B I B L I C A L
Your Guide to the Practices, Peoples, and Places of Scripture
PERSIA’S GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURE Egypt in the Time of Abraham Birthrights and Blessings
fall 2015 volume 42 number 1
Eric Geiger Vice President, Church Resources
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G. B. Howell, Jr. Content Editor Dwayne McCrary Team Leader Ken Braddy Director, Adult Ongoing Curriculum Michael Kelley Director, Group Ministry Send questions/comments to: Content Editor, Biblical Illustrator One LifeWay Plaza Nashville, TN 37234-0175 Or make comments at www.lifeway.com @B_Illustrator visit www.lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2015 LifeWay. For ordering or inquiries visit www.lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For subscriptions or subscription address changes, e-mail subscribe@lifeway.com, fax (615) 251-5818, or write to the above address. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail orderentry@lifeway.com, or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $26.50. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.25 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessons in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible curriculum series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit www.lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Holman CSB®, and HCSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (ESV) are from English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.(R). Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1979, 1980, 1982, Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (NRSV) are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (RSV) are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyrighted 1946, 1952, © 1971, 1973. Printed in the United States of America B I B L I C A L
Your Guide to the Practices, Peoples, and Places of Scripture
B I B L I C A L I L L U S T R AT O R P E R S I A’ S G O V E R N M E N T I E G Y P T I B I R T H R I G H T S A N D B L E S S I N G S
ORE THAN ONCE recently I have been asked to give an “elevator speech” to describe Biblical Illustrator. An elevator speech is a summation that lasts about as long as an elevator ride. Two things you may want to know: no summations were in an actual elevator, and the listeners were stunned as I introduced them to this wonderful magazine and resource. What did I highlight? Purpose—For over 40 years, Biblical Illustrator has offered background material for the serious Bible student. We have articles that explore biblical culture, sites, history, archaeology, Greek and Hebrew word studies, and some theology. Space—About half of the pages’ real estate is devoted to words and the other half to images (photos, drawings, and maps). So in that sense, we are truly biblical—and—illustrator. Curriculum driven—The Table of Contents shows that we support three adult curriculum lines: Bible Studies for Life, Explore the Bible, and The Gospel Project. Under each curriculum name, articles are listed in chronological order for use that quarter. At the beginning of every article and at the top of the page are a small flame (our logo), three letters, and a Scripture text. The letters are the initials for the curriculum line the article supports; the text lists the verses for that lesson. Fold-out—Each issue has a two-sided foldout that we call “InSites.” It offers INformation about a biblical topic or SITE, hence InSites. Plus, it is a pun, emphasizing that the fold-out gives readers insights into a topic. We try to design it so that one side accompanies the article before the fold-out and the other side, the article that follows. Getting your copy—People can order the magazine through the church’s quarterly order form, by subscribing with the coupon below the book review on the bottom of the next page, or by going online to lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator. Why I always wish I had more time—I never have time to tell folk about our digital resources. We have additional past articles that we have bundled according to curriculum line each quarter. Available at lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator and costing just three bucks, the 25-30 extra articles will further enhance your Bible study experience! And the full magazine in a digital format is also available each quarter through our Website. It’s perfect for your laptop or tablet. And the downloadable Timeline on the Web page is amazing; everybody comments on how helpful it is. So, that’s my speech—and more. Thank you for going to the top with me—and with Biblical Illustrator!
PERSIA’S GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURE Egypt in the Time of Abraham Birthrights and Blessings
FA L L 2 0 1 5
fall 2015 volume 42 number 1
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About the Cover: Terra-cotta; from the Persian period (time of Nehemiah). The seam outlining the figurine indicates it was made in a mold; the adornment on both the horse and rider indicates the piece was for a ceremonial celebration. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ JOSEPH A. CALLAWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM/ THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY/ LOUISVILLE, KY (13/7/18)
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On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 8 camels.
Jesus: A Visual History, Donald L. Brake and Todd Bolen. Zondervan, 2014; 288 pages; paperback; ISBN 9780310515371. Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recommend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within LifeWay’s doctrinal guidelines. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.
YES!
ESUS: A VISUAL HISTORY valiantly attempts to produce a chronological overview of the Gospels while stressing the geographical aspects related to the Gospels. Donald L. Brake, Sr., Dean Emeritus of Multnomah Biblical Seminary and former President of the Jerusalem University College, wants the reader to experience a deeper love for Jesus. Brake frames his narrative of the gospel around the NIV Harmony of the Gospels. He augments it with a plethora of pictures, maps, and sidebars strategically placed in order to provide pertinent and useful information. Color pictures and black and white pictures from the early twentieth century supplement the storyline. These show the archaeological evidence related to an event or site. His maps are well marked and provide a visual picture of the layout of the land. A few chapters demand attention. Chapter nine highlights the history of Jerusalem’s archaeological areas. Chapter eleven surveys the Passion Week from Sunday until Thursday while chapter twelve outlines key locations Jesus visited on Thursday and Friday. Chapter
thirteen explores the places of execution, burial, and resurrection. Brake populates the chapters with maps, sidebars, pictures, and aerial photographs with titles on key places. A historical and geographical Life of Christ, endnotes, bibliography, and indices provide helps. Three issues detract from the book’s value. First is Brake’s continual insertion of his own imagined dialogues between biblical characters that begin with Mary in Bethlehem and continue with the disciples arguing on the way to the tomb. Is it possible that a novice might accept these as part of the biblical story? Second is Brake’s unnecessary personal testimonies about modern life in Jerusalem which can distract the reader’s mind. Third, some readers might be concerned by Brake’s use of dispensational theology in the discussion of the kingdom of God. Overall, though, the book’s layout, use of photographs, and charts makes it worthy of reading. I Roy E. Lucas, Jr. is professor of Bible, Clear Creek Baptist Bible College, Pineville, Kentucky and pastor of First Baptist Church, Loyall, Kentucky.
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Contents
FA L L 2 0 1 5 V O L U M E 4 2 N U M B E R 1
DEPARTMENTS 2
BI Lines
52 The gods of Babylon by E. LeBron Matthews November 1 // Session 3
3
BI the Book: Jesus: A Visual History By Donald L. Brake and Todd Bolen Book review by Roy E. Lucas, Jr.
82 Just Who Was Belshazzar? by Robert C. Dunston November 15 // Session 5 6
98 Issues Gone BI BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE
EXPLORE THE BIBLE
94 A Reliable Testimony by David E. Lanier September 13 // Session 2
15 In His Image by Trent C. Butler September 6 // Session 1
19 Evil: A Word Study by Byron Longino September 20 // Session 3
46 The Breath of Life by Harry D. Champy III September 13 // Session 2
78 At the Right Hand by Bennie R. Crockett, Jr. October 4 // Session 5
31 Serpents by George H. Shaddix September 20 // Session 3
42 A Loaf of Bread, a Jug of Wine: Feasting Like Royalty by D. Larry Gregg, Sr. October 18 // Session 1
InSites: Daniel (between pages 66-67) October 18 // Session 1
19 Evil: A Word Study by Byron Longino September 20 // Session 3 64 A Description of Noah’s Ark by Gene Henderson September 27 // Session 4
67 Wise Men from the East by R. Kelvin Moore October 25 // Session 2
42
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Governmental Structure of Persia by Daniel P. Caldwell November 22 // Session 6
67
InSites: The Sons of Noah (between pages 66-67) October 4 // Session 5
S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :
www.GospelProject.com • www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible
27 Ever Higher: The Significance of Ancient Towers by T. J. Betts October 11 // Session 6
31 Serpents by George H. Shaddix September 20 // Session 3
89 Egypt in the Time of Abraham by Bryan E. Beyer October 18 // Session 7
40 Cain’s Downcast Face and Acceptance by Harry D. Champy III September 27 // Session 4
22 God’s Covenant with Abraham by Robert D. Bergen October 18 // Session 7
64 A Description of Noah’s Ark by Gene Henderson October 4 // Session 5
56 Name Changes in the Bible by Ken Cox November 1 // Session 9
22 God’s Covenant with Abraham by Robert D. Bergen October 18 // Session 1
71 The Angel of the Lord by John Traylor November 22 // Session 12
60 Birthrights and Blessings by John L. Harris November 8 // Session 4
34 Mesopotamia in the Patriarchal Age by Daniel C. Browning, Jr. November 29 // Session 13
6
InSites: The Sons of Noah (between pages 66-67) October 4 // Session 5
THE GOSPEL PROJECT
49 At Peniel by Kevin Hall November 15 // Session 5
74 The gods of Ancient Corinth by Bill Patterson September 6 // Session 1
85 Cisterns in the Ancient Near East by Claude F. Mariottini November 22 // Session 6
19 Evil: A Word Study by Byron Longino September 20 // Session 3
11 Manasseh, Son of Joseph by Alan Ray Buescher November 29 // Session 7
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BSFL: Daniel 6
G O V E R N M E N TA L S T R U C T U R E O F
PERSIA B Y D A N I E L P. C A L D W E L L
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CASTLE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MURRAY SEVERANCE (74/4/6)
GUARD: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/15/62)
CAPITAL: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MURRAY SEVERANCE
TABLET: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/11/59)
hen the Babylonians took control of Jerusalem (605 b.c.), they took Daniel and his friends captive, gave them new names, and trained them to serve as royal functionaries in the Babylonian court (Dan. 1:4,17). Yet the Babylonian Empire did not last long and soon gave rise to a new nation led by Cyrus II (550‑530 b.c.), commonly known as Cyrus the Elder. His rule marked the beginning of the Achaemenid Empire, which was a seminal and crucial part of the Persian Empire. With the advent of the Persian Empire came a new and developing government. Ultimately the governmental leaders chose Daniel to serve in the Persian administrative structure because within him was an extraordinary spirit (6:3‑4). Beginnings of Persian Rule The fall of Babylon to Persia in 539 b.c. was sudden and its conquerors met with surprisingly little resistance. While Cyrus was a great conqueror, he was an even greater political administrator. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern leaders, Cyrus treated conquered peoples with respect. This policy became a hallmark of Achaemenid rule.1 Rather than banish conquered leaders, he allowed them to maintain some autonomy. He also did not force a new religion or language on conquered people. Such gestures resulted in far less resentment toward Persian rule and more contentment with the new administration.2 Insert, upper left: Part of a glazed brick frieze representing the Persian royal guard, from the palace of Darius at Susa.
Left: Located beside the ruins of ancient Susa, a modern castle built by the French excavators. Construction of the castle began in 1897.
Right: A clay tablet fragment with an Old Persian script offers a partial account of the geographical extent of the Persian Empire during the reign of
Left: Lion face on half a column capital found at Persepolis. An identical carving faced the opposite direction; the two would have supported a massive beam between them. Persepolis, capital of the Persian Empire, was founded by King Darius the Great (522–486 B.C.). Darius the Great. The inscription includes Darius’s claim to have re-established civic justice and restored public buildings.
Cyrus also showed respect to those who were conquered previously and held captive under the Babylonians’ harsh rule. He decreed in 539 b.c. that he would permit those the Babylonians had captured to return to their homelands. Among these prisoners were the Jews taken from Jerusalem in 586 b.c. Cyrus allowed them to return to rebuild the temple and city. Along with this freedom, Cyrus restored the valuable treasures of the Jerusalem temple that the Babylonians had taken. Both a terra-cotta document known as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Old Testament contain the decree by Cyrus. The Hebrews benefited from this decree, which released them to return to Jerusalem.3 The Old Testament describes Cyrus as being Yahweh’s shepherd and anointed because of his kindness to the Hebrews (Isa. 44:28–45:6). These gestures made ruling Persia much easier for Cyrus. For his military conquests, wisdom, and compassion, Cyrus came to be known as Cyrus the Great.4 Cambyses II (530-522 b.c.) succeeded his father, Cyrus. Other than a few military campaigns, Cambyses did little to strengthen the administrative rule over the territory. At the death of Cambyses, Darius I (522–486 b.c.)
seized the throne. With his reign, the Persian rule and history took a new turn. Governmental Development With others wanting to succeed Cambyses II, Darius I had to take the throne by force. His early reign was consumed with rebellions throughout the surrounding territories. After suppressing the uprisings and disposing of his adversaries, he initiated numerous reforms to consolidate his kingdom. Darius I built roads to tie all of his territories together. The wellmaintained roads ensured the efficient movement of troop convoys wherever they were deployed. Along these roads, he established a postal system that could convey messages quickly from FALL 2015 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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Lower right: An
one part of the empire to another. To those conducting imperial business, inns offered free room and board. Darius I was one of the first rulers to introduce the coin as a standard for currency. And he had a waterway dug from the Nile River to the Red Sea to facilitate trade. Also, under Darius I, Aramaic became the principal language of the Persian Empire.5 Because his territory was so vast, Darius I organized the empire into satrapies. To ease the tension with those he conquered, each satrapy (a term for a singular territory) conformed to the original borders of the lands he conquered. Although history is unclear about the actual number of satrapies, the total appears to have been between 20 and 29.6 Darius I appointed leaders over the satrapies known as satraps (sometimes “lieutenants” or “princes” in the KJV; see Daniel 6:1 and Ezra 8:36). The term originated from an ancient Persian word meaning “protector of the kingdom.”7 Satraps were Persian aristocrats (generally members of the royal family) who served as the king’s personal representatives. Darius I appointed 120 satraps to oversee the satrapies 8 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
(Dan. 6:1). While they were comparable to governors, the specific duties and the political relationships of the satrap were different. The satrap was responsible for financial (taxation), civil, and military matters. Although each satrap had his own court officials, the king appointed other representatives to observe the satrap’s undertakings. This provided a system of checks and balances to ensure the satrap remained loyal to the king. Ezra 5–6 provides an account, involving both a civil and a financial matter, of Darius interacting with officials in a satrapy. Tattenai, referred to as a ruler of the territory beyond the river (Euphrates), and others visited the district of Jerusalem and challenged Zerubbabel’s rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem. A letter was sent to Darius I to determine if the work should continue. Darius ordered a search of the archives in Babylon, which produced a scroll containing Cyrus’ decree for the project. Darius instructed Tattenai not only to cease his opposition but also to stay out of
the district and to provide financial support out of the territory’s royal treasury (Ezra 6:6-10). In addition to the selection of the satraps, Daniel 6:2 mentions the appointment of three sarak (“administrators,” hcsb, niv; “commissioners,” nasb; “presidents,” nrsv, kjv; “governors,” nkjv). The term sarak is used only in Daniel 6:2‑4,6‑7. It derives from a Persian word meaning “chief” or “overseer.”8 No other ancient Persian documents mention an immediate parallel to this administrative role. Nonetheless, establishing these positions may have been to accommodate a temporary need.9 The sarak’s main duties were twofold. First, the sarak provided a level of administrative accountability to
PYXIS: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/26/28)
Below: Pyxis with a scene of Daniel standing in prayer under a canopy, flanked by two lions; from North Africa or Syria. Dates to the 5th– 6th centuries A.D.
overview of Sardis; the columns in the distance were part of the Temple of Artemis. In 547 B.C., Cyrus captured Sardis from the Lydians and made it the capital of a province, or “satrapy.” Sardis was the western terminus city of the Royal Road; the opposite end stopped at the Persian capital city of Susa. Sardis was the most important Persian city in Asia Minor.
SARCOPHAGUS: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ISTANBUL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM (12/23/15)
Left: Satrap sarcophagus dating from the second half of the 5th cent. B.C. The marble sarcophagus was found at the royal necropolis of Sidon.
In addition to the satrap and the sarak, Daniel 6:7 mentions three other officials. The segan was a “prefect” or a “governor.” The haddabar was a “counselor” or “minister.” The pechah was another type of governor (“captain” in kjv). Used primarily in Daniel 6, each term, although Aramaic, is a loan word with Persian and/or Babylonian roots. Other than the implied description
of their titles, the exact roles of these officials are unclear. Daniel’s Service as a Sarak Scripture does not explain specifically how Daniel came to serve as a sarak (6:2). He served well in the Babylonian administration and had demonstrated exceptional wisdom and ability in that capacity. Perhaps the Persians had
MAP: HOLMAN BIBLE PUBLISHERS
SARDIS: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (11/33/2)
the satraps. Second, saraks prevented the king from suffering loss. One of the satrap’s primary duties was to collect tax money from his allotted territory. The sarak watched over the satraps to ensure all tax moneys were appropriately collected. This process assured that none of the satraps would be able to cheat Darius I out of his due amount.
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BOWL: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NYC (6/10/16) HOMAGE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO (23/1/49)
heard of his reputation of service or of the experience he had with the handwriting on the wall (ch. 5). The kjv seems to indicate that Daniel was chosen and placed as “first” over the two other sarak. This seems to precede the intentions of Darius I as mentioned in Daniel 6:3. The most likely scenario involved Daniel initially being one of three chosen to serve as a saraks and his later being promoted to be over them. Because of his extraordinary service to the king and the excellent spirit within Daniel, Darius I contemplated setting him over the entire kingdom (6:3). This prompted the satraps, other saraks, and other officials to plot against Daniel. Obviously his loyalty to the king and devotion to his service was impeccable. His reputation as an administrator, 10 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
Left: Golden bowl; Achaemenid; inscribed with the words DARIUS THE GREAT KING in three languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Dated
from the 6th–5th centuries B.C. Above: At Persepolis, decorative panels depict people of all lands bringing homage to Darius or Xerxes.
however, paled in comparison to his loyalty to God. Those plotting against Daniel deceived Darius I into issuing a decree that caused Daniel to choose between his loyalty to the king or to God—under the threat of death. Upon learning the plot, Daniel went to his home, possibly a benefit of his position as sarak, and chose to remain loyal to God. Though serving in two different administrations and being immersed in two foreign cultures, Daniel maintained his faithfulness to God. From rejecting a Babylonian king’s rich food to defying a Persian king’s explicit edict prohibiting him from acknowledging his Lord, Daniel sought to live his life as God’s devoted servant. His trust in God served as a witness
to Darius I who declared, “people must fear and reverence the God of Daniel, for he is the living God and he endures forever” (v. 26, niv). I 1. John Bright, A History of Israel, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981), 360-62. 2. Ibid.; Albert F. Bean, “Persia” in Holman Bible Dictionary, gen. ed. Trent C. Butler (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 1991), 1097. 3. For a biblical account of the decree of Cyrus, see 2 Chronicles 36:22‑23 and Ezra 1:1–2:1. 4. William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, The Essential World History, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008), 25. 5. Richard D. Nelson, Historical Roots of the Old Testament (1200–63 BCE), (Atlanta: SBL, 2014), 198-200. 6. For a detailed discussion of the number of satrapies, see Edward J. Young, The Prophecy of Daniel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949), 132; Stephen R. Miller, Daniel, vol. 18 in The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), 177. 7. Roy E. Hayden, “Satrap” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, gen. ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 345. 8. “%r;s'” (sarak; chief, overseer) in Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1906; repr. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1996), 1104. 9. Young, The Prophecy of Daniel, 132.
Daniel P. Caldwell is professor of religion and dean of the Cooper School of Missions and Biblical Studies, William Carey University, Hattiesburg, Mississippi.
TGP: Genesis 41:46-57
Rembrandt’s depiction of Jacob blessing Joseph’s sons, Ephriam and Manasseh, before his death. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Manasseh SON
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By Alan Ray Buescher
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FTER A JEALOUS, CHILDBEARING competition between Leah and Rachel that included concubinary surrogates, Rachel finally bore a son: Joseph (Gen. 30:1‑24). Jacob loved Joseph more than any of his other sons (37:3), which contributed to Joseph’s brothers selling him to merchants, essentially traveling salesmen, from Midian, who in turn sold him to Potiphar in Egypt (37:28; 39:1). While Joseph lived in Egypt, he married Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera, priest at On. Asenath bore two sons with Joseph; the second was Ephraim, but the first was Manasseh (41:51‑52; 46:20). Manasseh the Man The name Manasseh (Hebrew, Menashsheh) derives from the verb “to forget” (nashah).1 False accusations and imprisonment in Egypt as well as the sting of his siblings’ rejection apparently remained with Joseph many years; thus, “Joseph named the firstborn Manasseh, meaning, ‘God has made me forget all my hardship in my father’s house’ ” (41:51).2 A better translation of the latter half of this verse is “all my trouble and all my father’s house” since the direct objects “trouble” and “my father’s house” each have 12 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
in Hebrew the sign of the direct object (’et) before them, and the conjunction translated “and” separates the two direct objects. The term “my father’s house” included his brothers. Manasseh most assuredly grew up knowing the meaning of his name and the love and value his father placed on him. As Jacob’s days on earth drew to a close, Joseph brought his sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to Jacob, who claimed these two grandchildren as his own sons. He then blessed them, knowingly placing the blessing of the firstborn on Ephraim rather than Manasseh, saying that Ephraim would be greater than Manasseh yet affirming that Manasseh, too, would become great with many descendants (48:1‑22). Manasseh the Tribe From the patriarchal period through at least the time of the judges, Israel based its social and political organization on a tribal system with each tribe named for and descended from one of Jacob’s sons or grandsons. Each tribe was divided into families or clans that shared a common lineage, which were further divided into “father’s households” (literally “house of fathers”) consisting of at least three generations descended from a living male.3 The Book of Numbers records two censuses taken according to families and father’s households in each tribe
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Manasseh received land on the east side of the Jordan that Moses had promised, namely Gilead and Bashan, and land in the central hill country, north of the area allotted to Ephraim.
JORDAN RIVER: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ KRISTEN HILLER (38/0866) MOUNT CARMEL: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (10/27/16) DOR: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE (60/0050) BASHAN: ILLUSTRATOR PHTO/ KRISTEN HILLER (47/2999) OBELISK: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE (60/7453)
during the wilderness wandering: one at Mount Sinai and the other, 38 years later at the Jordan River (see Num. 1; 26). The purpose for the censuses was to count the number of men 20 years old and older who were able to go to war (1:3; 26:2). Thus God helped Israel plan for their invasion of the promised land by having Moses understand the people’s military strength according to the families and their fathers’ households.4 The latter census indicated that the tribe of Manasseh ranked sixth out of twelve in military strength—just about average. Manasseh’s numbers, however, had increased in 38 years by a larger percentage than any other tribe. Jacob had accurately blessed Manasseh; they had indeed increased greatly, according to the number of their fighting men. In some listings of the twelve tribes of Israel, Joseph, the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, is included as one of the tribes instead of the name of his two sons. For example, Genesis 46:8‑25 and 49:1‑27 include Joseph and Levi as two of the tribes, whereas Numbers 1 and 26 omit Levi and list Ephraim and Manasseh as two of the tribes. Either way, twelve remains the number of tribes of Israel. Perhaps this combining of Ephraim and Manasseh as a single tribe that was named
Far left: At modern Tel Aviv, early morning on the Yarkon River, which is the largest coastal river in Israel. The Yarkon was the southwestern boundary of West Manasseh. Above from left to right, top to bottom: The Jordan River, east of Jericho. Mount Carmel, which was on the
northwestern most corner of West Manasseh, rises in the distance. Ruins at Dor; the Bible first mentions Dor in connection with the Israelite’s conquest of Canaan. Although Dor was located in the tribal territory of East Manasseh, it remained unconquered until King David’s reign. Cattle on the hillside at Bashan, just east of the Sea of Galilee.
Left: The father-inlaw of the patriarch Joseph was a priest of On. In Egypt, On was the city later known as Heliopolis. It was a center of worship for the sun god Ra. This 70-foottall, red granite obelisk, which was originally erected in 1600 B.C. in Heliopolis, was presented to the city of New York by the Khedive (or viceroy) of Egypt and erected in Central Park in 1881.
“Joseph” affected the drawing of lots for dividing the land among the tribes. Manasseh the Territory Before his death, Moses had allotted land east of the Jordan River to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and some to Manasseh. After Moses’ death, Israel entered the promised land and claimed a portion of it, FALL 2015 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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HOLMAN BIBLE PUBLISHERS
primarily in the central hill country.5 The Lord instructed
Joshua to divide the land among the tribes according to lot. Manasseh, represented by two half-tribes, received land on OAB the east side of the Jordan thatMMoses had promised, namely Gilead SIMEON and Bashan (Josh. 17:1), and land in the central hill country, north of the area allotted to Ephraim. Manasseh’s first-born and perhaps only son, Machir, and his descendants conquered the Amorites in Gilead. E DO M Subsequently, as the half-tribe of Manasseh, they inhabited the portion of Gilead north of the Jabbok River, and Bashan, located just north of Gilead (Num. 26:29; 32:39‑41; Josh. 13:29‑31). Ephraim and Manasseh’s land assignment came from only one draw of the lot, meaning that the two tribes were apparently viewed together as one, the sons of Joseph. The sons of Joseph promptly complained about the small amount of land west of the Jordan: non River Ar
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But the descendants of Joseph said, ‘The hill country is not enough for us, and all the Canaanites who inhabit the valley area have iron chariots, both at Beth-shean with its towns and in the Jezreel Valley.’ So Joshua replied to Joseph’s family (that is, Ephraim and Manasseh), “You have many people and great strength. You will not have just one allotment, because the hill country will be yours also. It is a forest; clear it and its outlying areas will be yours. You can also drive out the Canaanites, even though they have iron chariots and are strong.” (Josh. 17:16‑18) Manasseh’s land in the central hill country began just north of Ephraim, with the city of Shechem at its southern border, and continued north to the Jezreel Valley. Taanach and Megiddo, cities located on the southern edge of the Jezreel Valley, provided strategic control of the major trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia that passed through the land of Canaan. Canaanites continued to occupy these two cities until the early Israelite monarchy (Judg. 1:27‑28). 14 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
The Transjordanian Highway to the east of the Jordan River had routes that connected with the Jezreel Valley from the southeast via Beth-shan, which the Canaanites also controlled during the period of the judges. The port city of Dor in the land allotted to Manasseh lay on the trade route along the Mediterranean coast, and it too remained in Canaanite hands until the Israelite monarchy. Other cities in Manasseh that avoided conquest by the Israelites before the monarchy included Jibleam, Gezer, Acre, and cities in the Ajalon Valley.6 Ephraim and Manasseh had the largest concentration of Israelite settlements by the time of the monarchy (Iron Age I; 1200–1000 b.c.).7 Since the Canaanites maintained control of the Jezreel Valley and the Philistines held the coastal plains during the time of the judges, the land allotted to the sons of Joseph at least provided a foothold in the promised land from which the monarchy would later launch successful military campaigns and lay claim to the land God had given them. Furthermore, the territory of Manasseh contained the three cities that were capitals of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in later years: Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria. The selection of Manasseh and Ephraim in the central hill country and the inclusion of significant cities along the international trade route through the Jezreel Valley and along the coast of the Mediterranean did not happen by chance. Just as the early church discovered God’s replacement for Judas by drawing lots (Acts 1:15‑26), so also God directed the assignment of tribal territories through the drawing of lots. God honored Jacob’s blessings of Ephraim and Manasseh as an act of faith. Further, He used the location of Ephraim and Manasseh to provide an anchor for the strategic expansion of the Israelite monarchy and control of the international trade route that passed by and through their land. Perhaps this explains why Hebrews 11:21 uses the blessing of Manasseh and Ephraim as the one act of Jacob to include in the examples of faith: “By faith Jacob, when he was dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph, and he worshiped, leaning on the top of his staff.” I 1. §4519 hV,n:m. Menashsheh in The New Strong’s Complete Dictionary of Bible Words, ed. James Strong (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1996), 431. 2. All Scripture quotations are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB). 3. George L. Kelm, Escape to Conflict (Fort Worth: IAR Publications, 1991), 98‑99; Thomas Brisco, Holman Bible Atlas (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 83. 4. Kelm, Escape to Conflict, 98‑99. 5. Brisco, Holman Bible Atlas, 79‑80; Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 335. 6. Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 333; James M. Monson, The Land Between (Jerusalem: Biblical Backgrounds, 1983), 14, 43. 7. Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 335.
Alan Ray Buescher is a freelance writer living in Nashville, Tennessee.
ETB: Genesis 1:26-27
IN HIS
IVORY PLAQUE: ILLUSTRATOR PHTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ UNIVERSITY MUSEUM/ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA (6/3/5)
PICTURE FRAMES AND DNA: ISTOCK IMAGES
IMAGE
By Trent C. Butler
C
REATION WAS complete. Daily life was ready to roll. But who would be in charge? Earth needed a management system, a caretaker who would govern creation according to the Creator’s will. In such a system, would all creatures maintain a direct line to God? Or should one branch of creation bear greater responsibility for the other creatures and thus require more direct access to the Almighty? Genesis deals directly with this issue. God chose to rule His world through one responsible only to Himself.1 He thus created humans, who would have one major earthly
responsibility, to rule over or administer His creation. “God is committed to humanity, and humanity is under obligation to God, to serve God and serve God’s world.”2 Two Terms for Image By nature the first human pair differed from all other creatures. Two Hebrew terms describe this human difference. All humans bear God’s “image” (Hebrew, tselem) and “likeness” (demut). Describing either or
Above: Carved ivory plaque depicts a pair of winged griffins before a sacred tree. Worshiping
at a sacred tree supposedly helped people connect with the deity. Late Assyrian; 8th– 7th centuries B.C.
both terms proves most allusive. The word pair appears only in Genesis. These two words, especially when FALL 2015 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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The Euphrates in Babylon. On the other side of the river are several reconstructed
buildings, the originals of which would have dated to the time of Nebuchadnezzar.
16 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
Beyond Genesis Other Old Testament appearances of tselem (image) reflect human constructions, especially buildings designed for worship.4 For instance, Daniel uses tselem to refer to large statues the pagan kings constructed, demanding people worship them.5 Demut (likeness) is related to building altars. “King Ahaz went to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria. When he saw the altar that was in Damascus, King Ahaz sent a model [demut] of the altar and complete plans for its construction to Uriah the priest” (2 Kings 16:10, hcsb). Most often, however, demut appears with visions,
showing resemblance or comparison but not exact likeness or sameness.6 The emphasis is on difference, not sameness. This is evident precisely in the comparison with God (Isa. 40:18). Describing his visions, Ezekiel went overboard to ensure his readers did not think he Right: In this episode of the Babylonian creation myth, the god Anshar summons the gods together for a banquet, to celebrate Marduk’s appointment as champion of the gods following his defeat of Tiamat, primeval Chaos. The tall narrow shape is characteristic of tablets in this series.
TABLET: ILLUSTRATOR PHTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/9/67)
image (tselem) by declaring a death penalty for a murderer, the strict sentence based on a person’s being in God’s image.
EUPHRATES: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ COURTESY OF CAPTAIN AMY KELLSTRAND (32/2/43)
used together, though, open the way to understanding the relationship God desires with people. Genesis 1:26‑27 introduces the two terms for “image” or “likeness” of God, leading us to ask: Are they synonyms equal in meaning? Does one emphasize a quality of the other? Does one term remove connections the other might have with pagan gods and their temples and idols? A brief investigation into the scriptural occurrences of the two terms may help us decide. Genesis 5:3 extends the image language to new generations. Adam sired a son in his likeness, according to his image. The first burials did not eliminate the image of God relationship between succeeding generations and God.3 The divine decree in Genesis 9:6 maintains the connection between human life and God’s
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (11/13/12)
had seen something concrete as he described a sacred object. See for example Ezekiel 1:26‑28 (hcsb): The shape of a throne with the appearance of sapphire stone was above the expanse. There was a form with the appearance of a human on the throne high above. From what seemed to be His waist up, I saw a gleam like amber, with what looked like fire enclosing it all around. From what seemed to be His waist down, I also saw what looked like fire. There was a brilliant light all around Him. The appearance of the brilliant light all around was like that of a rainbow in a cloud on a rainy day. This was the appearance of the form of the LORD’s glory. Even when Daniel described a heavenly messenger, he could only refer to one according to the likeness of the sons of man (Dan. 10:16). Artwork in the temple produced only the likeness of oxen (2 Chron. 4:3). Certainly Ezekiel and Daniel stepped back from using concrete language where God was concerned. Genesis utilizes the same theological tendency. Tselem (image) is the concrete term of human handiwork,
Left: The omphilas at Delphi. Omphilas meant “navel,” but the term came to refer to the central location of an object in relation to its environs. Greeks believed the omphilas of Delphi marked the center of the world.
Right: Close-up showing the Greek goddess Artemis wearing a 3-tiered headdress. The original statue from Ephesus dates to 1st cent. A.D. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
especially of building idols and pagan statues. Demut (likeness) modifies pagan concreteness, and in doing so, provides a comparison of less concreteness and a bit more sense of personal relationship. In other words, the combination of the two terms in Genesis intentionally modify each other. A person still maintains a concrete representation of God in one’s life before humans. Yet a person cannot claim equality or complete likeness with God. Instead, one must modify to speak of inability to compare, inability to use artistic skill to produce a full representation, lack of regal authority or power. John Walton, professor of Old Testament, offers a highly nuanced distinction. According to his understanding, tselem (image) contains something’s essence. Demut (likeness) is connected to substance and expresses resemblance.7 The Hebrew Bible offers no other descriptions of humans being in God’s image. Further information comes from studying passages like Psalm 8. There we find amazement at the status of humans over against God but no direct definition of humanity or mention of image language. In Near Eastern Sources Speaking of the image of God is not unique to Israel. Near Eastern peoples believed an image contained the true essence of that which the image represented. When they worshiped sacred idols, trees, stones, and water, they thought their actions allowed them to
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ TOM HOOKE (66/5/14)
communicate with the inner nature of the divine. One Near Eastern document—The Instructions of Merikare—democratizes the language and expands the image of god to all people. In that document the Egyptian god tends people as his cattle, creates sky and earth for their needs, gives them breath for their noses, hears their weeping, knows their names, feeds them, and lets them come from his body as images.8 Outside this one document “image language” among Israel’s neighbors applied to victorious kings who set up markers that celebrated their own accomplishments. The king’s image received the same respect as did the king himself.9 Modern Interpretations Christopher J. H. Wright, a leading scholar in the field of biblical ethics, explains that two biblical concepts set humans apart from all other creatures: image of God and mission of dominion. These phrases represent man’s divine definition and mandate.10 Walter Bruggemann, an Old Testament theologian, connects five realities with God’s image: (1) affirmation of both female and male as bearers of His image; (2) kingly authority over the earth and its creatures that God delegated to humans; (3) representative role God has developed for those made in situations of presence and of absence of God; (4) exclusive role as image of God that cannot be assumed by any type of image humans may set up; and FALL 2015 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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Above: The Case of the Silent Wife. This tablet, inscribed with a court record of a murder trial, was used in the schools of Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia as a case study; the tablet dates to 1850 B.C. Right: The Stele of Victory of NaramSin. Akkadian; dated about 2250 B.C. The scene shows King NaramSin of Agade standing before a stylized mountain, after his victory over the Lullubians. The stele, though found at Susa, was originally from Sippar.
18 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2015
Concerning Jesus, Paul explained to believers at Colossae, “He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation” (Col. 1:15, hcsb; cf. 2 Cor. 4:4). Indeed, He, the “incarnate deity,” is the perfect and ultimate manifestation of being in God’s image. Of Himself Jesus even said, “The one who has seen Me has seen the Father” (John 14:9, hcsb). Jesus is the image of the invisible God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15). In light of all these truths, the Christian believer has the goal of shaping personal belief and practice by looking to Jesus as our example and trusting in Him as our perfect example of man made in God’s image. I 1. Eugene H. Merrill, Everlasting Dominion (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2006), 136. 2. John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Vol. 2, Israel’s Faith (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2006), 517. 3. Compared to 1:26‑27, the Hebrew nouns switch positions. Genesis 1 reads in His image, according to His likeness. Now Genesis 5 reads in his likeness, according to his image. The comparison also shows that the prepositions appear to be interchangeable, attaching to either noun. This appears to indicate a basic synonymous relationship between the two nouns image and likeness. 4. See Num. 33:52; 1 Sam. 6:5,11; 2 Kings 11:18; 2 Chron. 23:17; Ezek. 7:20; 16:17; 23:14; Dan. 3:18; Amos 5:26. 5. Dan. 2:31‑35; 3:1‑18. 6. Model or prototype: 2 Kings 16:10; Comparison: Ps. 58:4; Isa. 13:4; 40:18; Ezek. 1:22,26; 8:2; 10:1,10,21,22; 23:15; Form, Appearance, Likeness: 2 Chron. 4:3; Ezek. 1:5,10,13,16,28; 8:2; 23:15; Dan. 10:16. 7. John H. Walton, “Genesis” in Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary, gen. ed. John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 1:21. 8. Walton, “Genesis,” 1:20‑21; translation of Merikare from M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (Berkeley, 1971-1980): I:106; compare translation by R. O. Faulker in The Literature of Ancient Egypt, ed. William Kelly Simpson (New Haven and London, 1973), 180-92 at Ancient Egypt [online; accessed 23 October 2014]. Available from the Internet: www. reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm. 9. See Merrill, Everlasting Dominion, 170. 10. See Christopher J. H. Wright, Old Testament Ethics for the People of God (Downers Grove, IL : InterVarsity Press, 2004), 118‑26. 11. Walter Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997), 452.
Trent C. Butler retired as editor of Bibles and reference books for Broadman and Holman Publishers, Nashville, Tennessee and as vice president of Chalice Press, St. Louis, Missouri. He is a freelance writer living in Gallatin, Tennessee.
STELE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ G.B. HOWELL/ LOUVRE MUSEUM(35/11/3)
In the New Testament The New Testament provides a better understanding of man being in the “image of God.” Jesus defined his earthly limits through reference to Caesar’s image on the coin (Matt. 22:20‑21; Mark 12:16; Luke 20:24). God cannot be identified as the result of human art and imagination (Acts 17:29). For example,
people living in Ephesus claimed to worship an image that fell from heaven (the Greek goddess Artemis; see 19:35). In contrast, God called His people to be conformed to Jesus’ image (Rom. 8:29; 2 Cor. 3:18) and to God the Father’s (Col. 3:10). For believers, being in God’s image has an eternal component. Paul wrote that believers, who bear the image of dust (Adam), also bear the image of Christ, the heavenly man (1 Cor. 15:49).
COURT RECORD: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ UNIVERSITY MUSEUM/ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA (298/30)
(5) humans retaining the “image of God” even after the fall.11