Global Ambition Local Action Climate Risks for Municipalities in British Columbia
 
A briefing by:
Jianfeng Jeffrey Qi Coordinator, Climate Multilateral Affairs British Columbia Council for International Cooperation (BCCIC)
Unless otherwise specified, you may not reproduce materials in this publication, in whole or in part, for the purposes of commercial redistribution without prior written permission from the British Columbia Council for International Cooperation. The British Columbia Council for International Cooperation (BCCIC) is a network of civil society organizations and individuals moving toward a better world based in British Columbia, Canada. Through this series of briefings, BCCIC hopes to provide informed, science-based, evidence-driven, bottom-up policy recommendations aimed at municipal level decision-makers and accelerate BC and its municipalities’ efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change impacts, with the vision of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For more information on BCCIC, please visit www.bccic.ca or contact us: Unit 322 - 268 Keefer St, Vancouver, BC, V6A 1X5 Phone 604-899-4475 Produced with the support of the Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions (PICS) and Global Affairs Canada. All intellectual content including omissions and errors remains the responsibility and property of the BC Council for International Cooperation. 
Introduction to the Global Ambition, Local Action Policy Brief Series British Columbia has just experienced a summer with unprecedented high temperature and another intense wildfire season. The sky of Vancouver was covered with the dusty and orange colour with the smell of the smoke coming from hundreds of miles away from the interior. Prince George’s morning looked like it was 10 pm at night, and the nearby City of Kimberly had to issue force evacuation order due to the thick smoke and the burning forests. These extreme natural disasters and irregular weather patterns can be traced back to a rapidly changing climate due to anthropogenic climate change. We are at the forefront of climate change impacts: heatwaves, forest fires, irregular weather patterns, biodiversity loss, invasive species, icecap melt, sea level rise, loss of agricultural land, and more. Its impacts can be felt across BC. By 2050, it will be 1.8 ºC warmer yearround province-wide with an increase in annual precipitation by 6%; we will no longer see as much snow in Whistler when it is peak skiing season and the residents in the interior will need more air conditioning during summer months.1 Our world is an interconnected, dynamic system that when one of its components fails, the rest will follow. Climate change is an issue concerning people’s lives and livelihoods. The responsibility of climate mitigation and adaptation is bound to all sectors of the society. In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution releasing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that called on its member states and the civil society to build a sustainable future with 17 global goals and the accompanying 169 targets – the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Global Goals, along with the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its subsidiary agencies and agreements (including the Paris Agreement), they serve as the global frameworks that steer climate !1
action and sustainable development. Despite global efforts, however, we are still not on track with the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction needed to lessen the rates and impacts of anthropogenic climate change. In fact, global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions actually rose by 1.4% in 2017.2 Even worse, due to the feedback delays within a complex, interconnected and dynamic global ecosystem, the inertia of climate change will continue to push the whole system approaching the tipping point even when human stop pumping GHGs into the atmosphere altogether, and at which point it would be too late to stop and too tricky to solve. 3 Tackling an issue at such magnitude requires actors from all levels to contribute. As Parker, Rhodes, and Schwartz wrote in Environmental Health that “climate change, energy scarcity, water scarcity, food production, land use, and the connections among them require local responses.� 4 Local governments play an important role in climate mitigation and adaptation for their ability to implement green policies and disaster reduction plans that fit local context and their role as a primary-level direct service-provider to the citizenry.5 Municipal government also plays a crucial role in terms of building capacity for grassroots actions and increase resilience across sectors. Municipalities in BC are responsible for providing direct services for approximately 89% of British Columbians (Province of British Columbia, n.d.), giving them an indispensable role in achieving local emissions reduction and local risk adaptation in support of provincial and federal efforts in climate action. In the Canadian federal system, governance is divided into federal and provincial jurisdictions as prescribed by section 91 and 92 of the Canadian Constitution. Note that the Canadian Constitution does not prescribe powers to the municipal !2
The smoke of forest fires in interior BC can be seen from an airplane (picture/Jianfeng Qi)
governments. Under section 92 of the Constitution Act, provincial governments are responsible for establishing and delegating legal jurisdictions to municipal governments. In BC, 161 municipalities receive their mandate through the Community Charter and the Local Government Act, and the City of Vancouver‘s legal jurisdiction is defined in the Vancouver Charter. 6
"[Subnational actors] play a key role in building confidence in governments concerning the implementation of climate policies and inspire higher national and global ambition.”5.1 BC is a signatory of the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change – a coordinated national plan to reduce GHG emissions, develop and invest in low-carbon technologies, create an equitable carbon pricing scheme, and build resiliency across the nation. Both the Framework and the Expert Panel on Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience report reaffirmed the importance for each community and region to identify their own climate mitigation and adaptation priorities in prevention, preparedness, response and recovery of climate-related hazards, especially in incorporating “climate change adaptation as part of municipal planning, including through incorporating adaptation considerations in land-use and infrastructure decision-making and encouraging action at the local level.” 7 Negotiators at the UN Climate Change Conferences 2017 reaffirmed that meaningful climate action requires an inclusive, bottom-up approach that leaves no one behind. To achieve the emissions reduction targets promised by the Canadian government under the Paris Agreement and the goals set in the Pan-Canadian Framework, municipalities’ participation is crucial for a bottom-up driven strategy that will guide Canada into a prosperous, resilient and carbon-neutral economy. !3
This set of policy briefs hopes to provide science-based, evidence-driven policy recommendations aimed at municipal decision-makers that integrate climate change mitigation and adaptation into the core of governments’ business and improve the institutional capacity building. These recommendations are not technical guidelines, but a policy framework to which municipal governments in BC may adopt to increase their climate ambition. 
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Climate Change in British Columbia Environmental degradation and climate change are cross-cutting and persistent crisis vis-à vis human lives and livelihoods. A problem of such scale and severity undermines the countries’ ability to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and threats the survival of certain states, particularly the small island developing states and the least developed countries.
What is Climate Change? Climate change is due to a process called positive radiative forcing which warms the Earth by absorbing and sending back the infrared radiation toward the lower atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. The Earth is warmer for complex organism habitation through this radiation trapping mechanism. The gases that facilitate this absorption of heat are called greenhouse gases, or GHGs. Common GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), halocarbons (CFCs, HCFCs, O3), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), methane, and water vapour. Since the industrial revolution, the amount of GHG concentration in our atmosphere has and is increasing rapidly due to land-use change and the use of fossil fuel, which in turn strengthened the global radiative forcing that accelerated global warming. 8 Other indicators of global climate change include: a shrinking thermosphere, cooling stratosphere, less heat escape detected in space, less oxygen and more fossil fuel carbon in the air, more fossil fuel carbon detected in the coral reefs worldwide, rising tropopause, and nights warming faster than days.8
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Responding to climate change is far more like a marathon than a sprint.
The graph shows the observed global temperature change due to cumulative emissions of CO2 and the modelled responses to stylised anthropogenic emission and future non-CO2 radiative forcing pathways.
At current rates, we’ll hit 1.5ºC on a decadal-average basis by ~2040. The first year above 1.5ºC will occur substantially earlier, likely associated with a big El Niño event in the late 2020s/early 2030s. (Graph/IPCC)
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Climate change poses a serious threat to the livelihood of humanity across the world. The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report suggests human activities have contributed to at least 1ºC of global mean surface temperature warming and projects a 1.5ºC warming between 2030 and 2052 if we continue to emit greenhouse gases (GHGs) like business as usual, and a potential for 2ºC. 9 The report’s Summary for Policy Makers mentioned that tundra and boreal forests – which covers the majority of Canada’s northern region – are particularly at risk of climate change-induced degradation and loss, with woody shrubs encroaching into the tundra ecosystem. Warren and Lemmen cited in the Expert Panel report wrote that “most regions of Canada are expected to see an increase in the extent and severity of forest fires, and the projected rise in the number of heavy precipitation events increases the risk of flooding” and Canada is warming at twice the global rate, even faster in winter. 10
Climate Change Impacts on BC BC is at the forefront of the adverse effects of global warming and irregular weather patterns attributed to the changing climate: the mountain pine beetle infestation devastated BC’s forestry industry between 1990 and 2008; the seasonal droughts and the gradual shortage of water supply during the summer season; and the increasingly intense and expensive wildfire seasons threatening BC’s communities, industries, and biodiversity. By 2050, BC’s annual mean ground temperature will increase 1.8ºC; precipitation will increase 6% annually province-wide with 1% decrease in summer and 8% increase in winter; provincial mean snowfall level will decrease 10% in winter and 58% in spring; mean growing degree days will increase by 283 degree days while main heating degree days will decrease by 648 degree days; and lastly, there will be 20 more mean frost-free days in BC provincewide.1 A full figure is shown in Table 1 on Page 9. !7
To summarize Table 1, compare to the baseline 1961-1990 data, in 2050 BC will:
• Experience warmer temperatures year-round: an increase in mean temperature for both daytime and nighttime, more hot summer days and less winters with ice or frost.
• Less snowfall: a decrease in province-wide mean snowfall in winter and especially in spring.
• More rain projected for winter: total annual rainfall is expected to increase during winter and spring, pressuring sewage systems.
• Decrease snowpack: mountainous snowpack and watersheds are expected to see a 50% decrease.
• Longer agricultural growing season: due to the overall warm weather, there will be an increase in agricultural growing days.
• Less demand for heating in the future: due to the warm weather and less snowfall, heating demand will likely to decrease in the next three decades, especially for the southern region. Climate change exacerbates existing climate impacts while bringing new risks to British Columbian’s safety, health, and properties. Coastal and island regions of BC face the threat of sea-level rise and farmers fear salt-water intrusion; in the interior wildfires cause significant damage to the province’s natural asset and endangering nearby communities. The following section lists and briefly describes some of the major impacts British Columbia faces in an age of changing climate.
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Projected Change from 1961-1990 Baseline Climate Variable
Season Ensemble Median
Mean temperature (ºC)
Precipitation (%)
Range (10th to 90th Percentile)
Annual
+1.8 ºC
+1.3 °C to +2.7 °C
Annual
6%
+2% to +12%
Summer
–1%
–8% to +6%
Winter
8%
–2% to +15%
Winter
–10%
–17% to +2%
Spring
–58%
–71% to –14%
Annual
+283 degree-day
+179 to +429 degree-day
Annual
–648 degree-day
–952 to –459 degree-day
Annual
+20 days
+12 to +29 days
Snowfall* (%) Growing Degree Days* (Days) Heating Degree Days* (Days) Frost-Free Days* (Days)
Table 1: Summary of Climate Change for British Columbia in the 2050s The data is publicly available on the Plan2Adapt web-tool provided by the Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium. The table above shows projected changes in average (mean) temperature, precipitation and several derived climate variables from the baseline historical period (1961-1990) to the 2050s for the entire province. The ensemble median is a mid-point value, chosen from a PCIC standard set of Global Climate Model (GCM) projections (see Appendix I for more information). The range values represent the lowest and highest results within the set.
* These values are derived from temperature and precipitation.
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Extreme weather events and heatwaves With climate change, there is an increasing number of extreme weather events around the globe. Warming temperature with less snowfall causes a lack of moisture in the ground that would increases the likelihood of intensified wildfires and long-lasting dryspells. In the meantime, rising precipitation in some regions combined with stronger king-surges and storm surges will put extra strains on the storm-water system and dykes, that increases the risk of flooding and dyke-system failure. Extreme weather events threaten human lives and livelihoods, putting extra pressure on emergency services, population health, and postdisaster insurance costs. On top of these, extreme weather events may incur irreversible damage to infrastructure systems; causing ecosystem and natural asset loss; disrupting food production and endangers food security. BC will experience more frequent heatwaves in the coming years.11 Heatwave is defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) as periods of unusually hot weather – usually more than five consecutive days with temperatures at least 5°C above the average maximum temperature during the 1961 to 1990 baseline period. 12 Globally, heatwaves are getting longer, stronger, and more frequent. This trend will likely to continue, especially in high latitudes of North America and Europe.13 As a result, public health agencies will likely to observe an increase in heat-related illness and mortality, particularly heat stroke, cardiovascular and respiratory illness amongst vulnerable populations.14 Heatwaves may also impact the agricultural industry: heat extreme damages crop and threatens the lives of livestock; it also impacts energy use and costs as warmer weather requires the expansion of refrigeration that is counterproductive to climate mitigation.15  
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Heatwave across BC On June 12, 2019, record-breaking heatwaves can be felt across the province. According to Environment Canada, 17 local temperature records were broken on a single day. Both Vancouver and Victoria reached a high temperature of 29.1ºC to 29.6ºC, the highest on record for early June. Meanwhile, Princeton, Agassiz, and Chilliwack experienced a 33 ° C high temperature. 16 In 2016, various communities in BC experienced considerably elevated temperatures, including “32.2ºC in Pitt Meadows, 36.5ºC in Squamish, 35.5ºC in Port Alberni, and 36ºC in Kamloops.” 17 The Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium predicts a +1.3 °C to +2.7 °C increase in annual mean temperature for all regions in BC. 18 In fact, the BC Centre for Disease Control (BCCDC) notes that all ecoregion of BC have experienced a considerable high-temperature increase in the past decade. The BC Coast ecoregion has an average mean temperature of 19.9ºC, reaching maximum temperatures on particularly hot days of approximately 35.5ºC. The Dry Plateau region of BC has average temperatures of approximately 24.2ºC and maximum heat of 38.4ºC. The Mountain ecoregion has average temperatures of 21.0ºC and maximum temperatures of 33.5ºC. North Ecoregion has average temperatures of 18.6ºC and maximum temperatures of 33.1ºC. 19
Heatwaves can be more and more common in BC. Municipalities need to ensure emergency plans are in place to respond to extreme heat events, supporting vulnerable populations. (Photo/Vancouver Sun)
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Extreme Weather Events BC is experiencing more frequent extreme weather events, such as abnormal heavy snowfall in the Lower Mainland region, major flooding in the Kootenay Boundary-region, wildfire that darkened Prince George, and storms that swept away White Rock’s iconic pier.20 These extreme weather events seem to be the work of nature. However, a closer look would indicate that these are all anomalies induced by El Niño and La Niña effect due to global climate regime shift. As more and more of these events unfold, local governments need to be prepared to respond to these threats to human lives and livelihoods.
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Sea-Level Rise The latest IPCC report suggests a 1.5ºC global warming pathway would lead to a 0.26-0.77 m in global sea-level rise by 2100, endangering the lives and loverhoods of many people who live on small islands, low-lying coastal areas and deltas around the world. 21 There is a chance that ice-free Arctic Ocean in summer will happened once every 10 years and every century if the climate pathway is heading towards 2ºC and 1.5ºC, respectively. These can be contributed to the marine ice-sheet instability in Antarctica and the irreversible loss of the Greenland ice sheet that would result in multi-metre sea-level rise if we continue the ‘business as usual’ emissions pathway. BC is facing the threat of sea-level rise that would impact our agricultural industry, coastal populated regions, and risking seawater intrusion into our rivers and waterways. Based on the indicators by the Government of BC, sea-level is rising at a rate of 25 centimetres per century along the southwest coast of Vancouver Island, 13.3 centimetres at Prince Rupert, 6.6 centimetres at Victoria, and 3.7 centimetres at Vancouver. 22 Combined with stronger storm surges and tides, a higher sea-level will increase the rate of shoreline inundation, coastal erosion, and the impact of storm surge; further increase the risk of aquifers With further increase in sea-level along coastal BC area, the existing dyke system will fail to contamination, flooding, and dyke-system failure; provide efficient support to coastal communities putting strain on municipal storm water and like Richmond, BC. Figure created by Reber Creative from the Government of BC report (see sewage system and the healthcare system. 23 White et al. 2016).
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Agriculture There are both adverse and positive impacts on BC’s agricultural industry. In general, farmers across the province is experiencing changing hydrology at or near agricultural lands; increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events; increase in site moisture and coastal flooding risks; interruption to pollination; and changes in pests and diseases. These impacts will cause hardships and challenges to BC farmers. The BC Agriculture and Food Climate Action Initiative summarized the potential impacts of climate change on BC agricultural industry: seasonal water stress, increase in demand for water irrigation, decrease in suitability of some crops, damage or interruptions to local agricultural infrastructure and supply chain, seasonal pressure on water drainage and management, salination of crop soil, increase in prevention and delays in pollination, increase in existing and new invasive species and pests; and overall an increase in crop damages and livestock mortality, as well as a rise in the complexity of management and the cost associated to production.24 However, warmer temperature in BC increases the growing degree days and increase the variability of growing season conditions. The growing degree day is a derived variable that indicates the amount of heat energy available for plant growth; it is used in determining the growth potential of crops in a given area.25 Increasing growing degree days and frost-free days will open the potential of introducing new varieties of crop types, forage, and field vegetable crops, decrease heating costs in winter, and increase growing season.26 
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Public Health The World Health Organization (WHO) describes climate change as one of the greatest public health threats in the 21st century, but tackling climate change might also be the biggest opportunity for creating global health co-benefits. 27 Climate change is an allencompassing issue where its downstream effects poses risks to all aspects of our lives, including respiratory health, nutrition and food security, disease prevention, and mental health. Firstly, Disease risks are influenced by climate variables and conditions. Climate change alters the pathway for waterborne, food-borne, and vector-borne diseases in a significant way. Common water-borne diseases will become a more significant problem for public health as climate change continues to affect both marine and freshwater ecosystems. A recent harmful blue-green algae blooms at Prior Lake in the Capital Regional District is an example of how warmer water temperature and eutrophication may contribute to harmful algae blooms (HABs) in BC. 28 HABs can suffocate the marine and freshwater fish reside in the HAB-affected area and local shellfish may contain residual toxins from the HAB. Eating contaminated shellfish or seafood may result in paralytic shellfish poisoning, ciguatera, and other gastrointestinal diseases. 29 Intensified storms and extreme rainfall events can cause flooding risk, which may contaminate drinking water sources for both humans and livestock via unfiltered runoff and sewage system overload discharge. These cross-contamination may potentially cause gastrointestinal diseases outbreak like cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis. 30 The 1993 Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis outbreak was a result of heavy rainfall event attributed disease outbreak. 
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Secondly, changing climate conditions affect the distribution of a vector-borne infectious agents and the resulting exposure risks. Infectious agents such as mosquitos, rodents, and insects may move to the northern part of the province where the environment will not be as cold as it is in the past. A study based on projected climate change patterns in 2004 predicts that there will be an increase in suitable habitat for Ixodes scapularis – the main vector of Lyme disease in North America – by 213% by the 2080s.31 Thirdly, mental health consequences are likely to increase with more frequent climaterelated natural disasters. Following a disaster, low social or economic support, displacement, property loss, physical injury, loss of significant others cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety-mood disorder, depression, and other psychiatric illnesses. 32 Forced relocation of Indigenous peoples from their traditional and ancestral territories where exists high cultural and ceremonial values may cause stress as well. Persistent climate crisis may also exacerbate feelings of anxiety, depression, hopelessness, and despair.33 In addition, respiratory diseases are on the rise due to air pollution, ozone, and aeroallergens.34 Ozone is a pollutant that concentrates in warmer weather; and since climate change is making summers hotter, thus suggesting warmer summers will worsen air quality and exacerbate ozone season. Allergy season will likely be longer due to longer growing seasons of pollen-dispersing plants. This will be a bad news for millions having asthma and putting a string on the healthcare system. 
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Wildfires Climate change is increasing the incidence of extensive wildfires, particularly in the Western Hemisphere. 35 Factors linking climate change with the more frequent and intense wildfire season including:
• • • •
Droughts; Warmer climate; Higher springtime temperature that fastened snow-melt and thus lowering soil moisture; Rise of invasive pests that increase the amount of dead and dry trees in the forest.
Wildfires threaten human lives and livelihoods and cause massive economic and productivity losses for municipalities. Fire smoke may also cause cardiac arrest and acute respiratory problems such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. In 2017, 1.2 million hectares of forest were burnt down, costing $560 million and some 65,000 people were forced to evacuate. Municipalities need to be prepared, especially when summers are getting warmer. This means evacuations plans, fire department readiness, emergency supplies, and relocation services.
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Acknowledgement We would like to thank the following organization and government agency for their support toward this research project: Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions (PICS)
Global Affairs Canada
This report could not have been completed without the help of the following staff, interns, and volunteers at BCCIC: Diane Connors
Dan Harris
Gen Nacionales
Sadie DeCoste
Colton Kasteel
Michael Simpson
Deborah Glaser
Bronwyn Moore
Keila Stark
We would also like to recognize the important contributions and support of these individuals and organizations, whose input throughout this project was greatly appreciated: BC Climate Action Secretariat
Dr. Sarah Hughes
Sara Muir-Owen
BC Ministry of Municipal Affaires and Housing
Dr. Amy Lubik
City of North Vancouver: Larisa Lensink
Dr. Michael Brauer
Dr. Timothy McDaniels
City of Prince George: Joshua Kelly
City of Burnaby: Simone Rousseau, Mark Sloat, Lise Townsend
Metro Vancouver Regional District: Neal Carley, Paul Henderson, Brent Kirkpatrick, Heather McNell, Roger Quan, Conor Reynolds, Rod Tulett
Dr. Elizabeth Schwartz
Dr. Tara Moreau
Barbara Wilson
Capital Regional District: Nikki Elliott, Liz Ferris Joey Doyle
City of Surrey: Tjaša Demšar, Emily Kwok Dr. Matilda van den Bosch
̓ m (Musqueam), sḵwx̱wú7mesh We would like to acknowledge that this project took place on the ancestral, unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəyə ̓ ̓ waθən məsteyəxʷ (Tsawwassen) nations. (Squamish), selíl̓ witulh (Tsleil-Waututh) and scə We make this acknowledgement to pay our profound respect to the host of this land in their stewardship for time immemorial, and to remind ourselves of the history and their present-day implications to our society as a whole.
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References and Notes 1
Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium. 2012. “Plan2Adapt.” 2012. http://www.plan2adapt.ca/.
2
IEA. 2018. “Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2017.” Paris. http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ GECO2017.pdf%0Ahttps://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/GECO2017.pdf.
3
Meadows, Donella. 2008. Thinking in Systems: A Primer. Edited by Diana Wright. Chelsea Green Publishing.
4
Frumkin, Howard. 2016. Environmental Health : From Global to Local. Edited by Howard Frumkin. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. http:// ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=4405576.
5
See:
1.
5.1 UNEP. 2018. “Bridging the Emissions Gap - The Role of Non-State and Subnational Actors.” Nairobi: United Nations;
2.
Regmi, Bimal Raj, Cassandra Star, and Walter Leal Filho. 2016. “An Overview of the Opportunities and Challenges of Promoting Climate Change Adaptation at the Local Level: A Case Study from a Community Adaptation Planning in Nepal.” Climatic Change 138 (3–4): 537–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-016-1765-3;
3.
Ramos-Castillo, Ameyali, Edwin J. Castellanos, and Kirsty Galloway McLean. 2017. “Indigenous Peoples, Local Communities and Climate Change Mitigation.” Climatic Change 140 (1): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-016-1873-0.
4.
Picketts, Ian M., John Curry, and Eric Rapaport. 2012. “Community Adaptation to Climate Change: Environmental Planners’ Knowledge and Experiences in British Columbia, Canada.” Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning 14 (2): 119–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2012.659847.
5.
Hughes, Sara, Eric K Chu, and Susan G Mason. 2018. Climate Change in Cities. Cham: Springer Nature.
6
Province of British Columbia. n.d. “Municipalities in BC.” https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/local-governments/factsframework/systems/municipalities.
7
Expert Panel on Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience Results. 2018. “Measuring Progress on Adaptation and Climate Resilience: Recommendations to the Government of Canada.” Gatineau: The Government of Canada.
8
IPCC. 2014. “Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” Geneva. http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/.
9
–––. 2018. “Global Warming of 1.5°C: Summary for Policymakers on the IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 °C above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response To Climate Change.” Geneva. http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf. !19
10
Warren, F.J., and D.S. Lemmen. 2014. “Canada in a Changing Climate: Sector Perspectives on Impacts and Adaptation.” Edited by F.J. Warren and D.S. Lemmen. Ottawa, ON: The Government of Canada.
11
White, Thomas, Johanna Wolf, Faron Anslow, Arelia Werner, and Reber Creative. 2016. Indicators of Climate Change for British Columbia: Update 2016. National Library of Canada. Vol. 4. https://doi.org/ISBN 0-7726-4732-1.
12
Patz, Jonathan A, and Howard Frumkin. 2016. “Climate Change and Human Health.” In Environmental Health : From Global to Local, edited by Howard Frumkin, 3rd ed., 398–455. John Wiley & Sons.
13
Goodess, 2003 cited in Patz & Frumkin, 2016.
14
Metro Vancouver. 2018. “Climate 2050 Strategic Framework.” Burnaby.
15
Ibid.
16
Smith, Charlie. "17 Temperature Records Broken in B.C. Heat Wave, including in Vancouver and Victoria." Georgia Straight Vancouver's News & Entertainment Weekly. June 16, 2019. Accessed July 01, 2019. https://www.straight.com/news/1254266/17temperature-records-fall-bc-heat-wave-including-vancouver-and-victoria.
17
Lubik, Amy, Geoff McKee, Tina Chen, and Tom Kosatsky. 2017. “Municipal Heat Response Planning in British Columbia, Canada.” BC Centre for Disease Control. Vancouver, BC.
18
Pacific Climate Impact Consortium. 2012.
19
Lubik et al. 2017.
20
Little, Simon. "B.C. Year in Review 2018: Storms, Smoke, Snow round out Year of Wild Weather." Global News. December 23, 2018. Accessed February 06, 2019. https://globalnews.ca/news/4779911/b-c-year-in-review-2018-storms-smoke-snow-wild-weather/.
21
IPCC. 2018.
22
White et al. 2016.
23
White et al. 2016; Patz and Frumkin 2016.
24
BC Agriculture & Food Climate Action Initiative. 2013. “Delta BC Agriculture Climate Change Regional Adaptation Strategies Series.” Vancouver: BC Agriculture & Food Climate Action Initiative. http://www.bcagclimateaction.ca/wp/wp-content/media/ RegionalStrategies-Delta.pdf.
25
Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium. 2012.
26
Ibid.
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27
Wang, Helena, and Richard Horton. 2015. “Tackling Climate Change: The Greatest Opportunity for Global Health.” The Lancet 386 (10006): 1798–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60931-X.
28
Capital Regional District. 2018. “Blue-Green Algae Alert Remains in Effect at Prior Lake.” September 28, 2018. https://www.crd.bc.ca/ docs/default-source/parks-pdf/blue-green-algae-advisory-prior-lake.pdf?sfvrsn=ad1f4ca_8; and Environmental Protection Agency. 2017. “Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms.” March 9, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/climatechange-and-harmful-algal-blooms.
29
Patz, Jonathan A, and Howard Frumkin. 2016.
30
Ibid.
31
Brownstein, John S., Theodore R. Holford, and Durland Fish. 2005. “Effect of Climate Change on Lyme Disease Risk in North America.” EcoHealth 2 (1): 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-004-0139-x.
32
Pietrzak, Robert H., Peter H. Van Ness, Terri R. Fried, Sandro Galea, and Fran H. Norris. 2013. “Trajectories of Posttraumatic Stress Symptomatology in Older Persons Affected by a Large-Magnitude Disaster.” Journal of Psychiatric Research 47 (4): 520–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.12.005.
33
Doherty, Thomas J., and Susan Clayton. 2011. “The Psychological Impacts of Global Climate Change.” American Psychologist 66 (4): 265–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023141; Patz, Jonathan A, and Howard Frumkin. 2016.
34
Patz, Jonathan A, and Howard Frumkin. 2016.
35
Abatzoglou, John T. and A. Park Williams. 2016. "Impact of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Wildfire Across Western US Forests." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113 (42): 11770-11775.
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