The
Individualist
Suburban Landscape Benjamin Nourse University of Cambridge MAUD Essay 1B 2018
This essay is a transcript from a talk given in partial fulfilment for the University of Cambridge MPhil Architecture and Urban Design course, on the 25th of January 2018. This essay is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text.
Introduction [Fig.1] Throughout the last two centuries, suburbs in England have been the target of criticism from metropolitan elites. Suburbia is infamous for its monotony, low-quality housing, and townscape plans that are dominated by roads rather than the underlying landscape.1 However, this essay will focus on the essential component of suburbia that distinguishes it from the city; the private garden. I pose that the suburban garden, in terms of its social benefit to the occupant, is successful as an isolated individual typology. However, suburbia as a landscape, is a tangled story of failure and success. Firstly, to understand the cultural desire for gardens, this essay will explore the historical narrative of English suburban gardens. Furthermore, it will debate the benefits for the owner-occupying individual, in contrast, to the collective problems of the resulting suburban landscape. This is part of a wider discussion, investigating social issues of the public landscape in the suburbs of outer London and Essex. 1. Jason Hawkes, Barcroft Media, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ news/2016/07/05/end-of-the-goodlife-britains-suburbs-being-leftbehind/
Ministry of Health, Central Housing Advisory Committee, Report of the Sub-committee on the means of improving the appearance of local authority housing estates. The Appearance of Housing Estates (HMSO, 1948), 3. Cited in Tom Turner, Landscape Planning (London: UCL Press, 1996),151.
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History of the cultural desire for private gardens Englishness of gardens [Fig.2] The personal ownership of a house and garden is a quintessentially English cultural idyll. The first lines of Rudyard Kipling’s poem, The Glory of the Garden, begins:
2. Peasant Gardens, Wilton, Wiltshire, illustrated in 1565 Sylvia Landsberg, The Medieval Garden (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 47.
“Our England is a garden, that is full of stately views
Of borders, beds, shrubberies and lawns and avenues”2
The English have a long history of garden cultivation, dating back to the medieval period.3 According to Jonathan Kellet, the ‘provision of dwellings with private gardens’ in England and Wales is ‘extremely high’, compared to other European nations.4 In terms of the amount of this aspiration for garden ownership, in 1970, the Housing Research Foundation published that 93% of prospective residential buyers desired a garden.5
Land Ownership According to Richard Gill, the English, in particular, the upper classes, have a ‘profound attachment to the land itself ’.6 Land ownership as a means of social and political power is well-ingrained into English culture. From the introduction of the feudal system in the Norman period, till the rise of the middle-class in the eighteenth century, the landed gentry have been the most influential members of English society. A School History of England (1911) by C. R. L. Fletcher and Rudyard Kipling, cited in Jonathan E. Kellett, "The Private Garden In England And Wales", Landscape Planning 9, no. 2 (1982): 105-123, doi:10.1016/0304-3924(82)90002-8, 105. 3 Jonathan E. Kellett, "The Private Garden In England And Wales", Landscape Planning 9, no. 2 (1982): 105-123, doi:10.1016/0304-3924(82)90002-8, 106. 4 "The Private Garden In England And Wales", Kellet, 1982, 105. 5 New Housing in South East England: Purchasers’ Like and Dislikes (The Housing Research Foundation, April 1970) cited in, Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 157. 6 Richard Gill, Happy Rural Seat (UMI Research Press, 1994),3 2
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Middle-class gardens [Fig.3] The social climb of the middle-classes in the eighteenth century, led to the aspiration of the capitalist ‘national society’,7 to personally own an estate and country house. The metropolitan ‘national-society’, moved away from the bourgeoise Georgian townhouses of London, with shared private gardens, and their aspiration manifested in the owner-occupied house-and-garden typology, with both a personal front and back garden. This was an opportunity for citizens to have their own piece of English countryside. In 1972, Oscar Newman described the socio-economics of garden ownership, as the ‘traditional symbol of arrival’.8 3. The Tower House, Bedford Park, London, By Adolf Manfred Trautschold, 1882 http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/ O127442/the-tower-house-bedfordpark-lithograph-trautschold-adolfmanfred/
Bedford Park, in London, was the late 19th-century pioneer of the ‘garden suburb’.9 An 1880 newspaper said that ‘The charm of the scene has been greatly enhanced by the loving tenderness with which every possible tree has been preserved... [it has] neither mansion or mews but comfortable dwellings’.10 However, these ‘Queen Anne’ Wahrman, Dror. "National Society, Communal Culture: An Argument About The Recent Historiography Of Eighteenth‐ Century Britain∗". Social History 17, no. 1 (1992): 43. doi:10.1080/03071029208567822. 8 Oscar Newman, 1972, Defensible Space. Faber and Faber, London, 189. cited in "The Private Garden In England And Wales", Kellet, 1982, 122. 9 Mervyn Miller, Hampstead Garden Suburb (Chichester: Phillimore, 2006), 9. 10 Daily news, 5 May 1880, cited in Hampstead Garden Suburb, 7
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detached ‘comfortable dwellings’ by Norman Shaw,11 were only economically available to the middle-classes.
Working Class Slums to Bylaw Estates
4. Market Court, Kensington Slum, Demolished in 1860s http://www.victorianweb.org/art/ architecture/london/56.html
[Fig.4] As London reached its industrial maturity in the 19th-century, the population increased fivefold,12 and the metropolitan city was at its maximum capacity. The dominant household of the working-classes, were ‘warren’ houses, which merely included a small yard with a shared outside lavatory. Warren streets were winding and difficult for the authorities to maintain and often accumulated waste and smoke.13 [Fig.5] To improve the health of the working classes, the 1875 Public Health Act, introduced ‘bylaw streets’, which were long straight roads, lined with terraced or semi-detached houses with gardens, and were orthogonally arranged, which were easier to patrol and maintain.14 The bylaw street is the typical working class suburban street as we now know it.
5. Rotherhithe New Road, Example of Early Bylaw Street http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/ southwark/assets/galleries/rotherhithe/rotherhithe-new-road
Miller, Hampstead Garden Suburb, 2006, 10. Miller, Hampstead Garden Suburb, 2006, 1. 13 Engles, F. Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (London, 1892), 49. Cited in Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 145. 14 Reyner Banham, [Review:] Muthesius, Stefan: The English Terraced House, (New Haven, 1982), 72. 11
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Garden for the individual [Fig.6] The suburban private garden is a residential greenspace typology, which is intended for the use and social representation, of the individual family unit. For the working-class occupant, the suburban house and garden was an undoubted improvement of welfare, compared to the East End warren terraces.
Additional functional space The suburban garden provided the working classes with additional functional space, which would not have been available in the dense warren slums of the city. They were for growing vegetables, drying washing, general maintenance, hobbies, and a safe space for children to play.15 [Fig.7] In 1897, George Cadbury completed the Bournville industrial village, just outside of the then metropolitan Birmingham. Adjacent to the factory, were houses with large gardens for the workers, as John Claudius Loudon had planned in 1829.16 Cadbury found, that the profit that the working residents would gain from growing vegetables, would offset the costs of rent, thus the addition of large gardens were economically feasible. 17
6. Is the private garden the success of suburbia? http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ magazine-32780242
7. Bournville Factory Housing with Gardens https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7d/ c0/01/7dc001841d1b5ddd44da02cbd45111b2.jpg
Class divide and improvement [Fig.8] Hampstead Garden Suburb, founded by Dame Henrietta Barnett, and planned by Sir Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, was an arts and crafts residential utopia, that blended the social boundaries of class. In a 1903 letter, entitled ‘A Garden Suburb for the Working Class’, Barnett said that, all classes were welcome in the suburb; the middleclasses could live in the ‘promised land’, by philanthropically subsidising the ‘industrial classes’.18 The suburb’s success is attributed to its diversity of style and scale, which to a
8. Housing for All Classes, Hampstead Garden Suburb http://www.fabricmagazine.co.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ areaguide_hampsteadgardensuburb. jpg
Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 157. Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 149, 17 Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 149, 18 Miller, Hampstead Garden Suburb, 2006, 22,23. 15 16
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certain extent, liberated individuals from the collectivist construct of class. Quality of life in the suburb, was an indisputable improvement from the living conditions, of the urban slums, but also satisfied a middle-class romance for the countryside.
Privacy 9. Private gardens in Hampstead Garden Suburb https://www.gardenvisit.com/ gardens/hampstead_garden_suburb
[Fig.9] The level of privacy in the suburban house-andgarden was a far cry from the communal living conditions of the working-class London terrace. By dwelling in an isolated private space, one can escape the reach of the city. A 1948 report by the Ministry of Health, found that residents wished gardens to ‘provide the greatest possible measure of privacy’,19 with high hedges in the back garden and a low hedge framing the front of the house.20 Kellet, said that residents would be willing to accept a smaller back garden if they were free from overlooking.21 Landscape historian, Tom Turner, says that the rear garden is a spatial extension of the house and that the ratio, of the boundaries, length, and width are just as important as those of an internal room.22
Self-Expression [Fig.10] Perhaps the most interesting characteristic of the suburban garden, is that they are rarely created by professionals, and are reliant on the resident for design and maintenance. The Hampstead Garden Suburb had design intentions with large gardens planned, yet when it was constructed, the garden was merely ‘the part of plot not occupied by buildings’.23 The empty plots were simply the non-space, in which the house was not. Ministry of Health, Central Housing Advisory Committee, Report of the Sub-committee on the means of improving the appearance of local authority housing estates. Our Gardens (HMSO, 1948). Cited in Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 151. 20 Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 151. 21 "The Private Garden In England And Wales", Kellet, 1982, 121. 22 Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 161. 23 Cook, J.A. ‘Gardens on housing estates’ Towns, Buildings, Construction (Oxford University Press, New York, 1977), 267. Cited in Landscape Planning, Turner, 161. 19
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10. Suburban Gardens in South London, Etching by Anthony Gross, 1930s Margaret Willes, The gardens of the British working class (New Haven [Connecticut]: Yale University Press, 2015), 6.
However, I pose that this lack of design, empowered self-expression. Furthermore, creativity in the garden counterpoints the monotony of repetitive suburban housing, and emphasises the diversity of the suburban neighbourhood. The garden is simpler to manipulate compared to the house, thus is feasible for the typical resident. [Fig.11] The Becontree Estate, in Essex, began construction in 1919, but by 1939 was the largest local housing scheme in the world.24 It was a socialist project, built and maintained by the London County Council. However, it was undeniably homogeneous, both architecturally and socially. The estate was composed of 27,000 homes yet had a mere 91 housing designs.25 Lack of ownership in the 20 -century suburb, meant that gardening was more than a freedom, but compulsory; this was to enforce neighbourliness and the upkeep of the street. In Becontree, there were 16 accounts of eviction served, for the ‘non-cultivation of garden’.26 th
11. Homogeneity in Becontree https://www.tubewalker.com/ images/district/becontree_to_ upminster/800/becontree_to_ upminster037.jpg
Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996, 151. The Becontree Estate: ‘built in England where the most revolutionary social changes can take place, and people in general do not realise that they have occurred’, Municipal Dreams in Housing, London, January 2013 26 Working Class Housing in England Between the Wars: The Becontree Estate, Andrzej Olechnowicz, 1997, 210. 24 25
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Freedom of ownership [Fig.12] The most successful individualist garden, is the owner-occupied garden. By the 1980s, following the contentious ‘right to buy’ scheme, the working-class garden became a target of criticism. Urban elites lost the monopoly on what was considered tasteful.27 The freedom of ownership empowered suburbanites to do as they wished in the garden, leading to a variety of questionable designs. Reported in the Telegraph, Becontree resident, Terry Mannix, has placed in his front garden, an ‘original blacksmith’s anvil, a 10ft-tall, cast-iron lamp post, and a half-sized red pillar box’, and a ‘fox hiding from a top-hatted Victorian gentleman.’28 Although this garden design may be excessive, it illustrates that ownership enables the autonomy of the resident, and provides the individual with freedom and responsibility, rather than restrictions imposed by a collective. 12. Freedom of self-expression in the garden https://parksandgardensuk.wordpress.com/2015/01/17/almost-everyones-least-favourite-tree/
27 "Everyday Eden: A Potted History Of The Suburban Garden", TV programme (BBC, 2017). 28 “A Cultural Feast in Corned Beef City”, Christopher Middleton, Telegraph, 2002.
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Landscape of individual gardens 13. Individual Home in Individualist Landscape Benjamin Nourse
[Fig.13] Suburbia is an individualist landscape, that is composed of a variety of isolated dwellings that are each intended for the private use of individuals. The nature of arranging private space into collective estates is a dichotomy, that creates a variety of socio-political problems.
Political sprawling landscape Politically, the key cause of suburban expansion in England, was the context, of a growing population, and a rising lower-class, combined with a cultural desire for a houseand-garden. [Fig.14] The most significant political problem, was the scale of demand for new homes in the early 20th-century. During the inter-war years alone, the working-class estates created four million gardens.29 The issue of scale is that, the nature of garden ownership, requires land in which to own, thus when applied to the scale of an entire class, an entire tract of land is required to change. In 1964, in the BBC programme, A City Crowned with Green, Reyner Banham argues against mass suburban ownership in London, he said: 29
14. Sprawl of the Becontree Estate http://www.storiesofbecontree.com/ wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ Aerial-Becontree-estate-c1930SB2908.jpeg
E. D. Simon, Rebuilding Britain (1945), 72. 9
“The thin patchy expansion, of the thin patchy metropolis, can still be traced, but in the end, it was to be London’s undoing. The idea of giving every citizen his own house on his own piece of ground with greenery became dynamite, as soon as every citizen came to mean every Tom, Dick or nobody with a vote”.30 However, with a mass demand for land in a small democratic nation, without altering the mainstream culture or politics, suburban expansion was arguably inevitable.
Political Capitalist quality [Fig.15] The other key political issue in suburbia, is the capitalist nature of both the physical development and the demographic that resides within it.
15. Capitalist Control of the Suburban Landscape, Advert, Davies Estates Ltd. https://stevehollier.wordpress. com/2011/01/20/metroland-part-2out-into-the-outskirts-edges/
The 1923 Radical Housing Act, provided private developers and builders, with large subsidies to build new suburban homes.31 The product was an inherently capitalist landscape, constructed for economic profit, which due to the lack of designers, manifested as low-quality housing, that is repeated in geometrical patterns.32 Due to the prevailing singular usage, the lack of focal points, and the public inaccessibility of the house and private garden, the suburban public realm is futile to non-residents. However, this is an issue that can be solved with design, although due to the current ‘housing crisis’ this type of expansion is still occurring today in the exurbs.
Social landscape and Displacement [Fig.16] The isolated layout of the suburban landscape produces a social deficit of animation and neighbourliness, 30 Reyner Banham. "A City Crowned With Green,", TV programme (BBC, 1964). 31 Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996. 32 Ministry of Health, Central Housing Advisory Committee, Report of the Sub-committee on the means of improving the appearance of local authority housing estates. The Appearance of Housing Estates (HMSO, 1948), 3. cited in Turner, Landscape Planning, 1996.151.
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compared to the city. The key flaw of suburbia, is the paradox between its individualist nature, and the aspiration for collectivist community. 16. Organised Community, Letchworth Garden City https://i.pinimg.com/originals/9d/89/5b/9d895bfeb30dd7c7abbf631d3b0db829.jpg
The suburban landscape of London appeared in three forms, each with distinct social characteristics. Firstly, the “patchy”33 expansions, which were extensions of existing communities that surrounded the capital; places like the Hampstead Garden Suburb, which retained the village ‘nucleus’ and were relatively successful. Secondly, the suburban development between the expansions, which sprawled across greenfield sites and tended to appear around transport interchanges due to the lack of community focal points, places like Becontree.34 Thirdly, Patrick Abercrombie’s 1944 green belt plan, began to protect the countryside around London, so instead new satellite towns developed just outside of the greenbelt; this includes, the ‘Garden Cities’ of Letchworth and Welwyn, and the less successful post-war ‘New towns’, like Harlow. Although, due to the absence of history, these new developments required a period of time before a successful community was established.
33 Reyner Banham. "A City Crowned With Green,", TV programme (BBC, 1964). 34 Reyner Banham. "A City Crowned With Green,", TV programme (BBC, 1964).
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[Fig.17] Empowered by advances in transport technology, and the 1883 Cheap Trains Act,35 suburban residents seldom live where they work, thus are more economically and socially tied to the city.36 Displacement from the city created a social void, and the physical isolated layout of suburbia dictated a new social landscape.
Social advancement in individualist suburb 17. Home life in the suburb, Work life in the city https://www.ltmuseumshop.co.uk/ posters
The escape from the city, was an opportunity for personal social advancement, particularly for the middle-classes. Since the early 20th century, the suburban front garden has been a place of social display, thus grander front gardens can publicly contribute to higher social status. ‘Mrs Bouquet’ or ‘Bucket’ from the television programme ‘Keeping up appearances’ was a media caricature of a middle-class suburban mindset, whose appearance to the neighbourhood, was more important than reality. An unfortunate product of an individualist society is social competition, which often manifests itself in edited versions of reality.
Lack of community – garden as a solution
18. Gardening in Becontree https://municipaldreams.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/becontree-garden-capture.jpg
[Fig.18] Although community is rarely designed for in the suburbs, collective authority can enforce neighbourliness. In the Hampstead garden suburb, with the intention that one could bond with one’s neighbour in the private garden, the authority would measure resident’s hedges with a stick, and would issue fines if the height was not up to standard.37 According to Martin Hoyles’s 1994 paper, gardening is England’s most popular outdoor leisure activity.38 Gardening can be a social activity, it ‘was the common interest around Miller, Hampstead Garden Suburb, 2006, 6. Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2008), 2. 37 "Everyday Eden: A Potted History Of The Suburban Garden", TV programme (BBC, 2017). 38 Martin Hoyles. “Working Paper No 6: Lost Connections & New Directions: the private gardens and the public park”. 1994, 1 35 36
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which new social life could be built on new estates’.39 Authorities, including the London County Council used this public interest to create community. The authority held gardening competitions that the entire neighbourhood participated in. Banham argued that the suburban social landscape was an “illusion”,40 and although this may be true now, social gardening events irrefutably did enhance suburban wellbeing at the time. [Fig.19] London literary elites were ‘threatened’ by this new social phenomenon, and went as far to say that suburbia was ‘bad for you’.41 In a 1930s edition of the medical journal ‘The Lancet’, Dr Stephen Taylor publicised a new term called ‘suburban neurosis’.42 It is ‘A set of psychological, or psychological and physical symptoms, said to occur particularly amongst suburban housewives, associated with feelings of boredom, anxiety, loneliness, and lack of personal fulfilment.’43 However, according to Professor David Gilbert, it was not a scientific study but merely a ‘thought piece’ that fits with the story of social displacement.44 19. Isolation in the suburb, Becontree https://ichef-1.bbci.co.uk/news/624/ media/images/83070000/ jpg/_83070839_ch_gardening.jpg
Frank Milligan, "The Use Of Leisure II", Liverpool Quarterly, 1937, 86. 40 Reyner Banham. "A City Crowned With Green,", TV programme (BBC, 1964). 41 "Everyday Eden: A Potted History Of The Suburban Garden", TV programme (BBC, 2017). 42 Taylor, Stephen. "THE SUBURBAN NEUROSIS". The Lancet 231, no. 5978 (1938): 759-762. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)93869-8. 43 "Suburban Neurosis | Definition Of Suburban Neurosis In English By Oxford Dictionaries", Oxford English Dictionary, 2018, https:// en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/suburban_neurosis. 44 David Gilbert. quoted in "Everyday Eden: A Potted History Of The Suburban Garden", TV programme (BBC, 2017). 39
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Conclusion Conclusively, the private suburban garden fulfils the romantic English cultural idyll, of personally owning a piece of countryside. However, this desire at a mainstream scale is problematic, and in the context of a democratic country, inevitably led to suburban sprawl. Moreover, the deficit of urban focus, prevailing repetition of single usage, and contradictory collection of individual isolated gardens, does not lend towards a successful social landscape. However, the private garden as an individual typology is socially successful. It is providing its residents with freedom, functional space, and a place to express themselves, and to a certain extent, the garden facilitated the liberation from collective class. 20. What is the future of the suburban landscape? https://www.newstatesman.com/ writers/317772
[Fig.20] Suburban community has diminished with time. Due to the expansion of complex social networks, through the increase in personal technology, there is less need to socialise with the direct neighbourhood, furthering the decline in physical community. The declining desire to impress the neighbours has reduced the quality and originality of gardens, which is a testament to the privately arranged individualist nature of the suburban landscape.
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List of Figures All websites last accessed on the 15th January 2018. 1. Jason Hawkes, Barcroft Media, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/05/ end-of-the-good-life-britains-suburbs-being-left-behind/ 2. Sylvia Landsberg, The Medieval Garden (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 47. 3. The Tower House, Bedford Park, London, By Adolf Manfred Trautschold, 1882. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O127442/the-tower-house-bedford-parklithograph-trautschold-adolf-manfred/ 4. http://www.victorianweb.org/art/architecture/london/56.html 5. http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/southwark/assets/galleries/rotherhithe/ rotherhithe-new-road 6. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32780242 7. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7d/c0/01/7dc001841d1b5ddd44da02cbd45111b2. jpg 8. http://www.fabricmagazine.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/areaguide_ hampsteadgardensuburb.jpg 9. https://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/hampstead_garden_suburb 10. Margaret Willes, The gardens of the British working class (New Haven [Connecticut]: Yale University Press, 2015), 6. 11. https://parksandgardensuk.wordpress.com/2015/01/17/almost-everyones-leastfavourite-tree 12. Drawing by Author 13. https://www.tubewalker.com/images/district/becontree_to_upminster/800/ becontree_to_upminster037.jpg 14. http://www.storiesofbecontree.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/AerialBecontree-estate-c1930-SB2908.jpeg 15. https://stevehollier.wordpress.com/2011/01/20/metroland-part-2-out-into-theoutskirts-edges/ 16. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/9d/89/5b/9d895bfeb30dd7c7abbf631d3b0db829. jpg 17. https://www.ltmuseumshop.co.uk/posters 18. https://municipaldreams.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/becontree-garden-capture. jpg 19. https://ichef-1.bbci.co.uk/news/624/media/images/83070000/jpg/_83070839_ ch_gardening.jpg 20. https://www.newstatesman.com/writers/317772
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Bibliography Books Baillie Scott, Mackay Hugh. Houses And Gardens. Woodbridge: Antique Collectors’ Club, 1995. Banham, Reyner. [Rezension Von:] Muthesius, Stefan: The English Terraced House. - New Haven, 1982, 1984. Bruegmann, Robert. Sprawl. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2008. Crookston, Martin. Garden Suburbs Of Tomorrow?. London: Routledge, 2014. Cullen, Gordon. The Concise Townscape. Oxford: Architectural Press, 2010. Gallagher, Winifred. House Thinking. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. Gill, Richard. Happy Rural Seat. [Ann Arbor]: UMI Research Press, 1994. Hoskins, W. G. The Making Of The English Landscape. [A Series.] Edited By W.G. Hoskins. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1955. Kargon, Robert Hugh, and Arthur P Molella. Invented Edens. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008. Lennox-Boyd, Arabella. Private Gardens Of London. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. Miller, Mervyn. English Garden Cities. Swindon: English Heritage, 2010. Miller, Mervyn. Hampstead Garden Suburb. Chichester: Phillimore, 2006. Olechnowicz, Andrzej. Working-Class Housing In England Between The Wars. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2011. Simo, Melanie Louise. Loudon And The Landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Stubbings, Wendy. Lost Gardens Of Essex. Romford: Ian Henry Publications, 2002. Turner, Tom. Landscape Planning. London: UCL Press, 1996. Watkin, David. The English Vision. London: J. Murray, 1982. Willes, Margaret. The gardens of the British working class. New Haven [Connecticut]: Yale University Press, 2015.
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Articles and Journals Daniels, Tom. “What To Do About Rural Sprawl?”. Seattle, 1999. Hoyles, Martin. “Working Paper No 6: Lost Connections & New Directions: the private gardens and the public park”, 1994. Kellett, Jonathan E. “The Private Garden In England And Wales”. Landscape Planning 9, no. 2 (1982): 105-123. doi:10.1016/0304-3924(82)90002-8.
Documentaries Banham, Reyner “A City Crowned With Green,”. TV programme. BBC, 1964. Betjeman, John. “Metro-Land”. TV programme. BBC, 1973. “Everyday Eden: A Potted History Of The Suburban Garden”. TV programme. BBC, 2017. Milligan, Frank. “The Use Of Leisure II”. Liverpool Quarterly, 1937, 86.
Web Articles Christopher Middleton, “A Cultural Feast In Corned Beef City”, Telegraph.Co.Uk, 2018, http:// www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/property/3306572/A-cultural-feast-in-Corned-Beef-City.html. Dreams, Municipal. “The Becontree Estate: ‘Built In England Where The Most Revolutionary Social Changes Can Take Place, And People In General Do Not Realise That They Have Occurred’”. Municipal Dreams, 2018. https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2013/01/08/the-becontree-estate-built-in-england-where-the-most-revolutionary-social-changes-can-take-place-and-people-in-general-do-not-realise-that-they-have-occurred/. “Radical Plots: The Politics Of Gardening”. The Independent, 2018. http://www.independent.co.uk/ property/gardening/radical-plots-the-politics-of-gardening-2277631.html. “The Decline Of The British Front Garden”. BBC News, 2018. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32780242.
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