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CP SH I L D YC HOLOGY CHILD PSYCHOLOGY IS A BRANCH OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY THAT FOCUS’S ON HOW OUR EXPERIENCE WITH EARLY RELATIONSHIPS CAN AFFECT OUR COGNITIVE, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
KEY TERMS: ATTACHMENT - THE EMOTIONAL BOND OF LOVE BETWEEN A CHILD AND CAREGIVER, PROVIDES STABILITY AND SECURITY. DEPRIVATION - LOSS OF AN ATTACHMENT WITH CAREGIVER MAY OCCUR THROUGH: DIVORCE, DEATH OR EVEN DAY CARE PRIVATION - ATTACHMENT IS NEVER FORMED EITHER THROUGH NEGLECT, ABUSE OR IF CAREGIVER FINDS DIFFICULT TO BOND WITH CHILD DEPRIVATION - THE STRESS FELT BY A CHILD WHEN SEPARATED FROM A CAREGIVER
D R .
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J O H N
B O W L B Y
MAT E RN A L DE PR I VAT I ON H YP OTH E SI S
Hypothesized that children who suffer a loss of attachment during first 24 months develop internal working model of themselves as unworthy. MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS:
DELINQUENCY DWARFISM DEPRESSION
Children need continual and a mutually loving relationship if broken detrimental effects in later life such as:
HAVE A LOWER
LACK OF GUILT FOR THEIR
INTELLIGENCE
ACTIONS
HE CALLED THIS LACK OF GUILT FOR THE CONSEQUENCES OF ACTIONS:
AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHY EVO LU TI O N A R Y B A S IS FO R ATTAC HM E NT • • • •
Konrad Lorenz 1935 Attachment had evolutionary advantage Precocial species “imprint” Bowlby took this idea of critical period
and said that 2 years needed to attach to proximal caregiver
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M A T E R N A L
D E P R I V A T I O N
EVALUATION A DVA N TA G E S HAR LO W & HAR LO W
M O N K E Y
S T U DY
CONDUCTED RESEARCH ON MONKEYS RAISED IN ISOLATION FROM THEIR MOTHERS THEY FOUND IT LED TO: POOR SOCIAL SKILLS, AGGRESSION, SEXUAL DEVIANCE, POOR PARENTING THE T HEO R Y C AN BE AP P L I E D TO
R E A L
L I F E
THE STUDY WAS VERY INFLUENTIAL IN ACADEMIC CIRCLES. LED TO CHANGES IN THE WAY HOSPITALS AND DAY CARE WAS RAN.
Parents can see
Rhesus monkey
D I S A DVA N TA G E S C R I T I C I S M ABO UT P O S S I B L E
R E S E A R C H E R
B I A S
BELIEFE THAT THEORY WAS TO AID MEN RETURNING HOME, TO HELP FREE UP JOBS FOR MEN AFTER THE WAR P O S S I BL E C O N F US I O N BET W E E N
P R I VAT I O N
A N D
D E P R I VAT I O N
THE HYPOTHESIS DOES NOT DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE TWO, AND STATES THAT SHORT TERM DEP, CAN HAVE SERIOUS PROBLEMS.
World war two
Confusion
D R .
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J O H N
B O W L B Y
4 4 TH IE VE S ( 194 4)
UK
88 CS
TAVISTOCK CLINIC
44: THEIVES 44: CONTROL
CASE STUDY TRIANGULATION
SELECTED SAMPLE
A
To reveal possible causes of habitual juvenile delinquency, e.g. thieving. To support the M.D.H
P
1. 2. 3.
Interviewed 44 juvenile thieves referred to clinic Compared to control group of 44 emotionally disturbed but not criminal Used interviews to find out about possible deprivation
4.
Used clinical interviews, and psychiatric assessments.
OUT OF THE 44 THIEVES:
14 AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHS
17 THIEVES HAD PREVIOUS
OUT OF THESE
PROLONGED SEPARATION
12/17 WERE A.P’S
MATERNAL DEPRIVATION WHEN YOUNG EFFECTS
BEHAVIOUR IN LATER LIFE CAUSES EMOTIONAL ISSUES SUCH AS
LACK OF GUILT, A.P AND THIS IS WHAT LEADS TO CRIMINALITY
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D R .
J O H N
B O W L B Y
4 4 TH IE VE S ( 194 4)
A DVA N TA G E S HI G HLY D ETAI L ED
C A S E
S T U DY
LOTS OF QUALITATIVE DATA BEING COLLECTED T HE S TUDY US ES
T R I A N G U L AT I O N
CLINICAL INTERVIEWS, PSYCHIATRIC TESTS AND RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS
S UP P O RTI VE EVI D EN C E
M AT E R N A L
D E P R I VAT I O N
H Y P OT H E S I S
PROVIDES EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR HIS STUDY
D I S A DVA N TA G E S S TUDY
L AC K S
G E N E R A L I S A B I L I T Y
BASED ON INDIVIDUALS SO CANNOT BE GENERALISED. DOESN’T TAKE INTO ACCOUNT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES D O ES N ’T EX P L AI N
OT H E R
E X PL A N AT I O N S
F O R
C R I M I N A L I T Y
ONLY 17/44 SUFFERED DEPRIVATION YET ALL WERE INVOLVED IN CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR
T HE S T UDY S HO W S C O R R EL AT I O N B U T
C O R R E L AT I O N
A N D
C AU S AT I O N
ARE DIFFERENT THINGS AND MAY NOT BE VALID A .P MAY BE C AUS ED
B Y
C AU S E
O F
S E PA R AT I O N
NOT SEPARATION IT’S SELF E.G DIVORCE
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R O B E R T S O N
&
R O B E R T S O N
JOHN TRIED FORMING ATTACHMENTS WITH STAFF, BUT FAILED
He began to cry and protest But soon became quiet, often found rolling around in despair When collected by his mother John ignored her and showed detachment
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James and Jane observed the behaviour and concluded on a model of behaviour that children go through during periods of deprivation. They had the cool idea of calling it‌
C U R T I S S
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G E N IE ( 197 7 )
US LOS ANGELES
1
CS
CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
OBSERVATIONAL STUDY
Discovered in 1970, she was 13, she had spent her entire life locked in a room and most of the time tied to a potty chair. She had no toys to play with and had very little visual and aural stimulation. Her father used to beat her is she made noise. Both parents were charged with child abuse, mother claimed she was victim of abusive father. Father committed suicide before trial. Genie was then fostered by researchers they found she had: SEVERE:
MENTAL & PHYSICAL RETARDATION
SHE WALKED WITH A
UNDER NOURISHED
STOOP
STUNTED GROWTH COULD NOT CHEW
PUT THROUGH INTENSIVE TREATMENT BY RESEARCHERS
COULD HELP DRESS HERSELF & USE THE TOILET ALMOST INDEPENDENTLY SHE FORMED ATTACHMENTS WITH STAFF
& SHOWED DISTRESS AND PROTEST IF THEY LEFT BUT SHE NEVER GAINED NORMAL SPEECH
FUNDING RAN OUT AND SHE WAS RETURNED TO FOSTER CARE
C U R T I S S
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G E N IE ( 197 7 )
A DVA N TA G E S HI G HLY D ETAI L ED
C A S E
S T U DY
LOTS OF QUALITATIVE DATA BEING COLLECTED AL LO W ED R ES EAR C HER S
TO
E XP LO R E
C H I L D
PR I VAT I O N
WHICH IS NOT USUALLY AVAILABLE
S UP P O RT I VE EVI D EN C E
M AT E R N A L
D E P R I VAT I O N
H Y P OT H E S I S
PROVIDES EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR HIS STUDY SHOWING THAT PRIVATION IS NOT REVERSIBLE
D I S A DVA N TA G E S S HE
N E V E R
R E C OV E R E D
ALTHOUGH SHOWING SIGNS OF SERIOUS IMPROVEMENT SHE NEVER FULLY RECOVERED, AND SOON REVERTED BACK TO HER ORIGINAL STATE FATHER C L AI M ED S HE WA S
M E N TA L LY
R E TA R D E D
A N Y WAY
WHICH WOULD EXPLAIN WHY LITTLE PROGRESS WAS MADE, UNDERMINING THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY (EXPLAINS WHY NOT REVERSIBLE) T HE S T UDY S HO W S C O R R EL AT I O N B U T
N E U R O LO G I C A L
S T U D I E S
AGREED WITH POSSIBLE MENTAL RETARDATION, EITHER CAUSED FROM BIRTH DEFECT OR PRIVATION, HARD TO ESTABLISH. C AS E S TUDY S O
N OT
G E N E R A L I SA B L E
TO OTHER CHILDREN. DOESN’T TAKE INTO ACCOUNT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
P O O R R ES EAR C HER
E T H I C S
CRITICIZED THAT THEY WERE PLACING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH OVER GENIES WELL BEING AND RE-HABILITATION
K O L U C H O V Å
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C Z E C H T WIN S ( 1972)
• • • • • •
Reported a case of twin Czechoslovakian boys, Andrei and Vanya who lost their mother after birth They were institutionalized for a year then placed in care of an Aunt At 18 months they were returned to father and new stepmother She regularly beat them and locked them in a dark room They were found at 6 mentally retarded, scared and undernourished They had 2 years of rehabilitation and were then fostered by two sisters who gave them exceptional care
IQ WENT FROM BEING AN ESTIMATED
40 IQ TO NORMAL
GREW UP TO BE
AT 20
NORMAL
BOYS BOTH HAD RELATIONSHIPS AND HELD JOBS
SHOWED THAT PRIVATION IS REVERSIBLE VARIABLES SUCH AS: EACHOTHER, EXCEPTIONAL CARE, AND ABUSE AFTER CRITICAL PERIOD COULD EXPLAIN REMARKABLE RECOVERY
R U T T E R
AD OPTE E S ( 1998) • • • •
Longitudinal study into early privation of Romanian war orphans adopted by english families Compared them to english orphans adopted by english families 111 romanians & 52 english all aged 4 Some were adopted within few weeks of life, others adopted between 6 months and 2 years THOSE ADOPTED EARLIER SHOWED
SOME ROMANIANS
GROUPS SHOWED BETTER
FASTER IMPROVEMENT
ATTACHMENT DISORDER
HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE WEIGHT HEIGHT
SHOWED PRIVATION IS REVERSIBLE THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF POOR QUALITY ORPHANAGE EFFECTED THOSE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY FOR LONGER TOOK A LONGER TIME TO RECOVER ATTACHMENT DISORDER: ATTENTION SEEKING, NON SELECTIVE WITH FRIENDSHIPS AND RELATIONSHIPS, SYMPTOMS COULD BE SEEN UNTIL THE AGE OF 11
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W H A T
I S
AUTISM?
Autism is a developmental life long mental disorder present from early childhood. Characterized by difficulty in communicating and forming relationships with others.
1. More prevalent in males 2. Be less likely to respond to and environmental stimuli 3. Have communication difficulties, such as abnormal speech 4. Have compulsive and ritualistic behaviour
THERE ARE T WO M A IN E X P L ANATIO NS F O R AU T IS M T H E S E A R E :
THEORY OF MIND (1997) COGNITIVE EXPLANATION
EXTREME MALE BRAIN (2005) BIOLOGICAL
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B A R O N - C O H E N
THE ORY O F M IN D ( 19 97)
Between the ages of 4 years old and 6 years old a child develops what’s known as a “Theory of mind” which is having the ability to understand that people have independent minds of their own. Developing this theory of mind is essential in allowing the child to begin to understand other people, and to predict what other people are likely to do and likely to believe. Baron Cohen argues that Autistic sufferers do not see to develop a “Theory of mind” Cohen, Leslie and Firth carried out the Sally-Anne test” in which to succeed children must attribute a belief to a 3rd party (sally the doll) and be able to appreciate that sally has her own opinions on the world which can differ from the child’s own belief. Reality question – Where is the marble really? Memory question – Where was the marble at the beginning? Belief question – Where does sally think the marble is? They performed the test on normal children, those with autism and those with downs syndrome. ON THE BELIEF QUESTION:
20% AUTISTIC CORRECT
COMPARED WITH
DOWNS SYNDROME
85% NORMAL CHILDREN
86% PERCENT
THIS EXPERIMENT PROVED THAT AUTISTIC CHILDREN SEEM NOT TO HAVE DEVELOPED
A THEORY OF MIND COHEN ALSO CONDUCTED ANOTHER STUDY TO SEE IF AUTISTIC CHILDREN COULD UNDERSTAND
EYE DIRECTION, THEY COULD NOT
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B A R O N - C O H E N
EXTREM E MAL E B R A IN ( 2 0 0 5 )
¾ sufferers of Autism are male and 90% of those with Asperger’s are also male. Simon Baron-Cohen suggested that the brain structure of an autistic person is an exaggeration of a normal male brain. Males and females are typically stronger at specific tasks; Males – Stronger at mental rotation and geometry orientated tasks Females- Stronger at language orientated tasks Differences are caused by the presence of testosterone in the womb whilst a foetus is developing. At around 8 weeks, the male embryo releases testosterone and causes the male brain to develop distinctly different (in parts) to that of a female brain.
While males do better in male-orientated tasks than females, autistic children are far superior to males at these tasks. Baron-Cohen et al (2003) – put forward the idea that females are better empathisers and that males are better systemisers. This hypothesis was supported by empirical evidence collected from a self report survey on the general population. This could explain why children with autism cannot predict and respond emotionally to others.
FALTER 2008 FOUND THAT:
AUTISTIC CHILDREN OUT PERFORMED NORMAL CHILDREN IN MENTAL ROTATION & FIGURE DISEMBEDDING TASKS
A B O U T
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DAY C ARE
Day care is when a child is looked after by a child minder or a day care provider throughout the day, usually while parents are at work. Bowlby’s theory of Maternal Deprivation sees day care as a form of short term deprivation and according to his theory, damage attachment and cause long term behavioural effects. • • • • •
Research in day car focuses on these key points: 1. Social development - Interacting with others 2. Cognitive development - Intellectual growth 3. Emotional development - Coping with situations in a positive way
FAC TOR S A FF E C T IN G DAY C AR E
Quality of care: High staff to child ratios, nurturing learning environments, low staff turnover Duration of care: Belsky&Rovine say damaging, others such as Clarke-Stewart say it isn’t Onset of daycare: Critical period may affect how damaging the short term separation is Individual Differences: May effect children with different behaviours and personalities differently, may be good for some and bad for others. Background: Children from deprived backgrounds may benefit from the stimulating environment
FOR DAY C ARE :
SYLVA ET AL (2004) EPPE (EFFECTIVE PROVISION of PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
AGAINST DAY C AR E :
BELSKY&ROVINE (1988) DAY CARE & PARENTAL ATTACHMENTS
S Y L V A
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E T
A L
E PP E ( 2 0 04)
• • • •
Conducted a longitudinal study of 7 years into the effectiveness of pre-school care for over 3000 children in the UK Studied children from 3-7 Created developmental profiles using SATS & multi opinion reports They collected, family qualifications, social background and birth weights that may affect developments POSITIVE EFFECTS OF DAYCARE
HIGHER SCORES IN
CHILDREN BENEFITTED
STILL EVIDENT AT END OF KS1
MATHS & LITERACY
SOCIALLY INTELLECTUALLY WITH HIGH QUALITY CARE
TRIANGULATION, LONGITUDINAL & OTHER VARIABLES MEASURED RANGE OF DATA COLLECTION USED, REPORTED ON THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF DAY CARE, AND THEY MEASURED OTHER VARIABLES TO MAKE SURE THAT THE EFFECT OF DAY CARE WAS BEING MEASURED NOT AN UNCONTROLLED VARIABLE
B E L S K Y
&
R O V I N E
DAY C A R E & PAR EN TA L AT TAC HM E N T ( 19 88) • •
Content analysis on findings from two major American longitudinal studies investigating effects of daycare They looked at attachment types using the strange situation with children between 12-13 months THOSE WITH OVER 20 HOURS DAY CARE
HIGHER INCIDENCE OF AVOIDANT
BOYS IN FULL TIME DAY CARE
CHILDREN WITH LESS CARE
MORE INSECURE ATTACHMENT
HAD MORE TYPE B ATTACHMENTS WHICH IS SEEN AS HEALTHY
CLARKE-STEWART CRITICISM SAID THAT USING THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A PROCEDURE TO MEASURE ATTACHMENT TYPES IN CHILDREN WHO EXPERIENCE INTENSIVE DAY CARE IS NOT RELIABLE. CHILDREN WHO SPEND ALOT OF TIME AWAY FROM THEIR PARENTS AND WITH STRANGERS ARE LESS LIKELY TO BE AS STRESSED AS THOSE WHO ARE NOT, AND DOES NOT INDICATE ANYTHING ABOUT THE HEALTH OR WELL BEING OF A CHILD.
M A R Y
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A I N S W O R T H
THE S T R A N G E S IT UAT I ON
The strange situation is a controlled observation developed by Psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1950’s. Children were observed and put through a “strange situation” this involved: Depending on how the child behaves in this situation, Mary believed that she could categorize children’s attachments with their mothers into 3 distinct attachments. Type B - Secure attachment example • Mother used as a base for exploration, wary of strangers but still happy to play while mother present • Distress on separation • Greets mother on return. • Type A - Anxious avoidant attachment • Play hardly affected whether mother was present or not • Little distress when separated from mother • Rejects comfort from stranger • Avoids contact upon mothers return.
1. The caregiver and child are placed in an observation room which has toys for the child to play with. 2. The child is left free to play whilst mother is present 3. A stranger enters the room, communicates with the mother and then tries to interact with the child through play 4. The carer leaves the child and stranger alone 5. After a short period, determined by the childs distress, the mother reenters the room, consoles the child and the stranger leaves. 6. The mother then leaves, leaving the child alone. 7. The stranger enters and tries to calm the child in the mothers absence. 8. The mother returns to console the child.
Type C - Anxious resistant attachment • Fussy and clingy, wary of stranger even when mother present • Very Distressed when the mother leaves • Sought contact with mother, upon return, but appeared very angry and resisted it. E.g wanting to be picked up then struggling away when mother responded.
THIS IS THE MOST WIDELY USED TECHNIQUE TO MEASURE INFANT ATTACHMENT
1. 2. 3.
SECURE (TYPE B) – 65% ANXIOUS-AVOIDANT (TYPE A) - 23% ANXIOUS-RESISTANT (TYPE C) – 12%
U.S.A RESULTS
HAS BEEN USED ACROSS MANY CULTURES, US, UGANDA, JAPAN, ISRAEL & GERMANY
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M A R Y
A I N S W O R T H
TH E S T R A N G E S IT UAT I ON E VA LUATION
A DVA N TA G E S R EP L I C ATED
O N
A
I N T E R- C O N T I N E N TA L
S C A L E
RESULTS ARE NOT ETHNOCENTRIC, AND TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTACHMENT TYPES T HE R ES EAR C H MET HO D HAS H I G H
R E L I A B I L I T Y
DUE TO IT’S STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE AND IT’S CONSTANT REPETITION, ALSO OFFSETS RESEARCHER BIAS & INTER RATER RELIABILITY I T EX P L AI N S
R E A L
L I F E
B E H AV I O U R
AND SITUATIONS WE ARE FAMILIAR WITH
D I S A DVA N TA G E S I T C AN BE S EEN AS BI A S
TO WA R D S
W E S T E R N
C U LT U R E
BASING “NORMAL TYPE B BEHAVIOUR” ON RESEARCH IN WESTERN CULTURES D O ES N ’T TAKE I N TO AC C OU N T
I N D I V I D UA L
D I F F E R E N C E S
CHILDREN MAY HAVE DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES AND TEMPERAMENTS WHICH MAY ALTER THE ATTACHMENT TYPE THEY ARE CATEGORISED IN AT THE TIME OF TESTING UN - ET HI C AL AS I T
C AU S E S
S T R E S S
IN YOUNG INFANTS AND CHILDREN GRO UP I N G AT TAC HMEN T TYP ES M AY L E A D TO
S T E R E OT Y P I NG
AND PRE-JUDMENTS OF A CHILDS BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS RESEA RCHER S K N O W W HAT THEY AR E LO O K I N G F O R
D E TA I L S
M AY
B E
OV E R LO O K E D
AS THEY ARE LOOKING FOR ONLY CERTAIN BEHAVIOURS
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C H I L D
P S Y C H O L O G Y
RESEARC H METHODS CONTENT ANALYSIS LONGITUDINAL STUDY
TAKES A VARIETY OF SOURCES AND EVALUATES
FLAWS FROM ONE SOURCE CAN EFFECT RESULTS
SHOW GENUINE DEVELOPMENT OVER COURSE OF TIME
TIME CONSUMING AND EXPENSIVE TO FUND
CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY
QUICK TO GATHER DATA AND SO CHEAP
TWIN STUDIES
WHEN MZ TWINS ARE REARED APART THEY DO NOT SHARE THE SAME ENVIRONMENT, SO SIMILARITIES ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE GENETIC.
ADOPTION STUDIES
ISOLATED ALL THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
DIFFICULT TO REPLICATE COHORT EFFECT WHICH IS THE DIFFERENCE IN SOCIAL AND CULTRUAL CHANGES BETWEEN AGE GROUPS BECAUSE OF A GENERATION GAP THERE ARE NOT MANY MZ TWINS REARED APART WHO CAN BE ACCESSED FOR A STUDY. ALSO, IF NUMBERS ARE SMALL THEN IT MAY BE HARD TO DRAW MEANINGFUL CONCLUSIONS. ADOPTION PROCESS IT’S SELF MAY CHANGE THE CHILD’S BEHAVIOUR (E.G. POSITIVE OF NEGATIVE)
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C R IM INAL PSYC HOLOGY CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY USES PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE TO HELP UNDERSTAND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR. THIS KNOWLEDGE CAN BE DRAWN UPON IN THE INVESTIGATIVE STAGE, THE COURT ROOM AND FOR REHABILITATIVE METHODS.
KEY TERMS: CRIME - AN ACTION OR OMISSION THAT CONSTITUTES AN OFFENSE WHICH IS PUNISHABLE BY LAW RECIDIVISM - RATE OF CRIMINAL REOFFENDING ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR - BEING DISRUPTIVE TO THE COMMUNITY AND OTHERS AROUND EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY - A PERSONS FIRST HAND ACCOUNT OF A CRIME WHICH THEY WERE PRESENT DURING WEAPON FOCUS - NARROWING OF ATTENTION, DUE TO UNUSUALNESS OF WEAPON OR THE THREAT IS POSES
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L O F T U S
&
P A L M E R
LEA DI N G QU E S TIO N ( 1974)
2 EXPERIMENTS
IM INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN
Was to investigate how information provided to a witness after an event would affect their memory. Looking at leading
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
•
questions.
•
EXPERIMENT 1
•
• • • •
45 students shown 7 video clips Split into 5 groups with 9 participants in each Participants were asked “ About how fast were the cars going when they __________” The different verb groups were Smashed collided, bumped, hit or contacted.
SPEED ESTIMATION DIFFERENCE OF
9MPH
• • •
SELECTED SAMPLE OF PSYCHOLOGY UNDERGRADS
EXPERIMENT 2
150 students shown a short film that showed a multi-car vehicle crash. The participants were split into 3 groups into 3 groups with 50 in each group One group was asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit eachother” The 2nd was asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed” The 3rd group were not asked about the speed of the vehicles A week later asked if they saw any broken glass, there was no broken glass
MORE AGGRESSIVE VERBS HAD HIGHER
HIT: 7 SAW GLASS CONTROL: 6
SUGGESTIVE VERB INFLUENCED
SPEED
SMASHED 16
RESPONSE
SMASHED: 40.8MPH
THE DIFFERENT SPEED ESTIMATES OCCURRED BECAUSE THE CRITICAL WORD BIASES THE PERSON’S RESPONSE.
RESPONSE BIAS
: THE CRITICAL WORD CHANGES A PERSONS MEMORY SO THEY ACTUALLY SEE THE ACCIDENT DIFFERENTLY I.E. MORE OR LESS SEVERE.
MEMORY IS ALTERED
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L O F T U S
&
P A L M E R
LEA DIN G QU E S T I ON E VA LUATIO N
A DVA N TA G E S R ES EAR C H EX P O S ES F L AW S
P O L I C E
I N V E S T I G AT I O N
HAS CHANGED OUR VIEW OF HOW ACCURATE EWT IS L AR G E
S A M P L E
S I Z E
O F
1 5 0
COULD GENERALIZE TO TARGET POPULATION
F I L L ER Q UES TI O N S US ED TO RE D U C E
D E M A N D
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
USED TO DECEIVE PARTICIPANTS AND MASK AIM OF STUDY
D I S A DVA N TA G E S LO W
E C O LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
VIDEOS DO NOT CREATE AN ACCURATE EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL STATE IN WHICH REAL EWT WOULD EXPERIENCE. E.G ADRENALINE AL L PART I C I PAN T S
W E R E
S T U D E NT S
LIKELY SIMILAR AGE AND CAME FROM SIMILAR BACKGROUNDS, MEANING THAT WE CAN NOT GENERALIZE RESULTS TO OTHER AGES OR DEMOGRAPHY. P EO P L E MAY BE D I F F ER ENT AT
S P E E D
R E C A L L
E.G THOSE WITH EXPERIENCE DRIVING OR THOSE WHO HAVE JOBS WHICH INVOLVE SPEED ESTIMATION WOULD BE BETTER T HER E WAS N O
EL E M E N T
O F
S U P R I S E
WHICH IS APPARENT IN REAL LIFE EWT SITUATIONS, WHICH MAY AFFECT WHAT THEY RECALL
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P I C K E L
WEA P O N F OCU S ( 19 98)
2 EXPERIMENTS
IM INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
SELECTED SAMPLE OF PSYCHOLOGY UNDERGRADS
To investigate whether weapon focus, the inability to recall peripheral details of an incident due to the narrowing of attention, due to unusualness of weapon or the threat is poses
EXPERIMENT 1 • • • • • • • •
230 American psychology undergraduates Shown 2 min reconstruction video of a hair salon incident A man entered and approached the receptionist who handed him money over the counter Money was replaced with Scissors – High threat, low unusualness in a hair salon Handgun – High threat, high unusualness Wallet – Low threat, low unusualness Raw chicken – Low threat, High unusualness Empty – This video was used for a control
• • • • • •
EXPERIMENT 2
Second experiment using 256 participants, this time in the context of an electrical shop Large screwdriver in stabbing motion – High threat, low unsualness Butcher knife – High threat, high unusualness Sunglasses – Low threat, low unusualness Pilsbury doughboy – Low threat, high unusualness Empty – Used as a control
They were then asked to do a filler task for 10 mins. • Then they had to complete a questionnaire which quizzed them on details form the scene such as item, and what the woman and man looked like and what they thought he was doing.
Scissors Handgun 8.14 7.83 RECALL OF MAN DIFFERED
DRAMATICALLY
Wallet 8.53
HIGH UNUSUALNESS & THREAT
LOW RECALL
Raw Chicken Nothing 7.21 9.02
UNUSUALNESS IN CONTEXT
RECALL OF RECEPTIONIST
IMPORTANT
CONSISTENT
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P I C K E L
WE A P ON F OCU S E VA LUATION
A DVA N TA G E S HI G H R EL I ABI L I TY
S TA N DA R D I S E D
P R O C E D U R E
ALL PARTICIPANTS SAW SAME VIDEOS AND FILLED OUT SAME TASKS AND QUESTIONNAIRES N O EX P ER I MEN T ER BI AS
I N D E P E N D E N T
R E S E A R C H E R S
U S E D
TO RECORD NUMBER OF FEATURES OF MAN SUBMITTED BY PARTICIPANTS
L AR G E S AMP L E S I ZE
O F
OV E R
2 0 0
IN BOTH STUDIES WHICH INCREASES GENERALISABILITY
D I S A DVA N TA G E S LO W
E C O LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
VIDEOS DO NOT CREATE AN ACCURATE EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL STATE IN WHICH REAL EWT WOULD EXPERIENCE. E.G ADRENALINE AL L PART I C I PAN T S
W E R E
P S YC H O LO GY
S T U D E N T S
SO MAY HAVE IDEA ABOUT THE PSYCHOLOGY NATURE OF EXPERIMENT WHICH MAY EFFECT DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS. LO W R EL I ABI L I T Y
S C R E W
D R I V E R
I N
S TA B B I N G
M OT I O N
BROKE STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE DUE TO “STABBING MOTION” WHICH WAS NOT PRESENT WITH ANY OTHER ITEM CO N T R AD I C TO R Y EVI D EN C E F OU N D I N
Y U I L L E
&
C U T S H A L L
WHICH WAS A STUDY ON THE ACCURACY OF REAL LIFE EWT. IT’S RESULTS SHOWED THAT EWT WAS ACCURATE
.24
Y U I L L E
&
C U T S H A L L
R EA L E . W. T ( 19 85)
CA 13 VANCOUVER, CANADA
OUT OF 21 WITNESSES TOOK PART
NATURAL FIELD EXPERIMENT
SELECTED SAMPLE OF WITNESSES FROM REAL CRIME
Y&C said that slide sequences and filmed events are not relevant to real life crime events due to a lack of seriousness or consequences of actual events.
EXPERIMENT
This case was chosen because there were lots of witnesses, thief was killed so case was closed and research would not interfere. Lots of police accounts so records could be cross checked with police accounts. Aims: • Record and evaluate witness accounts • To examine issues raised by laboratory experiments
• • • • • • • • •
WHAT HAPPEND?
Thief enters gunshop Steals money and guns Ties up shop owner Goes outside Shop owner frees himself Runs out side to take registration Thief fires two shots at owner from 6ft Owner fires 6 and kills thief EWT viewed the scene from buildings, cars and the street • To look at witness accuracy and the kind of errors they made 4-5 months after event they asked: 1. “a busted headlight” vs “the busted headlight” (There was no broken headlight) 2. “the yellow quarter panel” vs “a yellow quarter panel” (quarter panel was blue) Of the 13 participants 7 were central witnesses and 6 peripheral witnesses. BOTH WITNESS TYPES
ACCURATE
MISLEADING INFO HAD
LITTLE EFFECT
STRESS SEEMED TO
IMPROVE RECALL
SHOWS EWT IS ACCURATE IN REAL LIFE SITUATIONS. DESPITE LEADING QUESTIONS AND MIS INFORMATION, WITNESSES COULD STILL ACCURATELY RECALL THE EVENT UP TO 5 MONTHS AFTER THE EVENT
Y U I L L E
.25
&
C U T S H A L L
R E A L E . W.T E VA LUATION
A DVA N TA G E S R EAL L I F E S I T UATI O N
H I G H
E C O - LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
RESEARCHING REAL BEHAVIOUR IN A REAL ENVIRONMENT C O MPAR ED W I T H P O L I C E R EPO RT S
S O
AC C U R AC Y
C O U L D
B E
G AU G E D
WITNESS ACCOUNTS COULD BE SCORED ON ACCURACY EASILY
R ES EAR C H D I D N OT I N TER F E R E
W I T H
C A S E
AS THIEF WAS KILLED IN THE INCIDENT
D I S A DVA N TA G E S N OT AL L W I TN ES S ES TO O K PA RT
O N LY
1 3/ 2 1
W I T N E S S E S
TO O K
PA R T
THIS MAY SKEW THE RESULTS AS THEY DID NOT INCLUDE ALL THE WITNESSES N OT AL L W I TN ES S ES W E R E
C E N T R A L ,
6
W E R E
P E R I P H E R A L
WITNESSES SO THEIR ACCOUNTS MAY BE DIFFERENT DUE TO THEIR PHYSICAL POSITIONING WHEN WITNESSING THE SCENE HAR D TO
R E P L I C AT E
IMPOSSIBLE TO REPLICATE THE EXPERIMENT, AS IT WAS A REAL CRIME. SO WE CANNOT GENERALISE RESULTS TO OTHER CASES C O N TR AD I C TO R Y EVI D EN C E F OU N D I N
L A B O R ATO R Y
E X P E R I M E N T S
WHICH RESULTS SHOW THAT E.W.T IS NOT ACCURATE
.26
E X P L A N A T I O N
F O R
C R I M E
SEL F - F U L FIL L IN G P ROP H ECY
The process drawn from social psychology that refers to the process of something coming true because it was predicted to happen. Stereotyping is the cause of SFP, the preconceived idea about a group individual then acceptance of stereotype can lead to SFP. There are 3 steps to the SFP: 1. Prophecy set - Some students labelled “bloomers” others believed to be low achievers 2. Expectation - Teachers do not stretch or motivate 3. Fulfilled - Student does not work hard and is not inspired; so they do not achieve An example of SFP in crime: Hoodie labelled as a delinquent so society treats them like one, frustration at rejection from society causes retaliation and anti social behaviour, so they fulfil their prophecy.
JAHODA (1954) • • • • •
Studied an Ashanti tribe in west Africa Boys and girls named after the day of the week they were born on They believed that the day of the week you were born on represents behavioural qualities Boys born on Wednesday are considered to be short tempered and aggressive Police reports showed that males born on the wednesday had significantly higher arrest rates (22%) than any other day
•
ROSENTHAL & JACOBSEN (1968) Informed teachers on the academic potential of students Some described as “bloomers” (randomly assigned) Teachers treated students differently They found that bloomers IQ rose whilst others fell There were ethical issues with this study as it effected children’s cognitive ability
• • • •
S T UD I ES AR E UN ETHI C AL S O O N LY
R E T R O S P E C T I V E
R E S E A R C H
CAN BE CONDUCTED WHICH IS LIMITED I N D I VI D UAL D I F F ER EN C E S
LO W
S E L F
E S T E E M
M AY
E F F E C T
RESULT, E.G MORE LIKELY TO ACCEPT STEREO TYPE. HOWEVER MAY HAVE THE “SCREW YOU” EFFECT. FIGHT AGAINST PROPHECY. C A N ’T EX P ER I MEN TAL LY T ES T TO SE E I F
S . F. P
C AU S E S
A N T I
S O C I A L
B E H AV I O U R
DUE TO ETHICAL REASONS AND DIFFICULTY OF FINDING NATURALLY OCCURRING SITUATIONS M AD O N S UG G ES T ED
+
P R E D I C T I O N S
A R E
S T R O N G E R
T H A N
E.G. PREDICTING GOOD WILL BE MORE LIKELY TO HAPPEN THEN PREDICTING BAD
-
.27
E X P L A N A T I O N
F O R
C R I M E
SOC I A L L E A R N IN G T H EORY
Social Learning Theory by Bandura explains crime as aggression through learning and observation of role models. There are 4 stages to SLT: ARMR 1. A - Attention - Witnessing or being aware of a crime 2. R - Retention - The cognitive stage of remembering the crime 3. M - Motivation - In the form of Vicarious learning (seeing criminal get away with fortune) & self-reinforcement (need to fulfil the buzz) 4. R - Reproduction - The act of committing a crime influenced by the previous stages Real life example Columbine High School Massacre 1999. Possibly linked to video game violence.
BANDURA, ROSS & ROSS (1961) • • • • •
Studied the transmission of aggression through role models This was one of the studies that triggered the TV violence debate Does social learning theory explain aggressive behaviour? 36 boys and 36 girls exposed to role models Those exposed to same sex violent role models were more likely to imitate behaviour
• • • • •
CHARLTON ET AL (2000)
A natural cross sectional experiment – on island of St. Helena British colony in the south Atlantic ocean, which received television for the first time in 1995. Longitudinal as it was conducted over 5 years using covert observation Researchers concluded that very little aggression levels changed following the televisions arrival. Video recorders were setup in the playgrounds of 2 schools four months prior to the introduction of TV in march 1995 and again 5 years later
ONLY HAN D F UL O F I N C I D EN TS C A N B E
D I R E C T LY
R E L AT E D
TO
M E D I A
VIOLENCE, THESE ARE VERY RARE COMPARED TO NORMAL CRIME. WE CANNOT GENERALISE SUP P O RTED BY EM P I R I C AL EVI D E N C E
B AN D U R A
R O S S
&
R O S S
SHOWED THAT CHILDREN COPY AGGRESSION THROUGH SAME SEX ROLE MODELS. T HI S AL S O EX P L AI N S W H Y
M A L E S
H AV E
A
H I G H E R
THAN FEMALES
C R I M E
R AT E
D O ES N ’T TAKE I N TO AC C O U N T
I N D I V I D UA L
D I F F E R E N C E S
OR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH MAY GREATLY EFFECT THE MOTIVATIONS FOR CRIME.
C H A R L T O N
.28
E T
A L
S T. HE L E N A ( 2000) E VA LUATION
A DVA N TA G E S R EAL L I F E
H I G H
E C O - LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
RESEARCHING REAL BEHAVIOUR IN A REAL ENVIRONMENT I V WAS MAN I P UL ATED AN Y WAY
S O
R E S E A R C H E R S
D I D
N OT
M A N I P U L AT E
ANYTHING, SO THEY WERE ONLY OBSERVING BEHAVIOUR.
R ES EAR C HER S US ED
I N T E R
R AT E R
R E L I A B I L I T Y
WHILST OBSERVING AS WELL AS OPERATIONALISED BEHAVIOUR. SO BEHAVIOURS COULD BE CATEGORISED IN STANDARDISED AND UN-BIAS WAY
D I S A DVA N TA G E S W E C AN N OT
G E N E R A L I S E
R E S U LT S
AS ONLY BEEN CARRIED OUT IN ONE SMALL ISLAND WITH A VERY SPECIFIC CULTURE VERY DIFFERENT TO URBAN AREAS P O S S I BL E I N ADVERT EN T
D E M A N D
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
INSTALLATION OF CAMERAS MAY HAVE IMPROVED CHILDREN’S BEHAVIOUR
P O S S I BL E ET HI C AL I S S UES RA I SE D
F I L M I N G
C H I L D R E N
NEED INFORMED CONSENT FROM ALL PARENTS I M P O S S I BL E TO R EP L I C AT E
V E R Y
R A R E
S I T UAT I O N
SO WE CANNOT BE ACCURATE
TY P ES O F T EL EVI S I O N C HI L D R EN W E R E WATC H I N G
W E R E
N OT
M O N I TO R E D
SO VIOLENCE COULD NOT BE DIRECTLY RELATED
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R E S E A R C H
M E T H O D S
L A BOR ATORY
An experiment in a controlled environment where the IV is manipulated by the researcher. Example: Loftus & Palmer N O EX T R AN EO US VAR I ABL E S SO
C AU S E
A N D
E F F E C T
IS EASY TO SEE
TA K ES P L AC E I N ARTI F I C I AL EN VIR O N M E N T
LO W
E C O LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
BEHAVIOUR MAY BE DIFFERENT IN A REAL LIFE SITUATION
FIE L D An experiment in a uncontrolled natural environment but the IV is manipulated by the researcher. Example: Godden & Baddely MO R E EC O LO G I C AL LY VA L I D
Y E T
S T I L L
C O N T R O L
OV E R
I V
SO EXPERIMENTERS STILL CAN MANIPULATE FACTORS TO CREATE MEASURE DESIRED BEHAVIOUR N O C O N TR O L OVER EX TR AN EO US VA R I B A L E S
H A R D
TO
R E P L I C AT E
HARD TO DISTINGUISH CAUSE AND EFFECT ALSO
N ATU R A L An experiment in a natural environment where the researcher does not manipulate any factors just observes behaviour Example: Charlton et al R EAL L I F E BEHAVI O UR BEI N G V I E W E D
V E R Y
H I G H
E C O LO G I C A L
VA L I D I T Y
BEHAVIOUR RECORDED LIKELY TO REPLICATE REAL LIFE SITUATIONS N O C O N T R O L OVER VAR I A B L E S
E X T R A N E O U S
VA R I B A L E S
IMPOSSIBLE TO REPLICATE AND VERY HARD TO ESTABLISH TRUE CAUSE AND EFFECT, JUST BECAUSE THERE IS CORRELATION DOESN’T MEAN THERE IS CAUSATION
.30
E V I D E N C E
O F
P R A C T I C E
OF F E N DE R PRO FI LI N G
Offender profiling is a psychological technique to aid police criminal investigations. A psychologist, academic, or trained officer uses case evidence and crime scene analysis to build up a picture of the type of person who would likely commit that crime in the way it was conducted. The police to filter down their suspects to those most likely committed the offence-using offender profiling.
Holmes and Holmes (2008) Outlined three main goals of offender profiling: 1. Provide law enforcement with a psychological & social evaluation of belongings found in the possession of the offender 2. Provide psychological explanations to why the offender committed those crimes 3. Give suggestions and strategies for the interviewing process.
Offender profiling has been criticized, for being nothing more than educated guesswork showing more failures than success: • Real criminals over-looked due to not fitting the profile • Police time wasted • Incorrect so Innocent people harassed (Murder Case of Rachel Nickell, where criminal profiling led to the arrest of Colin Stagg who was not the murderer.
EVI DEN C E O F P R AC T IC E WA S TO SUM M AR ISE T W O ARTI C L E S O N O F FE N D E R P R O F IL ING A N D E VA L UAT E T H E IR INF O R M ATIO N
.31
C O G N I T I V E - B E H A V I O U R A L
T H E R A P Y
AN GE R M A N AG EMEN T
Offender’s behaviour can be treated using anger management programs, which focus on people with aggressive behaviour that needs to be controlled. Ray Novaco’s behavioural approach focuses on reducing anger out bursts in 3 steps 1. Cognitive preparation Identify situations that provoke anger so they can recognize when an aggressive outburst is likely to occur. Asked to challenge thought process about why angry. Asked to think about consequences of anger. 2. Skill acquisition Offenders learn new techniques, such as breathing, stop and count method, relaxation methods and eating habits. 3. Application practice Offenders role-play a variety of scenarios to practice new skills to control anger. These are conducted in controlled environments so that the offenders feel safe and untrained individuals are not exposed to risk of harm.
LOZA LOZA-FANOUS 1999
IRELAND (2004)
Studied 252 Canadian, offenders, they looked at their offences, recidivism and anger scores. They found no direct link between anger and violent/non-violent crime.
Study of 87 men, 50 went to AM classes and 37 didn’t. Questionnaires given to all about anger. Experimental groups showed significant improvements in anger-related behaviour
EMP I R I C AL EVI D EN C E F R O M
I R E L A N D
& D O W D E N
STUDIES SHOWED THAT TREATMENT HELPED REDUCE ANGER RELATED BEHAVIOUR AND RECIDIVISM HOWEV ER AM MAY J US T BE S EEN AS A B R E A K F R O M
R O U T I N E
OR AN EASY WAY OF GETTING OUT, AS IT LOOKS LIKE PROGRESS IS BEING MADE N OT A LL C RI ME I S C O MM I T T ED THR O UG H A C T S O F A N G E R
LO Z A
LO Z A- FA N O S
SO AM WOULD NOT BE HELPFUL IN REDUCING CRIME WHICH IS NOT ANGER RELATED D O ES N ’T TAKE I N TO AC C O U N T
I N D I V I D UA L
D I F F E R E N C E S
SOME PARTICIPANTS MAY FIND THE ACT OF CONFRONTING ANGER STRESSFUL AND THIS IN TURN MAY CAUSE ANGER
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B E H A V I O U R A L
T H E R A P Y
TOKE N E CON OMY P ROG ’S
Token economy programs are used to obtain desirable behaviour in closed institutions such as prisons, they are used for both juvenile and adult offenders. They were originally seen as a way of promoting good behaviour and rehabilitating criminals, but it is now seen more of a way just to control behaviour. It works on the principles of Operant Conditioning, first discovered by Burrhus Skinner. These tokens have no intrinsic value and are called secondary reinforcers But can be collected and exchanged for primary reinforcers which are things that are wanted by the prisoners such as cigarettes, gym time and other things. Generalization in learning theory is when a behaviour learned in one situation is transferred to another, or when learning of one behaviours transferred to similar behaviour. E.G good behaviour is transferred form inside prison to real life once released.
PEARSON ET AL (2002)
HOBS & HOLT (1976)
Conducted meta-analysis to review effectiveness of Cognitive & behavioural therapies and found that cognitive techniques were very good at reducing recidivism whilst behavioural therapies were not. Behaviour can not be changed without a change in thinking.
Conducted a study which involves delinquent boys. They found out that token economy improved behaviour of delinquent boys.
C AN BE I MP L EM EN T ED I N LOT S O F
I N S T I T U T I O NS
FROM PRISONS TO PLAY CLUBS, AND IT WILL PROMOTE GOOD BEHAVIOUR N O D EL AY
I N S TA N T
G R AT I F I C AT I O N
FOR GOOD BEHAVIOURS PROMOTE GOOD REACTION TO TOKENS EAS Y TO AD MI N I S TER
C H E A P
DOESN’T NEED TRAINING TO RUN AND INITIAL START UP COSTS ARE VERY LOW I N C O N S I S T EN T R EWAR D S
F O R
S A M E
B E H AV I O U R
UNDERMINES THE PROGRAM AND CAN CAUSE INMATES TO BECOME FUSTRATED WITH THE SYSTEM OTHERS MAY GAIN A SENSE OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS C RI T I C I ZI N G EMP I R I C AL EVI D EN C E F R O M
P E A R S O N
E T
A L
( 2 0 0 2 )
ALTHOUGH MAY CONTROL BEHAVIOUR DOES NOT IMPROVE RECIDIVISM RATES