay special attention to spots that are difficult to reach. Take particular care with water troughs and mangers. The use of good practices by the operator is as important as the use of a good soap. 2 Avoid recontamination after disinfection. Recontamination tends to occur due to errors committed

by operators, such as the use of dirty boots or overalls. This can also occur as a result of the entrance of other vectors, such as rodents, birds or cats. Cleaning and disinfection forms part of a biosecurity programme. 3 Correct application of the product. Following the dilution instructions and applying the right amount is

essential. Surfaces must be covered and soaked uniformly and appropriately. Respect the contact time recommended by the manufacturer. Applying foam enhances the action of the product. 4 Control of water quality. Periodically controlling water quality, from both a chemical and microbiological

perspective, is recommended. 5 Staff training: cleaning and disinfection tasks are monotonous and boring; if you fail to stimulate and

train staff and, in particular, if they are left unsupervised, one of your worst enemies will rear its head: routine. Staff training should not be limited to mandatory courses. Workers must be provided with time to express any difficulties they have encountered at work and to exchange opinions and experiences with other workers and the owner. 6 Do not clock-watch. Operators often know how long they have to disinfect a building, which tends to

lead them to thinking ‘Only so long left to go on my cleaning and disinfection work’. So when the sprayer needs to be repaired or there is an emergency elsewhere on the farm and the worker finishes at the same time as usual: this is a serious mistake. The cleaning and disinfection process should be finished when everything has been done correctly, not when it is ‘time to finish’.

44 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Cleaning and disinfection of pig holdings Cleaning and disinfection is particularly important during the farrowing and weaning process. For newborns, the aim is to ensure that the environment is hygienic, as they are particularly sensitive to pathogenic microorganisms in the environment, in particular those that cause digestive diseases. Therefore, the farrowing barn must be properly disinfected. When washing the delivery cages, special attention must be paid to the water troughs and mangers, where residual organic matter can accumulate and which are usually contaminated with dirty water by the end of the process. In addition to these facilities, the utensils that come into contact with the piglet must also be cleaned and disinfected: the piglet transport cart, utensils including teeth clippers, delivery room crates in addition to rooms and corridors.

Farrowing sanitation protocols: ■ Apply water at ambient temperature to remove the majority of organic matter from the facility. ■ Apply soap dosed in line with the recommendations on the label throughout the facility and its components. ■ Leave to act for 15 to 20 minutes on all surfaces and in all facilities.

■ Rinse,

removing all soap from the facilities and surfaces. ■ Leave the facilities and surfaces to air dry. ■ Apply a biocidal disinfectant at the concentration indicated on the label and recommendations for product use throughout the facilities and surfaces. Insofar as possible, using a disinfectant free from formaldehydes (as they contain substances considered carcinogenic) and glutaraldehydes (high toxicity) is recommended; its active ingredient should be a quaternary ammonium used at a low dose, that is non-corrosive, non-flammable and that has a broad spectrum. ■ Leave to dry. ■ Once dry, allow the animals inside. During weaning, piglets are also particularly sensitive to infectious diseases and one of the main problems are digestive processes (post-weaning syndrome). The main pathogenic microorganisms involved are displayed in Table 3. Microorganism

Symptoms

PRRSV

Weakness, loss of weight

PCV2

Weakness, loss of weight

Swine flu

Weakness, loss of weight

Cytomegalovirus

Rhinitis

Rotavirus

Gastritis, enteritis

Escherichia coli

Colitis, enteritis

Pasteurella

Rhinitis

Brachyspira

Colitis

Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV)

Gastritis

Protozoans

Enteritis

TABLE 3. Main microorganisms involved in digestive processes.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 45

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

However, many other diseases can also occur during the weaning process. Some of these, such as pneumococcal meningitis, have a high relapse rate and are truly difficult to eradicate. The main four diseases, other than digestive diseases, are displayed in Table 4.

Disease

Causal agent

Symptoms

Glässer’s disease

Haemohilus parasuis

Polyserositis, arthritis

Pneumococcal meningitis

Streptococcus suis

Nervous abnormalities and increase in body temperature

Edema disease

Escherichia coli

Nervous symptoms with subcutaneous edema

Rhinitis

Bordetella, Pasteurella

Atrophic rhinitis

Mycoplasma

Disease that progresses gradually, with chronic cough.

Swine flu

Respiratory symptoms halfway through transition.

PRRSV

Acute respiratory syndrome with anorexia, dyspnoea and lethargy.

Respiratory processes

TABLE 4. Main diseases during the weaning process.

During the weaning process, the high risk of infection means that the use of antibiotics is often inevitable. However, the European Union has embarked upon a programme for reducing the use of antibiotics; therefore, alternatives for limiting infections must be sought. Antibiotics are not banned, but must only be used to treat diseases, not to prevent them. Against this backdrop, cleaning and disinfection are becoming increasingly important. A wide range of diseases can be contracted in the feedlot, even though pigs’ immunity is now better, including pleuropneumonia (Actinobacillus

46 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

pleuropneumoniae), ileitis (Lawsonia intracellullaris), enzootic pneumonia (Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae), swine flu (virus from the Orthomyxoviridae family) or PRRS. Dysentery is particularly important, caused by Brachyspira hyodisenteriae, which causes mucohaemorrhagic diarrhoea that can have a major impact on production. Brachyspira is highly resistant in the environment, meaning that eliminating it from the farm is essential to avoid the presence of vectors of transmission that can introduce it onto the farm. To this end, it is essential to clean and disinfect the facilities as well as all material that could contain organic matter: clothes, boots, insemination material, etc.

There are also risks outside the facilities. One important point is to install footbaths at the entrance to each facility and even change footwear. In terms of the control of vectors, two very important variants are rodents and slurry. If a neighbour spreads slurry in an area close to your farm, this may result in the spread of a pathogenic microorganism, in particular Brachyspira (dysentery). This is also the case for rodents: the spread of rats and mice across nearby farms is a problem. Although these factors are difficult to control, they must be kept in check around the farm (Chapter 2) to prevent it from becoming a safe haven.

Cleaning and disinfection in poultry farming The cleaning and disinfection of facilities must be planned in advance, as this can be used as an opportunity for performing routine maintenance at the farm. Before starting the process, perform insect control: they must be eliminated as soon as the poultry leave the facilities to prevent them from hiding away inside materials like wood. All surfaces must be sprayed with an insecticide. Then, proceed with the following stages: ■ Elimination

In terms of cleaning and disinfecting the facilities, these tasks must extend to roofs and grates and slats. Cleaning roofs is not easy; however, organic matter and cobwebs accumulate here. Vaporisation systems represent one way of cleaning them. In terms of floors with slats, opening them is recommended to thoroughly clean the pits. Do not forget that keeping your facilities clean and disinfected will serve no purpose if these pits remain full or simply unclean.

of dust: by brushing, with the dust falling onto the bedding. Along with the dust, remove all dirt and cobwebs from all shelves and recesses. ■ Initial spray: applied to moisten the dust before removing the bedding. A backpack or low-pressure spray can be used and the spray must be applied from top to bottom (from the roof to the floor). ■ Removal of equipment: water troughs, mangers, etc., must be removed from the facilities on a concrete surface. ■ Removal and storage of bedding: it must be deposited on trailers or in containers, and covered to prevent dust or residues from being released Biosecurity in livestock holdings 47

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

outside the facilities. It must be transported to a space prepared for processing residues, away from the farm. ■ Washing: use a detergent solution, both inside the facilities and on the equipment deposited outside. Inside the facilities, be particularly careful to correctly wash the fans, grates, pipes and all upper parts. Using mobile scaffolding is recommended, to make sure that all parts of the facilities have been properly washed. ■ Washing the feeding and watering system: drain the tubes and tanks, clean the lines with water and foam and chlorine-free soap and wash the tanks. Subsequently, apply disinfectant to the entire circuit before rinsing with clean water. Empty, clean and disinfect the entire feeding system (hoppers, silos, etc.). Fumigate if possible. ■ Repairs: having cleaned and emptied the facilities, now would be a good time to perform the necessary maintenance tasks (repairing cracks, paintwork, whitewashing, etc.). ■ Repairs to prevent the entry of rodents and birds: make sure that there are no entry points for rodents and birds (holes, doors that do not close properly, screens, etc.). Make sure that the feeding systems are not leaking; feed always attracts rodents. ■ Disinfection: after cleaning and performing any necessary repairs, proceed with the disinfection. Once again, bear in mind the importance of selecting the right disinfectant and using the correct dose. Applications using foam increase the contact time. If the disinfectant does not act on oocysts (coccidiosis), a specific product must be applied. ■ Fumigation: this is the final process that – wherever possible – should be performed using formalin. Make sure that all safety measures are in place to protect workers; nobody should ever be left to work alone.

48 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Cleaning and disinfection in dairy cattle Hygiene is critical to the production of milk and must be guaranteed in the milking room, milking machinery and in the udder. The room must be cleaned on a daily basis, first using a brush to remove all organic residues and then with water, soap and disinfectant. In terms of milking machinery, make sure that the cleaning system is working correctly, using soap (preferably chlorinated soap), detergent and an acid successively to prevent the formation of “milkstone” in the tubes. It is important to change the filtering paper and clean the metal filter separately. When the milker collects the milk, take this opportunity to clean the tank, also using chlorinated soap and disinfectant.

As regards the animals, udder hygiene is also important. In dairy cows, before installing the teat cups, the teats must be cleaned with water and soap and dried with paper. This initial cleaning is important to eliminate organic residues, in addition to any leftover product used during the previous teat dipping process. A dash of milk should also be manually extracted to check that the texture and colour are normal. This milk must be collected in a bucket; it must never be allowed to fall straight onto the floor. Afterwards, the milking process can begin.

Microorganism

Once finished, dip the teats in an iodine solution. For holdings that use automatic milking processes, make sure that the machine is working correctly. On sheep and goats, the teat is not usually cleaned first; however, it should be when particularly dirty, for example, having been sent out to pasture after particularly heavy rain when they may have been in muddy areas or where puddles of water may have formed. Nevertheless, the teat must be dipped once the process is complete. The main microorganisms that cause mastitis are displayed in Table 5.

Main species affected

Source of infection

Staphylococcus aureus

During milking; the udder may become a reservoir

Streptococcus agalactiae

During milking; the udder may become a reservoir

Streptococcus uberis

Reservoir in bedding

Pseudomonas

Reservoir in water

Enterobacteriaceae

Reservoir in bedding

Bacillus cereus

Reservoir in mud

Mycoplasma

During milking; the udder may become a reservoir

Corynebacterium bovis

During milking; the udder may become a reservoir

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

Contamination of bedding

Pasteurella multocida

Reservoir in the skin

Escherichia coli

Reservoir in bedding

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Reservoir in bedding

TABLE 5. Main microorganisms that cause mastitis.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 49

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

As regards the facilities, delivery rooms and the spaces in which calves are raised are more delicate when it comes to the transmission of diseases. On large farms, particular care must be taken when cleaning and disinfecting these areas, particularly in terms of workers’ boots. Using footbaths at the entrance and exit of each area is recommended. Having hand-washing stations and disposable gloves is also recommended. Bedding is another significant hotbed for the transmission of diseases. If it contains a high level of microorganisms, they can easily contaminate the teat when the cow is laid down and enter the udder with ease. When this happens, the number of somatic cells increases due to the emergence of subclinical mastitis, although clinical mastitis may also emerge.

such as sand, although in the case of most holdings this option is not feasible. In any case, to increase the hygiene of bedding, it should be removed on a daily basis, or more added to keep it dry. When emptying the building, it should be cleaned with water and soap, before being disinfected. For dairy cattle, the cubicles should also be raked. To judge how clean the bedding is, the key is to observe the animals rather than the facilities: the cleanliness of the rear of the animal and the udder is a good indicator of general hygiene. If the animals are clean when they reach the milking room, it will be easier to milk them hygienically and safely. In conclusion, the most important factor in guaranteeing animal hygiene and welfare is to ensure their bedding is always dry.

Cleaning and disinfection in beef ruminants Bedding hygiene, as explained in the previous section, is also important when it comes to beef ruminants. Working in batches is essential, using a system of closed batches, to correctly clean and disinfect the space after each batch departs. The recommendation for bedding material is the same as for dairy cattle.

There are different options when choosing bedding material: organic material such as straw or sawdust are most commonly used. If the size of the particles is small, this will encourage bacterial growth. Among the different types of sawdust available, pine sawdust is preferable as its resin contains antibacterial substances. Inorganic materials can also be used,

50 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Hygiene is particularly important in the birthing process. In meat holdings, as well as dairy holdings, it is recommended to dedicate a space to this process. In addition to improving the way in which animals are handled, this will also improve hygiene, as certain microorganisms can be transmitted via the placenta – such as Chlamydia abortus, causing enzootic abortions in small ruminants – and can also be transmitted to humans. During delivery, it is important to implement two hygiene measures: firstly, remove the placenta, using utensils that must be disinfected, and deposit it in a carcass waste container. Secondly, cut and disinfect the umbilical cord of the newborn to prevent infections; this task can be performed at the same time as you place the eartag on the animal and note down its data in the delivery book.

Another important aspect is artificial milk feeding, especially in small ruminants. Straw or sawdust must be continuously added to keep the bedding dry, in particular in the area where the teats are located. All equipment and accessories must be subject to thorough cleaning; if automatic feeders are used, they must be verified to ensure they are in correct working order.

Cleaning and disinfection of organic production holdings The increase in space available per animal, or extensification, that takes place as part of organic production, does not mean that good hygiene at facilities is not necessary to prevent the emergence of diseases. If the bedding is not removed periodically, it may become excessively damp, enhancing the likelihood of diarrhoea or skin problems. Organic production systems must also be emptied on health grounds, at least once every 20 days, applying authorised disinfectants. As is the case of all holdings, good hygiene must be maintained throughout the facilities, paying special attention to removing bedding and ensuring authorised products are always used. Controlling and monitoring silos is also recommended, performing periodic analyses for fungi. The main products authorised for cleaning and disinfecting barns are potash and soda soaps, lime, quicklime, sodium hypochlorite, caustic lime, caustic potash, hydrogen peroxide, natural plant essences, alcohol or sodium carbonate. For dipping dairy cattle, teat cleaning and disinfection products are permitted, in addition to the products commonly used at milking facilities.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 51

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Main benefits of cleaning (with soap) and disinfection: Helps to reduce the use of medicine (cost savings) Eliminates the possibility of contracting certain diseases (cost savings) Increases productivity on farms (economic gains) Improves the image of the farms and integrating partners (image excellence) Improves the image of the sector (image excellence) Therefore, cleaning and disinfection on farms, in animal transport lorries and slaughterhouses is not an expense, but rather an investment that makes it possible to minimise losses and maximise profits. Furthermore, it makes the sector a highly competitive exporter.

Rodent control To effectively control rodents, it is important to understand their characteristics. Rodents are animals with poor eyesight and they are colour-blind (the colour of the bait will not be important). They are nocturnal and use their touch-sensitive whiskers to guide themselves in the dark. They use muscular memory to find paths they have taken before. Furthermore, they are highly capable of avoiding eating any toxic food using different mechanisms:

Nasal cavity

52 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Diastema

■ They

have a heightened sense of smell. the diastema (the space between their incisors and their other teeth) they are able to verify the taste of a food without eating it. ■ They are very intelligent (they have a large brain for their size). ■ Using

Brain

The rodent bait must be attractive to the rodent ingesting it; its smell or taste must not be repellent and it must be appetising to both rats and mice, as appetising bait will always translate into faster control. The goal is for it to account for approximately 50% of their daily food intake. The use of secondgeneration, single-feed rodenticide is recommended (see the table below) or alternatives to anticoagulants, such as cholecalciferol (further details of the types of products are provided below). Rats ingest between 5% and 10% of their body weight each day, around 25 g for dark rats and 15 g for black rats. They drink approximately 10% of their body weight, meaning they congregate close to water sources. Mice eat around 10% to 20% of their body weight each day, around 4-8 g for an adult, although they do not need to drink if their food has a moisture content of 15%, although they like to do so.

Rodents multiply rapidly: in ideal conditions, using an estimate of 10 pups per litter and a litter every 3 weeks, a single fertile couple can have more than 2000 pups in 6 months (Image 5). In other words, just one pair of rodents can pose a major problem. Therefore, 100% control from the first application is essential.

IMAGE 5. Increase in rodents spawn by a single couple in ideal conditions.

2500

Number of rodents

2000 1500 1000 500 0

Weeks

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 53

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Rodent control plan A rodent control plan must contain three stages: prevention, application of chemical-free solutions and the use of rodenticide. 1. Prevention An integrated pest management (IPM) programme must be enforced, focusing on the following aspects: ■ Supervision of the area surrounding the farm: on an ongoing and regular basis. As mentioned in Chapter 2 (“Maintenance of the facilities”), care must be taken with the area surrounding the farm to prevent the proliferation of rodents. However, these tasks must also serve to detect any rodent activity. ■ Supervision of the farm itself: the area must be kept in proper condition to ward off and reduce the activity rodents. To detect the presence of rodents, you must: ■ Look for marks caused by the rodents’ incisors ■ Detect any movement observing their footprints in the dust or sand ■ Detect the presence of nests close to water sources R o d e n t i n f e s t a t i o n s re q u i re f o o d , w a t e r (less important for common mice) and re f u g e ( a b u r ro w f o r t h e m t o l i v e i n ) .

54 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

If any of these factors is missing (or is not available in abundance), it is less likely that the location will attract and sustain rodent infestations. To this end, you must: ■ Apply good hygiene habits to curtail rodent access to alternative food sources ■ Store grain and feed in secure areas (keep bags closed) ■ Block off any easy point of access for rodents ■ Place metal strips at the base of gnawed wooden doors ■ Clean up any spilled grain or feed It is important to bear in mind that access to easily accessible, alternative sources of food will majorly affect the consumption of bait. ■ A

good level of knowledge: having a good knowledge of the potential or actual level of activity of rats or mice is critical for the purposes of effective control. Furthermore, make sure to train and raise awareness among all workers on the farm. ■ Environment-friendly: ensure strict compliance with the indications on product labels to reduce the environmental impact. The use of bait boxes is mandatory both inside and around the buildings. ■ Records: keep complete records.

Having techniques to detect the presence of rodents is an essential part of prevention. There are 8 practical clues:

Sightings

Damage caused by gnawing

Footprints

Nests

Excrement

Leftover food

Marks

Noise

2. Use of chemical-free solutions Traps are an important part of any IPM (integrated pest management) strategy. You can also use nontoxic monitoring bait to identify hotspots, any repeated infestation and the presence of rats or mice without using chemical bait. To identify the rodents’ level of activity, bait boxes can be laid out containing grain or non-active ingredient bait, which is then replaced with a chemical rodenticide to control them. It is important to ensure that non-toxic bait is covered and protected in bait boxes. You can also use thermography to locate rodents and nests. Thermal imaging can be used to detect the heat generated by a mouse, which is impossible for the naked eye to detect. Thermal imaging cameras provide highly accurate and sensitive temperature readings, as they detect infrared energy (heat) and convert it into electronic signals that are converted into heat images. Applying this method, Biosecurity in livestock holdings 55

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

it is possible to identify the locations in which to use chemical treatments. The use of thermography is a forward-looking approach to control pests, and not only rodents; it can also be used to detect insects, such as termites. 3. Application of rodenticides Bait should be placed in areas of high activity, both indoors and outdoors, in the area surrounding the buildings: ■ In the areas most frequently used by rats, close to walls, between areas where they eat and sleep ■ In places where the presence of rodent excrement, footprints and marks are evident ■ In holes and burrows (depending on the product and record type)

■ Around

the areas with most activity, to guarantee total control over the infestation on the farm

When laying down bait, follow the usage recommendations on the label. To overcome the rats’ fear of anything new, put the bait boxes in place several days before you introduce the bait. When treatment begins, the rodent population will decrease. The higher the level of control, the more time will elapse before you have to repeat the treatment (Image 6). Once you have obtained total control (ideally 100%), the treatment should be repeated a few months later, when recolonisation occurs. A 70% control is unacceptable, as this will lead to the rapid recovery of the population.

IMAGE 6. Evolution of rodent population subject to different levels of control. The moment at which the initial infestation is reached again: With 70% control

Infestation level

With 95% control

With 100% control

100% 90%

Control level

80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

56 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

4 6 Months

Which products are effective rodenticides? The main rodenticides used to control rodents have traditionally been anticoagulants, which prevent the coagulation of blood, causing death by internal haemorrhaging. Ideally, rodenticides should be highly toxic (or powerful) to rodents and prevent the development of resistance. A high level of resistance has been developed to the first rodenticides used (first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides, or FGAR), meaning they are no longer as effective. Subsequently, new products have been launched on the market; their efficiency has increased, while resistance among rodents has decreased (secondgeneration anticoagulant rodenticides, or SGAR). The table below shows the evolution of the different types of rodenticide:

Rodenticide

Year

Warfarin

1950

Diphenadione

1952

Coumatetralyl

1956

Chlorophacinone

1961

Difenacoum

1972

Bromadiolone

1975

Brodifacoum

1973

Flocoumafen

1983

Difethialone

1989

1st generation

2nd generation Multi-dose

2nd generation Single-dose

The initial second-generation products were known as multi-dose (difenacoum and bromadiolone), on account of the fact that the rodent would have to ingest the product several times to acquire a lethal dose. Single-dose products (brodifacoum, flocoumafen and difethialone) were discovered later; the rodent would only have to ingest these products once to obtain a lethal dose. Anticoagulant rodenticides are toxic to all mammals and even birds, meaning that they can have an environmental impact if they come to affect wild mammals and birds, whether because they eat the product (primary poisoning) or because they eat rodents killed by the rodenticide (secondary poisoning). With this in mind, in March 2018 Commission Regulation (EU) 2016/1179, of 19 July 2016, came into force, under which a series of requirements must be fulfilled by anticoagulant products formulated with more than 30 ppm of an active ingredient: the regulation prevents their sale to non-specialist professionals and they must feature a warning sign and text indicating “May damage the unborn child” on the label. As a result, products used in livestock holdings must have a concentration of less than 30 ppm, while being highly toxic and in the form of a single dose (both to control resistant individuals and to prevent the development of new resistance).

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 57

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Non-anticoagulant rodenticides, the new alternative: cholecalciferol Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is a non-anticoagulant molecule now used as a rodenticide. This is a non-bioaccumulative active substance that does not persist in the environment and has a lower environmental impact. Its mechanism of action comprises the mobilising bone calcium, which is deposited in soft tissue, leading to hypercalcaemia, which is the cause of death. The clinical signs of ingestion are lethargy and tachypnea, without convulsions or paralysis.

58 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

However, one of the most important consequences is that 24 hours after ingestion, the rodent loses its appetite. In other words, products containing con cholecalciferol must be highly appetising to guarantee the ingestion of a lethal dose. Home-made vitamin D3 products will never be enough, as the rodent will lose its appetite before having ingested a sufficient amount. However, using a highly-appetising rodenticide, which guarantees the ingestion of a lethal dose by the rodent in a period of less than 24 hours, will offer significant benefits when compared to anticoagulants. Having lost their appetite and becoming lethargic for 24 hours, dominant rodents will quickly give way to

individuals immediately beneath them in the hierarchy, subdominant males and females, who in turn will give way to non-dominant individuals, guaranteeing control over the population in an average period of 7 days. This difference in the mechanism of action represents one of the significant benefits of cholecalciferol when compared to anticoagulants: when using anticoagulants, it can take 3 to 4 weeks to eliminate a rodent population (as the process of giving way to the next hierarchical level takes between 5 and 7 days); in contrast, with cholecalciferol (Selontra®, a trademark of BASF), the population is eliminated three times as quickly as when an anticoagulant rodenticide is used (7 days compared to 21 days on average).

For further information about the use of cholecalciferol (Selontra®), see the attached commercial brochure.

Using Selontra® as a rodenticide, cleansing buildings is much more effective: in 7 days it is possible to clean, disinfect and effectively exterminate all rodents in a building before introducing new animals.

Data valid for BASF’s cholecalciferol-based formulate (Selontra®).

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 59

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Transmission of disease Rodents can be the carriers of a large number of diseases. The main diseases, in addition to the livestock species affected, are displayed in Table 6.

Disease

Causal agent

Yersiniosis

Yersinia spp.

Salmonellosis

Salmonella spp.

Leptospirosis

Leptospira spp.

Tularemia

Francisella tularensis

Brucellosis

Brucella spp.

Q fever

Coxiella burnetti

Trichinosis

Trichinella spiralis

Newcastle disease

Paramyxovirus

Infectious laryngotracheitis

Herpesvirus

Fowlpox

Poxvirus

TABLE 6. Main diseases transmitted by rodents.

60 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Main species affected

Insect control Insects are hugely important when it comes to health, as they are the vectors of countless pathogenic microorganisms. Flies can transmit diseases on their legs, their proboscis, through regurgitations and their faeces. Furthermore, the salivary secretions of some species cause toxic reactions with an immunosuppressant effect, meaning that the host is more susceptible to contracting diseases. Beetles, ticks and mites also transmit diseases. The complete eradication of insects, in particular flies, is practical impossible, although keeping their numbers in check is important.

Before taking specific measures, good hygiene is important, taking all the measures mentioned in the above sections. However, faeces hygiene is particularly important: in systems featuring slats, fully empty pits and clean them, and in systems featuring bedding, keep them dry at all times and remove them periodically. Wet faeces with straw, for instance, is the perfect system in which many fly species breed. The direct methods for eliminating insects can be either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical methods consist of traps and electrical fly zappers, reducing populations although only in a limited way. Chemical methods involve the use of larvicides or adulticides. The former prevent larvae from maturing and becoming flies, whereas the latter act directly on adult flies. A population can develop a change in sensitivity to a product; furthermore, this change is inheritable. In these cases, the product repeatedly fails to achieve the expected level of control. The excessive or incorrect use of the product can increase this resistance. Therefore, it is essential to follow the recommendations on the label of each product and rotate them to vary modes of action and chemical family. The types of insecticides in use are displayed in the following table:

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 61

Controlling the risks: cleaning, disinfection and pest control

Insecticides: modes of action

Active substance

Sodium channel modulators

Pyrethroids

nAChR competitive modulators

CNI

nAChR allosteric modulators

Abamectin

GABA-gated chloride channel blockers

Fipronil

Quinine biosynthesis inhibitors

Diflubenzuron

Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation via proton gradient

Chlorfenapyr

Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers

Indoxacarb

What are the benefits of pest control? Increased sanitation: proper pest control, combined with solid biosecurity and hygiene measures, improves the sanitation of the holding. You can save money otherwise spent on treating diseases or ineffective prevention measures. Increased animal welfare: insects can cause irritation and stress, including injuries. Furthermore, the transmission of diseases always affects animal welfare.

There are different types of formulation, meaning they can be applied in granulated form or diluted in water; sometimes, they are accompanied by pheromones to attract adults (in the case of flies). Biological controls (in the case of flies) consist of using parasitic wasps or mites that eat the fly larvae; however, they can also be used as part of an integrated control, combined with other systems, whether physical or chemical. The basis of the treatment lies in the use of a parasitoid (Hymenoptera pteromalidae), which parasitises the fly pupa by depositing a larva inside, with the parasitoid larva feeding on the chrysalis in which it has been deposited, making it unviable.

62 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Increased production: improved conditions on the farm not only eradicates diseases and discomfort. If sanitation and welfare are at ideal levels, conversion levels will be too. This, in turn, will lead to financial gains. Reduced use of antibiotics: improved sanitation as a whole is always a starting point for reducing the use of antibiotics on livestock holdings.

Handling dead animals on the holding Dead animals on the holding must be deposited as quickly as possible in carcass waste containers or in the space designated for their collection. Handling of the carcass must be limited insofar as possible. The containers must be placed in the dirty zone, although accessible from the clean zone, as explained in the

preceding sections. There are polyethylene and metal models on the market; in any case, they must be kept in good condition: preventing them from breaking and keep them securely closed at all times. It is also important to periodically clean and disinfect them; they must not be easy to access for people from outside the holding.

Errors to be avoided when handling dead animals INCORRECTLY SEALED CONTAINER: containers that are not sealed correctly can attract wild animals and can fill with rainwater. They can even house dead wild animals, which are the perfect breeding ground for disease.

POOR MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE: carcasses cannot be placed in a container; however, there should be a solid surface onto which the dead animal can be placed and covered. The design of this surface must allow for proper cleaning and disinfection.

BROKEN CONTAINER: they may break during the material collection process performed by the transport company or due to the mishandling of livestock. In any case, they must be replaced immediately.

OVERFILLED CONTAINER: the farmer must be aware of the number of containers required on the holding to prevent them from being overfilled.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 63

05 01

64 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Animal transportation Livestock transport lorries are very important means of disease transmission. Therefore, it is essential that they are cleaned and disinfected after each journey. However, there are many potential pitfalls in this practice, whether caused by malpractice, lack of cleaning centres or lack of time. This chapter looks at the correct practices for avoiding the transmission of diseases in lorries.

The lorry can transmit many pathogenic microorganisms On a farm, the arrival of lorries to load livestock for either live transport or to the slaughterhouse is inevitable. Although the lorry is empty upon arrival, the risk of disease transmission is very high if it is not cleaned and disinfected correctly, as it will have come from another holding or slaughterhouse. Table 7 shows the survival times of the different pathogenic microorganisms in the environment (Pirtle, 1991).

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 65

Animal transportation

Viral diseases

Bacterial diseases

Symptoms

Survival time

African swine fever virus

60-100 days.

Pseudorabies (Aujeszky's disease)

14 days

Orthomyxovirus (swine flu)

A few days

PRRSV

4 days

Coronavirus (TGV)

3 weeks

Staphylococcus

3 weeks

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae

2 weeks

Brucella (brucellosis)

3 weeks

Pasteurella

7 days

Salmonella

6 months

Brachyspira (swine dysentery)

8 weeks

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

2-3 years

TABLE 7. Main diseases transmitted by lorries.

All costs on cleaning and disinfecting lorries should be considered a good investment. For example, in Spain, approximately 53 million pigs are sacrificed each year, involving 265,000 journeys to slaughterhouses or an average of 850 journeys each day nationwide. This poses a very significant risk. Pathogenic microorganisms mainly arrive in lorries through animals, which contaminate the inside of the lorry with their faeces. However, the lorry itself can transport pathogenic microorganisms on its surface, on its wheels, on its undercarriage or even in the driver’s cab, spread in the air or as a result of contact with materials and fomites.

66 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Critical points in the cleaning and disinfection of the lorry

Lorry surface

Inside the cab

Inside the trailer

Lorry driver Wheels

Underbody

Lorry surface: the entire outside must be cleaned, including the cab. On lorries with windows, these must remain properly sealed during the cleaning process. Take particular care with any non-smooth surfaces. Wheels: A drive-through sanitation bath will not be enough to disinfect the wheels. The entire surface must be washed and disinfected thoroughly. It is important to ensure that no mud remains encrusted, particularly on the mudflaps and skirts. Underbody: washing this area is difficult, therefore, a spray system with disinfectant should be used.

Inside the cab: the parts with which the driver’s hands (steering wheel, gearstick) and feet (pedals, mats) come into contact must be cleaned and disinfected. Inside the trailer: the inside of the trailer must not only be cleaned, but also disinfected, thoroughly. To this end, perform a thorough clean in advance to ensure that the disinfection process is effective. Lorry driver: do not forget that the driver can also transmit pathogenic microorganisms. It is very important that they do not enter the loading bay during loading and unloading operations.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 67

Animal transportation

The cleaning and disinfection process INITIAL WASH: the goal is to remove loose organic residues, including both excrement and bedding. First, wash the inside and then the outside, always from top to bottom, without overlooking the wheels, mudflaps and underbody. You can blast with air first and then clean with low-pressure water at a high flow to blast away any organic matter without soiling the rest of the lorry or walls. Bear in mind that the cleaning centre must be prepared to store all organic residues for them to be handled afterwards.

SECOND WASH: the goal here is to eliminate the most embedded organic matter. Use soap with a diffuser (not at a high pressure) so that the detergent remains in contact with the surface for the recommended amount of time according to the product used. Wash the entire vehicle, including the wheels, mudflaps and underbody. Then, rinse the entire vehicle with pressurised hot water (maximum 250 bar) to remove all detergent residues. The cleaning centre must also have systems in place to collect and remove the water used during this task. Pay special attention to the following critical points:

68 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

■ Applying

detergent with water at a high pressure will prevent the detergent adhering to the surface, reducing its effectiveness. ■ Use detergents that are effective against biofilms. ■ Rinse with abundant water; detergent residues can inactivate the disinfectant.

When cleaning, pay special attention to all spots where organic residues may accumulate (top image). The surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned (bottom image).

DRYING: after the second wash, dry thoroughly to facilitate the disinfection process. However, cleaning and disinfection centres often have no practical and viable drying system in place. If the surface is very wet, the recommended dose of disinfectant should be increased. CLEANING THE CAB: as indicated previously, pay particular attention to all parts with which the driver comes into contact: steering wheel, gearstick, pedals and mats. Disinfectant sprays and wet wipes can be used to this end.

Microbiological controls: To ensure the effectiveness of the cleaning and disinfection of lorries, regularly performing microbiological analyses of the surfaces is recommended. These analyses will serve as a good indicator as to the effectiveness of the cleaning and disinfection process. Samples must be taken using towel or sponge systems, as lorry surfaces are uneven and the use of contact pads is not viable.

DISINFECTION: spraying the entire vehicle with disinfectant is essential to correctly complete the entire process. The operator must perform this task using appropriate clothing and disposable coveralls during each stage of the process, if necessary.

On several-storey lorries it is important to pay special attention to the lower floor and platform, where there tends to be a higher microbial load.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 69

Animal transportation

Thermal disinfection, an alternative The cleaning and disinfection of lorries requires time if it is to be performed correctly (between 2 and 3 hours). However, not even when investing this amount of time is it possible to guarantee 100%-effective disinfection. An interesting alternative to reduce the time involved in the process while increasing its effectiveness is thermal disinfection. This system is recognised under Royal Decree 638/2019 on the basic conditions to be fulfilled by cleaning centres and the disinfection of vehicles dedicated to the transportation by road of live animals (Official State Gazette No. 279, of 20 November 2019). It consists of washing the lorry to remove organic matter, and then applying heat for a specific amount of time, which inactivates all microorganisms, including viruses. As a thermal treatment, any organic matter that has not been eliminated is sterilised. Furthermore, all biofilms are eliminated. This process can also be combined with chemical disinfection.

70 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

As part of the thermal disinfection process, heat is applied to the trailer, which is distributed evenly throughout the internal surface, ensuring that no spots avoid disinfection. During the process, the lorry is placed in a hangar, meaning that the heat is also distributed across the outside of the lorry. To ensure that the required temperature is applied and the process lasts for the right amount of time, heat detectors can be used inside the trailer, including temperature monitors. Using heat, in addition to eliminating pathogenic microorganisms, offers other benefits when transporting live animals: ■ In cold weather conditions, avoid water freezing inside the lorry after it is washed. ■ Sawdust can be spread inside the lorry immediately after this process and before loading new animals. ■ Animals loaded after this process will benefit from better environmental conditions.

Cleaning and disinfection centres The cleaning and disinfection of vehicles is mandatory for all animal transports, whether live or to the slaughterhouse, as established in Article 49 of the Animal Health Act 8/2003 (Official State Gazette No. 99, of 25 April 2003). Whether carried out at public or private centres, they must be approved. During each cleaning and disinfection process, the lorry must be sealed and the driver must have the corresponding certificate available for inspection. All the requirements are laid down in Royal Decree 638/2019 on the basic conditions to be fulfilled by cleaning centres and the disinfection of vehicles dedicated to the transportation by road of live animals (Official State Gazette No. 279, of 20 November 2019).

Cleaning and disinfection centres must satisfy the following requirements: ■ The

circuit must be linear: lorries entering the centre cannot come across those departing. The entrance and exit must be in different locations. ■ They must be divided between the dirty zone (cleaning zone) and the clean zone (where the processes of disinfection, drying and cleaning the cab take place). ■ The capacity of the centre must be sufficient: if lorries are left waiting, the risk of cross contamination increases. ■ An area must be available for storing solid waste. ■ If there are several washing lines, they must be separated by a solid surface. ■ All lines must be covered. ■ Specialist staff employed by the centre will perform the cleaning and disinfection tasks. ■ Cleaning staff must change equipment between lorries. ■ The entire floor space must be solid, easy to clean and boast a good water drainage system.

IMAGE 7. Layout of a cleaning and disinfection centre.

Storage of solid waste

Entrance

Cleaning

Dispensation of the form

Disinfection

Exit

Drainage of water

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 71

06 01

72 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Hygiene and biosecurity in the meat industry In the meat industry, hygiene and biosecurity measures start before the carcass is obtained, as handling live animals can have a direct influence on their microbiological contamination. Specifically, the transport of animals to the slaughterhouse and the way they are handled before their slaughter, while they are being raised, are key factors that have an impact on this. Once the carcass is obtained, the way in which it is handled, both at the slaughterhouse and during cutting, must comply with strict hygiene measures, as any contamination can have a direct impact on the end product.

Arrival of animals at the slaughterhouse Hygiene at a slaughterhouse does not begin when the animals arrive; it is essential that there are proper sanitary conditions at the farm from which they have been transported and that they have been transported correctly. To this end, before they are unloaded, the vet must check all the documents, including the transport sanitation guidelines and the lorry disinfection form.

When the animal arrives at the slaughterhouse, avoiding stress is critical, as this adversely affects the quality of the meat and increases the risk of bacterial contamination. In terms of the quality of the meat, especially in pigs, this may lead to the production of PSE meat (pale, soft and exudative) due to the increase in glycogen in the blood as a response to stress. And in terms of bacterial contamination, stress can reactivate infections in animals carrying Salmonella, which can reach their tonsils and faeces. Precautions to prevent stress: ■ Plan and coordinate the loading of lorries, the capacity of pens and slaughter times. ■ Avoid mixing animals from different origins when keeping them. ■ Avoid excessive wait times.

To ensure proper hygiene throughout the process, animals must be fasted prior to the arrival. If their digestive system is empty, this reduces the risk of its contents spilling in the event they are perforated. The recommended fasting time is 12 hours, or 4 to 6 hours for poultry.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 73

Hygiene and biosecurity in the meat industry

Hygiene during the stabling of animals UNLOADING BAYS: must be cleaned and disinfected after each unloading process, preventing cross-contamination between lorries. PENS: cleaned and disinfected on a daily basis. Both the floor and the walls must be cleaned. Furthermore, a pest control programme must be applied, with a particular emphasis on controlling rodents and birds. DRAINAGE OF WASTE WATER: the pens must be equipped with a good waste water drainage system, preventing pools from forming.

SEPARATION BETWEEN BATCHES: pens must be well designed to separate different batches properly and be equipped with sufficient water troughs. ANIMAL BATHING: this process must be performed to remove dirt from the animal’s body, reducing the risk of microbial contamination at the start of the slaughter line.

Slaughter Animals must be slaughtered following a series of procedures, with each affected by a series of highly specific risks:

Stunning

Exsanguination

Pork

Whipping Scalding Dehairing

Beef

Skinning

Lamb and mutton

Goat Evisceration

Polishing and cleaning the carcasses

Chilling/freezing

74 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

STUNNING: animals must be taken to the stunning area calmly, avoiding stress. Stunning must be performed pursuant to the requirements of Regulation 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of slaughter. EXSANGUINATION: blood must be collected hygienically. SKINNING: the skin must be removed without the outer surface coming into contact with the carcass at any time. WHIPPING: performed to clean the animal’s body. Microorganisms can accumulate on the whipping machine: it must be cleaned and disinfected each day. SCALDING: it can be performed using tank systems or shower and steam systems. Tank systems are a critical point in terms of the accumulation of microorganisms: it must be emptied following each process for it to be cleaned and disinfected. Shower and steam systems reduce the risk of microbial contamination. DEHAIRING: any remaining hair is removed and the surface is sanitised.

EVISCERATION: this is the part of the process that poses the highest risk of contamination. It is performed in 3 steps: 1 Cutting of the rectum: the rectum is separated

from the carcass to remove the entire digestive system, without the contents of the digestive system coming into contact with the carcass. Cleaning and disinfecting the instrument used is critical. 2 Opening the abdominal cavity: carried out using a blunt-tip blade to avoid opening the intestines. Cleaning and disinfecting the blades used after cutting each carcass is critical. 3 Evisceration of the intestines: the intestines are separated from the carcass, removed and deposited in a tray for inspection, or transported to the offal zone. During this part of the process, in addition to the blades, coveralls (preferably made from plastic) and boots must be cleaned and disinfected. POLISHING AND CLEANING THE CARCASSES: the polishing process must be performed applying maximum hygiene standards and cleaning must be performed using water. As part of the poultry slaughter process, scalding is also a critical point. The cleanest birds must be scalded first. The plucker employs rubber fingers that must be cleaned and disinfected after each bird.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 75

Hygiene and biosecurity in the meat industry

Cutting The cleaning and disinfection process is critical in the cutting rooms. The following steps must be taken:

Facilities

ELIMINATION OF VISIBLE WASTE: blasted and then rinsed with water.

The materials used at the facilities must be easy to clean and disinfect. Surfaces must be smooth and resistant to corrosion. Wood should not be used under any circumstances.

DISASSEMBLY OF THE MACHINES: to make it easier to clean them, in particular the parts that are difficult to access.

Sinks must not be turned on by hand, they must supply hot and cold water, soap must be available and hygienic drying equipment must be available.

CLEANING: apply soap to dissolve and eliminate invisible residues, chiefly fatty residues. This is particularly important, as organic residues adversely affect the action of the disinfectants. Soap must be left on the surface for a specific amount of time to allow it to act effectively.

The floor must not be cracked, it must be waterproof and easy to clean and disinfect. It must be sufficiently sloped to facilitate the drainage of water into drain holes. The flooring must be continuous and come equipped with anti-slip resins.

RINSING: thoroughly to prevent any soap residues. DISINFECTION: the concentration, time and temperature indicated for each product must be respected. During this process, pay special attention to elements that come into direct contact with the product: ■ Work tables ■ Meat transport carts ■ Transporter trays ■ Machinery (malaxators, cutters, etc.)

76 Biosecurity in livestock holdings

The walls must be free from cracks, smooth and covered with waterproof material. Covering them with tiles is not recommended. Corners must be rounded. Performing microbiological controls on surfaces is recommended to ensure that all measures are effective. The European regulation (Decision 2001/471/EC) defines the mean values for the number of colonies in surface analyses (Table 8).

Acceptable values

Unacceptable values

Total aerobic colony count

0-10 CFU/cm2

>10 CFU/cm2

Enterobacteriaceae

0-1 CFU/cm2

>1 CFU/cm2

TABLE 8. Reference values for surface analyses (Decision 2001/471/EC).

The changing room must be accessible from the outside and provide direct access to the main room. It must have separate compartments for clean and dirty clothes and be equipped with a sink.

Outside areas must be paved, free from grass or unwanted objects and equipped with appropriate water drainage systems. An efficient pest control system must always be in place, as explained in the previous chapters.

Personal hygiene measures Hygiene measures must be adopted by workers as part of all the aforementioned processes. Clothing must be used exclusively for work, including coveralls, hats, boots, etc. and be kept in good condition. Boots must be cleaned on a daily basis. Proper hand washing is an important practice: soap must be distributed across the entire palm, between

the fingers and on the back of the hand. The thumb and space between the thumb and other fingers must be thoroughly cleaned. If the worker needs to cough, he/she should do so into their elbow to avoid the spread of saliva. After coughing, workers must always wash their hands.

Biosecurity in livestock holdings 77

07 01

78 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

Anexo: Referencias normativas REGLAMENTO (UE) 2016/429 DEL PARLAMENTO EUROPEO Y DEL CONSEJO de 9 de marzo de 2016 relativo a las enfermedades transmisibles de los animales y por el que se modifican o derogan algunos actos en materia de sanidad animal. Capítulo 3: responsabilidades en materia de sanidad animal Sección 1 Operadores, profesionales que trabajan con animales y poseedores de animales de compañía Artículo 10 Responsabilidades en materia de sanidad animal y medidas de bioprotección

i. l as especies y categorías de animales en cautividad y de productos, ii. el tipo de producción, y iii. los riesgos que se planteen, teniendo en cuenta: — la situación geográfica y las condiciones climáticas, y — las circunstancias prácticas y locales; c) cuando proceda, adoptar medidas de bioprotección respecto a la fauna salvaje. 2 L os profesionales que trabajan con animales

adoptarán medidas para reducir todo lo posible el riesgo de propagación de enfermedades en el contexto de su relación profesional con animales y productos. 3 El apartado 1, letra a), se aplicará igualmente a los

poseedores de animales de compañía. 1 Los operadores deberán:

a) en lo referente a los animales en cautividad y a los productos que estén bajo su responsabilidad, ser responsables de: i. la salud de los animales en cautividad, ii. un uso prudente y responsable de los medicamentos veterinarios, sin perjuicio del cometido y responsabilidad de los veterinarios, iii. minimizar el riesgo de propagación de enfermedades, iv. una explotación adecuada de los animales; b) cuando proceda, adoptar medidas de bioprotección en lo tocante a los animales en cautividad y a los productos que estén bajo su responsabilidad, que sean adecuadas respecto de:

4 Las medidas de bioprotección a que se refiere el

apartado 1, letra b), se aplicarán, según proceda, mediante: a) medidas de protección física, que podrán incluir: i. la construcción de vallas, cercas, techos o redes, según proceda, ii. la limpieza, desinfección y control de insectos y roedores, iii. en el caso de los animales acuáticos, según proceda: — medidas de suministro y evacuación de agua, — barreras naturales o artificiales que separen de las corrientes de agua colindantes que impidan a los animales acuáticos entrar o salir del estableciBioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 79

Anexos

miento en cuestión, con inclusión de medidas contra inundaciones o infiltraciones de agua procedente de corrientes de agua colindantes; b) medidas de gestión, entre ellas: i. procedimientos de entrada y salida del establecimiento para animales, productos, vehículos y personas, ii. procedimientos de utilización de equipos, iii. condiciones de desplazamiento basadas en los riesgos que existan, iv. condiciones para introducir animales o productos en el establecimiento, v. cuarentena, aislamiento o separación de animales recién incorporados o enfermos, vi. un sistema de eliminación segura de animales muertos y otros subproductos animales. 5 Los operadores, los profesionales que trabajen

con animales y los poseedores de animales de compañía cooperarán con la autoridad competente y con los veterinarios en la aplicación de las medidas de prevención y control de enfermedades previstas en el presente Reglamento. 6 La Comisión podrá establecer, mediante actos de

ejecución, requisitos mínimos necesarios para la aplicación uniforme del presente artículo. Dichos actos de ejecución reflejarán los elementos mencionados en el apartado 1, letra b). Dichos actos de ejecución se adoptarán de conformidad con el procedimiento de examen al que se refiere el artículo 266, apartado 2. Artículo 11 Conocimientos sobre sanidad animal 1 Los operadores y los profesionales que trabajan

con animales tendrán conocimientos adecuados sobre:

80 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

a) enfermedades de los animales, incluidas las que son transmisibles a los humanos; b) principios de bioprotección; c) interacción entre salud animal, bienestar de los animales y salud humana; d) buenas prácticas de cría animal de las especies animales a su cargo; e) resistencia a los tratamientos, incluida la resistencia antimicrobiana y sus consecuencias. 2 El contenido y el nivel de conocimientos exigidos

de conformidad con el apartado 1 dependerá de: a) las especies y categorías de animales en cautividad y productos que están bajo responsabilidad de los correspondientes operadores y profesionales que trabajan con animales, y la naturaleza de su relación profesional con dichos animales o productos; b) el tipo de producción; c) las tareas realizadas. 3 Los conocimientos a los que se refiere el apartado

1 se adquirirán por una de las vías siguientes: a) experiencia o formación profesionales; b) programas existentes en el sector agropecuario o en el sector acuícola que sean pertinentes para la sanidad animal; c) educación formal; d) otra experiencia o formación que sea del mismo nivel de conocimientos que el exigido en las letras a), b) o c). 4 Los operadores que vendan o transfieran de otro

modo la propiedad de futuros animales de compañía proporcionarán información básica al futuro poseedor de un animal de compañía sobre las cuestiones mencionadas en el apartado 1, en la medida en que sea pertinente para en animal de compañía de que se trate.

Ley 8/2003, de 24 de abril, de sanidad animal Título II Prevención, lucha, control y erradicación de las enfermedades de los animales Capítulo I: prevención de las enfermedades de los animales Artículo 7. Obligaciones de los particulares. 1 Los propietarios o responsables de los animales,

comerciantes, importadores, exportadores, transportistas, y los profesionales que ejerzan actividades relacionadas con la sanidad animal, sean personas físicas o jurídicas, deberán: a) Vigilar a los animales, los productos de origen animal, los productos para la alimentación animal, los productos zoosanitarios y, en general, los demás medios relacionados con la sanidad animal, que tengan o hayan tenido bajo su responsabilidad. b) Facilitar toda clase de información que les sea requerida por la autoridad competente sobre el estado sanitario de los animales y productos de origen animal, los productos zoosanitarios, los productos para la alimentación animal y, en general, los demás medios relacionados con la sanidad animal, que tengan o hayan tenido bajo su responsabilidad. c) Aplicar y llevar a cabo todas las medidas sanitarias impuestas por la normativa vigente en cada caso, así como las medidas sanitarias obligatorias que se establezcan para prevenir las enfermedades de los animales, o consentir su aplicación, así como poner los medios necesarios para que se puedan realizar las citadas medidas con las debidas garantías de seguridad, tanto para los animales objeto de aquéllas como para el personal que las ejecute.

d) Tener debidamente identificados sus animales, en la forma y condiciones impuestas por la normativa aplicable. e) Comunicar a las Administraciones públicas, en tiempo y forma, los datos sanitarios exigidos por la normativa aplicable en cada caso, en especial los relativos a nacimientos, muertes, entradas y salidas de animales, así como la aparición reiterada de animales muertos de la fauna silvestre. f) Proceder a la eliminación o destrucción de los cadáveres de animales y demás productos de origen animal, que tengan bajo su responsabilidad, en la forma y condiciones establecidas en la normativa aplicable en cada caso. g) No abandonar a los animales que tengan bajo su responsabilidad, o sus cadáveres. h) Cumplir adecuadamente las obligaciones relativas a los medicamentos veterinarios, en especial el control y la debida observancia de los plazos de espera establecidos en caso de tratamiento de los animales con dichos medicamentos. i) Asumir los costes derivados de la custodia, transporte, almacenamiento, alimentación, sacrificio, destrucción y, en general, de todo tipo, en relación con sus animales, productos de origen animal, productos zoosanitarios y productos para la alimentación animal, que tengan bajo su responsabilidad y se deriven de las medidas sanitarias, incluidas las de salvaguardia y las cau telares que puedan adoptar las autoridades competentes. j) Solicitar los certificados o documentación sanitaria exigibles para la importación y exportación, en la forma y condiciones previstas reglamentariamente. Asimismo, corresponderá al importador o exportador asumir los costes derivados de la custodia, transporte, almacenamiento, alimentación, sacrificio, des-

Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 81

Anexos

trucción y, en general, de todo tipo, en relación con los animales, productos de origen animal, productos zoosanitarios y productos para la alimentación animal, que tengan como destino la importación o exportación, hasta tanto se realice la inspección veterinaria en frontera prevista en el capítulo II de este título y, en su caso, con posterioridad. k) Mantener en buen estado sanitario sus animales, productos de origen animal, productos zoosanitarios y productos para la alimentación animal, y, en su caso, efectuar las revisiones y modificaciones en las instalaciones que disminuyan el riesgo de aparición de enfermedades. l) Mantener las condiciones sanitarias adecuadas de las especies cinegéticas, a fin de evitar la aparición de enfermedades. m) Comunicar a la autoridad competente las enfermedades de los animales a que se refiere el artículo 5, de que tenga sospecha. n) En general, cumplir las obligaciones que la normativa aplicable les imponga en materia de sanidad animal. 2 En las integraciones, asimismo, son obligaciones

del integrador y del integrado las siguientes: a) El integrador deberá: i. Comunicar al órgano competente de la comunidad autónoma en que radique la relación de las explotaciones que tiene integradas, con sus respectivas ubicaciones. ii. Velar por la correcta sanidad de los animales y su adecuado transporte, así como velar también para que los medicamentos veterinarios y pautas de aplicación se correspondan con la normativa establecida, siendo responsable de ello. iii. Comunicar a la autoridad competente las enfermedades de los animales a que se refiere el artículo 5, acaecidas en las explotaciones de sus integrados y de las que tenga sospecha. 82 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

iv. Cerciorarse de que los animales o productos obtenidos en la explotación estén en condiciones sanitarias adecuadas al ponerlos en el mercado y de que su transporte cumpla las condiciones de sanidad y protección animal establecidas por la normativa aplicable. b) Y al integrado, por su parte, le corresponde: i. Comunicar al órgano competente de la comunidad autónoma en que radique la identificación del integrador. ii. Velar por el cuidado sanitario del ganado depositado en su explotación por el integrador, de forma conjunta con éste, especialmente por su adecuado manejo e higiene y la aplicación correcta de la medicación, siguiendo las pautas indicadas por el servicio de asistencia veterinaria del integrador, así como cumplir y hacer cumplir las normas sanitarias en lo referente a la entrada en la explotación de personas y vehículos. iii. Comunicar al integrador toda sospecha de cualquier enfermedad infecciosa que afecte a los animales depositados por éste en su explotación. CAPÍTULO III: lucha, control y erradicación de enfermedades de los animales Artículo 16. Obligaciones de los particulares. 1 Corresponden a los titulares de explotaciones ga-

naderas, incluidas las cinegéticas y, en general, a los propietarios o responsables de animales, incluidos los silvestres, las siguientes obligaciones: a) Mantener los animales en buen estado sanitario. b) Aplicar las medidas sanitarias obligatorias que se establezcan para luchar, controlar o erradicar las enfermedades de los animales, o consentir su aplicación, así como poner los medios necesarios para que se puedan realizar las citadas

medidas con las debidas garantías de seguridad, tanto para los animales objeto de éstas como para el personal que las ejecute. c) Efectuar las revisiones y modificaciones en las instalaciones, que disminuyan el riesgo de aparición de enfermedades. d) Mantener el equilibrio de la fauna silvestre en sus aspectos sanitarios.

da, que deberá acompañar al transporte. 2 En el caso de transportes y descarga en matade-

ro, el vehículo tendrá que salir de éste necesariamente vacío, limpio y desinfectado. 3 Los mataderos deberán disponer, en sus insta-

laciones, de un centro de limpieza y desinfección de vehículos de transporte de animales.

2 En las integraciones, corresponde el cumplimiento

de las obligaciones previstas en el apartado anterior: a) Al integrado mientras los animales permanezcan en la explotación, salvo que el poder de decisión último respecto de la obligación de que se trate sea del integrador, y su ejecución o aplicación deba realizarse por el integrado, en cuyo caso corresponderá a ambos solidariamente su cumplimiento. b) Al integrador en el resto de supuestos. 3 Los comerciantes, importadores o exportadores

deberán mantener en buen estado sanitario sus animales, productos de origen animal, productos zoosanitarios y productos para la alimentación animal, y, en su caso, ejecutar las medidas sanitarias obligatorias que se establezcan ante la sospecha o confirmación de una enfermedad animal, así como efectuar las revisiones y modificaciones en las instalaciones que disminuyan el riesgo de difusión de enfermedades. Artículo 49. Limpieza y desinfección. 1 Los vehículos o medios de transporte utilizados,

una vez realizada la descarga de animales, salvo los de animales domésticos y los que trasladen las colmenas de abejas, deben ser limpiados de residuos sólidos, lavados y desinfectados con productos autorizados, en el centro de limpieza y desinfección más cercano habilitado para tal fin, el cual expedirá un justificante de la labor realiza-

Reglamentariamente se establecerán los requisitos para su instalación y las situaciones exceptuadas de dicha exigencia. Real Decreto 306/2020, de 11 de febrero, por el que se establecen normas básicas de ordenación de las granjas porcinas intensivas, y se modifica la normativa básica de ordenación de las explotaciones de ganado porcino extensivo. Condiciones sobre bioseguridad, infraestructuras, equipamiento y manejo (Artículo 5) Punto 2. Las explotaciones de ganado porcino, incluidas las existentes antes de la entrada en vigor de este real decreto, excepto las de autoconsumo y reducidas, deberán cumplir con los siguientes requisitos en materia de bioseguridad, higiene y sanidad animal: a) Disponer de un vallado o aislamiento perimetral que aísle la explotación de la entrada de personas y suidos silvestres del exterior, y que minimice la entrada de otros mamíferos que puedan actuar como vectores de enfermedades. Dicho vallado deberá estar en buen estado de conservación en todo momento y permitirá que todas las actividades relacionadas con la producción porcina se puedan realizar dentro de sus límites. Además, el acceso tendrá posibilidad de cierre y estará correctamente señalizado. La entrada o entradas se mantendrán cerradas permanentemente, salvo Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 83

Anexos

cuando se utilice para la entrada o salida del personal o vehículos autorizados. El vallado perimetral debe abarcar todas las instalaciones y zonas con posibilidad de ser usadas por los animales y personas que trabajen en la explotación, así como el resto de instalaciones anejas y la balsa de estiércoles o estercolero, en su caso. No obstante: i. La balsa de estiércoles y el estercolero, previo informe y autorización de la autoridad competente, podrán emplazarse fuera del espacio delimitado por el vallado perimetral. En el caso de la balsa de estiércoles, ésta deberá contar, al menos, con un vallado propio de las mismas características que el vallado de la explotación, y deberá cumplir con los requisitos de ubicación establecidos por la autoridad competente en la autorización concedida. ii. Los contenedores para la recogida de cadáveres, si se dispone de ellos, podrán ubicarse fuera del vallado, siempre que se garantice que no generan molestias a otras personas ajenas a la explotación y siempre que se garantice que los restos depositados en ellos sólo pueden ser manipulados por el personal de la explotación y el personal responsable de la recogida. b) Las aberturas al exterior de las edificaciones no aptas para el tránsito de vehículos, personas o animales, incluyendo ventanas y huecos de ventilación, se cubrirán con una red de malla que impida el acceso de las aves. c) Las explotaciones de producción y reproducción que realicen reposición externa, excepto las explotaciones de cebo y transición de lechones, deberán contar con instalaciones específicas para realizar la cuarentena de los animales, siempre que los animales de nueva entrada no hayan pasado previamente por instalaciones de cuarentena. Estas instalaciones deberán constituir una unidad 84 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

epidemiológica independiente y separada del resto de las instalaciones de producción, de forma que se prevenga la transmisión de agentes infectocontagiosos entre ellas. Los animales de nueva entrada deberán permanecer en las instalaciones de cuarentena un periodo mínimo 3 semanas, que permita verificar que su estatus sanitario es igual o superior al de los animales de la propia explotación en relación, al menos, con las enfermedades sujetas a programas sanitarios oficiales. d) Deberá disponer de arcos de desinfección y/o un vado sanitario para los vehículos que entren en la explotación, o medios alternativos de eficacia equivalente. En todo caso, los medios de desinfección deberán asegurar la desinfección efectiva de las ruedas, los pasos de ruedas y bajos del vehículo, y deberán estar en correcto estado de conservación y efectividad en todo momento. El resto de entradas deberán contar con un pediluvio o cualquier otro medio de eficacia semejante a la entrada del recinto. e) Deberán disponer de vestuarios antes de entrar en la zona de producción, con una separación clara entre la zona limpia y la zona sucia, así como instalaciones y medios suficientes para el lavado de manos. Deberán existir indicaciones visibles con instrucciones claras sobre los protocolos de higiene y bioseguridad a aplicar antes de la entrada en las zonas de producción. f) Las explotaciones de porcino deberán disponer, al menos, de lavabo, váter y sistema de ducha o equivalente, que permita disponer las condiciones adecuadas para la higiene corporal. g) En todas las explotaciones se deberá minimizar al máximo posible la entrada de vehículos en la explotación, y los vehículos de las visitas deberán quedarse en un lugar habilitado fuera del vallado perimetral de la explotación. En explotaciones de nueva instalación, los vehículos deberán realizar las operaciones de carga y descarga de animales, material de cama, pienso, estiércoles y cadáveres desde fuera del vallado perimetral de la explotación.

h) Las explotaciones deberán limitar las visitas a lo estrictamente necesario y dispondrán de un sistema eficaz de control y registro de las mismas, en el que se anoten todas las visitas, incluida la identificación de los vehículos y las personas que entren o salgan de la explotación, incluidos los veterinarios. i) Las explotaciones deberán disponer de utillajes de limpieza y manejo y ropa y calzado de uso exclusivo de la explotación, tanto para el personal como para las visitas. j) Deberán disponer de pediluvios o cualquier otro medio de eficacia semejante a la entrada de los locales, naves o parques que alojen o puedan alojar animales, que eviten la entrada y transmisión de enfermedades. k) Deberán realizar, al menos una vez al día, una revisión del estado sanitario de los animales, que abarcará a todos los grupos de animales de la explotación. l) La gestión de los estiércoles deberá realizarse de acuerdo con la normativa vigente. m) El semen de ganado porcino deberá proceder de un centro de recogida de semen porcino autorizado, de acuerdo con lo que establece la normativa comunitaria y nacional al respecto. En las explotaciones que posean centros de recogida de semen para uso exclusivo dentro de las mismas, se extremarán las medidas de higiene y bioseguridad en sus instalaciones y manejo, y se tendrán en cuenta las garantías sanitarias que para las diferentes enfermedades se establecen en la legislación vigente. n) Las explotaciones dispondrán de una zona o espacio específico y exclusivo para la observación y aislamiento de los animales que, por razones sanitarias o de bienestar animal, deban ser apartados del resto, siendo recomendable la existencia de una instalación de este tipo en cada nave o módulo. Dicha zona o espacio no será computable para la capacidad productiva de la explotación ni para la gestión de estiércoles. o) El suministro de agua deberá proceder de red de suministro municipal o de otras fuentes, en cuyo

caso se efectuarán controles de calidad y, si procede, tratamientos de potabilización. Igualmente se adoptarán medidas para que el agua destinada a otros usos no contamine el agua de bebida. p) La explotación dispondrá de un lugar seguro y protegido, convenientemente señalizado, para el almacenamiento de los medicamentos veterinarios y piensos medicamentosos así como para productos biocidas, fitosanitarios y otros productos zoosanitarios o de limpieza. q) Las explotaciones de cebo y transición de lechones operarán bajo el sistema todo dentro-todo fuera definido en el artículo 2, de modo que una vez iniciado el llenado de las instalaciones deberá completarse en un plazo máximo de diez días. No obstante, este requisito no será obligatorio: i. En explotaciones que realicen el llenado de las instalaciones por módulos, siempre que dispongan de módulos perfectamente aislados entre sí, con las medidas de bioseguridad que se establecen en este real decreto y que permitan a la explotación recibir animales de distinta procedencia y en distintos momentos, manteniendo el aislamiento sanitario, y siempre que completen el llenado de cada módulo en un plazo máximo de diez días. En cualquier caso, la explotación que quiera acogerse a esta excepción deberá ser autorizada para ello por parte de la autoridad competente. ii. En explotaciones que trabajen dentro de un sistema de producción en fases, y que se llenen exclusivamente con animales procedentes de las explotaciones incluidas en ese mismo sistema de producción en fases. iii. En aquellas explotaciones que reciban animales procedentes de una única explotación. En cualquiera de los supuestos anteriores se garantizarán periodos rutinarios de vaciado de las instalaciones de animales en los que se pueda realizar una adecuada limpieza y desinfección. Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 85

Anexos

Equivalencias en UGM de los distintos tipos de ganado porcino (Anexo I): UGM

UGM

Cerda en ciclo cerrado

0,96

Cerdo 50-120 kg

0,14

Cerda con lechones hasta destete (0-6 kg)

0,25

Cerdo de cebo 20-120 kg

0,12

Cerda con lechones hasta 20 kg

0,30

Cerdo de cebo 6-120 kg (wean to finish)

0,09

Ceda de reposición

0,14

Cerdo de cebo más de 120 kg

0,15

Lechones 6-20 kg

0,02

Cerdo de cebo de 20 a más de 120 kg

0,14

Cerdo 20-50 kg

0,10

Verracos

0,30

Distancias obligatorias (Anexo 5): Grupo 1º

Grupos 2º y 3º

Explotaciones de distancia ampliada

Centros de concentración

Grupo 1º

500 m

1 km

2 km

3 km

Grupos 2º y 3º

1 km

2 km

3 km

Explotaciones de distancia ampliada

2 km

3 km

Centros de concentración

3 km

Cascos urbanos

1 km

Vertederos autorizados

1 km

2 km

3 km

Mataderos

2 km

3 km

Industrias cárnicas

500 m

1 km

Plantas Sandach cat. 1 y 2

1 km

2 km

3 km

Plantas Sandach cat. 2 y 3

500 m

1 km

Vías públicas

100 m 25 m

Explotaciones de selección, multiplicación, recría de reproductores, transición de reproductoras nulíparas, centros de recogida de semen porcino y explotaciones de cuarentena. 2 La distancia mínima será de 100 metros a ferrocarriles, autovías, autopistas y carreteas de la Red Nacional, y de 25 metros a cualquier otra vía pública, salvo aquella por la que se acceda directamente a la entrada de la explotación. 3 Que realicen tratamiento de cadáveres. 1

Grupo primero: explotaciones con capacidad hasta 120 UGM. Grupo segundo: explotaciones con una capacidad superior a 120 UGM y hasta 480 UGM. Grupo tercero: explotaciones con una capacidad superior a 480 UGM y hasta 720 UGM.

86 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

Que no realicen tratamiento de cadáveres.

Real Decreto 638/2019, de 8 de noviembre, por el que se establecen las condiciones básicas que deben cumplir los centros de limpieza y desinfección de los vehículos dedicados al transporte por carretera de animales vivos. Normas para la realización de las operaciones de limpieza y desinfección (Anexo II). Durante las operaciones de limpieza y desinfección deberán seguirse los siguientes pasos: 1 Una limpieza en seco del vehículo, cuando se

considere necesario por el contenido de materia orgánica en el interior del mismo, con el fin de eliminar toda la materia sólida mediante barrido y raspado, que se depositará en una zona específica, cubierta o no, para su posterior eliminación o aprovechamiento. Esta limpieza en seco debe realizarse siempre comenzando por el punto más alto del vehículo y acabando por el más bajo. 2 Una limpieza con agua a presión de todo el ve-

hículo, incluyendo ruedas, bajos y carrocería. La limpieza deberá realizarse con los elementos móviles del vehículo desmontados: pisos, separadores, jaulas, etc. 3 Aplicación de detergente, preferiblemente alcali-

no, según se establezca en las especificaciones técnicas de uso establecidas por el fabricante. El agua será recogida en foso para su posterior eliminación o aprovechamiento. No obstante, en el caso de los vehículos de transporte por carretera de peces, esta limpieza se realizará de forma adecuada a las características de dicho transporte y de los vehículos. 4 La desinfección del vehículo se realizará mediante

una de las siguientes opciones: a) Rociado de las partes externas y de la zona habilitada para el transporte de animales, subpro-

ductos o productos para la alimentación animal, con un biocida de uso ganadero, adecuado según la especie animal, subproducto o producto para la alimentación animal de que se trate, y la situación sanitaria de la zona, de forma que los procedimientos utilizados sean eficaces contra los agentes patógenos. Durante esta operación, los pisos de la zona habilitada para el transporte de animales deben estar en posición de carga. No obstante, esto no será aplicable a los vehículos de transporte por carretera de peces. b) Tratamiento térmico que garantice la inactivación de los agentes patógenos de forma que los procedimientos utilizados sean eficaces contra los agentes patógenos. La ropa y calzado del conductor debe cambiarse, o en su defecto, limpiarse y desinfectarse previamente al uso de la cabina para el siguiente transporte. La cabina del conductor debe limpiarse y desinfectarse adecuadamente. Precintado del vehículo. En el precinto debe figurar el número de precinto y opcionalmente el número de registro oficial del centro. El recorrido del vehículo debe ser, hacia delante, no retrocediendo hacia las zonas sucias por las que ha pasado, salvo en los centros acogidos a la disposición transitoria primera. En el caso de que el centro disponga de dos zonas separadas, sucia y limpia, el personal del centro no deberá moverse directamente, sin tomar las medidas oportunas. La utilización por las personas trabajadoras de equipos de protección individual se realizará de conformidad con lo dispuesto en el Real Decreto 773/1997, de 30 de mayo, sobre disposiciones mínimas de seguridad y salud relativas a la utilización por las personas trabajadoras de equipos de protección individual. Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 87

Anexos

REGLAMENTO (UE) No 528/2012 DEL PARLAMENTO EUROPEO Y DEL CONSEJO de 22 de mayo de 2012 relativo a la comercialización y el uso de los biocidas

Productos destinados a ser incorporados en textiles, tejidos, mascarillas, pinturas y otros artículos o materiales con el fin de obtener artículos tratados con propiedades desinfectantes.

TIPOS DE BIOCIDAS: (Anexo II)

Tipo de producto 3: Higiene veterinaria Productos empleados con fines de higiene veterinaria, como los desinfectantes, jabones desinfectantes, productos de higiene bucal o corporal o con funciones antimicrobianas.

GRUPO PRINCIPAL 1: Desinfectantes Estos tipos de biocidas excluyen los biocidas de limpieza que no persiguen un efecto biocida, incluidos los detergentes líquidos y en polvo y productos similares. Tipo de producto 1: Higiene humana Los productos de este grupo son los biocidas empleados con fines de higiene humana, que se aplican sobre la piel o el cuero cabelludo o en contacto con ellos, con la finalidad principal de desinfectar la piel o el cuero cabelludo. Tipo de producto 2: Desinfectantes y alguicidas no destinados a la aplicación directa a personas o animales Productos empleados para la desinfección de superficies, materiales, equipos y muebles que no se utilizan en contacto directo con alimentos o piensos. Los ámbitos de utilización incluyen, entre otros, las piscinas, acuarios, aguas de baño y otras; los sistemas de aire acondicionado, y las paredes y suelos de lugares privados o públicos, zonas industriales y otras zonas destinadas a actividades profesionales. Productos utilizados para la desinfección del aire, el agua no destinada al consumo humano o animal, retretes químicos, aguas residuales, desechos de hospitales y tierra. Productos utilizados como alguicidas para el tratamiento de piscinas, acuarios y otras aguas y para el tratamiento reparador de materiales de construcción.

88 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

Productos utilizados para la desinfección de materiales y superficies relacionados con el alojamiento o transporte de animales. Tipo de producto 4: Alimentos y piensos Productos empleados en la desinfección de equipos, recipientes, utensilios para consumo, superficies o tuberías relacionados con la producción, transporte, almacenamiento o consumo de alimentos o piensos (incluida el agua potable) para personas y animales. Productos empleados para impregnar materiales que puedan estar en contacto con alimentos. Tipo de producto 5: Agua potable Productos empleados para la desinfección del agua potable, tanto para personas como para animales. GRUPO PRINCIPAL 2: Conservantes Salvo que se indique lo contrario, este tipo de productos solo abarca los destinados a prevenir el crecimiento de microbios y algas. Tipo de producto 6: Conservantes para los productos durante su almacenamiento Productos empleados para la conservación de productos manufacturados que no sean alimentos, piensos, productos cosméticos o medicinales ni productos sanitarios, mediante el control del deterioro microbiano con el fin de prolongar su vida útil.

Productos empleados como conservantes para el almacenamiento o utilización de cebos rodenticidas, insecticidas o de otro tipo. Tipo de producto 7: Conservantes para películas Productos empleados para la conservación de películas o recubrimientos mediante el control del deterioro microbiano o del crecimiento de algas, con el fin de proteger las propiedades iniciales de la superficie de materiales u objetos como pinturas, plásticos, selladores, adhesivos murales, aglutinantes, papeles u obras de arte. Tipo de producto 8: Protectores para maderas Productos empleados para la protección de la madera, desde la fase del aserradero inclusive, o los productos derivados de la madera, mediante el control de los organismos que destruyen o alteran la madera, incluidos los insectos. Se incluyen en este tipo de producto tanto los de carácter preventivo como curativo. Tipo de producto 9: Protectores de fibras, cuero, caucho y materiales polimerizados Productos empleados para la conservación de materiales fibrosos o polimerizados, como cuero, caucho o papel, o productos textiles mediante el control del deterioro microbiano. Este tipo de producto incluye los biocidas que impiden el depósito de microorganismos en la superficie de los materiales y, por consiguiente, inhiben o impiden la aparición de malos olores o presentan ventajas de otro tipo. Tipo de producto 10: Conservantes de materiales de construcción Productos empleados para la conservación de materiales de albañilería, materiales compuestos u otros materiales de construcción distintos de la madera

mediante el control de los ataques microbianos y por algas. Tipo de producto 11: Protectores para líquidos utilizados en sistemas de refrigeración y en procesos industriales Productos empleados para la conservación del agua u otros líquidos utilizados en sistemas de refrigeración y en procesos industriales mediante el control de los organismos nocivos como microbios, algas y mejillones. No se incluyen en este tipo de producto los productos empleados para la desinfección del agua potable o del agua de piscina. Tipo de producto 12: Productos antimoho Productos empleados para la prevención o el control de la proliferación de mohos sobre los materiales, equipos y estructuras utilizados en procesos industriales, por ejemplo la madera y pulpa de papel, estratos de arena porosa en la extracción de petróleo. Tipo de producto 13:Protectores de líquidos empleados para trabajar o cortar materiales Productos para controlar el deterioro microbiano de los líquidos empleados para trabajar o cortar metales, cristales u otros materiales. GRUPO PRINCIPAL 3: Plaguicidas Tipo de producto 14: Rodenticidas Productos empleados para el control de los ratones, ratas u otros roedores, por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. Tipo de producto 15: Avicidas Productos empleados para el control de las aves, por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. Tipo de producto 16: Molusquicidas, vermicidas y productos para controlar otros invertebrados

Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 89

Anexos

Productos empleados para el control de moluscos, gusanos e invertebrados no cubiertos por otros tipos de producto, por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. Tipo de producto 17: Piscicidas Productos empleados para el control de los peces, por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. Tipo de producto 18: Insecticidas, acaricidas y productos para controlar otros artrópodos Productos empleados para el control de los artrópodos (por ejemplo, insectos, arácnidos y crustáceos), por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. Tipo de producto 19: Repelentes y atrayentes Productos empleados para el control de los organismos nocivos (invertebrados como las pulgas; vertebrados como las aves, peces, roedores), mediante repulsión o atracción, incluidos los que se utilizan para la higiene veterinaria o humana, ya sea directamente sobre la piel o indirectamente en el entorno de las personas o animales. Tipo de producto 20: Control de otros animales vertebrados Productos empleados para el control de vertebrados distintos de los cubiertos por los demás tipos de producto de este grupo principal, por medios distintos de la repulsión o la atracción. GRUPO PRINCIPAL 4: Otros biocidas Tipo de producto 21: Productos antiincrustantes Productos empleados para el control de la fijación y crecimiento de organismos incrustantes (microbios o formas superiores de especies animales o vegetales) en barcos, equipos de acuicultura u otras estructuras acuáticas. Tipo de producto 22: Líquidos para embalsamamiento y taxidermia 90 Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas

Productos empleados para la desinfección y conservación de cadáveres animales o humanos o de partes de los mismos. Real Decreto 1221/2009, de 17 de julio, por el que se establecen normas básicas de ordenación de las explotaciones de ganado porcino extensivo y por el que se modifica el Real Decreto 1547/2004, de 25 de junio, por el que se establecen las normas de ordenación de las explotaciones cunícolas. Artículo 4. Condiciones mínimas de las explotaciones porcinas extensivas (sólo se incluyen los apartados referidos a infraestructuras y sanidad) 1 De carácter general.

d) Infraestructuras: Las explotaciones porcinas extensivas contarán con instalaciones suficientes, que permitan albergar a los animales en condiciones adecuadas, conforme a sus necesidades en las distintas etapas productivas. Además, a fin de mantener las condiciones higiénico-sanitarias y de bioseguridad, la explotación dispondrá de: i. Cercas: la superficie de la explotación porcina estará cerrada perimetralmente con una cerca o sistema equivalente que impida el tránsito incontrolado de animales y vehículos. ii. Acceso: todas las entradas asignadas para la recepción de vehículos de transporte de animales o de cualquier otro tipo, contarán con algún sistema eficaz para la desinfección de las ruedas y del resto del vehículo. Asimismo, dispondrán de un sistema apropiado para la desinfección del calzado de los operarios y visitantes. iii. Edificaciones: la disposición de las instalaciones permanentes de la explotación, utillajes y equipo posibilitará, en todo momento, la realización de una eficaz desinfección, desinfestación, desinsectación y desratización. iv. Instalaciones para aislamiento o secuestro: las explotaciones dispondrán de instalaciones

permanentes que permitan el aislamiento o secuestro, cuando por razones sanitarias sea necesario, de todos los animales de la explotación, de acuerdo con la capacidad máxima registrada. v. Control de visitas: en las explotaciones se dispondrá de un sistema eficaz de control o registro de visitas en el que se anoten todas las que se produzcan al área de las instalaciones permanentes y que permita, asimismo, la identificación de los vehículos que entren o salgan de la misma. vi. Utillaje y vestuario: en las explotaciones, los utillajes de limpieza y manejo y el vestuario del personal serán de uso exclusivo de cada explotación, y se dispondrá de las medidas necesarias higiénico-sanitarias y de bioseguridad para que el personal que desempeñe trabajo en ellas y el utillaje utilizado en las mismas no puedan transmitir enfermedades. e) Sobre sanidad. i. Programas sanitarios: las explotaciones porcinas extensivas deberán aplicar y mantener los programas y normas sanitarias contra las principales enfermedades de la especie sujetas a control oficial, aprobados por la autoridad competente y controlados y aplicados por el veterinario autorizado o habilitado. ii. Eliminación de subproductos: las explotaciones dispondrán de un sistema de recogida y almacenamiento de cadáveres y otros subproductos de origen animal no destinados a consumo humano, con vistas a su retirada y eliminación, que se realizará, en todo caso, de acuerdo con lo previsto en el Reglamento (CE) n.º 1774/2002 del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, de 3 de octubre de 2002, por el que se establecen las normas sanitarias aplicables a los subproductos animales no destinados al consumo humano. iii. Aquellas explotaciones que vendan animales destinados a la reproducción, para poder llevar

a cabo esta actividad deberán estar calificadas como indemnes u oficialmente indemnes de las enfermedades previstas en el anexo I. iv. Sólo se permitirá el movimiento de animales de desvieje con destino a centros de agrupamiento de reproductores para desvieje o directamente a matadero. En cualquier caso, los camiones deberán ir correctamente lavados y desinfectados, y se impedirán cargas compartidas con otras categorías de porcino. 2 Para explotaciones de porcino extensivo de nueva

creación: Las explotaciones de porcino extensivo que se instalen con posterioridad a la entrada en vigor del presente real decreto, deberán cumplir, además de las condiciones establecidas en el apartado 1 de este artículo, los siguientes requisitos: b) Infraestructuras: i. Las explotaciones instaladas con posterioridad a la entrada en vigor de este real decreto deberán, además, estar diseñadas para evitar la entrada de vehículos ajenos de abastecimiento de piensos, de carga y descarga de animales, y de retirada de estiércoles y purines y de animales muertos. Estas operaciones deberán realizarse desde fuera de la explotación, a través de un muelle de carga externo, estando totalmente prohibida la entrada del transportista. El muelle exterior deberá lavarse y desinfectarse tras la carga/ descarga de cada lote de cerdos. ii. No obstante, cuando la ubicación de la explotación así lo exija, se podrá admitir la entrada a la explotación de los vehículos mencionados en el párrafo anterior, siempre que, además de la cerca perimetral exigida en el apartado 1.d).1.º, las instalaciones permanentes de la explotación se encuentren incluidas en un recinto vallado. En este caso, las mencionadas operaciones de carga y descarga deberán realizarse desde fuera del recinto vallado. Bioseguridad en explotaciones ganaderas 91

Photo credits BASF 14 (top), 37, 39, 52, 55 (a-j), 60 BASF. Kyle Jordan Cover, 4, 6, 7, 14 (bottom), 17, 21, 25 (bottom right), 28, 40, 41, 44, 64, 65, 72, 78 Ricard Parés 22, 23, 24, 25 (top left, top right, bottom left), 26, 34, 35, 43 (left), 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 63, 68, 69, 70 Editorial Servet, Grupo Asís 20 (right) Shutterstock 8 (a-f and h), 9, 10, 12. 13, 18, 19, 20 (left, centre), 27, 31, 36, 37, 38, 43 (right), 53, 61 62, 66

Biosecurity in livestock holdings

Ricard Parés

BASF Española S.L.U C/Can Rábia 3-5 08017. Barcelona. España Teléfono: +34 934964000 Professional & Specialty Solutions pestinfo@basf.com

Biosecurity in livestock holdings Author: Ricard Parés