History Alive! The United States Through Industrialism SE and ISN Sample (Unit 4 Lesson 11) by Teachers' Curriculum Institute (TCI)

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200 Unit 4

Unit 4

Launching the New Republic 11 Political Developments in the Early Republic 12 Foreign Affairs in the Young Nation 13 A Growing Sense of Nationhood 14 Andrew Jackson and the Growth of American Democracy

A statue of George Washington stands before the columns of Federal Hall in New York City. Here, Washington was inaugurated as the nation’s first president in 1789.

Unit 4 Setting the Stage Launching the New Republic

republic as well. The nation’s first 50 years also saw the birth of the first political parties, another war fought with Great Britain, and the election of the nation’s first western president. In addition, transportation links had been built, and many of the nation’s American Indians had been relocated west of the Mississippi River.

The 50 years following the drafting of the Constitution were a time of great change for the United States. By 1838, a total of 13 new states had joined the original 13, as shown on the map. New territory had been added to the

Growth and Change in the United States, 1789–1839

New Hampshire 1788 Vermont 1791

Boston

River

New Orleans

State and year admitted to Union

U.S. territory

National capital

Massachusetts 1788

CHI

ppi issi iss M

PACIFIC OCEAN

City

Maine 1820

Rhode Island e 1790 New Eri . Connecticut York L Pennsylvania 1788 M New Jersey 1787 Ohio Baltimore 1787 Illinois 1803 1818 Indiana Washington, Delaware 1816 D.C. 1787 Missouri Virginia Maryland 1821 Kentucky 1788 1788 1792 North Carolina Tennessee 1789 1796 Trail o s r f Tea South A Carolina Arkansas 1788 1836 Georgia Charleston Mississippi 1788 1817 Alabama Louisiana 1819 1812 Michigan 1837

Oregon Country (claimed by United States and Great Britain)

1788 l Erie C a na

Hud s o n R.

o tari York On

New

uron eH

Lake Michigan

Lak

upe ke S rior La

Gulf of Mexico

300

600 miles

0 300 600 kilometers Albers Conic Equal-Area Projection

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Along with new states and territories came a steady increase in population, as the U.S. population graph illustrates. Seven presidents served in office from 1789 to 1837, beginning with George Washington and ending with Andrew Jackson. Both men came to the presidency as military heroes—Washington from the American Revolution and Jackson from the War of 1812. In this unit, you will learn about key events that occurred during the administrations of Washington through Jackson. Some of those events are listed below. 1789: George Washington takes the oath of office as the first president of the United States in New York City, the nation’s capital at the time.

During the War of 1812, U.S. forces turn back a British attack on Baltimore, Maryland. The Americans’ defense of Fort McHenry inspires Francis Scott Key to write “The Star-Spangled Banner,” which later becomes the country’s national anthem. 1815: An American army led by General Andrew Jackson defeats the British in the Battle of New Orleans, which is the final battle of the War of 1812. The Battle of New Orleans is also the greatest U.S. victory of the war, and it makes Jackson a national hero.

1794: An army led by President Washington crushes the Whiskey Rebellion, an uprising by some frontier farmers who resisted paying certain taxes.

1825: The Erie Canal opens. Begun in 1817, the canal creates a water route connecting Lake Erie and the Hudson River. Its success initiates a canal-building boom in the United States. You can locate the Erie Canal in the state of New York on the map Growth and Change in the United States, 1789-1839.

1800: John Adams, the nation’s second president, is the first president to live in Washington, D.C., the new capital city, in the still-unfinished White House.

1828: Andrew Jackson of Tennessee is elected the nation’s seventh president. He is the first president to come from a state other than Virginia or Massachusetts.

1814: In a conflict between the United States and Great Britain known as the War of 1812, British forces capture Washington, D.C. The British burn the White House, the Capitol, and other government buildings.

1838–1839: Troops round up the remaining Cherokee in the East and move them west along a route that becomes known as the Trail of Tears. The Trail of Tears, shown on the map, is located in the southern United States.

U.S. Population, 1790–1840

Population (millions)

United States

North

South

Midwest

10 8 6 4 2 0

1790

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

Year Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Launching the New Republic 203

204 Lesson 11

Lesson 11

Political Developments in the Early Republic How did the Federalist and Republican visions for the United States differ? Introduction After the American Revolution, leaders worked to guide the government formed under the Constitution. Look at the illustration of the four important leaders in the government. On the far right stands George Washington, who had been lured out of retirement to serve as the nation’s first president. Seldom has a leader seemed more reluctant to take power. “My movements to the chair of government,” he wrote on leaving home, “will be accompanied by feelings not unlike those of a culprit who is going to the place of his execution.” Henry Knox sits opposite Washington. During the American Revolution, Henry Knox, a bookseller in Boston, became a general and Washington’s close friend and adviser. When Washington became president in 1789, he made Knox his secretary of war. Two more important leaders in the early government were Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton, who stands beside the president, served as Washington’s secretary of the treasury. Jefferson, who stands behind Knox, served as secretary of state. He managed relations between the United States and other countries. Washington chose Hamilton and Jefferson for these positions because of all they had in common. Both were patriots who had served their country during the war. Both also had brilliant minds. However, for all they had in common, the two men were opposites in many ways. Hamilton dressed with great care, while Jefferson was sloppy with clothes. Hamilton was a doer who moved from task to task, but Jefferson was a thinker who took time to explore ideas. As you will discover, Hamilton and Jefferson soon became political rivals. Their conflicting visions about the role of government eventually gave rise to the nation’s first political parties and continue to influence America today.

Social Studies Vocabulary loose construction nullify sedition States’ Doctrine strict construction Washington’s Farewell Address Whiskey Rebellion

George Washington meets with his close advisers, Henry Knox, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 205

1. Launching the New Government On April 30, 1789, George Washington took the oath of office as the first president of the United States. After his inauguration, Washington addressed both houses of Congress and asked them to work with him to put into place “the wise measures on which the success of this government must depend.” At times, his hands shook so much that he had trouble reading his speech.

Martha Washington, on the left, held tea parties on Friday evenings at the presidential mansion in New York City. At these parties, people could discuss important issues with President Washington, shown near the center.

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The Debate over Washington’s Title Washington had reason to be nervous because the first Congress was deeply divided. Some members were eager to build a strong national government, while others were just as eager to limit the power of the new government. These differences showed up immediately in a debate over what title to use when addressing the president. Vice President John Adams pointed out that European heads of government had titles like “Your Excellency” that showed respect for their office. The president, he argued, should have a similar title. Supporters of a strong national government agreed. Others argued that such titles smelled of royalty and had no place in a democracy. A few members of Congress joked that the rather plump Adams should be given the title “His Rotundity” (His Roundness). The debate finally ended when Washington let it be known that he preferred the simple title “Mr. President.” Setting Up the Executive Branch Next, Congress turned to the task of creating executive departments. As Washington had feared, arguments broke out at once over what those departments should be and what powers they should have. Congress eventually approved three departments. The Department of State was set up to handle relations with other countries. The Department of War was established to defend the nation. The Treasury Department was set up to oversee the nation’s finances. Congress also created an attorney general to serve as the president’s legal adviser and a postmaster general to head the postal system. Washington chose men he trusted—such as Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and Henry Knox—to fill these positions as he often met with them to ask for their ideas and advice. The heads of the executive departments came to be known as the president’s cabinet.

2. Washington as President The most critical problem facing the new government was that the national treasury was empty and the nation had no money. Congress had the power to raise funds through taxes, but its members argued endlessly about what to tax and by how much. In 1791, Congress finally agreed to place an excise tax, or a tax on the production or sale of a product, on whiskey and other luxury goods, such as carriages. The Whiskey Rebellion Settlers living west of the Appalachian Mountains reacted angrily to the tax. Because western farmers found it too costly to transport their grain across the mountains to sell in eastern cities, they distilled their bulky wheat into whiskey, which could be shipped more cheaply. Many farmers complained that the tax made their whiskey too expensive, so they refused to pay it. To end these protests, Congress lowered the excise tax in 1793. Most farmers began to pay up, but not the tax rebels of western Pennsylvania. In 1794, these “Whiskey Boys” tarred and feathered tax collectors who tried to enforce the law. Alexander Hamilton and George Washington saw the Whiskey Rebellion as a threat to the authority of the national government. At Hamilton’s urging, Washington led 13,000 state militia troops across the mountains to crush the rebels. Faced with overwhelming force, the rebellion ended. Thomas Jefferson thought that the idea of sending an army to catch a few tax rebels was foolish. Even worse, he believed, was that Hamilton was prepared to violate people’s liberties by using armed force to put down opposition to government policies. The French Revolution In 1789, the French people rebelled against their king, and Americans became caught up in a debate over the events in France. The leaders of the French Revolution dreamed of building a nation based on “liberty, equality, and fraternity [brotherhood].” Three years later, France became a republic and declared “a war of all peoples against all kings.” Many Americans were thrilled by the French Revolution. This was especially true of Jefferson and his followers, who began calling themselves Democratic-Republicans, or simply Republicans. The Republicans saw the French Revolution as part of a great crusade for democracy.

The tax on whiskey upset many farmers west of the Appalachians. In western Pennsylvania, tax rebels tarred and feathered tax collectors who were responsible for enforcing the law. Washington and his army intervened to end the riots.

Whiskey Rebellion a revolt

by farmers in 1794 against an excise tax on whiskey

Political Developments in the Early Republic 207

When the French Revolution turned violent and thousands of nobles were beheaded on the guillotine, many Americans withdrew their support for the revolution.

In time, news from France caused supporters of the revolution to change their opinion. Cheered on by angry mobs, France’s revolutionary government began beheading wealthy nobles, resulting in some 20,000 men, women, and children being killed. Hamilton and his followers, who called themselves Federalists, were appalled by the bloodshed, because many of them were wealthy. After hearing about the fate of wealthy families in France, they began to fear for their own safety, wondering whether such terrors could happen in the United States. “Behold France,” warned one Federalist, “an open hell . . . in which we see . . . perhaps our own future.”

Washington’s Farewell Address George Washington’s

parting message to the nation, given in 1796, in which he warned of threats to the nation’s future

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Washington’s Farewell Address The growing division between Republicans and Federalists so disturbed Washington that he agreed to run for a second term as president in 1792. He was the only person, Hamilton and Jefferson told him, who could keep the nation together. Near the end of his second term, Washington announced that he would not run again. Before leaving office, the president prepared a message that became known as Washington’s Farewell Address, in which he reminded Americans of all that bound them together as a people. “With slight shades of difference,” he said, “you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together.” Next, Washington warned of two threats to the nation’s future. One of those threats was problems the nation was having with other countries, and the other threat was the “spirit of party.” Washington said that it was natural for people to hold different opinions, but he warned against the dangers of passionate loyalty to parties. If fighting between parties was not controlled, it could tear the young nation apart. Despite his worries for the future, Washington had much to be proud of as he left office. The new government was up and running, and the nation was growing so fast that it had added three new states: Kentucky, Tennessee, and Vermont. Most of all, Washington had steered his government safely through quarrelsome times, leaving the nation united and at peace.

3. A lexander Hamilton and the Federalist Party George Washington’s warnings did not stop the rise of political parties in the young nation, however. The Federalist Party appeared first during the debates over the ratification of the Constitution. Its most influential leader was Washington’s energetic treasury secretary, Alexander Hamilton. Personal Background Hamilton was born in the West Indies and raised on the Caribbean island of St. Croix. When Hamilton was a teenager, he wrote a vivid description of a devastating hurricane that struck the island. The writing impressed all who read it, and a few St. Croix leaders arranged to send the talented teenager to New York, where he could get the education he deserved. Once in America, Hamilton never looked back. Hamilton’s blue eyes were said to turn black when he was angry, but most of the time they sparkled with intelligence and energy. With no money or family connections to help him rise in the world, he made his way on ability, ambition, and charm. George Washington spotted Hamilton’s talents early in the American Revolution and made the young man his aide-de-camp, or personal assistant. Near the end of the war, Hamilton improved his fortunes by marrying Elizabeth Schuyler, who came from one of New York’s richest and most powerful families. With her family’s political backing, Hamilton was elected to represent New York in Congress after the war. Later, he served as a delegate from New York to the Constitutional Convention.

American artist John Trumbull painted this portrait of Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton rose from poverty to lead the Federalist Party. His brilliant career was cut short when he was killed in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr, whom he had accused of being a traitor.

View of Human Nature Hamilton’s view of human nature was shaped by his wartime experiences. All too often, he had seen people put their own interests and desire for personal profit above the cause of patriotism and the needs of the country. “Every man ought to be supposed a knave [scoundrel],” he concluded, “and to have no other end [goal] in all his actions, but private interest.” Most Federalists shared Hamilton’s view that people were basically selfish and out for themselves, so they distrusted any system of government that gave too much power to “the mob,” or the common people. Such a system, said Hamilton, could only lead to “error, confusion, and instability.”

Political Developments in the Early Republic 209

Views on Government Federalists believed that “the best people”—educated, wealthy, public-spirited men like themselves— should run the country. Such people, they believed, had the time, education, and background to run the country wisely and could also be trusted to make decisions for the general good, not just for themselves. “Those who own the country,” said Federalist John Jay bluntly, “ought to govern it.” Federalists favored a strong national government and hoped to use the new government’s powers under the Constitution to unite the quarreling states and keep order among the people. In their view, the rights of states were not nearly as important as national power and unity. Hamilton agreed with this sentiment. Having grown up in the Caribbean, Hamilton had no deep loyalty to any state. His country was not New York, but the United States of America, and he hoped to see his adopted country become a great and powerful nation.

Alexander Hamilton believed that to become strong, the United States needed to develop businesses such as this foundry in Connecticut. A foundry is a factory for melting and shaping metal.

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Views on the Economy Hamilton’s dream of national greatness depended on the United States developing a strong economy. In 1790, the nation’s economy was still based mainly on agriculture. Hamilton wanted to expand the economy and increase the nation’s wealth by using the power of the federal government to promote business, manufacturing, trade, land grants for education, and infrastructure such as canals and roads. Before this could happen, the new nation needed to begin paying off the huge debts that Congress and the states had accumulated during the American Revolution. In 1790, Hamilton presented Congress with a plan to pay off all war debts as quickly as possible. If the debts were not promptly paid, he warned, the government would lose respect both at home and abroad. Hamilton’s plan for repaying the debts was opposed by many Americans, especially in the South. Most southern states had already paid their war debts and saw little reason to help states in the North pay off what they still owed. To save his plan, Hamilton linked it to another issue: the location of the nation’s permanent capital. Both northerners and southerners wanted the capital to be located in their section of the country. Hamilton promised to support a location in the South if southerners would support his debt plan. The debt plan was passed, and the nation’s new capital—called the District of Columbia—was located in the South, on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia.

Hamilton asked Congress to establish the first national bank. The bank collected taxes, printed money, and made loans to businesses.

Next, Hamilton asked Congress to establish a national bank, which Hamilton believed would help the government by collecting taxes and keeping those funds safe. It would print paper money backed by the government, giving the nation a stable currency. Most important, the bank would make loans to businesspeople to build new factories and ships. As business and trade expanded, Hamilton argued, all Americans would be better off. Once again, Hamilton’s proposal ran into heavy opposition. Where in the Constitution, his opponents asked, was Congress given the power to establish a bank? In their view, Congress could exercise only those powers specifically listed in the Constitution. Hamilton, in contrast, supported a loose construction, or broad interpretation, of the Constitution. He pointed out that the Elastic Clause allowed Congress to “make all laws which shall be necessary and proper” for carrying out its listed powers. Since collecting taxes was one of those powers, Congress could set up a bank to help the government with tax collection. After much debate, Hamilton was able get his bank approved by Congress. Once established, in 1791, the Bank of the United States helped the nation’s economy grow and prosper.

loose construction a

broad interpretation of the Constitution, meaning that Congress has powers beyond those specifically given in the Constitution

Views on Great Britain and France When the French Revolution began, Hamilton hoped that it would lead to the “establishment of free and good government.” But as he watched it lead instead to chaos and bloodshed, his enthusiasm for the revolution cooled. When war broke out between France and England in 1793, most Federalists sided with Great Britain. Some were merchants and shippers whose business depended on trade with America’s former enemy, while others simply felt more comfortable supporting orderly Great Britain against revolutionary France. Hamilton favored Great Britain for yet another reason. Great Britain was all that he hoped the United States would become one day: a powerful and respected nation that could defend itself against any enemy.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 211

4. T homas Jefferson and the Republican Party Alexander Hamilton’s success in getting his plans through Congress alarmed Thomas Jefferson and his fellow Republicans. In Jefferson’s view, almost everything Hamilton did in the name of putting the United States on the path to greatness was instead a step down the road to ruin. The two men held very different views on almost everything. Thomas Jefferson was one of America’s greatest patriots. His strongest support came from the middle class: farmers, laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers.

Personal Background Jefferson was born in Virginia to an old and respected family. One of ten children, he was gifted with many talents, and as a boy, he learned to ride, hunt, sing, dance, and play the violin. Later in his life, Jefferson carried a violin with him in all of his travels. Jefferson was also a gifted student and had already learned Greek and Latin by the time he entered college at age 16. He seemed to know something about almost everything and once wrote that “not a sprig of grass [is] uninteresting to me.” This curiosity would remain with him all his life. With land inherited from his father, Jefferson set himself up as a Virginia tobacco planter. Like other planters, he used slaves to work his land. Once he was established as a planter, Jefferson entered Virginia politics. Although Jefferson lacked the ability to make stirring speeches as a politician, he did write eloquently with a pen. His words in the Declaration of Independence and other writings are still read and admired today. View of Human Nature Jefferson’s view of human nature was much more hopeful than Hamilton’s. He assumed that informed citizens could make good decisions for themselves and their country. “I have so much confidence in the good sense of man,” Jefferson wrote when revolution broke out in France, “that I am never afraid of the issue [outcome] where reason is left free to exert her force.” Jefferson had great faith in the goodness and wisdom of people who worked the soil—farmers and planters like himself. “State a [problem] to a ploughman [farmer] and a professor,” he said, and “the former will decide it often better than the latter.”

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Agriculture, according to Thomas Jefferson, was the most important part of the economy. He believed farming was the best occupation because it kept people out of corrupt cities.

Views on Government Republicans favored democracy over any other form of government and had no patience with the Federalists’ view that only the “best people” should rule. To Republicans, this view came dangerously close to monarchy, or rule by a king. Republicans believed that the best government was the one that governed the least and that a small government with limited powers was most likely to leave the people alone to enjoy the blessings of liberty. To keep the national government small, they insisted on a strict construction, or interpretation, of the Constitution. The Constitution, they insisted, meant exactly what it said, no more and no less. Any addition to the powers listed in the document, such as the creation of a national bank, was unconstitutional and dangerous. Along with advocating for a weak national government, Republicans favored strong state governments. State governments, they argued, were closer to the people, and the people could control them more easily. Strong state governments could also keep the national government from growing too powerful.

strict construction a narrow

interpretation of the Constitution, meaning that the Congress has only those powers specifically given in the Constitution

Views on the Economy Like most Americans in the 1790s, Jefferson was a country man. He believed that the nation’s future lay not with Federalist bankers and merchants in big cities, but with plain, Republican farmers. “Those who labor in the earth,” he wrote, “are the chosen people of God, if ever He had a chosen people.” Republicans favored an economy based on agriculture and opposed any measures, such as the national bank, designed to encourage the growth of business and manufacturing. In their view, the national bank was not only unconstitutional, but against farmers. While the bank was happy to loan money to businesspeople to build factories and ships, it did not make loans to farmers to buy land.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 213

Edmond Genêt, the French representative to the United States, attempted to convince Americans to join the French in their war with Britain. After Genêt insulted President Washington, he was ordered to leave the country. Here, Secretary of State Jefferson presents Genêt to the president in 1793.

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Views on Great Britain and France Another topic over which Republicans and Federalists had heated arguments was the French Revolution. Most Americans favored the revolution until it turned violent and led to war. As you have read, most Federalists then turned against the new French republic and sided with Great Britain. For this change of heart, a Republican newspaper called the Federalists “British bootlickers,” implying that they were weak and eager to please the British. Despite the violence of the revolution, most Republicans continued to support France. While regretting the bloodshed, they argued that the loss of a few thousand aristocrats was a small price to pay for freedom. For their loyalty to France, Republicans were scorned in a Federalist newspaper as “maneating, blood-drinking cannibals.” In 1793, the French government sent Edmond Genêt (zhuh-NAY) to the United States as its new official representative. Genêt preferred to be called “Citizen Genêt,” a title that French revolutionaries adopted to emphasize the equality of all people. His mission was to convince Americans that they should join France in its war against Great Britain. Republicans welcomed Citizen Genêt as a conquering hero. Large crowds cheered him as he traveled about the country, and in Philadelphia, the nation’s temporary capital, a great banquet was held in his honor. When Genêt formally presented himself to President George Washington, he expected another warm and enthusiastic reception. Washington, however, did not want to be drawn into war with Great Britain, so his response to Genêt was cool and dignified. Genêt began making speeches against the president. These attacks on Washington brought thousands of Genêt’s supporters into Philadelphia’s streets. “Day after day,” recalled Vice President John Adams, the protesters “threatened to drag Washington out of his house, and . . . compel [the government] to declare war in favor of the French revolution.” This was too much, even for Jefferson. Calling Genêt “hotheaded . . . disrespectful, and even indecent toward the President,” Secretary of State Jefferson asked the French government to recall its troublesome representative.

5. The Presidency of John Adams When the framers of the Constitution created the Electoral College, they imagined that the electors would simply choose the two best leaders for president and vice president. That was how the nation’s first two presidential elections worked. By the third election in 1796, however, it was clear that political parties had become part of the election process. The Republicans supported Thomas Jefferson for president. He had the support from many farmers in the South and West. The Federalists supported John Adams, who appealed to lawyers, merchants, ship owners, and businesspeople in the North. When the electoral votes were counted, John Adams was elected president by just three votes, and Jefferson came in second, making him vice president. The nation’s new top two leaders were political leaders from opposing parties. The Alien and Sedition Acts President Adams tried to work closely with Jefferson at first, but Adams found that “party violence” made such efforts “useless.” Meanwhile, Federalists in Congress passed four controversial laws known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. They argued that these laws were needed as protection against foreigners who might threaten the nation. However, the real purpose of the Alien and Sedition Acts was to make life difficult for the Federalists’ rivals, the Republicans. Three of the laws, the Alien Acts, were aimed at aliens, or noncitizens. The first law lengthened the time it took for an immigrant to become a citizen with the right to vote—from 5 to 14 years. Since most immigrants voted Republican, Jefferson saw this law as an attack on his party. The other two Alien Acts allowed the president to either jail or deport aliens who were suspected of activities that threatened the government. Although these laws were never enforced, they did frighten a number of French spies and troublemakers, who then left the country. The fourth law, known as the Sedition Act, made sedition—encouraging rebellion against the government—a crime. Its definition of sedition included “printing, uttering, or publishing any false, scandalous and malicious [hateful] writing” against the government, Congress, or the president. Alexander Hamilton approved of this law, believing that it would punish only those who published lies intended to destroy the government. Instead, the Sedition Act was used to punish Republican newspaper editors who insulted President Adams in print. One, for example, called him “old, querulous [whiny], bald, blind, crippled, toothless Adams.” Twenty-five people were arrested under the new law, ten of whom were convicted of printing seditious opinions.

sedition the crime of

encouraging rebellion against the government

John Adams, a Federalist, was elected the second president of the United States by only 3 votes in the Electoral College. Thomas Jefferson, a DemocraticRepublican who had 68 votes to Adams’s 71, became vice president.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 215

nullify to refuse to recognize a

federal law. This action by a state is called nullification. States’ Doctrine the theory

that rights not specifically given to the federal government by the Constitution remain with the states

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Republicans viewed the Sedition Act as an attack on the rights of free speech and free press. Since the federal government was enforcing the act, Republicans looked to the states to protect these freedoms. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison drew up a set of resolutions, or statements, opposing the Alien and Sedition Acts and sent them to state legislatures for approval. They argued that Congress had gone beyond the Constitution in passing these acts. States, therefore, had a duty to nullify the laws—that is, to declare them to be without legal force. Only two states, Virginia and Kentucky, adopted the resolutions. The arguments put forward in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were based on the States’ Doctrine of the Constitution. This theory holds that rights not specifically given to the federal government remain with the states. Of these, one of the most important is the right to judge whether the federal government is using its powers properly. When no other states approved the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, the protest died. The States’ Doctrine, however, was not forgotten, and it would be raised and tested again in the years ahead. The New National Capital In 1800, the federal government moved to the city of Washington in the District of Columbia. Most of the government’s buildings were still under construction. President Adams’s wife, Abigail, described the new “President’s House” as a “castle” in which “not one room or chamber is finished,” and she used the large East Room for hanging laundry, as it was not fit for anything else.

In 1800, the federal government found a new home in Washington, D.C. Here, Pennsylvania Avenue stretches across the west end of the Capital grounds.

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6. The Election of 1800 The move to Washington, D.C., came in the middle of the 1800 presidential election. Once again, Republican leaders supported Thomas Jefferson for president and hoped to avoid the strange outcome of the last election by choosing a New York politician named Aaron Burr to run as his vice president. The Federalists chose John Adams to run for reelection as president, while Charles Pinckney of South Carolina was selected to run for vice president. Some Federalists would have preferred Alexander Hamilton as their presidential candidate. Although he did not run, Hamilton’s influence would shape the results of the election. The Campaign The candidates outlined their campaign issues early. Jefferson supported the Constitution and states’ rights and promised to run a “frugal and simple” government. Adams ran on his record of peace and prosperity. The campaign, however, centered more on insults than on issues. Republican newspapers attacked Adams as a tyrant, even accusing him of wanting to turn the nation into a monarchy so that his children could follow him on the presidential throne. Some Federalist newspapers called Jefferson an atheist, or someone who denies the existence of God. Jefferson, these newspapers charged, would “destroy religion, introduce immorality, and loosen all the bonds of society.” Frightened by these charges, some elderly Federalists buried their Bibles to keep them safe from the “godless” Republicans.

This Republican presidential campaign banner is from 1800. The banner reads, “T. Jefferson President of the United States of America. John Adams no MORE.”

The Divided Federalists Hamilton and his followers refused to support Adams because of disagreements over the president’s foreign policy. “We shall never find ourselves in the straight road of Federalism while Mr. Adams is President,” stated Oliver Wolcott, one of Hamilton’s close allies. As the campaign heated up, Hamilton worked feverishly behind the scenes to convince the men chosen for the Electoral College to cast their presidential ballots for Pinckney over Adams. Pinckney seemed more likely than Adams to value Hamilton’s advice and his firm Federalist principles. With Pinckney as president, Hamilton believed that he would be able to personally guide the United States into the new century.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 217

Here, Republican women help Thomas Jefferson win the election in New Jersey in 1800. Women were allowed to vote in New Jersey until 1808.

7. A Deadlock and a New Amendment When the Electoral College voted early in 1801, it was clear that John Adams had lost the election. But to whom? Under the Constitution, each elector cast two votes, with the idea that the candidate finishing second would be vice president. All of the Republican electors voted for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, and the result was a tie between them. Breaking the Tie In the case of a tie, the Constitution sends the election to the House of Representatives, where each state has one vote. Burr could have told his supporters in the House to elect Jefferson president, as his party wanted, but he instead remained silent, hoping the election might go his way. When the House voted, the result was another tie.

In the presidential election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr received the same number of electoral votes, and after almost a week of deadlock in the House of Representatives, Jefferson was elected president. The Twelfth Amendment was ratified in 1804 to prevent such ties in the future.

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The Election of 1800 Presidential Candidate

Party

State

Electoral Votes

Thomas Jefferson

Republican

Virginia

Aaron Burr

Republican

New York

John Adams

Federalist

Massachusetts

Charles Pinckney

Federalist

South Carolina

John Jay

Federalist

New York

After 6 days and 35 ballots, it was Federalist Alexander Hamilton who broke the deadlock. He asked his supporters in the House to vote for Jefferson, because of the two Republicans, he said, “Jefferson is to be preferred. He is by far not so dangerous a man.” The tie was broken, and Jefferson was elected president. In 1804, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution to prevent such ties. The amendment calls for the Electoral College to cast separate ballots for president and vice president. If no presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes, the House of Representatives chooses a president from the top three candidates. If no candidate for vice president receives a majority, the Senate chooses the vice president. A Peaceful Revolution The election of 1800 was a victory for Jefferson and his Republican Party, but it was also a victory for the new system of government established by the Constitution. In other countries, power changed hands by means of war or revolution. In the United States, power had passed from one group to another without a single shot being fired.

Lesson Summary In this lesson, you read about the beginnings of political parties in the United States. The New Government Under Washington George Washington took office as president in 1789. In 1794, he ended the Whiskey Rebellion, a farmers’ protest against taxes. Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists Hamilton and the Federalists favored a strong national government. They supported a loose construction of the Constitution. They also favored using the government’s power to support business, manufacturing, and trade. Alarmed by the violence of the French Revolution, the Federalists favored Great Britain in its war with France. Thomas Jefferson and the Republicans Jefferson and the Republicans championed states’ rights and an economy based on agriculture. They supported a strict construction of the Constitution. Republicans saw the French Revolution as a step toward democracy and attacked the Federalists’ support for Great Britain. The Presidency of John Adams During Adams’s presidency, Federalists used the Alien and Sedition Acts to attack Republicans. In response, Republicans urged states to nullify these laws. The Election of 1800 and the Twelfth Amendment Adams lost the election of 1800 to Thomas Jefferson after the Federalists broke a tie vote between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The election was sent to the House of Representatives, and after days of deadlock, Jefferson was eventually elected president. In 1804, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution to prevent such ties.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 219

Investigating Primary Sources How Did Conflicts Within Washington’s Cabinet Affect American Politics? George Washington succeeded in launching the new nation, but two of his closest advisers held opposing viewpoints about government. Read these primary sources and do research of your own to make and support a claim about how disagreements within Washington’s cabinet affected American politics.

One of the debates among Washington’s advisers concerned the repayment of U.S. debts from the American Revolution. Alexander Hamilton believed that all the states should pool their combined debt and pay it back together, but Thomas Jefferson instead wanted to limit the government’s ability to borrow money. Historians have pointed out that two very different philosophies about government underscored this disagreement. Hamilton’s Federalist ideas favored a strong central government, a national bank, and an emphasis on manufacturing. Jefferson’s Republican philosophy favored a smaller national government, stronger states, and favoritism to agricultural interests. In this letter to Washington, Jefferson argues against Hamilton’s debt plan and warns of a rising monarchy. After reading the letter, do you believe Jefferson is interested in compromising with the Federalists? Is this letter a reliable and neutral source for this conflict?

Letter from Jefferson to Washington Dear Sir . . . It has been urged then that a public debt, greater than we can possibly pay before other causes of adding new debt to it will occur, has been artificially created . . . it has furnished effectual means of corrupting such a portion of the legislature, as turns the balance between the honest voters which ever way it is directed . . . the ultimate object of all this is to prepare the way for a change, from the present republican form of government, to that of a monarchy of which the English constitution is to be the model . . . The Antifederal champions are now strengthened in argument by the fulfilment of their predictions; that this has been brought about by the Monarchical federalists themselves, who, having been for the new government merely as a stepping stone to monarchy, have themselves adopted the very constructions of the constitution, of which, when advocating it’s acceptance before the tribunal of the people, they declared it insusceptible. —Thomas Jefferson, 1792

220 Lesson 11

Although President Washington desperately hoped for a cooperative government, his cabinet passionately disagreed on important issues. In particular, Jefferson and Hamilton attacked one another’s political opinions and personal lives. They took their arguments to public newspapers, although they often wrote under pseudonyms. For example, Hamilton used the name Phocion in an article in the Gazette of the United States. The president suspected an unavoidable rise of two separate political parties, and consequently he desperately warned his advisers: “I do not see how the Reins of Government are to be managed, or how the Union of the States can be much longer preserved.” Read an excerpt from this letter written by Washington to Hamilton on August 26, 1792, in which he criticizes the behavior of his advisers. After reading the letter, describe what behavior Washington is warning against.

Letter from Washington to Hamilton My dear Sir, . . . Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable as, to a certain point, they may perhaps be necessary; but it is to be regretted, exceedingly, that subjects cannot be discussed with temper on the one hand, or decisions submitted to without having the motives which led to them, improperly implicated on the other: and this regret borders on chagrin when we find that Men of abilities— zealous patriots—having the same general objects in view, and the same up-right intentions to prosecute them, will not exercise more charity in deciding on the opinions, & actions of one another. When matters get to such lengths, the natural inference is, that both sides have strained the cords beyond their bearing—and that a middle course would be found the best, until experience shall have pointed out the right mode—or, which is not to be expected, because it is denied to mortals—there shall be some infallible rule by which we could fore judge events . . . How unfortunate would it be, if a fabric so goodly—erected under so many Providential circumstances—and in its first stages, having acquired such respectibility, should, from diversity of Sentiments, or internal obstructions to some of the acts of Government (for I cannot prevail on myself to believe that these measures are, as yet, the deliberate acts of a determined party) should be harrowing our vitals in such a manner as to have brought us to the verge of dissolution. Melancholy thought! But one, at the same time that it shows the consequences of diversified opinions, when pushed with too much tenacity; exhibits evidence also of the necessity of accommodation; and of the propriety of adopting such healing measures as will restore harmony to the discordant members of the Union, & the governing powers of it. —George Washington, 1792

Political Developments in the Early Republic 221

Just as Washington scolded Hamilton, he wrote similar reprimanding letters to Jefferson. Washington continued to fear the public disagreements among his cabinet members and the rise of political parties. In fact, by the time Washington gave his Farewell Address in 1796, he warned against putting “in the place of the delegated will of the nation the will of a party.” Hamilton wrote this letter on September 9, 1792—before Washington’s Farewell Address. It is Hamilton’s response to Washington’s letter to him. Hamilton tells Washington that Jefferson started the disagreement, while Hamilton himself suffered in silence until could hold back no longer. Read Hamilton’s letter and summarize what he intended to accomplish with it. Identify examples of how two political parties are rising in the United States. Who is the “differing member”? Is Hamilton’s letter a reliable source in evaluating this conflict?

Letter from Hamilton to Washington Sir I have the pleasure of your private letter of the 26th of August. The feelings and views which are manifested in that letter are such as I expected would exist. And I most sincerely regret the causes of the uneasy sensations you experience. It is my most anxious wish, as far as may depend upon me, to smooth the path of your administration, and to render it prosperous and happy . . . I do not hesitate to say that in my opinion the period is not remote when the public good will require substitutes for the differing members of your administration. The continuance of a division there must destroy the energy of Government, which will be little enough with the strictest Union . . . I know that I have been an object of uniform opposition from Mr. Jefferson, from the first moment of his coming to the City of New York to enter upon his present office. I know, from the most authentic sources, that I have been the frequent subject of the most unkind whispers . . . I have long seen a formed party in the Legislature, under his auspices, bent upon my subversion. I cannot doubt, from the evidence I possess, that the National Gazette was instituted by him for political purposes and that one leading object of it has been to render me and all the measures connected with my department as odious as possible . . . Nevertheless I can truly say, that, except explanations to confidential friends, I never directly or indirectly retaliated or countenanced retaliation till very lately. I can even assure you, that I was instrumental in preventing a very severe and systematic attack upon Mr. Jefferson . . . —Alexander Hamilton, 1792

222 Lesson 11

House (5th Congress 1797–1799)

Senate (5th Congress 1797–1799) 30

Number of Senators

Number of Representatives

40 30 20

10 0

Republican

Federalists

Political Parties Despite George Washington’s efforts and recommendations, political parties continued to represent differing opinions. The Federalist Party, represented by Hamilton and supported by Washington, dominated the administration of the government through the 1790s. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, who both supported a smaller central government and more states’ rights, established the Democratic-Republican Party, which was also known as the Republican Party. Jefferson became the first Republican president in 1801, followed by Madison and James Monroe. These two charts illustrate which party dominated the United States House of Representatives and Senate in the formative years of the nation. Describe the representation of the parties in the House and Senate from 1797 to 1799. Find current primary sources that describe the percentages of political parties in the United States Congress today. Along with this information, examine news about current political leaders in the country. Determine if their personal lives are attacked in the media by one another and/or by media commentators. Are politicians still subjects to personal attacks in newspapers and television, and on the Internet? If so, how? How do these personal attacks affect the running of the government and the public’s participation in it?

Republican

Federalists

Since the early days of the U.S. Congress, there have been two prominent political parties. From 1797 to 1799, there was nearly equal representation in the House of Representatives. Which party had more representatives in the Senate?

You have now examined how disagreements became evident in early America and in the current political world. Think about how disagreements in Washington’s cabinet affected politics in the early United States. Then compose and support an argument that explains how we still see the effects of Hamilton and Jefferson’s dispute today.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 223

Unit 4 Timeline Challenge Launching the New Republic 1796

1789 Washington Becomes President George Washington is inaugurated as the nation’s first president.

1780

1785

1791 Bank of the United States Congress forms the Bank of the United States, the idea of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist who wanted a strong national government.

1790

1795

272 Unit 4

1800

1805

1798

1794 Whiskey Rebellion President Washington successfully ends the Whiskey Rebellion, a domestic revolt against a tax on whiskey.

Washington’s Farewell Address Before leaving office in 1797, George Washington calls for a foreign policy of isolationism, stressing that the United States should not entangle itself in other nations’ affairs.

1797 Adams Becomes President John Adams, a Federalist, defeats Thomas Jefferson, a Republican, to become the nation’s second president.

Alien and Sedition Acts The controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, which target immigrants and traitors, are signed into law by President Adams. Republicans are outraged by the acts.

1810

1801 Jefferson Becomes President Thomas Jefferson becomes the nation’s third president. Jefferson believed in a limited national government.

1810

1815

1829

1812–1815

Jackson Becomes President Andrew Jackson becomes president, ushering in a new era of government known as Jacksonian Democracy and extending democratic rights to the common people.

War of 1812 At Madison’s request, Congress declares war against Great Britain to protect U.S. sailors at sea and to drive the British out of the northwest.

18 2 0

18 2 5

18 3 0

18 3 5

18 4 0

1823 1809 Madison Becomes President James Madison takes office. His presidency is characterized by a feeling of national unity.

Monroe Doctrine President James Monroe declares that the Western Hemisphere is no longer open to European colonization.

1838–1839 Trail of Tears Under the Indian Removal Act, thousands of Cherokee Indians die when they are forced to leave their homelands and journey to Indian Territory.

Launching the New Republic 273

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Interactive Student Notebook

The Interactive Student Notebook will help you remember what you learn. Your notebook gives you a place to: • take notes from your reading. • record discoveries from activities. • write down key takeaways of each lesson. Now you have your own study guide to help you explore history!

Interactive Student Notebook

H A N D O U T

KWL Chart Before you begin this unit, fill out the first two columns by listing things you already know, and things you want to find out, about this topic. Throughout the unit, add details to the last column to show what you have learned. Topic: Know

Want to Know

Learned

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0 300 300 kilometers 300 kilometers AlbersConic Conic Equal-Area Projection Albers Equal-Area Projection

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The United States, 1838

1 Unit 4 Geography Challenge

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Geography Skills Analyze the map and graph in “Setting the Stage” for Unit 4 in the Student Text. Then answer the following questions and fill out the map as directed. 1. Label each of the states on your map. By how many states had the nation grown from 1791 to 1838? 2. During which decade—the 1790s, 1800s, 1810s, 1820s, or 1830s—were the most states admitted to the Union? Identify those states on your map by circling their labels. 3. Which is the only new state added to the Union in the early 1800s that is not located west of the Appalachian Mountains? Name it here, and shade or outline it on your map. 4. Where was the nation’s capital located when George Washington became the first president? Locate and label it. 5. Locate and label Baltimore and New Orleans. What happened in these cities that shows that the young United States had problems in its relations with other nations?

With which nation did the United States have a problem in this situation?

6. Label the Erie Canal. Which two bodies of water did it connect? Name them here, and label them on your map.

7. Locate the home state of President Andrew Jackson on your map. Name it here. 8. Draw and label the general route of the Trail of Tears on your map. What took place along this route? Where did the trail begin and where did it end?

Unit 4 Geography Challenge 2

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Critical Thinking Answer the following questions in complete sentences. 9. What effect might a foreign conflict like the one mentioned in the reading have on Americans’ support for their new nation and its government?

10. How does the election of President Andrew Jackson illustrate the nation’s westward growth? How might that growth have made Jackson’s election possible?

11. For what reason might the U.S. government have forced the Cherokee to give up their land and move west? Do you think this change was progress for the nation? Explain why or why not.

3 Unit 4 Geography Challenge

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

N O T E B O O K

Political Developments in the Early Republic How did the Federalist and Republican visions for the United States differ? P R E V I E W

Listen to the songs “Hail, Columbia” and “Fair and Free Elections.” Then answer these questions.

Fair and Free Elections

Hail, Columbia

2. According to the lyrics, what were some of the issues of the 1800 presidential election?

1. What are three adjectives that describe the song’s mood? 2. How do you think Washington’s swearing in as president united the country? R E A D I N G

1. What are three adjectives that describe the song’s mood?

3. In what ways do you think the nation changed between Washington’s inauguration in 1789 and the election of 1800? N O T E S

Social Studies Vocabulary

As you complete the Reading Notes, use these terms in your answers. Whiskey Rebellion

sedition

Washington’s Farewell Address

nullify

loose construction

States’ Doctrine

strict construction Section 1

1. What issue divided the first Congress as the nation launched the new government?

Political Developments in the Early Republic 1

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

N O T E B O O K

2. Complete the spoke diagram illustrating the nation’s first executive branch under George Washington. Draw a symbol to represent each department. Then, on the spokes, list the role of each department and the person who headed it. Department of War

to defend the nation (symbol)

First Executive Branch Treasury Department

Department of State

(symbol)

Section 2

1. Create a simple illustration showing the government’s response to the Whiskey Rebellion. Also explain whether you think the government acted appropriately.

Reasons for settlement

Geography and climate

Religion

2. Explain in your own words what Washington in his Farewell Address meant by the threat of the “spirit of party.” Economy

2 Political Developments in the Early Republic

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N O T E B O O K

Sections 3 and 4

Read Section 3 and write a response to Questions 1 to 6 from the perspective of Alexander Hamilton. Then, read Section 4 and write responses to the questions from the perspective of Thomas Jefferson. 1. What is your view of human nature? I believe that most people are basically selfish and . . .

Alexander Hamilton

Thomas Jefferson

2. Who should lead our country?

Alexander Hamilton

Thomas Jefferson

3. How strong should our national government be?

Alexander Hamilton

Thomas Jefferson Political Developments in the Early Republic 3

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

N O T E B O O K

4. What is the ideal economy?

Alexander Hamilton

Thomas Jefferson

5. Is the establishment of a national bank constitutional? Why or why not?

Alexander Hamilton

Thomas Jefferson

6. Should the United States ally itself with Great Britain or France? Why?

Alexander Hamilton

4 Political Developments in the Early Republic

Thomas Jefferson

I N T E R A C T I V E

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N O T E B O O K

Section 5

Complete the poster, which urges state legislatures to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts. Include at least two reasons for nullification and one illustration on your poster.

Section 6

In the banners, write two campaign slogans for the 1800 presidential election— one from the perspective of a Federalist and one from the perspective of a Republican. Include the name of the candidate and a reason he should be elected. For example: A strong foreign policy is what we need! With John Adams as president, we will succeed! Republican Party

Federalist Party

Political Developments in the Early Republic 5

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

N O T E B O O K

Section 7

1. Why was the Twelfth Amendment added to the Constitution?

2. How does the Twelfth Amendment achieve its goal?

P R O C E S S I N G

Suppose you are the campaign manager for one of the presidential candidates in 1800. Create a campaign song for your candidate. Your song can be to the tune of “Hail, Columbia,” “Fair and Free Elections,” or any other tune you choose. Your song must: • clearly describe the Federalist or the Republican vision for the United States. • contain at least two reasons why your candidate should be elected. • use language that reflects the passionate feelings held by Federalists or Republicans.

6 Political Developments in the Early Republic

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

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I N V E S T I GR A E TA IDNI G N GP RF IU MR AT R H YE R S O U R C E S

Identifying and Evaluating Evidence

Use the reading to create a claim that answers this question: How did conflicts within Washington’s cabinet affect American politics? Claim:

What evidence from the primary sources documents support your claim? Fill out the chart below. Circle the two strongest pieces of evidence.

Source

Evidence

How does this support the claim?

You can use this evidence to strengthen your claim. Write your revised claim below.

Political Developments in the Early Republic 7

I N T E R A C T I V E

S T U D E N T

N O T E B O O K

Constructing an Argument Create an argument to answer the question: How did conflicts within Washington’s cabinet affect American politics? Your argument should: • clearly state your claim. • include evidence from multiple sources. • provide explanations for how the sources support the claim.

Use this rubric to evaluate your argument. Make changes as needed. Score

Description

The claim clearly answers the question. The argument uses evidence from two or more primary sources that strongly support the claim. The explanations accurately connect to the evidence and claim.

The claim answers the question. The argument uses evidence from one or more primary sources that support the claim. Some of the explanations connect to the evidence and claim.

The claim fails to answer the question. The argument lacks evidence from primary sources. Explanations are missing or are unrelated to the evidence and claim.

8 Political Developments in the Early Republic

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Timeline Skills Analyze the Unit 4 timeline in the Student Text. Also think about what you have learned in this unit. Then answer the following questions. 1. For how many years did George Washington serve as president? 2. How many terms did Washington serve? Why is this fact significant?

3. During which president’s administration were the Alien and Sedition Acts passed? 4. The Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution in 1783. How many years passed before the United States was again at war with Great Britain? 5. Why did the United States fight the War of 1812?

6. What message did the Monroe Doctrine send to the world?

7. When did the era of Jacksonian Democracy begin? What did it stand for?

8. How did the federal government implement the Indian Removal Act in 1838?

Unit 4 Timeline Challenge 1

U n i t

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C h a l l e n g e

Critical Thinking Use the timeline and the lessons in the unit to answer the following questions. 9. The Whiskey Rebellion arose in response to a major problem that faced the new nation. What was this major problem, and how did it arise?

What did the government do to address this problem?

10. Explain at least three key points of difference between the Federalists and the Republicans. Also name one leader of each party.

11. Compare the foreign policy advice of George Washington with the actions of James Madison. What motivated each president?

12. If you could add three more events to this timeline, which would they be? List each event, and explain why you think it is important enough to add to the timeline. a. b. c. 2 Unit 4 Timeline Challenge

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Interactive Student Notebook