How and why are sports celebrities used in advertising and branding? To understand the role that sports celebrities play in advertising first it is important to appreciate what advertisers are trying to achieve. Advertising can be used to raise awareness of a product or brand, to tell people that something exists and to persuade consumers that they need a product or that their product is better than a competitors’. When sports people are used in advertising it is usually to create positive associations around a product or brand through that sporting celebrities iconic status. Alternatively the presence of a sports star could be to persuade the consumer that their product or brand will give them improved performance through the products’ quality or technical advances. This essay will explore the tools used in advertising involving sports people and investigate the differences between how sports men and women are utilised within advertising and branding. When a sports star uses a particular piece of sporting equipment Hamish Pringle (2004) argues that consumers should assume that it is because that item of equipment will be the best to suit that sports person’s game, the professional’s performance is too important for them to use it just because they’re being paid to. Therefore ‘consumers perceive outstanding performance to be inextricably connected with a piece of sporting equipment and can assume their own personal performance would likely be improved’ (Pringle 2004, p125). This seems like logical decision making on behalf of the consumer, and lots of sports advertising uses this technique, for example claiming that their golf driver will help you hit the ball further. ‘Most of the job of the advertising agency is to gain the consumers’ confidence’ (Brierley, 2002, p96). So when TaylorMade use Dustin Johnson to advertise their golf clubs, because Johnson is known to be one of the longest hitters in the sport, it helps to build consumer confidence in that brand. John and Nickolas O'Shaughnessy also suggest that the celebrity’s reputation is too important for them to risk endorsing a bad product.
TaylorMade (2017)
Advertising is a form of persuasion, ‘If we define persuasion as the process of trying to alter, modify or change the saliency of the value, wants, beliefs and actions of others, social life is dominated by conscious or unconscious, forceful or tangential, attempts at persuasion.’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p5). This quote outlines a definition of persuasion that refers to both logical conscious decisions that
a consumer might make, but also decisions that are made on a subconscious level. It is these subconscious choices that Vance Packard is wary of in his book: Hidden Persuaders (1957). He warns of advertisers’ power to influence consumers and change opinions through psychological approaches by ‘studying our subconscious needs, yearnings and cravings’ (Packard, 1957, p86). O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy go on to state that ‘Persuasion differs from ‘influence, although persuasion is a way of influencing, all ways of influencing are not persuasion’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p6). A lot of advertising involving sports stars relies on strengthening the brand through association with that sports person. ‘Whatever a product is associated with affects perceptions of the product. Association can be powerful’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy,2004, p57). Therefore, a company will try to associate themselves and their brand values with the success and the aspirational qualities of a sports star. ‘Celebrities can be used successfully to grab attention and generate interest in involvement in the brand’ (Pringle 2004, p96) this is without necessarily having any sporting connection with that brand. O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy (2004) explain that the draw of celebrities in advertising is related to prestige and celebrity’s higher status and authority in the social hierarchy. ‘People seek approval from all others, but it is more valued when it comes from those higher up the social scale’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy,2004, p64). Many advertisers use celebrities to increase their brands influence, but there is also a high propensity for advertisers to use male sports celebrities over their female counterparts. Advertisers would point to the fact that men’s sport has a much bigger global audience creating superstars that can transcend their sporting field. The English Premier League, for example, is televised across two hundred territories worldwide reaching an audience of over three billion (Premier league, 2017). This not only means that Male sports stars have the prestige associated with celebrity, but also have the edge over female sports stars because of greater public awareness. The prevalence of male sports stars within advertising and branding could be indicative of a phallocentric hierarchy in society which emphasizes the masculine
Accenture (2008) viewpoint
or even promotes the exclusive empowerment of men (Makaryk, 1993). Sportsmen are more often chosen to advertise companies, products and services with less obvious sporting connections, such as banking and finance. One of the most prominent examples of this is when global management consulting company: Accenture, used golfer Tiger Woods as the face for their branding. In Accenture’s advertising and branding Woods acted as a symbol of
success, reliability, dedication and decision making under pressure. By choosing Woods, Accenture are attempting to assimilate their brand identity with the iconic status of Woods and the values that their clients are looking for. Strategic elements and problem solving involved in the game of golf lend themselves to translating into metaphors for business scenarios. Much of sports advertising relies on association with a sports star’s ability and talent. Advertisers hope that consumers see Cristiano Ronaldo wearing Nike boots, and what to be like him so they buy Nike boots too. This is because ‘people want to imitate the people they admire’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p146). When Sports men like Ronaldo are utilised to promote a brand the focus is usually on their sporting ability, and physical prowess. This is not always the case when female athletes appear in sports advertising. There often seems to be more pressure on what the woman looks like and remaining beautiful as well as being athletic, committed and competitive. Sean Brierley (2002) argues that this is often the case because advertisers will use stereotypes as shorthand notions of gender to efficiently communicate to consumers. This is further supported by Anthony Cortese who states ‘traditional gender roles are so easily recognized by consumers’ (Cortese, 2008, p57).
Nike: Explosive Speed
'Advertisers often use representations of physically rugged or muscular male bodies to masculinize a product…a physically powerful look validates masculine identity’ (Cortese, 2008, p72). Nike’s advert depicting Wayne Rooney emblazoned with St. George’s cross attracted some criticism at the time of release. The image utilises extreme male stereotypes emphasising aggression with warlike body paint. One could say this testosterone fuelled image intends to reaffirm man’s position as the dominant force in society. However, it could be equally as damaging and questionable as adverts that objectify women, in that it portrays male stereotypes that aren’t necessarily reflective of society.
Nike (2006)
There is always a degree of uncertainty when any person is used for branding and advertising as there will be individual interpretations from different demographics within society. This can make it difficult for advertisers to put across a singular message to consumers (Brierley, 2002). ‘Within any culture, there are, of course, subcultures based on, say, age, gender, social class, religion, ethnicity or geographical location. Although subcultures are influenced by the broader culture, they may be so distinct as to require different persuasive appeals’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p10). This diversity in society makes it difficult to a create targeted advertising. Cortese suggests that advertisers tend to stick to a binary understanding of gender stating that ‘advertising images provide culturally sanctioned ideal types of masculinity and femininity. Advertisers targeting women consumers subscribe to very limited notions of what constitutes femininity e.g. dependency, concern with superficial beauty’ (Cortese, 2008, p57). It could be argued that Pantene’s campaign involving Victoria Pendleton is effective targeted advertising. Although Pendleton is a sports woman and the focus of the advert is on beauty, she has been chosen to promote a beauty product, not a sports product, and therefore the glamorous way she is portrayed in the advert is appropriate for the product. ‘Celebrities, as aspirational images, have potentially high credibility and attractiveness and, in adding something of their own persona to the brand, allow people to fantasize that if they use the product, some of the celebrity’s persona will rub off onto them’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p148) this quote explains why Pantene have chosen to use Pendleton in their banding, because not only is she a successful sports woman, she is also considered to be attractive, both are aspirational qualities that Pantene want to be associated with. So, although Cortese (2008) argues that advertisers fall back on ‘conventional’ (2012) representations of masculinity and femininity, in this Pantene case the tone of the advert seems appropriate to the type of product being promoted.
However, advertising targeted at women is not always handled as a suitably. Cortese states that in branding and advertising ‘women are primarily depicted as sexual objects or sexual agents’ (Cortese, 2008, p57). This is evident in K-Swiss’ advertising involving tennis player Anna Kournikova. The campaign aims to promote women’s tennis apparel and is therefore targeted at women, the images chosen in the campaign appear to be sexualised and focus entirely on Kournikova as an attractive woman, rather than an athlete. In her essay, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema Laura Mulvey explores psychoanalytic theory, looking at ideas relating to unconscious thoughts and motivations, the male gaze and the reinforcement of a patriarchal society through mainstream cinema. Although Mulvey (1975) is examining mainstream cinema, much of her theories can be applied to the principles of advertising. ‘In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness.’ (Mulvey, 1975, p19) this would explain K-Swiss’ decision making in their portrayal of Kournikova. An alternative rationale for the emphasis of K-Swiss’ advertising is put forward by O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy in that ‘people want to be associated with the successful, the powerful, the popular and the attractive, and they may connect themselves, not directly but symbolically, to things that have these attributes. Such associations allow them to bask in reflected glory’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p58). But Laura Mulvey (1975) would be critical of this approach disputing that it is purely for the male gaze. This opinion is supported by Rosemarie Tong who asserts that ‘women are repressed within the symbolic order’ (Tong, 1989, p221). Richard Dyer (1998) is more critical of Mulvey’s essay writing that the framework she uses for her psychoanalysis is based only on the heterosexual male moviegoer. Dyer (1998) also mentions that commentators on Mulvey’s controversial argument have raised the issue that Mulvey neglects the female potential for contemplating desire. This could therefore be applied to the KSwiss advert and consider that it could be appealing to a female consumer in choosing to depict Kournikova in this suggestive manner.
K-Swiss: Keep it Pure
Vance Packard states that ‘sex images have long been cherished by ad men purely as eye stoppers’ (Packard, 1957, p95). Packard’s Hidden Persuaders was published in 1957, so one might have thought that these views had become outdated. However, golf club manufacturer Cobra’s advert for their ‘new elliptical face design’ is far more reprehensible than any of the K-Swiss promotional material. Women may aspire to look like Anna Kournikova, and want to associate themselves with symbols of beauty and success, but very few consumers of golf clubs will base their decision on the attractiveness of the woman in the advertisement. The Ad relies entirely on what Mulvey describes as the male gaze ‘The determining male gaze projects its fantasy onto the female figure, which is styled accordingly.’ (Mulvey, 1975, p19). O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy (2004) explain that sex remains commonplace within advertising because it is such a powerful tool in stimulating emotions towards a brand. Scopophilia is the pleasure derived from nude bodies or erotic images, Cobra have decided to use this in order to sell a golf club, an indication of what Mulvey describes as ‘a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female’ (Mulvey, 1975, p19).
Cobra: New Eliptical Face Design
‘Formal preoccupations reflect the psychical obsessions of the society which produced it’ (Mulvey p16). Mulvey suggests that the output of sexist phallocentric images reflects a society still dominated by male ideologies. ‘Advertising and other mass media inculcate in consumers the cultural assumption that men are dominant and women are passive and subordinate’ (Cortese, 2008, p58). Cortese (2008) continues; for as long as this is the case and the portrayal of the masculine gender role is regarded as higher than the feminine, women will continue to be debased and devalued. Mulvey (1975) argues that it is man’s interest to retain the existing status quo and that phallocentrism relies on the ‘silent image’ of woman ‘tied to her place as bearer, not maker, of meaning’ (Mulvey, 1975, p15) to give order and significance to the man’s world. The visual work made in conjunction with this essay topic examines the portrayal of sportspeople in advertising, especially looking at the differences in roles between male and female sportspeople. While the essay looks at mainly theoretical approaches to advertising the visual journal attempts to explore the aesthetic and some of the symbolism and semiotics behind sports advertising and branding. Visual Journal: Ronaldo and Serena Williams
The journal starts by looking at male athleticism and the aspirational qualities that make a male sports star like Cristiano Ronaldo. O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy’s (2004) point about consumers wanting to connect and associate themselves with celebrities that are at the top of their game, and who are attractive in order to reflect some of these attributes onto themselves, and Ronaldo embodies this. But the Journal’s focus is on Ronaldo as a physical specimen, it investigates masculinity by experimenting with exaggerating Ronaldo’s physicality. In looking at the athleticism of sports celebrities the visual body of work looks into some of the stereotypes and symbols of what criteria makes an elite sportsman. The visual journal begins to examine how female athletes are viewed through the example of Serena Williams. Williams is the highest paid female athlete in the world, she is highly successful breaking through the barriers put up against women in order to become a globally recognised sports star. The work looks at the paradoxical nature of Serena Williams, who is both womanly, but also visibly very strong and athletic, attributes more stereotypically associated with male sports stars. Through exaggerated portraits of Williams the practical work seeks to explore and highlight some of the symbols of masculinity and femininity. Within the journal the differences in the roles of men and women in advertising are scrutinised. Juxtaposition of the male and female counterparts from the same sport, highlight the similarities in athleticism, physicality and passion that is evident in top level sport. The work challenges the reduced position of female athletes in sports based advertising and branding, highlighting men’s position ahead of women in the societal hierarchy and patriarchal order. Examples of leading sports women and their ground-breaking achievements demonstrates the available role models and potential for advertisers to utilise women more as they become more successful and popular amongst consumers. Visual Journal: gender and desire
A
binary understanding on gender is best displayed in the journal through collaged images of women in advertising which seem to emphasize the differences between men and women and fall back on gender stereotypes. The visual journal looks at KSwiss’ Anna Kournikova campaign as an example of the sports women’s role in advertising, Setting the sexualised advertising images, side by side with images of Kournikova playing tennis and adverts from the 1950s highlighting a lack of progression and brandings’ propensity to focus on sex images as a way of promoting
sports women. This reaffirms Mulvey’s (1975) position that within mainstream media woman’s role is to be looked at and remain passive. Although the visual exploration does question Mulvey’s assertion that ‘according to the principles of the ruling ideology and the psychical structures that back it up, the male figure cannot bear the burden of sexual objectification.’ (Mulvey, 1975, p20). It does this through collaged images of David Beckham, who is seen as a modern-day metrosexual man. The images of Beckham show that advertisers now use sexualised depictions of men for consumers to aspire to and derive pleasure from in the same way as Mulvey argued men looked at women. In highlighting this the journal ends with a question about potentially increased equality within advertising and the choices advertisers now make about sexualising both genders in order to sell products. This essay set out to understand how advertisers use sports people to sell and promote brands and products. Exploring the different methods used in advertising and branding for instance persuasion, the power of association, targeted advertising and the use of ‘sex images’. Persuasion is the most powerful advertising tool because it actively seeks to change the minds of consumers. According to Packard (1957) it makes advertisers powerful and potentially dangerous. Association is a much easier tool to use within advertising, and the majority of promotion using sports people will be through association. ‘One mouse or cockroach running across the floor of a restaurant can, through association ruin a meal, while the presence of a celebrity can enhance it’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004, p57). Brierley (2002) warns of the perils of targeted advertising, in that images can have many connotations and representational symbols that can be interpreted differently by different sections of society. ‘Sex is powerful in arousing emotions’ (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy, 2004 p58). This essay looks at the use of sexualised depictions of sports women to sell products, utilising the male gaze and exploiting scopophilia. It could be argued that sports women chose to be portrayed in this way in order to gain attention and sponsorship. In this sense, sports women are choosing to use the male gaze to their own gain, this could be viewed as empowering. Also, in contention to Mulvey, men are increasingly portrayed as objects of sexual desire within advertising, is this readdressing the balance? Mulvey (1975) argues that the conventional main stream depiction of women is still one that devalues them and leaves them meaningless, as long as society continues to conform to gender stereotypes, advertisers will continue to take the safe option and depict women as passive objects for male desire.
Bibliography Books: BRIERLEY, Sean. (2002). The advertising handbook. Routledge. London CORTESE, Anthony. (2008). Provocateur: Images of Women and Minorities in Advertising. 3rd ed. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. Maryland, USA. DYER, Richard. and MCDONALD, Paul. (1998). Stars. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke, UK KING, Sally. (1989) The Economist Publications pocket guide to advertising. B. Blackwell Ltd. Oxford, UK O'SHAUGHNESSY, John & Nicholas Jackson. (2004). Persuasion in Advertising. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. London. PACKARD, Vance. (1957). The Hidden Persuaders. Penguin Books. PRINGLE, Hamish. (2004). Celebrity sells. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chichester, UK MAKARYK, Irena. (1993). Encyclopedia of contemporary literary theory. University of Toronto Press. Toronto, Canada Mulvey, Laura. (1975) 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema', in Braudy, L and Cohen, M. eds. (1999) 'Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. Oxford University Press. New York STAUROWSKY, Ellen J. (2016). Women and Sport: From Liberation to Celebration. Human Kinetics. Illinois, USA.
TONG, Rosemarie. (1989). Feminist thought: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. UK Websites: ARTHUR, Rachel, (2016) The Marketing Power of Sportsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Stars. [Internet] Available from < https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/05/fashion/sports-athletes-marketing.html? _r=0 [07/01/2017] DOSH, Kristi, (2016) The Evolution of Marketing to Female Sports Fans. [Internet] Available from < http://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2016/02/22/the-evolution-ofmarketing-to-female-sports-fans/#5921f2e3462e [07/01/2017] GRINER, David, (2011) WTA's Striking New Ad Campaign: Exploitative or Just Awesome? [Internet] Available from < http://www.adweek.com/adfreak/wtas-strikingnew-ad-campaign-exploitative-or-just-awesome-132060 [07/01/2017] HANAN, Ali, (2016) Five facts that show how the advertising industry fails women [Internet] Available from < https://www.theguardian.com/women-inleadership/2016/feb/03/how-advertising-industry-fails-women [27/01/2017] LAWRENCE-CORBETT, Merlisa, (2014) Is the WTA's focus on image good or bad for women's tennis? [Internet] Available from < http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2137065-is-the-wtas-focus-on-image-good-or-badfor-womens-tennis [07/01/2017] LEE ADAMS, William, (2011) Game, Sex and Match: The Perils of Female Sports Advertising. [Internet] Available from < http://content.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,2081209,00.html [07/01/2017] PREMIER LEAGUE, (2017) Global Media Platform. [Internet] Available from < http://fanresearch.premierleague.com/global-media-platform.aspx [29/01/2017] RICHARDS, Katie, (2015) Why Brands Are Finally Choosing More Female Athletes for Big Endorsement Deals - Women are no longer sitting on the side-lines. [Internet] Available from < http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/why-brands-arefinally-choosing-more-female-athletes-big-endorsement-deals-167007 [07/01/2017] STELTER, Brian, (2009) Accenture, as if Tiger Woods Were Never There. [Internet] Available from < http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/17/business/media/17accenture.html [26/01/2017] WAILGUM, Thomas, (2009) Tiger Woods and Accenture: A High (and Now Low) Performance Relationship. [Internet] Available from < http://www.cio.com/article/2422141/enterprise-software/tiger-woods-and-accenture-a-high--and-now-low--performance-relationship.html [26/01/2017] Video:
ACCENTURE, (2009) Accenture - ‘High performance. Delivered’. [Internet] Available from < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YM8FrX3b_Jo [26/01/2017] ACCENTURE, (2007) Accenture - ‘We Know what it takes to be a Tiger’. [Internet] Available from < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOhMc-z6n-Q [26/01/2017] NATIONAL LOTTERY UK, (2015) This Girl Can. [Internet] Available from < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsP0W7-tEOc [28/01/2017] NIKE, (2016) Nike - Unlimited Greatness ft. Serena Williams. [Internet] Available from < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fw0MmCgxDow [27/01/2017] UNDER ARMOUR, (2014) Under Armour - ‘I Will What I Want’. [Internet] Available from < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZY0cdXr_1MA [27/01/2017]