The Resilient City
A Vision for Restructuring the 5 Emergent Ecologies of Sioux Falls By Nicholas J. Bigelow
The Resilient City A Vision for Restructuring the 5 Emergent Ecologies of Sioux Falls Master’s Thesis 2011 Lund University Faculty of Architecture Author: Nicholas J Bigelow Examiner: Peter Siöström Tutor: Kristoffer Nilsson
Contents ABSTRACT PROLOGUE STATEMENT OF INTENT
1.
The Resilient City
2.
Globalization, the Region
1.1
2.1 2.2 2.3
3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
4.
4.1 4.2 4.3
5.
5.1 5.2
What is the Resilient City
Globalizations effect on Sioux Falls The Supra Region The Sioux Falls Region
The American Dream’s effect on Space
The tranformation of the American Dream The Historical Development of Sioux Falls 9 Descriptions of the Sioux Falls’ Lifestyle The Planning Tradition of Sioux Falls
Grasping the Reason for Change
Tomorrow’s Challenges Tomorrow’s Opportunities Barriers to a More Sustainable Tomorrow
Learning from Around the World
Regional Change: Ruhr River & Emscher Park Site Change: Suburban Transformations
7 8 10
12
24 26 32
40 54 58 64
72 85 92
98 101
6.
The 5 Emergent Ecologies of Sioux Falls
7.
The Comprehensive Vision
8.
Spatial Explorations
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
7.1 7.2
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4
9.
9.1
The River The Centers The Bluffs The Prairie Coteau The Corridors
The Comprehensive Plan The Layers
The Spatial Explorations Reconnecting to the City’s Historic Core Reaching the River The Live Work Medical Research Hub
Ideas on Implementation
109 119 127 134 141
150 152
183 184 202 218
The Transformation to Sustainability
235
BIBLIOGRAPHY
247
Abstract for Master’s Thesis
Author: Nicholas J Bigelow Title: Dreams for Tomorrow Subject: Urban Design Typology: City Development Strategy Examiner: Peter Siöström Tutor: Kristoffer Nilsson # of Pages: 250 Keywords: Sprawl, The American City, Suburbian Transformation, Sustainable Urbanism,
Since the countries founding in 1776, the American dream and its cities have feed off of one another as its idealized visions have become practice through numerous political innovations, entrepreneurs, designers, books, images, and new communication technologies as our economy has been transformed from agriculture production toward science and technological innovation. These changes are so vast that the American dream and the American city have been morphed by such technologies as modern farm equipment, the conveyor belt, electricity, the phone, the television, and most recently the internet. These changes have transcended the design professions through the creation of demographic shifts, lifestyle changes, and cultural nuances that have architectural thinkers like Rem Koolhaas questioning the relevance of architecture and asking, “What the Hell Happened to Urbanism?”
Today, the American dream’s suburban manifestation is fractured as a struggling economy, a looming global environmental crisis, a nationwide obesity epidemic, and a declining quality of life for the middle class have shone a light on the false hope created by a nation planned on endless expansion. No longer is infinite consumption an option as our academics now warn of looming issues of global warming, social isolation, peak oil, and rising food prices. With our global limits now clearly defined, it is time for America to dream a new dream that envisions the reformulation of American cities based on new collaborations, new transportation systems, new ecologies, and a more sustainable lifestyle.
throughout the Midwest region of the United States by challenging today’s cultural norms, resource allocations, ecological understandings, and economic development. Through a series of explorative proposals, the project aims to provoke new place based questions that can inspire the city of Sioux Falls’ future dreams in the hope that through future cross collaborative research the American dream can be utilized to create a new urban form that strives to create social harmony, economic opportunity, and environmental health.
Based on a belief that urbanism can help imagine this new dream The Resillient City works to create new discussions for urbanism 7
Prologue Disoriented from time abroad and the expansion of a world view, I’m driving down the highway on my way to a meeting with officials from the city of Sioux Falls. The width and monotony of the road has me wandering in and out of conscience as the car slips into a state of boredom known as the ‘Dakotan Auto Pilot’. Thoughts swirl. First, to all the questions I want to ask and then my mind settles into a pin ball state of anxiety as I wonder why I have come back. For a second, I’m paralyzed. I realize I’m now a guest in my hometown. My perspectives have shifted slightly off center and I now have an experience few of my friends will ever understand. Loneliness overwhelms me! I have started to realize my new knowledge has taken away the comfort of home as I can only find comfort in the fact that this must be how South Dakota pioneers felt two centuries before. As our meeting begins, reality smacks me in the face like the wind on this cold winter day! In the discussion, it easy to feel the burden of hard line conservative thinking that has been drawn in the sand. And all I can think is “yesterday’s determinism is creating tomorrow’s future!” Status quo seems forever entrenched as I sometimes get the feeling that the subtext of our conversation is “only a crazy person would challenge our way for this is how it has always been done.” 8
And on my way back home, with the ‘Dakotan Auto Pilot’ safely back in place, it hits me why I’ve come back to South Dakota. I remember the hope I saw in the city when I dreamed up this project. I remember the potential I felt about how the praire landscape could inform a new, unique type of urbanism that re-branded South Dakota into a place of innovation and creativity. And, I remember the smile I wore when I imagined all South Dakotas banding together to continue their long embrace of the principles of stewardship and resource conversation on their way to developing a new, more sustainable lifestyle. It was on this grey, winter day that I remembered that all the potential of the city of Sioux Falls could only be realized if it was proposed. After 5 long months of obsessing and exploring the potentials of Sioux Falls, the following pages represent a series of proposals that I hope will curate new discussions on sustainability in Sioux Falls. And although this proposal is ambitious in its plans and vast in its scale, this proposal does not have the arogance to believe it has solved the problems in its entirety. Rather, the proposal seeks to ask new questions, identify obvious problems, and embrace the idea that change can be a good thing. It just takes an open mind!
“Be the change you want to see in the world.� -Ghandi
Statement of Intent Theoretical Premise
Given a growing population, how can a sprawling municipality utilize its pending new development to explore development models that re-focus the city around its existing environmental and social qualities while concentrating density, increasing economic stability, and establishing a reliable and efficient public transportation system?
Project Justification
The understanding of how the postmodern / postsuburb urban landscape works has a growing body of research that can be traced through the American intellectuals Kenneth Jackson, Robert Fishman, Reyner Banham, Joel Graneau, and Edward Soja. Much of this research has emphasized the American highway systems ability to decentralize cities through the creation of infrastructural nodes on the urban edge. This research has highlighted suburbia’s transformation from bedroom housing complexes to major economic generators all while recognizing its contribution to geographic sprawl. Recently, a group of researchers lead by Ellen Dunham Jones, Charles Waldheim, James Corner, and Alan Berger have been debating the opportunities and constraints of the existing context of sprawl and looking for new ways to retrofit them. They argue that the battle for sustainability will not be won by looking toward our historic city centers, but by finding innovate ways to add new, performative layers that enhance our cities’ abilities to perform environmentally, socially, and economically.
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However, few comprehensive plans are working with this body of research. Recognizing this void, The Resilient City looks to take on the challenges of a growing city that is almost entirely suburban in nature and formulate new strategies for growth in the the context of the existing urban structure of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA. Through an indepth study of the existing conditions, the current growth mechanisms, and generated waste, this project proposes a new framework for understanding the city, a new model for growth, and 3 examples of retrofitting existing portions of the city.
Overall Project Goals
Critical Questions
2. To work across numerous perspectives and scales to gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics of urban development processes in the United States.
2. What are the mechanisms driving the current spatial development and growth in the Midwestern region of the United States? What is the effect of these mechanisms on development and how could they be restructured to move society towards sustainability?
1. To gain an in-depth understanding of the post-suburban landscape and investigate the landscapes potential to restructure an existing urban form.
3. To provide a comprehensive vision that provides an alternative to sprawling growth. 4. To explore new development strategies that could led the way to a more sustainable urbanity in the Midwest.
1. What is the role of the concept of ‘center’ within the poly-centric (nodal) urban form that has emerged in the context of the infrastructural city and the information society?
3. How can the waste from modernity’s expansive growth be reconfigured within the context of a society in constant flux? How can the next generation of waste be predicted and planned for in urban planning today? 4. What are the potentials for a post-suburban urban form? What layers could be added to enhance the existing structure?
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Chapter 1: The Resilient Concept
DeďŹ ning the Goals of The Resilient City
What is the Resilient City? The Resilient City is a framework for restructuring Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA, 5 emergent ecologies through the energizing of its landscape and the diversiďŹ cation of its transportation systems. Through the creation of new urban policies, spatial strategies, and design concepts, the plan attempts to reform the distribution of resources associated with the pending population growth in order to counter a number of growing economic, social, and environmental issues that are currently under-mining the cities ability to achieve sustainable urban growth. This alternative model to the rampant urban sprawl currently characterizing the region calls for a philosophical shift in the development process from outward expansion to inward inďŹ ll in order to reconnect the city to its historic roots, the Big Sioux River, and its majestic landscape. Along these lines, the proposal proves that it is possible to locate all of the expected growth in the coming 25 years within the city’s current administrative boundaries while at the same time creating the possibility for the emergence of a more healthy and less stressful lifestyle that better connects residents of Sioux Falls to its dynamic prairie landscape, its emerging cultural life, and the increasing global demand for environmentally sensitive initiatives.
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re•sil•ient - \ri-’zil-yent\ - adjective 1. Marked by the ability to readily recover and easily adjust to change 2. Capable of returning to an original form, after having been challenged by illness or adversity.
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The Resilient Intentions
Stop Expansion By Growing Within
The already expansive nature of Sioux Falls’ growth gives it the potential to accomodate all of its expected growth within its existing city boundary Through the utilization of derelict urban lands, undeveloped greenfields, and the reduction of wasteful parking spaces the city can add new qualities to its core areas and raise the overall quality of life of all its citizens.
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Connect to the Landscape
Sioux Falls is located on a unique bend in the Big Sioux River. Almost making a natural loop, the city’s river has shaped a unique landform over the past 15,000 years that includes scenic bluffs, rolling hills, and prairie wetlands. Together these landscape features offer the potential to create a city whose sense of place is connected directly to its landscape and ecology.
A Hub for Sustainability Currently the Midwest is lacking quality examples of sustainable urban design at the city wide scale. This void gives Sioux Falls an opportunity to jump to the fore front of urban design thinking and sustainable development within the region. By becoming a Midwestern hub for sustainability, Sioux Falls could pioneer 22nd century technology, become an exporter of sustainable thinking, and out compete cities within its supra-region in the innovation ďŹ elds.
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The Resilient Framework: The 5 Emerging Ecologies The foundation for The Resilient City is found in an analysis of the cities 5 emerging ecologies. Utilizing the landscape as a foundation provides both a chance to link the cities future to its historical foundation as well as provide a more holistic lens from which to view the cities pending development. By creating a robust discussion around the reltationship between landscape and urbansim new opportunities for sustainable urbanism present themselves. By shifting the framework from infrastructural planning to the more broad, eclogical systems planning, In this regard, planning now becomes a mechanism for the concepts of integration, education, diversiďŹ cation, and generation.
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The River
The Centers
The Prairie Coteau
The Blus
The Corridors
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The Resilient Values Diversify
The Resilient City is created through the embrace of diversity and heterogeniety. The Resilient City depends on variation to make it lively, spontaneousandhealthy. Thisrequires that ideas are balanced, contrasted and juxtaposed throughout the city. No longer will the car dominant as respect for the pedestrian will be reestablished. No longer can the single family house signify success as new indicators of accomplishment are key to the Resilient City. And no longer can alternative lifestyles be ignored as resilience is dependent on the embrace of the Christian ideal to treat all people with respect one desires for themselves.
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Intergrate
The Resilient City works across boundaries and scales to create a robust system of integrated social, environmental, and ecological networks. This multi-scalar approach will continuously work between the Global, Regional, City and Site scales to make sure Global flows are grounded in site specific design. Additionally, the Resilient City will no longer practice exclusion as an integral part of urban development as mixed use will become the norm. This will require new levels of tolerance and the development of a new appreciation for the juxtapositions that characterized American urbanity only 60 years ago.
Educate
The Resilient City depends on the development of new ways of understanding our cities. Through seminars, academic research, and private initiatives, a new line of sustainable thinking will be created to move forward a series of innovative development strategies. Through a process of open source planning, citizens will become students, participants, and teachers in the process of creating The Resilient City. Through the elevation of education in planning, the discussion will be turned from retro-active reactions to pro-active exploration. By creating a new social network around education, the city’s resilience will be developed through the concept of reflexivity.
Generate
The Resilient City will generate new forms of capital through the development of new forms of tolerance, education, and integration, The Resilient City will generate a raise in the level of societal trust. This trust will be accompanied by a rise in human, social, and relational capital and contribute to a noticable growth in urban capital in Sioux Falls. Furthermore, the Resilient City’s embrace of integration, diversity and education will lead to the birth of new creative class bringing with it new innovation based jobs that will bring South Dakota out of the basement of the national economy and help it out compete other Midwestern states.
“Through a process of open source planning, citizens will become students, participants, and teachers in the process of creating The Resilient City.�
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The Interstate and the City 22
Chapter 2: Globalization, & The Region Understanding the Context of Sioux Falls
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2.1 - Globalizations Effect on Sioux Falls
Today, almost all Sioux Falls resident’s daily life is connected globally. Although not every connection is easily visible, there are obvious connections that are established through the internet, the stock market, the grocery store, and the gas pump. And I think almost all residents would agree that our society is moving to a more fluid and a more global society as we continue to see yearly advances in electronic and communication technology. But, we rarely stop to think about the effects that globalization has had on our lives through its impact on the spatial dynamics of our cities over the past half century. Sociologist and theorist, Manuel Castells has given us a framework to evaluate the effects of globalization on our physical space. Castells has asserted that our modern world has begun to operate in two realms, the space of flows and the space of places. He describes the space of flows as those fostered by the increasing networks of electronic and telecommunication technology that are used to manage capital flows, commercial distribution, and media diffusion. It is in this space of flows that the societies “Major directional functions, research, innovation, and the sending of symbols and messages are concentrated in some major nodes and hubs around the world (Castells).” Contrastingly, the space of place is rooted in history, culture, and unique social characteristics. The space of place is less fluid and more physical. It is also the predecessor of the space of flows, but today, more than ever, the space of flows is re-shaping our places. Castells has even concluded that it is in the space of flows where power is created and used to shape our cities. He asserts that it is in the space of flows where capital is distributed and managerial decisions are implemented. 24
If we use this structure to analyze Sioux Falls, it provides a unique insight into the “placelessness” that has developed throughout the majority of Sioux Falls. Increasingly the city of Sioux Falls has been shaped by the space of flows as large national and international corporate retailers like JC Penny’s, Walmart and Target have located superstores here, national and international banks have relocated to Sioux Falls to take advantage of the corporate tax structure and relaxed lending laws, and Hollywood has continued to export its idealized version of the American dream. These flows have undoubtedly helped build the city of Sioux Falls in the recent decades and have come with a slew of economic benefits that include an increased economic revenue for the city, increased capital inflow, expansive urban development, and an enormous growth of jobs. It is these spatial flows that have given Sioux Falls its regional advantage as it has become a concentration point for supra-regional, national, and international capital investment and idea dissemination. However, Sioux Falls has also lost some of the city’s more intangible assets in the process of riding on the coat tails of more dominate hubs. Most noticeably the city has struggled with the erosion of the city’s sense of place, its lack of a creative class, the outflow of corporate profits, and a decline in civic engagement. Although I found no studies that have been completed to specifically quantify the economic impacts on Sioux Falls concerning any of these topics, they undoubtedly show that Sioux Falls has made a number of sacrifices in its attempt to grow through plugging into modern global dynamics. To date, it seems that all of these issues have been paid too little attention to, and they will have to become critical planning issues for the city’s next wave of development.
Empire East Shopping Center - A Placeless Sioux Falls
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2.2 - The Supra-Region
Sioux Falls is geographically located in a supra-region I will call Minneapolis-Chicago-St. Louis-Denver (MCSD) after the four large regional hubs that dominate the economic, intellectual, and infrastructural landscape. Sioux Falls is most closely related to Minneaplis as it is the closest of the regional hubs and it is the only one it has a direct railroad connection. Minneapolis and Sioux Falls also share the most common culture as well do to massive rural immigration in the past 40 years, a relatable landscape, and similar corporate landscape. However, Chicago is the two most dominate hub in the region. Known as “the Windy City,” Chicago is America’s 3rd largest metropolis. It is undoubtedly a world class city with innumerable connections to the forces of globalization through its business and intellectual communities, and its numerous infrastructural branches that make it the most dominate hub in the interior of the United States.
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Chicago’s High Rises show its regional dominance
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Mapping The Supra-Region
Metropolitan Areas Chicago Minneapolis St. Louis Denver Kansas City Milwaukee Omaha Des Moines Green Bay
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9.57 million 3.27 million 2.83 million 2.55 million 2.07 million 1.56 million 849,500 562,906 304,800
Lincoln Duluth Sioux Falls Fargo St. Cloud Rochester Sioux City Rapid City
298,000 276,400 238,100 200,100 189,150 185,600 144,000 124,766
Water + Hydrology
Two of America most prominent rivers are located within the region. The Missouri river cuts the state of South Dakota into two distinct halves. The two halves are refered to as East River and West River. Sioux Falls lies on the East River side along with most of the state’s population. The second major river is the Mississippi. It begins in Itasca State park in northern Minnesota and drains most of the United States that sits between the Rockies and Appalcian mountain chains. The Missouri River drains into the Mississippi River in the city of St. Louis.
Highway 212 over the Missouri River, South Dakota courtesy of www.scottshepard.com
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Mapping The Supra-Region
Rail
Compared to most of the major cities in the region, Sioux Falls lacks strong regional rail connections. Minneapolis, Chicago, Omaha, St. Louis, Kanas City, and Denver are the major railroad hubs in the region. Chicago provides the most significant connections with a lines that provide both freight and passenger services in all cardinal directions. Because Sioux Falls is currently more than 40 miles off the main regional connection, a large investment would need to be made to make regional passenger rail a reality.
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Interstate
Shown in the pink the interstate highways were designed for efficient transportation during the Cold War. Most cities in the supra-region above 100,000 people sit at the junction of two interstates. Located at the junction of I-90 and I-29, Sioux Falls is a perfect example of this situation. I-90 reaches Chicago and I-29 has a string of regional hubs about every 3.5 hours.
Drive Time
The interstate system allows for efficient transportation by car. The interstate is typically well kept and has a 120 km/hour (7075mph) speed limits within most of the region. Above the diagram shows the drive time from Sioux Falls to the noted city.It should be noted that driving still remains the most economically preferred method of transportation for family vacations.
Flight Time
All regional hubs with a population over 100,000 people have a regional airports. Typically these airports connect to Minneapolis, Chicago, and Denver depending on the final destination. For Sioux Falls, Minneapolis and Chicago are the two hubs for travel to the Eastern Sea Board, Europe, and Africa. For travel to the Western Sea Board, Asia, Australia and the Pacific islands travel typically goes through Denver.
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2.3 - The SF Region Located on the Big Sioux River in the SE corner of South Dakota, Sioux Falls is the largest metropolitan area in South Dakota, Southwestern Minnesota and Northwestern Iowa. Because of its distanct from the major supra-regional hubs Sioux Falls has developed as a regional center for retail, banking, and health care services.
Sioux Falls comfortably commands visitors and business from a 1 hour and 30 minute driving radius in all directions. This commerce catchment area includes almost all of eastern South Dakota, SW Minnesota to near the Marshall area, and the NW corner of Iowa.
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An example of Rural South Dakota
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Mapping Sioux Falls’ Region
Population Centers Sioux Falls Aberdeen Watertown Brookings Mitchell Pierre Yankton Huron Vermillion Brandon
158,000 24,460 20,237 19,865 14,558 13,899 13,798 11,033 10,495 8,757
Population Density
Population Growth
3.1 persons per sq. km (8 / sq. mi)
> 7.6 % Growth
1.54 - 3.1 persons / sq. km(4-8 / sq. mi.).
0-7.6% Growth
1.54 people per sq km (< 4 / sq. mi.).
0-7.6% Decline 7.6-15% Decline >15% Decline
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Mapping Sioux Fallsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Region
Water
The regional hydrology is composed of four main watersheds that compose the Greater Missouri Watershed.From West to East, the Missouri River, the James River, the Vermillion River and the Big Sioux River form four North to South ďŹ&#x201A;owing watersheds. Sioux Falls is located in the Big Sioux Watershed. This watershed begins in the northeast corner of the state and drains the Sioux Falls metropolitan area.
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Rail
Shown in Red is all the regional rail lines. Sioux Falls is the of region rail transportation; however, it remains poorly connected to the supra region as the two main East West lines across the state occur 45 miles north (in Brookings) and 20 miles south (in Canton). Sioux Falls does have one line connecting to both Minneapolis and Sioux City / Omaha. However, the Sioux City / Omaha line can easily be by-passed on trips to and from Omaha, Kanas City and Denver. Sioux Falls does appear to have remnants of better historic rail connections within the region.
Roads
The supra-regional infrastructure of the interstate system (pink) creates the major connection to Sioux Falls today. 6 of the ‘East River’s’ major cities are tied directly to the interstate system. A number of Sioux Fall’s major suburbs are also tied to interstate system. Shown in gray the major state highways provide the skelton for Eastern South Dakota’s other major cities.
Driving Time
The interstate and highway system provides the backbone for efficient vehicular traffic for the region. With a speed limit of 120 km/h (75 mph) on the interstates and 110 km/ h (65 mph) on the major highways moving about region is relatively quick considering the vast geographic distances that need to be covered. Sioux Falls is well connected to four cities between 10,000 - 20,000 within an hours drive and provides a regional shopping hub for cities within 2 hours.
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The Western Edge of Sioux Falls
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Chapter 3: The American Dream’s Effect on Space
The Relationship between Cultural & Space in Sioux Falls
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3.1 - The Transformation of the American Dream Introduction
Although today we tend to think of the American Dream as a constant, unchanged virtue that dates back to our countries founding, the American Dream has made numerous shifts over the years as the context of the world around us has dramatically changed. Ideologically, the American Dream still remains the uniting factor of the most diverse country in the world as the country still faithfully believes through hard work and participation in society, anyone can achieve prosperity in our ‘Land of Opportunity.’ However, in recent years the American Dream’s attainability has been question as the country has drawn criticism for its excessive resource use in the face of a new demand for increased global cooperation. Today, the physical manifestation of the Dream has resulted in the first suburban nation with a number of uniquely American characteristics (Duany 5-12). Utilizing the countries wealth, America has a globally unparalleled development pattern that lacks density, relies on free parking, and depends on the car / truck. Although many have tended to see this decentralization as an inevitable result of technological progress over the last century, a historical understanding of American development sheds much light into how America has been transformed from an innovator in public transportation to a car dependent nation (Jackson 164 -180). The following pages attempt to trace the American mindset and its effect on the spatial history of development in America utilizing Kenneth T. Jackson’s text, Crabgrass Frontier. The conversation ends with an exploration of the growing commentary of the current American social landscape that includes research from the New Urbanism movement, the Center for Disease Control, the Global Footprint Network, and the Center for American Progress in an attempt to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of urban development in the American context. 40
The Formation of the America Dream
America was famously founded on the ideals laid out in the Declaration of Independence by a group of pioneering and courageous men who revolutionized the world’s views toward democracy and self governance by taking on the leading monarchy of their time. These men, often called the “Founding Fathers,” laid out the framework for the system of checks and balances that has steered the American government to prosperity for well over 225 years now. Through their revolutionary spirit, these men also laid the groundwork for what was to blossom into the contradictions that make up the complex system of values of the modern American culture. Most believe the roots of the American dream to have been founded in the poetry of Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence. The most celebrated and revered passage of which says, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” These words have been interpreted and reinterpreted for generations as people have continually looked back to the spirit of the American Revolution to search for a more defined meaning to the ideals of individual freedom and the pursuit of happiness. In order to continue this tradition of search in the face of new economic, social, and environmental issues, let’s first look back to context surrounding the American Revolution so we can better understand the context of the American culture.
An Agrarian Society, The Frontier and Land Speculation
In America life in 1776 was one strongly connected to the land as the American industrial revolution was still a half century in the making. The connection to land at the time of America’s founding was the bond that tied the majority of the founding fathers together. From John Adams of
Massachusetts to George Washington and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, farming and land rents were a major source of both status, income, and wealth. (McCullough, John Adams) It was the bountiful lands of America that gave it a rich base of natural resources, and its ability to grow cash crops like tobacco made the colonies an instant player in the trade with the major European countries. Because of its cheap land and lack of clear ownership, the founding of America took place under an entirely different set of circumstances than its European brethren. Unlike Europe of the eighteenth century, America was still a land of the frontier. America was a continent in the process of a dynamic and evolving colonization that stemmed from a race for half a continent that pitted European powers against each other (Ellis, His Excellency). These conflicts made the frontier a dangerous place prior to the American Revolution as the countries westward expansion often played out in numerous battles with Native American tribes. However, all those who understood the frontier knew the riches it possessed. George Washington was one of the few prominent men who knew the frontier as he had surveyed pieces of it in his youth as well as fought in the French and Indian War. These experiences gave him a unique insight into the bounty of the west, and his written correspondence show that he believed one of the secondary prizes of winning the Revolutionary War would be the unimaginable number of future careers and fortunes that laid there. He also believed it an “elemental reality” that the colonies would need to expand and grow and was disconcerted by the fact that the British Monarchy was trying to stop the colonies inevitable Westward expansion (Ellis, His Excellency). The reliance on the land during this time created an aversion to the city as most of wealth of prominent Americas was directly tied to agriculture and land possessions. One of the planter class of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson is the most quoted of the founding fathers saying, “I view large cities as pestilential to the morals, the health, and the liberties of man. True they nourish some of the elegant arts, but the useful ones can thrive elsewhere, and less perfection in others, with more health, virtue and freedom, would be my choice (Jackson, 68).”
Government Control and Taxes
If the bounty of land was the building block of what was to become the United States of America, the primary impetus for the American Revolution was the desire to be self governing. The colonist believed they were being unfairly taxed without representation in the British Parliament and the Tea Act of 1773 set off a series of protests in the American colonies that eventually ended in the Boston Tea Party in December of 1773. Although the causes of the American revolution cannot be simplified to the Boston Tea Party, it does represent the central discourse of the American revolution. The historian Joseph J Ellis condenses the idea best when he states “the central impulse of the American Revolution had been a deep aversion to legislation, especially taxes, emanating from any consolidated government in a far away place beyond the direct control and supervision of the citizens affected (Disc 6, Track 16)” in his biography of George Washington, His Excellency. Because of this central impulse, it can be concluded that the American Revolution was more of a political revolution spurred on by a desire for economic independence rather than a social revolution.
Stronger Central Government vs Libertarian States Rights
As the country’s political system was forming after the victory of the American Revolution, the “central impulse” of the American Revolution was soon being translated into two conflicting ideologies that continue to form the central contradiction in American politics today. That contradiction was the split between the “founding fathers” as to the amount of power that was to be placed in the federal government. This created a battle between those who believed the United States needed a strong central government to hold the states together versus the more libertarian ideas that believed in each individual state’s rights. This split emerged from the cabinet of America’s first presidency as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison diverged from George Washington’s ideas in favor of states rights and more libertarian ideals (Ellis, His Excellency). Using his experiences from his time as the Head of the Continental Army, Washington believed a strong central government was necessary to bind the states in a strong union that was able to deal with issues of national interest including military defense, land expansion, and international 41
trade. Washington also believed in setting up nationalized institutions such as the Federal Reserve as proposed by his Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson and Madison disagreed with Washington and avidly sided for what they considered a more egalitarian, more democratic society that gave more rights to the individual colonies. Jefferson and Madison proclaimed their ideas to be the will of the people and the true spirit of ‘76. Out of this split the ideologies of American’s two party political system were founded as Democrats claim Washington and Adams as their founding father’s while Republicans claim Jefferson and Madison to be theirs (Ellis, His Excellency).
The Land of Opportunity
In the first decades, the promise of the cheap land for farming, the lack of ruling class and social restrictions (although slavery was practiced), and the individual freedoms supported by life on the frontier formed an American Dream that attracted millions of people. In these formative decades, America became a melting pot for European peasants who dreamed of a better life for their families. They dreamed of their own farmstead in which they could reap the profits of their labor. They dreamed of a land where they could openly celebrate their heritage and religion no matter the background of their neighbors. And they believed that through hard work in the fields and a dedication to their new communities, a better life could be formed for their children. (wikipedia, ‘American Dream’) From these beliefs, America became known as the “Land of Opportunity” as waves of immigrants continued to come from Europe. As one well educated German immigrant put it after he defected in 1848, “Above all, there are no princes and corrupt courts representing the so-called divine ‘right of birth.’ In such a country the talents, energy and perseverance of a person... have far greater opportunity to display than in monarchies (wikipedia, ‘American Dream’).” It was America’s openness to all of its citizens and new immigrants that gave it the advantage to foster the innovation necessary to take advantage of the countries vast natural resources. In the process, the next wave of the American Dream was built as technological progress changed the structure of the American society.
The Industrial Revolution & The First Transformation of the American City
Beginning in the United Kingdom near the end of the 18th century, the industrial revolution catalyzed a new socio-economic restructuring that had profound impacts on the average standard of living, and therefore, the American Dream. The development of mechanization, steam power, and the associated transportation improvements changed the nature of both the North American continent and the World through the major changes it created in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and technology. And throughout time, these structural changes began to drastically alter the traditional spatial relationships of American cities. Like Europe, the early American landscape was dotted with dense, walkable towns and cities that typically had strong ethic origins and a clear divide between urban and rural. Historian Kenneth Jackson summarizes this idea saying, “Although North American cities were newer and smaller than their European counterparts, they exhibited the same degree of intense, inner city congestion (Jackson, 14).” Because of their dependence on foot travel, both the European and the North American city were characterized by small lots sizes (approx. 20’ wide), narrow streets, houses close to the curb, and a mixed use environment that was characterized by 80% of the population living with 1 mile of their job. The ‘walking city’ was also characterized by a lack of segregation, wealth toward its center, and prostitutes and other outcasts toward the fringe. (Jackson 14-20) Nevertheless, the Industrial Revolution and the transportation improvements that followed radically altered the notion of the American city. Beginning in 1814 in New York, a steam ferry service provided the impetus for the first modern suburb, Brooklyn. This change resulted in rapid population growth in Brooklyn as the site was transformed from an agricultural village of 3,000 people in 1835 to a town of 40,000 by 1852. And by 1860, the steam ferries were moving approximately 100,000 people per working day as America’s first metropolitan region was beginning to form through the notion of the “ferry suburb.” But, because of the lack of water in most American towns, the impact of the ferry was limited to only a few cities. (Jackson 20-40) However, because of the growing size of cities in the United States, outward growth was making cities harder to walk and was creating the demand
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And by 1852, the omnibus and rail operations had hybridized into the ‘horsecar.’ The horse car was a horse drawn railway that replaced the omnibus on most major thoroughfares by 1860 because of its smoother ride, higher carry capacity, and quicker speed (6-8mph). The tracks radiated from the center and typically connected the emerging wealth in the periphery to the city center. However, the range of the horsecar was limited as it took 45 minutes to travel the 6 kilometers (3.5 miles) from the southern edge of Central Park in Manhattan to the downtown business district. However, the horse car had caught on with the middle class as by the mid 1880s 415 street railway companies were operating on over 6000 miles of track with a ridership of 188 million passengers per year or about 12 rides for every man, women, or child who lived in a city. (Jackson, 41,42)
The Creation of the Suburban Ideal
http://www.openlettersmonthly.com/whitmanblog for new transportation services. The first of those public transportation systems began by accident in 1828 in Paris and landed in the United States in 1829 in New York. The invention was a 12 passenger, horse drawn coach called the “omnibus,” and by 1850 they began to fill the streets of most major American cities. However, their impact was little as their ridership was hampered by the size of the coach as well as the quality and speed of the service. Still they began develop an important urban characteristic of the time, termed “the riding habit. (Jackson, 33 -40)” Another important technology to develop were railways as they began to impact urban form with the advent of the steam engine. The first commuter rail line was again located in New York in 1832 and although the steam engine was designed for long distance travel, there were regular lines running all along the eastern seaboard by the 1850’s. Boston had the largest portion of suburban riders and by 1844 the city had 7 different companies offering daily services. Across the nation, the railroad companies started working with realtors to create marketing schemes that glorified suburban life as the railroad companies often developed land within walking distance of their newly realized stops.
When rail, omnibus, and horsecar started the process of decentralization in America in the 1840s and 1850s, the suburbs had yet to develop a recognizable physical identity or set of social ideals distinct from urban centers, but by 1890 suburbia was beginning to form into a holistic concept of a new lifestyle. This change coincided with a dramatic shift in American demography as in 1840 New York had only 125,000 and factories were just starting to be built, but by 1890 the United States had explored the west and had become the world’s leading industrial nation with New York rivaling London as the world’s largest city while Chicago and Philadelphia both had over 1 million residents. And as more people congregated in urban areas, a number of intellectuals set out on a journey to redefine the role of private life through the innovation of new ways to define the morality of the family, the detached house, and the private yard as their thinking began the development of the concept of suburbia. *(Jackson 42-49) Through the work of social activists, designers, and entrepreneurs, private life expanded to an unprecedented level at the same time as America was transformed into an industrialized nation. Led by the thinking of Sarah Joseha Hale, Catharine Beecher, Andrew Jackson Downing, Calvert Vaux a “cult of domesticity” formed in America as the “the family came to be a personal bastion against society, a place of refuge, free from outside control (Jackson 47).” Through this new domestic theory, the detached home became the most visible symbol of both success and moral righteousness as the theoretical position of domesticity stood on the principle that nature and domestic life were better for the individual than society and the city. 43
Russell Conwell summed up these feeling best in a lecture entitled “Acres of Diamonds” by saying: “My friend, you take and drive me -- if you furnish the auto -- out into the suburbs of Philadelphia, and introduce me to the people who own their homes around this great city, those beautiful homes with gardens and flowers, those magnificent homes so lovely in their art, and I will introduce you to the very best people in character as well as in enterprise in our city, and you know I will. A man is not really a true man until he owns his own home, and they that own their homes are economical and careful, by owning the home.” And while the city continued to build row houses in 1870, the suburban ideal became a detached house surrounded by green lawn that was to be used for social gatherings. This ideal was added to by a series of books that glorified country living through the dissemination of “the notion that the only reason for living in the city was to make enough money to retire to the countryside.” By the late 1800’s, the status quo for wealthy families had changed from an urban residence to a ‘suburban retreat’ at the same time as most Americans were rejecting life on the farm for better opportunities in the city. (Jackson 53-72) The theory of the suburban lifestyle was turned into practice through a number of influential works that combined the new transportation technologies, aggressive land speculation, and new physical development patterns. Examples of these works include Llewellyn Park (1856) outside New York and Riverside (1868) outside Chicago as both work created precedents for the suburban ideals of Beecher, Downing, and Vaux. These two works were both meticulously planned and took advantage of the expanding commuter rail systems. They also created a new aesthetic for how the affluent should live by utilizing curvilinear roads, natural open space, and large average lot sizes (3 acres at Llewellyn Park). Furthermore, Riverside’s designer, Fredrick Law Olmstead, did make one theoretical change to the suburban ideal of Downing. Olmstead believed suburbs like Riverside were not to be an escape, but rather “a delicate synthesis of town and wilderness” where the conveniences of the city were still at hand. (Jackson, 73 -86) 44
Although most of the 19th century rail was used to transport freight, it had created a profound impact on the social habits and culture of American urban development by the turn of the century. The ‘railroad suburbs’ in cities like Riverside and Llewellyn Park established a pattern of development that was ‘like beads on a string’ with each town being based on a stop, limited by the distance of a 15 minute walk, and independent from the next. Through this innovation in urban form (a historic Transit Oriented Development (TOD)) the upper class could begin to congregate beyond the city and the rest of society. As this affluent group became spatially separated from the working class, it began creating a series of socially exclusive social clubs. The most prominent was the country club as it used expensive fees and restrictive covenants to openly practice class, race, and ethnic exclusion on a level America had never seen before. (Jackson 87-102) Still, the railroad suburb movement was rather small as it was expensive and their form was still limited by the range one could walk; therefore, the success of the railroad suburb was not in the number of people it brought to the countryside, but rather through its realization of the suburban ideals pioneered by the generation before them. Social critic and city historian Lewis Mumford has characterized the philosophy behind the early suburban development as follows: “To be your own unique self; to build your unique house, mid a unique landscape; to live in this Domain of Arnheim a self centered life, in which private fantasy and caprice would have license to express themselves openly in short, to withdraw like a monk and live like a prince --- this was the purpose of the original creators of the suburb. They proposed in effect to create an asylum, in which they could, as individuals, overcome the chronic defects of civilization while still commanding at will the privileges and benefits of urban society (Jackson, 71).” These practices were drastically different than the development occurring in other parts of the world as between 1835 and 1889, the industrial powerhouse of England only built some 500 country houses and by 1900 the United States had more railroad track than the rest of the world combined.
The Development of the Streetcar Suburb
Although rail continue strongly influenced the development of industrial and manufacturing corridors, the most important new transportation technology for people in American cities was the streetcar as it was the first reliable, affordable form of public transportation that could penetrate into
image courtesy of http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu
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the middle of the city. The original streetcar was born in 1867 in New York when Charles Harvey developed the cable car; however, the cable car had a limited impact in America because of its technical inefficiencies and it reached its peak by 1890 when the electric streetcar of Frank Julian Sprague revolutionized public transportation with the successful installation of an electrified rail system in Richmond, Virginia. Sprague’s street car quickly caught on as its above ground infrastructure, speed of 20 miles per hour, and lack of dependence on animals was a major upgrade for public transportation. (Jackson, 107-115) Profitability remained as the major factor in the establishment of new electrific routes. Although the city continued to control the rights to establish transportation lines, in almost all cases the municipal government still entered into contracts with private companies who promised to guarantee an agreed upon level of service. However, unlike Europe the regulations for transportation lines was weak, and the contracts were often vague toward the stipulation of fares. Many of the contracts were even obtained illegally through bribery and other political games in the name of land speculation. Despite any moral incongruence, the transformation was “one of the most rapidly accepted innovations in the history of technology” as Americans showed their unprecedented pension for embracing technological advancement. (Jackson 111) At the time of Sprague’s Richmond installation in 1890, American was already leading the way in public transportation. Street railways (electric, cable and horse) had more than 2 billion riders per year and the average rides per person was 172 within cities of more than 100,000 citizens. This capacity was twice that of the rest of the world as America was both the leading provider and innovator of public transportation systems in the world. By 1893, only 6 years after the installation of 1st electric rail in Richmond, America had rapidly upgraded its system as it gave birth to 250 new electric railways and about 7,200 miles of electrified track. Ten years later 98% of the United States 30,000 miles of street railway was electrified. And by 1910 the state of Massachusetts had 211 towns with street railway systems and the electric streetcar was a source of civic pride across America. For the average citizen the streetcar allowed them to break free of their block and reinforce their connection to the city center. Because the tracks radiated from the center, the effect was that almost all traffic was routed 46
through the center as the strength of the central businesses district (CBD) was reinforced by the fact that they were also the major transportation hub. Because of this strong notion of center, urban areas were still marked with extremely high densities. In response there was a commonly held belief at the turn of the century that suburbs were the answer as they “would promote family stability, peace of mind, patriotism, and moral character (Jackson, 117).” With the streetcars new found efficiency, cities could continue to expand as the distance one could travel in an hour went from 2 miles in 1850 to 6 miles in 1900 (Jackson 118), and it was the streetcar entrepreneurs who speed up the outward expansion of the city by extending lines beyond the city and creating a price structure with a low average fare and dependence on high passenger volume. Because of these two policies, street rail became the dominant factor of predicting urban growth as most of the street car operators were also aggressive land speculators that cared less about the nickel fare and more about the big money in development of the country’s seemingly endless supply of real estate. Oakland, Los Angeles, and Washington D.C are chronicled examples as in many cases streetcar tycoons “pretended to be operating as independent entrepreneurs in the best traditions of a democratic society (Jackson 117 - 124). All in fact manipulated government agencies and employed political favoritism in order to use public streets and to gain public franchises for their private ends (Jackson 124).” All three of these trends strongly differed from Europe where prices were set high, street rail kept within the city, and strong regulations prevented land speculation by streetcar companies. The land speculation was married to another American invention, the “balloon frame house”, that allowed for cheaper, less skilled, and less labor intensive construction of single family homes. Developed in Chicago in the 1830’s the balloon or “stick framed house” had no heavy corner posts, depended on the machine nail, and utilized 2 x 4 construction to spread stress over a number of smaller component pieces (Jackson 125-126). By late 1800s, the balloon framed house coupled with new model floor plans, a developing mortgage industry, and marketing schemes (including women’s magazines) had convinced many city dwellers that it was time to ‘get a piece of Earth.’ Among the most embracing, were new immigrants as in 1900 55% of Germans, 46% of Irish, and 44% of Poles owned their own homes. (Jackson, 118)
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The turn of the century brought a number of new questions that included the political control of the newly developing suburban regions. Up until then cities had expanded using the power of annexation without many serious question, but suburban communities were becoming increasingly distinctive and were starting to fight for their right to govern themselves. In 1907, one anti-annexationist commenter clarified the situation stating, “The real issue is not taxes, nor water, nor street cars -- it is a much greater question than either. It is the moral control of our village... Under local government we can absolutely control every objectionable thing that may try to enter our limits --- but once annexed we are at the mercy of city hall (Jackson 151).” And by 1920, the anti-annexation movement had stalled the political expansion of cities along the East coast and many of the older cities in the Midwest (Jackson 150 - 155).
America’s Love Affair with the Automobile
The turn of the century was also marked by the beginning of the story of the automobile in America. The story is slow at the start as the 19th century political resistance created new laws that limited the speed to 4 miles per hour and required vehicles to be led by a man on foot carrying a red flag. This resulted in there being only 1 car for every 18,000 citizens in 1898. The early 20th century was also characterized by a lack of highways as railroad was smoother, faster and more economical than the car until at least the early 1920s (Jackson 157-158). However, that changed as the number of cars increased as American automobile manufactures began producing economical vehicles that were affordable for the masses. Through Henry Ford’s invention of the assembly line and the ensuing Model T, the car was transformed from a luxury to an affordable middle class amenity by 1925 with nearly 1 car in every five people. Still, most blue collar workers were unable to afford a private car until after WWII. (Jackson 160-163) 47
Initially the car was welcomed with open arms into the city as it was clean, odorless, and efficient when compared with the horse. Still, the biggest push for road building in American cities was the special interest group of tire manufactures, automobile producers, service station owners, road builders, and land developers arguing that new highways justified public spending because the road improvements would pay for themselves because of an increase in property tax revenues. Merchants provided a counter argument saying “that traffic congestion caused real-estate values to decline by increasing the cost of doing business downtown (Jackson 164).” The majority of planners sided with the special interests associated with the car and by 1920 the street was be transformed from a primary social and open space in the city to a conduit for the sole purpose of moving the car (Jackson 164-171). Following the led of the automobile industry the federal government began financially assisting states in order to organize highway departments and road projects through legislation in 1916 and 1921. These two acts of legislation created funding for 200,000 miles of road and the formation of a Bureau of Public Roads that made the first sketch of an interstate system. As America began investing in roads in the form of federal subsidies public transportation began to decline as Europe had overtaken the once dominant American public service by 1910. The political support of private transportation continued to grow as it was defined as a public good worthy of public funding while mass transit was a private service that should “pay for itself (Jackson 168-170).” Thus a contradiction developed where “American taxed and harassed public transportation, even while subsiding the automobile like a pampered child (Jackson 170).” Leaving nothing to chance the car lobby, especially General Motors, began in mid 1920s tearing out streetcar lines and implementing new bus systems. General Motors even began operating a subsidiary corporation in 1926 with intent on buying out the weakened street car companies and letting them go extinct. In New York, this conspiracy led to the loss of 1000 miles of streetcar tracks from by 1939, despite rider complaints and citizen petitions to save the tracks. By 1950, GM was solely responsible for the replacement of over 100 streetcar systems and a federal jury even found them guilt of criminal conspiracy for their efforts. However, the fine lacked any weight as it was only $5,000 as streetcar ridership declined from a peak of 15.7 billion in 1923 to only a few ‘historic’ lines in 1985. Although GM’s 48
http://ptatransitauthority.blogspot.com maneuverings may not have produced the idea, they certainly aided in the development of the idea that the car was ‘the best of modern civilization (Jackson 170-171).’ With the new funding and political organization setup around expanding road construction, a new era of suburban development took place between the World Wars. Taking advantage of the publicly financed roads, the rate of new homes being built from 1922-1929 double more than any other previous 7 year period with an average rate of 883,000 homes per year. During this period, suburbs grew twice as fast as core cities. And although central cities remained dominant in most metropolitan regions, Los Angles showed signs of a changing geography as its downtown area declined by 24% between 1923 and 1931 despite growth in the metropolitan area (Banham). By 1926, an Atlanta drugstore owner could see that “the place where trade is, is where automobiles go (Jackson 174).” This place was not always the city center any more. The suburban growth of the 1920’s was the first wave of ‘automobile suburbs’ and because of the change in transportation the form was altered. Where streetcar suburbs growth was limited by the walking distance from a stop, the automobile’s ability to move freely, especially laterally to the formerly
fixed tracks of rail, created new opportunities for land speculation and suburban growth. Its also started to erode the importance of the central business district as new automobile owners were now able to move freely from suburban community to suburban community to completely bypass the city center (Garreau) . Still the change was slow as it was hardly a revolution in many parts of the US. A 1934 study of Pittsburgh showed that 28% walked to work, 48.8% rode the street car, and only 20.3% drove to work (Jackson 182). However, the automobile suburb continued to pioneer new architectural standards that became the basis of neighborhood development. The biggest change of the automobile suburb was its lower density and larger average lot size. Lot sizes rose from 3000 SF in the streetcar suburb to 5000 SF in the automobile suburb. The configuration of the house also dramatically changed at this time as the larger lots sizes allowed for Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian houses to become a model for the “ranch” house. The parlor and porch also became obsolete as the garage began influencing the front elevation of the house. These dramatic changes were preceded by the publishing of similar ideal house designs in widely circulated magazines and a number of influential housing exhibitions that created a perception by the beginning of World War II that the automobile and suburbia formed the dominant interpretation of the American dream. (Jackson 73-86)
Governmental Stimulates Decentralization
Throughout this transformation many people felt decentralization was inevitable and continued to lobby on its behalf without a full understanding of the effect of the new urban form they were creating. Through a series of new institutions setup in conjunction with the New Deal, a series of new policies encouraged suburban growth at the expense of creating decay in the cities urban centers. The first of these institutions was the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) which created and perfected the “long term, self amortizing mortgage with uniform payment spread over the life of the debt. (Jackson, 196)” The HOLC also began to “systematize appraisal methods across the nation (Jackson, 197).” The appraisal method was biased toward new construction and homogeneous, upper class whites as the rating system adopted a view that “accepted the given proposition that the natural tendency of any area was to decline (Jackson 198).” The methods of the HOLC were then ‘improved’ on by the Federal Housing
/www.theurbn.com Administration. Designed “to encourage improvement in housing standards and condition, to facilitate sound home financing on reasonable terms, and to exert a stabilizing influence on the mortgage market (Jackson 203). The FHA did not build house or lend money directly, but they acted to insure lenders against loss; by doing so they induced lenders who had money to lend. The impacts were a decline from 30% to 10% in the amount needed to put down on a home purchase, an extended repayment period to 30 years, standardize building standards, and lower interest rates because of the reduced risk. The FHA’s program raised the percentage of American families who were homeowners from 44% to 63% from 1934 to 1972 as the program made it cheaper to buy than to rent and made home ownership an expectation for the working class. The problem with the FHA was not the increase in homeownership itself, rather, it was its dramatic favoring of residential development on the fringe to the neglect of the inner city. Although it was never explicitly stated, the FHA did this through favoritism of single family over multi family 49
housing, a preference for new development over repair, a bias against density, and a preference for the homogenous suburbs over the diversity of the city (Jackson 203-208, 217). One prime example of the FHA bias was its investments in St. Louis where a sample of 241 new homes from 1935 to 1939 showed 91% where located in the suburbs and more than half of the buyers had formerly lived in the city (Jackson 209). The FHA also standardized the suburban home for developers and home builders by setting minimum requirements for lot size, setback, separation between buildings, and house width. Through these requirements, the FHA eliminated a number of housing typologies that had dominated earlier urban development. A prime example is the elimination of the row house through the use of setbacks in most municipal zoning codes (Jackson 208, Sioux Falls Zoning Code). The New Deal also tried to address housing for the poor, but rather than through the FHA the government decided to clear slums and begin a process of creating public housing through urban renewal. Utilizing the Public Works Administration (PWA), an independent housing authority was formed that believed through slum clearance and urban renewal they could improve conditions for the poor, but the program was designed more for economic stimulus and simply overlooked the need for the creation of a series of new economic, social and architectural objectives. The public housing projects ended up becoming concentrated in inner city neighborhoods where poverty was left in isolation, and the public housing ‘projects’ created more inner city problems and more abandonment (Jackson 219-230)
The Systemization of Suburbia after World War II
Utilizing the philosophies and technologies developed in the previous century, a number of large developers began an unprecedented building boom after the return of soldiers following World War II. Utilizing a standardized and almost assembly line like process, home builders like the Levit family created an efficient process that brought the price of a home within the reach of the average American. In subdivisions like Levittown, the modern American dream found its most bold expression as housing was transformed into an industry. It was in these years that suburban development became a systematic process so fully ingrained into American thinking that it became law through the adoption of new zoning ordinances. 50
Model subdivisions like Levittown helped establish a number of techniques for developers that many planners soon began to systematize. The invention of this generation of developers included the reuse of identical floor plans to create an entire neighborhood, the average density of suburban development (10,500 per square mile), the economic and racial homogeneity, the strip mall, the shopping center, the protection of land values by function through zoning practices, and the financing of entire subdivisions by a single developer. (Jackson X) As developments like Levittown took the country by storm, the car became not only a symbol of freedom, but also a economic necessity as a new “drive-in culture” began to form (Jackson 246). In the years after the war, public subsidies for roads reached a new level as the Interstate Highway Act of 1956 providing 90% of the funding for a 41,000 mile national highway network based on four criteria: current highways lacked safety, lack of traffic flow, high costs of current transportation, and as a matter of national defense against an atomic attack (Jackson 249). Together with a number of municipal programs that funded road development, the interstate system helped create a culture where it has become the expectation for free parking at the door of every commercial shop. This ‘drive-in’ culture has generation such phenomenon as the drive-in movie theater, the motel, the fast food drive thru, the mall, and even the drive-in church (Jackson 250-265).
The Effect of Television
Just as the car and new building processes began dominating development, new forms of entertainment changed the home into individualized entertainment center where one could control the programming, his company, and his personal climate (Jackson 278-281). Mainly because of the growth of cable TV programming and movie rentals, the couch became the central recreation space for most American families. This transformation can be traced to the 1950s as in one decade the percentage of American homes with a TV went from 10% to 90%. Viewership also increased as viewing hours grew by 17-20% in the 1960s and by 7-8% in the 1970s (Putnam 221-222). Sociologist Robert Putnam has clarified the effect of television on the American population by saying, “The single most important consequence of the television revolution has been to bring us home.”
A Gas Station, Pay Day Loan Center, & Car Traffic @ the corner of 10th and Cliff
Today, Americans spend over 4 hours a day watching TV. Couple that with the fact that Americans rent 6 million movies a day (Television & Health), and its easy to see why Putnam has so thoroughly discuss the dramatic effects of TV on the collapse of social capital in America in his book Bowling Alone. Although Putnam warns the collapse is complex and multifaceted, he has asserted that “dependence on television for entertainment is not merely a significant predictor of civic disengagement. It is the single most consistent predictor that I have discovered (Putnam, 231).” Unsurprisingly, Needham Life Style Surveys from 1975 -1999 showed a consistent rise in Americans desiring to spend an evening at home. The televisions ability to keep us at home has reinforced the pro-suburban development mindset as its minimal costs have made it no longer important to have a stimulating environment in close proximity to our residence. Describing the cost of TV researchers John Robinson and Geoffrey Godbey concluded “As an activity, television viewing requires no advance planning, costs next to nothing, requires no physical effort, seldom shocks or surprises, and can be done in the comfort of one’s own home (Putnam 242).” At the
same time, TV’s increasing number of choices has allowed us to control our programming to fit our specific belief system. In the process these choices have “undercut TV’s once vaunted role in bringing us together.”
More Expansion and the Creation of a Fracture Form
Since the development of the drive-in culture and the emergence of the TV as a powerful social media, the American planners and designers have continued to reinforce the dominance of the car at the detriment of many parts of our cities, especially the historic cores. Utilizing an industrial brand of thinking, modernist planners and engineers began legalizing a system of road classification based on traffic flow, minimum parking standards, and road setbacks. These ideas were easily implemented on the fringe and developers went about improving on the planners ideas by inventing the perception of an abundance of free parking to attract new shoppers. The impact on the historic downtown’s was tragic as the continuing combination of disinvestment and the restructuring of space to accommodate the car, led to abandonment of downtown and the removal of a number of historic buildings for parking lots in the 60s, 70s, and 80s. 51
Post-World War II America was also undergoing an important demographic shift known as ‘rural flight.’ As agricultural practices were increasing industrialized and human labor replaced by modern tractors, the dynamics of rural America dramatically changed. The three biggest effects of the modernization of agriculture were the increase in the size of farms, the decrease in the number of farms, and the decline of small agricultural communities. Iowa State University researchers have provided an empirical look at this trend with a report that showed a decrease in hog farmers from 65,000 to 10,000 from 1980 to 2002. The same study also showed the number of hogs per farm increased from 200 to 1,400 over the same time period. (Babcock, et al, “Living with Hogs in Rural Iowa”). The same trend has characterized farms based on field crops. The result of the convergence of these two trends was the creation of a number of rapidly growing metropolitan areas especially in the South, the Southwest, and the Midwest. Utilizing the framework setup by planners and designers, cities handled the influx of people through large infrastructural improvements, subdivision development, and land use plans. The result was the marginalization of the downtown as the strong handed infrastructural planning led to the creation of a new form of mixed use suburb that has been come to be known as the “Edge City.” These new urban centers provided all of the programmatic features of the historic downtown, but instead of having their roots in pre-industrial times their spatial configuration was based upon the car as the primary form of transportation, the street as a 52
car mover, and the parking lot the entrance. Today, Edge City’s can no longer be denied as they have formed the basis of life for many Americans, and their strategic locations continue to economically out compete many American downtowns. The transformation of the American Dream into a suburban dream has resulted in an increasingly fractured urban form whose expansive form has created city’s that function more as a region than the traditional monocentric development found in historic urban settlements. This fracture form has become a complex ecosystem whose sole life line is currently the dependence on cheap oil prices and the cars ability to weave together the many physically distinct parts of many cities. Today, our country’s fractured form and the recent economic crisis have shown that we face a number of issues of that connect back to (see Chapter4) the foundation of our collective American Dream and its manifestation in the physical settings of our cities. If we are truly serious about solving these problems at their roots; it is time to take action. We have already proven our ability to let our collective dream evolve; now its time to work toward restructuring that dream through invention of new urban process, new urban typologies, and a new understanding of the advantages of being an urban nation.
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3.2 - The Historic Development of Sioux Falls
Any chronicle of the history of Sioux Falls must begin not with the city itself, but the land upon which it formed. The site of present day Sioux Falls has long attracted people as the city’s namesake, a quartzite based waterfall, was a known influence on generations of Native America tribes and the numerous burial mounds upon the bluffs of the Big Sioux River valley have altered the landscape and created a wealth of archeological remains that show the region’s spiritual connection to the landscape.
tered hostilities from the Native Americans and by August of 1862 the city’s 100 or so residents abandoned the city upon the loss of two of its residents to conflict with the Native Americans (Odland).
The city was resettled three years later with the placement of a military fort. Soon after settlers followed and the “Village of Sioux Falls” consisting of 4.9km2 (1200 acres) was incorporated in 1876 and granted a city charter in 1883 by the Dakota Territory during a time that became known as the Formed in the last ice age, the Big Sioux River and the Sioux Falls formed “Dakota Boom.” This 10 year period begin in 1880 resulted in a population the basis for settlement. For the Native Americans it was the mystery of increase from around 2,000 to over 10,000 and was mainly created by the ar“the falls,” the resource of water, and the height of surrounding bluffs that rival of new railroads into the then Dakota Territory. (Odland) made the river an integral feature in their daily lives for centuries before the European and American explorers began the process of developing the With the influx of people from the “Dakota Boom,” South Dakota became a landscape around the falls into the city of Sioux Falls. Furthermore, the first state in 1889; however, the growth slowed as a plague of grasshoppers and a European visit believed the population of the area surrounding present day national depression created stagnation until a series of Agricultural indusSioux Falls to be around 10,000 Natives Americans in the early 18th century. tries spurred a new wave of growth. Beginning with the John Morrell meat packing plant in 1909, the city was transformed into a regional hub for the (Wikipedia, ‘Sioux Falls’) Dakota Territory as the city opened an adjacent large stockyard. The indusThe official founding of the city of Sioux Falls dates back to 1856 as two land trial growth spurred on by the bounty of surrounding farmland resulted in a companies mutually settled within the confides of the city’s downtown. Fol- population of 33,362 by 1930. (Wikipedia, ‘Sioux Falls.’) lowing the cue of the Native Americans, the city’s pioneers settled near ‘the falls’ as they believed the sites mystical beauty and water power offered the The industrial growth helped spur other forms of commerce in the formative basic needs for a new town site. The two land companies quickly encoun- years of the early 1900s. The city slowly began to develop supporting servic54
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The Spatial Evolution of Sioux Falls
1km 2km
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Pre 1944
1944-1964
1964-1974
1974-1984
1984-1994
1994-2004
es such as accounting, legal, and business management along with growing number of artisans and entrepreneurs. More importantly, the city’s regional draw also helped it to develop two independent hospitals that have grown into the cities two largest employers. Generally, the city continued on the trajectory of industrial growth supported by services as the population increased between 22% and 33% every census from 1930 to 1960. However, during the 1970s growth slowed to just above 10% as the country was in the midst of a recession and inflation neared 20%. During the late 1970s the high inflation had begun to dry up credit as the state’s strict laws capping interest rates created a scenario where banks began losing money every time they lent (Quick Facts, US Census). In search of a solution to the problem, Governor William Jankalow and the state representatives passed a law that eliminated caps on interest rates to help free up credit; however, what the state didn’t realize was that the supreme court had also ruled that banks could now charge interest rates based on where their credit card operations were headquarter. Seeking to take advantage of the situation a number of banks brought their credit car operations to Sioux Falls. Citibank began the trend in 1981 and was followed by Wells Fargo, HSBC, and Target Card and interest rates began to rise across the nation. In the process the bank boom spurred a new wave of population
growth and began to transform the economy toward financial and medical services. (Vanek-Smith) During the bank boom the city’s population began to grow and for the first time Sioux Falls’ population began to diversify. In 1980, the city’s population was 81,082 and for the past three decades the city’s population has grown by 23 or 24% per annum. Today, Sioux Falls boasts a population of 153,888. During that a similar time span from 1970 - 2010 the population has gone from 99% white to 86.8% as the African American, Hispanic American, and Asian populations have all grown. This shows signs that Sioux Falls has both been attracting residents from the dying rural areas and outside sources. (Quick Facts, US Census) Today Sioux Falls’ economy is diversified large markets in agricultural based industries, financial services, health care, and retail. The largest employer reflect this diversity with the two growing hospitals employing 12,000 people, Wells Fargo and Citi employing over 6,500 and John Morrell’s employing 3,200, and the school district employing 3,000. Retail is represented by the a number of regional shopping centers that include the Empire Mall in the SW portion of the city, the Downtown, and the newly developed Dawley Farms Shopping Center on the East. Altogether these economic components have helped keep Sioux Falls economically stable through the latest recession and given it bright prospects for the future (Shape Sioux Falls 2035). 57
3.3 - 9 Descriptions of the Sioux Falls Lifestyle Today Bill and Jennie
Cammy
After a summer internship in Sioux Falls Bill moved to Sioux Falls to start a job as an estimator for a local asphalt and heavy civil contractor. He found success quickly because of his hard work and motivation. He also settled quickly, buying a house with an unfinished basement in a newly developing neighborhood on the western edge of Sioux Falls. Over the first two summers he made several improvements to his property (put in a lawn, a fence, patio, and landscaping) to earn some sweat equity.
She loves living in Sioux Falls because of the size of the community. It is big enough to not be a small town, but not too big where she could live her life in anonymity. She enjoys all the social connections she still has in the city from college and has found stability in a new job that has her working in public relations and marketing. She is also taking evening classes in an attempt to gain an Master’s of Business Administration at the University Center.
After meeting through an acquaintance and dating for about a year Jennie moved in with Eric. She found her way to Sioux Falls after finding a job in an insurance office. She has worked her way up the ladder and is now in the process of opening up her own agency. This will mean that both Bill and her will have to move this summer as she chose to replace a retiring agent in a suburban community of Minneapolis. Bill will likely stay behind for a while as he tries to sell the house and find a new job that fits his ambitions.
She has dated, but still has not found Mr. Right. This has left her at 26 feeling behind most of the other girls her age as they are mostly married and have begun to discuss what it would be like to raise a family. She puts up with this with patience and kindness, but inside wishes she had a few more friends in the same position as her. Cammy has also bought a house on the west side of Sioux Falls. It was a 10 years old and had a finished basement when she bought it as she didn’t have the means to fix up a basement; however she has redecorated and given the house her signature. She has one roommate from college to help pay the mortgage and generally enjoys her life although it is almost too busy to keep track of.
Bill and Jennie are both young professionals in Sioux Falls. Bill is from North Dakota and Jennie is originally from northern Minnesota. Having both gone to college 3.5 hours north of Sioux Falls, Bill and Jennie ended up in Sioux Falls independently because of employment opportunities in the construction and insurance industries.
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Cammy is an intelligent, single woman who is in the process of paving her own way toward success in the city of Sioux Falls. She graduated college around 4 years ago. After graduating from a local college, she moved away to Mankato, Minnesota to work for a non-profit organization but she felt moved to come back to Sioux Falls to be closer to family.
Grandma and Grandpa Johnson
years now. He believes strongly in private business and when asked about Grandma and Grandpa Johnson have just celebrated their 50th wedding an- growth and innovation he states his strong belief that it should come from niversary and are both happily retired. Grandpa Johnson works part time the private sector. Nancy has similar beliefs as her heart lies with her husat a local men’s clothing store and Grandma spends most of her time doing bands business aspirations. housework and volunteering at the local church. Everyone loves grandma and many at the church have called her a saint as she runs a weekly lunch John and Nancy own 4 cars. One for every member of their family. John owns a pickup truck as he still reminisces about his childhood on the farm, that brings all the ‘old timers’ together. while Nancy drives the Suburban they bought to take the family on vacaGrandpa is an avid sports fan and follows the local high school, college tion. They also have a used Buick Le Saber and a Jeep Cherokee that their and professional teams religiously. Originally from a small town in North kids, Jill and John Jr., drive. Although they both go to the same high school Dakota, Grandpa ran a men’s clothing business for 30 years before he be- they drive to school independently because of different social habits and came one of the latest victims in the death of small towns in rural America. after school activities. Jill likes to go early to chat with friends before school When he looks back his stores death looks inevitable as it lost its relevance and only participates in Volleyball in the fall. On the other hand, John Jr. as the local people headed into the regional hub of Fargo to do their per- likes to arrive to school as late as possible and is in sports all year round. sonal shopping. Now he is part of the regional hub of Sioux Falls and is John and Nancy continue to support this process as they pay for the fuel and car insurance on all for cars. happy to be working a few shifts here and there. Both Grandma and Grandpa have slowed down and become less mobile in the last 5 years. Grandma had a serious heart operation 3 years ago and doesn’t always feel comfortable driving in the winter time. She sometimes wishes there was another transportation option, but driving is her only option as the bus line is nearly 3/4 of a mile away. However, they are both happy to be near family as their kids and grand kids live scattered throughout the region and visit during the holidays. One of their kids lives locally and it is common for their son, his family and them to get together for a family diner on Sunday evening after a day filled with church and football.
Jon and Nancy
John and Nancy are both living what appears to be the ideal American dream. John is a small business owner while Nancy is an accountant for a local bank. They live in what is considered by most Sioux Falls residents as the perfect house. Located on Prairie Green Golf Course, their house has almost 4,200 square feet, 4 garage stalls, and a perfectly mowed yard for their kids and dog to play in.
Andy
Andy has lived in Sioux Falls his entire life. He went to high school here and stayed around afterwards to work in the construction industry. Always put off by school, Andy tried to the local tech school but felt more at home with a shovel or a hammer in his hand. Smart and resourceful, Andy has made his way up to foreman of a local landscape contractor. He is skilled at running heavy machinery and has a licensed to run a large dump truck. Andy manages a crew of Hispanic immigrants who have come to Sioux Falls to chase the American dream. They work hard and are proficient at their job and Andy appreciates them for their dedication and hard work.
Andy says he has stayed in Sioux Falls for a number of reasons. He often cites the reasons of family, friends, and the kindness of the people of South Dakota. In many ways, one could sum it up by saying he is just comfortable here. He loves playing golf with his drinking buddies in the summer and he lives for the fall for that means its hunting season. Andy spends almost every weekend in the fall driving west in his F-150 pickup truck to hunt John is a generally caring guy that is looking to always help out in the com- pheasant with his high school buddies. Furthermore, Andy takes a vacation munity when he can. He helps out at a number of local charity events and of every winter to Las Vegas and Mexico to get some sun and relaxation has donated money through his business to youth baseball for almost 10 in the winter. He enjoys the holiday as he says it has everything he needs: warm weather, a beach, and a supply of good beer. 59
Paul and Amanda
Paul and Amanda live in Brandon, SD which is located roughly 6 miles northeast of downtown Sioux Falls. Their decision to live in Brandon is one that evolved over time as Paul’s work had him commuting 50 miles east of Sioux Falls everyday to the town of Worthington, Minnesota. They settled on a house that is within 1 mile of the interstate to provide him with quick access to the highway. As a small business owner in the field of rural health care, he spends nearly half of his week in the car traveling from nursing home to out-patient clinic to nursing home helping people rehabilitate from surgery, strokes, and other major health issues. He begins most days around 7 am and ends most days around 7 pm. Amanda commutes the other way; she travels into Sioux Falls via the same interstate around 7:15 AM. Her typical commute is around 25 minutes and takes here all the way across the city. About 20 of those minutes are spent on the highway as she only has 4 stop lights between her house and her work station. They live in a typical suburban house with a three stall garage that is said to have one of the nicest gardens in the neighborhood. Born out of the dedication of Paul, the yard is filled with flowing flowers and a well kept lawn. However, the family’s design touch doesn’t end there as both they both have an interest in interior decorating and have taken on a number of large scale home improvement projects. They have an interest in art, have enjoyed two trips to Europe, and our both well educated outside their professions. They are generally sociable people. They typically host a couple neighborhood parties each year. Beyond that, they are involved in the church and a series of other organizations that connected them to a number of people in the community of Brandon. They are also connected to various social circles in Sioux Falls and many parts of SW Minnesota because of their jobs. They are well aware of the debate about sustainable urbanity as there son has made clear to them his perceived problems of life in Sioux Falls. However, there current employment situation makes it near impossible to change their way of life. Yet they both have entertained the idea in general conversation about how they would enjoy loft living and feel this might be reasonable after Paul’s retirement. 60
Jessie
Jessie is a bagger at a local grocery store. He is punctual, hard working, and physically strong; however, he was born mentally handicapped. Jessie is proud of his job at the locally grocery store and takes pride in his work. All of his co-workers enjoy Jessie’s smile and think of him as a respectful, quite young man. Jessie lives on 434 North Prairie Avenue and works at the Hy-Vee on 10th Street East, but because Jessie cannot drive he has to take the bus. Jessie specifically chose this location to live because of its relatively cheap rent and its location close to bus line #6. A typical work day for Jessie begins around 7am as he walks to the bus stop on 6th and Prairie. He borders the bus at 7:05 and takes the bus to the central terminal in downtown. He arrives at the central terminal at 7:13 and waits for bus #4. Today, it is a couple minutes late. A courteous driver apologizes to him and the 3 other passengers as he boards the bus at 7:23. Jessie silently rides at the back of the bus for 18 minutes having arrived across the street from Hy-Vee at 7:41. Upon leaving the bus, Jessie walks 200 feet away from Hy-Vee to the nearest stop light so he can cross the 4 line 10th Street. He waits 3 minutes at the stop light and crosses. He continues walking to Hy-Vee and arrives after walking for 4 minutes and nearly another 1000 feet. Arriving at the front door at 7:48, he takes off his coat, boats, and winter flannel and puts on his work shoes, just in time to clock in before his 8 am shift starts. Jessie’s morning flies by as he helps out around the store and his boss lets him off for lunch break. Jessie decides, as he does most days, that he’ll just eat the salad bar at Hy-Vee. He feels lucky to be able to eat out within the store as he wouldn’t have the time to walk and eat any where else without having to rush through eating. Jessie’s afternoon is typical. He helps the cashiers keep there stations clean and bags up customers when they come in. Jessie’s boss releases him at his typical 5 pm ending time. Because the bus doesn’t come to the 10th and Cleveland stop until 5:33, Jessie hangs out in the break room for 20 minutes before putting on his winter clothes and heading to the bus stop. The bus picks him up at 5:33 and arrives downtown at 5:41. He transfers downtown to the #6 line so he can get back home. He boards bus 6 at 5:45 and arrives home 20 minutes at his bus stop at 6:05. After a 3 minute walk, Jessie finishes his day exhausted.
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Ayan and Aziza
Ayan and Aziza are two Somali sisters who immigrated with their parents to Sioux Falls with the help of Lutheran Social Services of Sioux Falls. They are both about to finished high school and are both in the process of looking for jobs. But today is Saturday and Ayan is going with Aziza to the mall to met up with Aziza new boyfriend, Terek. Aziza is excited about the day as it has been over a week since she last met Terek. The two of them begin their journey to the mall by walking 5 blocks to the intersection of 6th street and Weber. The walk takes nearly 10 minutes as they arrive just in time to catch bus #7 on its way back to the downtown station. They get on at 1:30 and arrive downtown at 1:33. At the downtown station, the girls go inside as Bus #3 isn’t set to arrive for another 12 minutes. The bus arrives on time at 1:45 and they board. They ride Bus #3 to the mall’s Louise car entrance and arrive at 2:04. From there they have to walk 750 feet through the parking lot to the entrance of JC Penny and at 2:15 they meet up with Terek at the food court of the mall. 62
Like most high school age kids they roam the halls of the mall. They look around at various stores and try on the new jeans they hope to get from their parents at Christmas time. Together the three of them talk about mutual friends they have at school and Terek invites both of the girls to his basketball game next Friday. Together they spend, 3 hours roaming the halls of the mall. Terek leaves the mall with his brother after his shift cooking burgers at Burger King finishes up at 5. The girls decide to wander the mall a little bit more as they don’t have to catch their bus until either 5:45 or 6:19 depending on if they want to catch it on its way the SW Transfer Station. So after dreaming about shoes at JC Penny, the girls catch their bus at 5:45 and ride it to the SW Transfer Station. They stay on the bus at the transfer station and continue riding the bus to the downtown arriving at 6:40 pm. They transfer at the downtown station and arrive back at 6th and Weber at 6:50. And after a 10 minute walk home, they eat dinner at 7 pm with their two parents.
Joanne and Eric
Joanne and Eric married as high school sweethearts 20 years ago to this very day. They both came from broken families and found common ground in each in other. They have three children whom the oldest one, Erica, is to graduate high school this year. Joanne works as a secretary while Eric works as a manager at the local department store. Although they fight quite regularly, they continue to stay married for the good of their children. Many of the fights are tied to an increased stress level as the families finances have started to come unraveled in the last 3 years due to the over investment in a house, the purchase of two new vehicles, and the maxing out of one of their credit cards. There oldest daughter has been forced to work since she was 15 in order to pay for the privileges that other kids her age have. She has worked fast food and retail and is now hoping that when she turns 18 she can wait tables and get a credit card so it will be less stressful on her to pay for car insurance, gas, and cell phone. She feels these things are necessities as she has no freedom without any of them. Her bills cost her upwards of $600 a month and she is continually trapped in a cycle where she is just trying to get by on pennies. Recently Erica has been looking into college; however, it doesn’t look like she’ll be able to attend as her parents haven’t been able to save any money for her and have recently told her they cannot co-sign on her college loan. This has shattered her dream of moving away from home and she is now looking into other options.
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3.4 The Planning Tradition of Sioux Falls In my meeting with school superintendent Dr. Pam Homan, I unintentionally insinuated that the city lacked planning when I was questioning the cities expansive growth over the past 40 years. Although that was never my intention, Dr. Homan voiced a strong disagreement with my critique and took me through a list of initiatives that both the school district and city planning office had sponsored. Her strong defense showed the high level of personal involvement officials in Sioux Falls have in the city, and highlight that although you may disagree with the planning, the city has already established a strong planning culture.
As engineers designed the components, the city’s planners have setup the framework for their installation. Utilizing methods that are admittedly prodevelopment, the city has been practicing strong forms of land use division, street classification based on traffic volume, parking standards based on land use, and land use transitions through such means as landscape buffers. Together these practices have formed a complementary framework to the standardized engineering practices that has undoubtedly resulted in a highly predictable, easily planned method that supports growth and land speculation with little administration.
Sioux Falls has never been a city of ad hoc development. Rather, Sioux Falls is a highly planned organism that has been designed around the evolving American dream chronicled above and strongly influenced by the engineering and planning practices exported from the major cities of Los Angeles, Chicago, and probably more than any other Minneapolis / St. Paul. Through the city’s own translation of this series of spatial concepts, Sioux Falls has created it own version of the suburban dream a reality.
The physical manifestation of these planning and engineering practices are readily apparent in Sioux Falls. One can see it in the large single use development districts that have left commercial, office, and residential districts separated from each other in independent islands. Other examples include the half empty parking lots of numerous shopping centers, the rhythm of arterial roads on every former section line, the curvilinear roads of modern suburbia, and the widened width of newly developed streets. The result of these practices has been a rapidly expanding city that is dependent on car transportation for such basic daily activities of grocery shopping, going to school, and in some cases even access to the local park.
The city’s strongest planning culture is it tradition of engineering. Utilizing the technical knowledge brought about through railroad engineering and industrial thinking, the city’s engineering team is both highly skilled and proficient at implementation. Through institutionalization of critical engineering practices the city has streamlined its processes of street design, clean water distribution, storm water management, infrastructure investment, and sewage and waste management. Furthermore, engineers ability to create in-depth financial, mathematical models, and standardized construction techniques have made them the preeminent designers of the city of Sioux Falls. 64
Recently, the planning office has recognized a number of new ideas in its planning process. In the it inclusion of ‘transition zones’ and ‘employment centers’ in the 2035 comprehensive plan, the city recognized some of the failures of its historic land use zoning practices (Shape Sioux Falls 2035). Although these ideas do seem to soften some of the harshness of the city’s prior land use planning, it appears they may fall short of creating a platform for integrated mixed use develop that is acknowledge to form the basis for
Shape Sioux Falls Growth Plan
the blue represents the 50.3 square miles of planned growth to be realized by 2035. 65
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Sioux Falls
Lund
Malmo
Manhattan As it appears Sioux Falls must have space within as it is 3x Manhattan, 4x Lund and almost 1.5x Malmo
sustainable urban development. More hope may actually be found in the comprehensive plans method of controlling growth, sanitary sewer expansion. Since the expensive of sanitary sewer expansion is expensive and typically funded by the city, the city has a large piece of leverage to control outward growth when coupled with Minnehaha County’s prohibiting rural subdivisions dating from the 1970s. However, this is currently not the city’s stance. Rather, the city has taken a pro-development stance, and has used the planning as a mechanism to create a synergy with the private sector. In many regards, this strategy has worked well as the city has grown its population to new levels and made great strides economically under these ideals. The city also maintains amiable relationships with most of the city’s developers and they continue to try work together on strategies that will incrementally moving the city forward. The city also remains engaged in a number of community participation mechanisms to obtain feedback on the direction of the city. Nonetheless, the city’s planning culture has also created a series of bad habits that will be hard to break. Proof of this is within the city’s 2035 comprehensive plan entitled “Shape Sioux Falls.” Completed in 2009, the Shape Sioux Falls plan does address a number of new ideas that should create small improvements; however, the plan does not take a strong stance toward, or even recognize, a number of growing problems within the city. A listing of these problems
includes the city’s growing fragmentation, its expansive nature / lack of density, its over reliance on the car, its struggling public transportation system, the affordability of the American Dream, its economic and social segregation, it lack of human scale, its placelessness, and the missing recognition of the qualities of the city’s landscape. The lack of stance on these topics while at the same time discussing all the appropriate ‘green’ talking points feels like a way of side stepping a number of difficult but necessary social, economic and environmental talking points. While these issues don’t have simple or universal solutions, the lack of discussion and the lack of design exploration surrounding these important topics have created an impression that they may not even be problems at all. Nonetheless, this is not solely a planning problem and it is a bit unfair to offer this critic as one. The problem is undoubtedly an entire cultural problem as one can not criticize the city’s planners for following the voices of their citizens; however, planning cannot regress from the challenges it faces, today, behind the comfortable confines of public opinion. While public opinion must be recognized, it must also be challenged through the embrace of academic research, alternative proposals, architectural exploration and the statement of a public stance that attacks readily observable problems even if they are in the face of the current public perception. 67
Today’s Key Planning Challenges
Sprawling Development
The model for urban growth in Sioux Falls has been one of striking horizontal expansion since World War II. From 1970 - 2008 the city limit increased from 26 square miles (67.3 sq km) to 73 square miles (189 sq km). Although this period of time was also characterized by a doubling of the city’s population, the city lost density as its footprint increased by 3 times. Recently the city’s growth plan has recommended the outward expansion of the city due to population growth projects that put the city in the range of 250,000 to 290,000 by 2035. The city is currently planning to accomodate these new people through a perceived demand of 50 square miles (130.5 sq. km). With these figures the city will reach 123 square miles (318.5 sq. km) in the next 25 years. 68
Reliance on Infrastructure Planning The current emphasis in the 2008 comprehensive plan entitled ‘Shape Sioux Falls’ is strongly based on infrastructural planning, streets as vehicular corridors, and engineering practices. This has created a plan that is based on outward infrastructural investments, budgeting for outward growth, and providing a predictable development strategy for developers. Although the plan has many qualities, it is missing any major discussions of the city’s unique landscape, the potential of infill development, the potential for creative forces in shaping urban development, the role of public transportation in shaping new growth or the pending key projects that will influence the city’s planning in the next 2 decades.
A Missing Vision
Today, Sioux Falls has a number of sustainable initiatives that are pushing a sustainable agenda. Yet, Sioux Falls has yet to develop either an academic discussion or a comprehensive vision for a transition toward sustainability in the realm of urban development. However, the city is currently trying to come on line with the latest sustainability discussions as they have recently hired a sustainability director as part of its waste management division and begun work with a multi-disciplinary team to create a Sustainability Master Plan (SMP). The SMP goals are to establish a set of baseline measurements that allow for the city to establish a set of quantiďŹ able sustainability goals. Still, sustainability remains a mystery to much of the general public as the lack of comprehensive visions and academic research havenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t allowed a proper public discourse to develop as in many other parts of the world.
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Chapter 4: Grasping The Reasons for Change
Understanding the Challenges and Opportunities of Tomorrow
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4.1 - Tomorrow’s Challenges The challenge of creating a more sustainable urbanity in Sioux Falls must begin with the admission that our lifestyle and today’s version of the American dream have created a number of structural problems that are hurting our society. The reality is that many of these problems have not occurred in the absence of thought; rather, they have occurred under the direction of our cultures reliance on industrial based thinking and ideologies that have too often over valued short term gains without understanding the long term costs to our society and environment. Today Sioux Falls is at a juncture because of its impending growth to address many of today’s challenges; however, they require that the city doesn’t simply place a band-aid over an inherently broken process. Although the inclination of our conservative thinking in the Midwest points to change through market driven processes, it is critical that we understand the advisory, educational, and economical role our government has played and continues to play in our society as we address the challenges and opportunities presented in this chapter. As Americans we are all united around a belief in the efficiency of the free market and private business; however, a close look at our cities, states, and country’s policies and spending practices reveals a number of irreconcilable differences that can no longer foster the belief that our country depends on capitalism and the free market alone. The truth 72
is that while American’s remain strongly opposed to the term ‘socialist,’ our country has been practicing a form of socialism all along. And although we have yet to practice socialism to the degree of European nations, Chapter 3 has shown how our government has financed some of our countries most visionary and critical proposals to the great aid of private sector while at the same time skewing the free market. Today, it is time for Sioux Falls to admit it short comings and embrace its opportunities in order to begin the critical dialogue necessary to create a change toward sustainability. This will require that the city builds a new platform for urban development from the many emerging case studies of sustainable urbanity that transcend ideology and work toward problem solving through a more open, a more creative, and a more democratic process. It is time that all citizens of Sioux Falls live up to our responsibility to strive to be better people by transcending ideology and solving problems.
Challenge #1 - Declining AďŹ&#x20AC;ordability
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A Family of Cars
The ‘fleet’ of cars outside many homes is proof of the economic necessity of the car in Sioux Falls; however, the affordability of individual vehicles for all family members is an American myth. At a price tag of $6,000 a year per midsized sedan vehicle (...and growing) have many lower and middle class families strapped for cash and caught in a circle of needing a car to work and needing to pay for a vehicle (Duany X). A simple calculation using annual household income in Sioux Falls ($47,040) and 3 cars for a family of four would result in a cost of $18,000 or 38% of their income.
Federal Subsidies
Federal subsidies have kept American gas prices down
Today, the United States federal government subsidizes highways and parking at an amount between 8 to 10% of our Gross National Product resulting in a $700 billion dollar annual violation of the American free market principles. (Elephant X). If spread out over a fuel tax, prices at the pump would increase by $3.50 and could help finance the reduction of our national debt.
The Increasing Price of Gas
Gas prices have generally been on the rise for the last decade and as of this writing (March 14, 2011) average gas price in the United States has reached $3.56 a gallon. There is also a fear that $4.00 is on the horizon for the summer and economists have warned that rising gas prices could slow or hurt the recovery of our economy. (www.eia.doe.gov). The last time gas rose to $4.00, 63% of Americans admitted it was causing them hardship.
The Rising Price of Food
During the surge in gas prices in 2008 a USA TODAY / Gallup Poll showed that 73% of Americans were concerned with higher grocery bills and nearly half said the rising price of food was creating hardship for their households. Prices are said to be increasingly influenced by several factors, most recognizably, the growth of U.S. exports to China and India and the emergence of the bio fuel as a source of energy. (Kirchhoff) Gas prices around the world are on the rise!
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The City Budget
The cost of for highways and streets in Sioux Falls was 108.5 million USD in 2009 and 60.4 million USD in 2010. Using the smaller appropriations for 2010 budget, highways and streets account for 17.9% of the city’s budget and accounts for the highest non-redeemable portion (the enterprise funds category covering sanity services, landfill, and water services is higher at 82.6 million USD) of the city’s budget. Both of these items have a high degree of correlation between development and expansion and call into question the true cost of the cities outward expansion.
The Increase in Road Maintenance
The largest part of the city’s budget finances infrastructure.
The cost of road maintenance and snow removal are in large part a function of the linear miles of roads. Because of the outward expansion of the city, there has been an increase in both the volume of traffic (see induced traffic for more information) and the linear miles of road within the city’s system. This will inevitably further burden the city’s budget with increasing road maintenance costs; it is unknown whether newly generated revenues from growth would directly cover these costs.
The Rise of Credit
Before the recent economic crisis the American savings rate had plunged to below 0%, meaning that the average family was spending borrowed money. This differs greatly from the near 20% savings rate in Europe, the 25% rate in Japan, and the 50% rate in China. Although saving rate has since come up to around 4% in 2010, credit cards are still abundant (Martin). The average family typically carries 6 and has around $9,000 in debt on them. And 7 out of 10 families have used credit cards to pay for such basic necessities as food, electricity, and clothing. (Predictably Irrational - Disc 3 Track 6)
South Dakotans say they have two seasons: winter and construction
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Challenge #2 - Consumption & Limited Resources
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Energy by Sector
Our cities are the primary source for energy consumption and as our cities have expanded our energy consumption has generally been on the rise.
Energy Consumption in the City
Sioux Falls is a city that consumes an extreme amount of energy on personal transportation as 97% of all trips occur in a car alone (public transportation public survey) The graph on the left shows the relationship between the lack of density in American cities and there high level of energy consumed by transportation. Utilizing America densest cities, we still come in a distant last place in regard to the energy efficiency of our cities. A clear sign that if we are going to participate in a global resource shortage, we are already behind other industrialized nations.
Foreign Oil Dependence
North American cities use more energy on transporation than any other place in the world
The United States imports 4 million barrels of oil a day (1.5 billion barrels per year) in 2008 from countries on the State Departments list of “dangerous or unstable” countries. The United States consumes roughly 23% of the world’s petroleum, 57% of which was imported. The Center for American Progress has concluded in a paper entitled Securing America’s Future: 77
Enhancing Our National Security by Reducing Oil Dependence and Environmental Damage “that through these trade agreements with dangerous countries and our high level of demand, we have both directly and indirectly helped support corrupt governmental regimes who both threaten our national security and the internal security of their own citizens (Beddor, et. al.)”
Global Warming
Our addiction to oil has created tension with national security policies.
The ICCP’s 2007 Climate Change Synthesis Report provide a number of observations that have been scientifically reviewed and scrutinized. Among those critical observations are two independent facts that cannot be ignored. Fact #1, our that the climate system is warming as proven by global average air and ocean temperatures, glacial melting and a 3.1 mm yearly rise in sea level since 1993. Fact #2, global levels of greenhouse gas emissions have risen 70% between 1970 and 2004 and global atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N20 have greatly exceeded pre-industrial values taken from ice cores spanning thousands of years of available samples. These facts have led the ICCP to conclude “there is very high confidence that the net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming.”
A Growing Carbon Footprint
The average American carbon footprint is 20 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year, compared to the global average of 4 tons per person each year. American’s continue to contribute un-proportionally to the world’s population to the scientifically proven rising levels of greenhouse gas emissions. While countries like Sweden and Germany have accepted their responsibility and implemented strategies that have decreased carbon emissions, the US has had a 7% increase. (‘Global Warming,’ Union of Concerned Scientists)
Peak Oil & the Increasing Demand for Oil
Global Comparison of Carbon Footprint - The Rise of China & Decline of Europe 78
John Hess, CEO of the energy conglomerate Hess Corporation has said, “An energy crisis is coming, likely to be triggered by oil. Demand is expected to grow on an annual basis by at least one million barrels per day, driven by the developing economies of the world and by a growth in transportation as we go from one billion cars today to two billion cars in 2050.” This rise in demand coupled with the widening
Global Comparison of Ecological Footprint
gap between discovery and production has created a wide held belief that peak oil is imminent. Despite some uncertainty of the date, energy experts agree that the increasing demand and limited supply will force the extinction of the petroleum man. (Campbell)
Consumption & Ecological Footprint
The average American of nearly 8.0 global hectares. In contrast, the biological capacity of America is only 3.87 leaving a the country as a global
debtor of 4.13 global hectares. For reference, Sweden uses 5.88 gha, the United Kingdom 4.89, and China 2.21. The world average is 2.7 global hectares with a biological capacity of 1.8 gha for a global deficit of almost 6 billion hectares or over 6 times the size of the United States. (“Footprint for Nations”)
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Challenge #3 - Health, Safety and the Obesity Epidemic 80
The Obesity Epidemic
The state of South Dakota has an obesity epidemic with the CDC 2009 statistics showing an obesity rate of 29.7%. This highlights a number of trends including the high prevalence of unhealthy diets and the lack of daily activity. This problem is likely to led to increase health care expenses including the increase of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory problems.
Drunk Driving
Almost everyone in South Dakota knows at least one person effected by a death caused in an accident caused by a drunk driver. Sadly, drunk driving is not uncommon in South Dakota in large part due to our automobile dependence. Drunk drivers contributed to 32% of traffic deaths (10,839) in 2009 and was responsible thousands of more serious injuries (“Learn the Facts,” The Century Council).
Car Accidents & Teenage Deaths
In the United States, automobile accidents kill over 42,000 in 2007 (FACTSTATS). This equates to near a Vietnam War of casualties every year on our highways or over 8 times the number of deaths in the Iraq and Afghanistan campaigns. (Duany) Furthermore, car accidents are the number 1 killer of teenagers in the United States; the demographic between 15 and 19 years of age remains the most at risk with crashes resulting in 350,000 trips to the emergency for teenage drivers. (“Teen Driving Safety,” CDC)
The Suburb maybe Riskier than the City
Although it defies common all biases, the authors of suburban nation have found that “a teenager is twenty times more likely to die from an automobile mishap than from gang activity.” Another study that seems to deny the same logic is James Gerstenzang’s “Cars Make Suburbs Riskier Than Cities, Study Says” in which Gerstenzang where only 1.6% of Seattle’s urban residents were killed or injured by traffic accidents or crime, while 1.9% of suburban residents were. 81
Challenge #4 - Families on the Run & Our Lack of Time
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The Decline of Children’s Independence
A troubling aspect of new development occurring in Sioux Falls is the lack of independence it allows children. Using the rational “what is good for the kids,” parents have increasing located outside the bounds of interstate loop. However, these suburban environments have an extremely limited range for a child personal mobility and limited the ability of many kids to walk to school, ride bicycle to play pickup baseball games, and walk down to the river to fish with their friends. These activities were common to most baby boomers and are sadly no longer viable social activities for many children. New Urbanist plans have even gone as far as saying, environments like the periphery of Sioux Falls has made kids “a prisoner of a thoroughly safe and unchallenging environment (Duany 116).”
Challenge #5 - Low Wages
Increasing Time in the Car
While time diary studies suggest our burdens outside of work have been reduced (child care & house maintenance), American’s still ‘feel’ busier than they did a generation ago. One such reason for that business could be the increased time spent in a car as an average American spends 72 minutes every day behind the wheel as the average trips to work and shopping have increased by over 25%. The 72 minutes a day we spend behind the wheel is “more than we spend cooking or eating and more than twice as much as the average parent spends with the kids (Putnam 212).” Although Sioux Falls may be slightly better than the average today, it average of 15.7 minute drive to work in 2000 is only increasing as the city continues to expand.
Mom the Chauffer
Today children’s schedules have parents busier than ever and mother’s have bared the brunt of the burden. With the increasing dependence of kids on their parents for mobility, mother’s have been transformed into personal chauffeurs for their kids as they attempt to keep them busy by signing them up for a plethora of organized activities. In this vain, the car has become the most dominant source of family time for many parents. Sadly its all too often spent trying to keep the kids from fighting in the back seat on the way to Billy’s soccer practice and Monica’s violin lessons.
Low Wages
According to a Department of Labor study, South Dakota had the lowest average wage in the nation at $16.53. This is over $5.00 lower than the national average, almost $7.00 lower than Minnesota, and almost 1/2 of the countries leading wage earners in Washington D.C. Experts cite a number of reasons for the state’s low wages including: low levels of urbanization, educational attainment, a low tax burden, and low levels of unionization. (Bahney)
The Lack of a Creative Class.
Economics professor Ralph Brown has described the low wages by saying, “Our economy has modernized and we’re a service economy, but what we’re missing is the high knowledge-based and high human-capital type services.” The lack of these high knowledge base jobs has resulted in an economy that is dependent on weak taxation to attract outside companies to locate new branches and administrative services in South Dakota. The result has been a lack of home grown entrepreneurship, low average wages, and high level of brain drain that have all resulted in the lack of a creative class. (Bahney) 83
Challenge #6 - Immobility, Segregation & Social Stigmas Segregation
Sioux Falls has a south to north gradient of declining wealth. The school district has even recognized this with the drawing of its high school catchment areas and the busing of elementary students into the cities core to keep a socio-economic mix . This phenomenon can also be seen in the census data and related to the design of the city as much of the poverty is concentrated around the northern part of the historic core and has been spatially separated from other parts of the city using arterial roads while the developers in the south used cul-de-sacs to create a feeling of exclusiveness.
Immobility, Poverty & the Elderly
1/3 of the city’s population cannot drive because of age and with limited funds for public transportation the city’s development strategy has left a series of victims that include children, the elderly, the handicapped, and the poor (Duany). While many elderly people have a growing discomfort driving, many others cannot afford the costs of a car. Together this group has been left immobile or struggling with the broken public transportation system as their work hours often occur outside the current bus schedule. Often times the result is that the elderly and poor are forced into a marginal position in society as they struggle to just keep their head above water.
The Decline in Civic Engagement
Published in 2000, Robert Putnam’s book Bowling Alone painted a picture of the decline in civic engagement in the last 35 years of the 20th century. Putnam describes the book dominant theme as being simple saying, “For the first twothird of the twentieth century a powerful tide bore Americans into ever deeper engagement in the life of their communities, but a few decades ago --- silently, without warming --- that tide reversed and we were overtaken by a treacherous rip current.... We have been pulled apart from one another and from our communities over the last third of the century (pg 27).” Among the reasons for the decline, Putnam cites the 84
sprawl, technology, generation changes, and the most important objectives for a public transit in the Sioux Falls area should be to provide pressures of time and money. transportation for the elderly and disabled (81%) and to provide transportation for Stereo Types and Social Stigmas Those who cannot afford a car do not only suffer poor people (40 %). (Sioux Falls Area from a decreased level of mobility; they also have Metro Long Range Transportation Plan) to deal with a social stigma associated with public transportation. This stigma can be seen as a public survey showed that residents believe that the two
4.2 - Tomorrow’s Opportunities The Redevelopment of Downtown
The rebirth of downtown Sioux Falls with key projects like Cherpa Place, the redesign of Philips Avenue, sculpture walk, and the first phase of the river greenway project have started to bring a sense of place back to the city’s historic center. The opportunity to utilize the established momentum and continue the new development downtown with a new wave of mixed use projects provides the prospect to create a vibrant center for the city that emphasizes its unique culture, civic life, density, and walkability.
The Existing Urban Form
While the existing urban form can be criticized for its dependence on the car, its lack of centrality, and its heavy reliance on infrastructure, the city has developed a unique urban form that is critical to recognize. In many ways, Sioux Falls has developed more like a region than like a traditional city and the all planning proposals should recognize this fact. Today, the city’s form is strongly polycentric, and to some degree centerless because of the strong tradition of corridor development. Although these forms prevent a number of challenges, they also offer up the possibility of being re-invented into a new form of a sustainable metropolis that differs from more traditional mono-centric development.
The River
While the river is getting brought forth in the downtown, the cities historic relationship with the river has been under utilized in many other parts of the city. Although the cities dike provides protection from flooding and a bike path that encircles the city, the river cannot be read in the urban fabric as many of the city citizens fail to realize that the river is only a five minute walk from the Empire Mall. The city’s recognition of the River Greenway shows the importance of the river; however, many opportunities throughout the entire city are currently being missed to bring the people of Sioux Falls in closer contact with their river.
The Unique Landscape
The river and its associated drainage patterns have also formed a unique landscape that is strongly rooted in place and often times only negligibly recognized. The city’s combination of flood plain, rolling hills, and bluffs are reference the formation of the Big Sioux River Valley. While the historic development of the city has often used the landscape divide (the north bluff for industry, the south bluff for upper class housing), the numerous landscape corridors created by the cities hydrology provide an opportunity to weave the city together through a series movement corridors that reference the landscape over the Jeffersonian grid. 85
Skunk Creek oďŹ&#x20AC;ers a green corridor through the west side of Sioux Falls that connects up with the River greenway.
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The Big Sioux River and the Redevelopment downtown provide a great foundation from which to build upon
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Predicted Population Growth
Sioux Falls is a fast growing community that has proven it can sustain consistent growth for an extended period of time because of its position as a regional hub. With this in mind, demographers have predicted that Sioux Falls’ population will grow to between 255,000 to 289,000 people by 2035. If we accept the predictions, there would be a minimum influx of 100,000 people by 2035 that would give the city a chance to restructure its form and directly address a number of the challenges it is currently facing.
New Social Infrastructure
With the new growth, the city has been building a great deal of new social infrastructure. With the pending proposal for a new event center, the recent remodeling of the central library, and the addition of a number of new parks their is an opportunity to utilize the demand for new social infrastructure to continue to raise the quality of life in Sioux Falls.
‘Dross’ within the City
Landscape architect professor Alan Berger has published a book entitled Drosscape which highlights the inevitable waste our cities creates and the socio-spatial impact waste has on our cities. Couple with a more pro-active form of planning and design practice, Berger books calls all planners and designers to begin the search for new space within through the re-inventing of our cities waste. Sioux Falls has numerous examples of the waste Berger has discussed as the city has preferred outward expansion over a more inward looking plan. A mapping of the cities waste and a global spatial comparison of Sioux Falls prove that Sioux Falls could fit all of its predicted growth within its existing boundaries.
The Sustainability Master Plan
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The Sculpture Walk and other new forms of social infrastructure have added to Sioux Falls cultural dimension.
The city has also undergone a pioneering step by taking on the task of developing a sustainability master plan (SMP). With the objective to record a number of baseline measurements and provide a set of realizable objectives, the SMP will give the city the city its first working platform for creating a more sustainable city.
Expected Growth
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InďŹ ll Opportunities Vacant Land Projected Industrial Waste Under Utilized Parking Lots
Vacant Land
1790 Acres (725 Hectares)
Projected Industrial Waste 687 Acres (278 Hectares)
Under Utilized Parking Lots 311 Acres (125 Hectares)
Total Developable Land 2788 Acres (1128 Hectares)
1km
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4km 2km
InďŹ ll Opportunities in Scale
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Copenhagen, Denmark
Lund, Sweden
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4.3 - Barriers to a More Sustainable Tomorrow The challenges and opportunities presented in this chapter attempt to represent a holistic understanding of the city’s current strengths and weaknesses as it relates to future development. However, it must also be recognized that all of the characteristics above have developed within a strong set of cultural beliefs that are just now starting to recognize the importance of living sustainable. Because of the infancy of sustainability there are still a number of cultural, economic, and political bridges that must be forged through a collective effort of the society.
music, and go on dates without your parents having to drop you off. These dynamics have made it sacrilegious to argue to take away one’s car. To many, any discussion of the limiting of cars is an attempt to take away their job, their social circle, their recreational opportunities, and their identity.
Free Parking is a Birth Right
Donald Shoup’s parking planning manual “The High Cost of Free Parking” asserts that 99% of all vehicle trips in the United States ends in free parking. The following paragraphs are not meant to simplify the complex culture of the This assertion is undoubtedly practiced by the residents of Sioux Falls as the Sioux Falls resident’s; rather, they are meant to conceptualize the phenomena only paid parking in the city exists in the very core of the downtown. experienced by the author in his 26 years of direct experience with the culture. These conceptualizations are meant to bring the barriers of sustainability into an Today, most retail facilities maintain ‘free’ parking through subsidizing parking open public forum so tomorrow’s education, policy, and design proposals can costs in the price of products. This phenomenon has led to a development be openly discussed not in isolation but in direct conflict with today’s culture. mentality that believes new development must continue the trend of ‘free parking’ in order to limit potential resistance by customers. This mentality has created a number of contradictions based on the perception of convenience. The Car (or Pickup Truck) is a Must Almost everyone in Sioux Falls who can afford a car (and many who can’t) has The most illustrative being, that many people are willing to walk the equivalent one. And currently only a few unique residents can imagine a high quality of of three to six city blocks on a single trip to big box retailer, but argue that life without their car. In the typical citizens view, it is their car that gives them shopping in a downtown is inconvenient. the ability to make money, the flexibility to socialize, and the potential to utilize the variety of options the city has to offer. Furthermore, most see their car as an Density Limits Life Quality extension of themselves as the car expresses both status and personality. While conducting research in Sioux Falls, I found out that density is a word on the border of taboo in the city of Sioux Falls. As I’ve discussed my thoughts The car importance can also be seen it is position as a right of passage into on how I believe density has the potential to add qualities of life a number of adulthood for teenagers. As a teenager everyone looks forward to getting their people, including one prominent public figure, responded back to me with driver’s license and the expectation of a car for their 15th birthday because the answer that they would rather be ‘put in prison than live in a dense urban by obtaining a personal car one gains a completely new sense of freedom as environment.’ Admittedly, I was shocked by this answer. it allows you to go to the mall to meet friends after school, listen to your own 92
Almost half (47 percent) of those surveyed in the public involvement section of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Long Range Transportation plan said that they would like to see a greater percentage of tax dollars spent on roads. Another 43 percent thought the current level of spending on transportation should stay the same. Only 4 percent thought it should be reduced.
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This mentality that dense urban living has such a poor quality that it is referenced in comparison with being confined to a jail cell highlights the common Sioux Falls residents aversion to density. Stemming from an influx of rural citizens in the past half a century, the desire for openness and a connection to the landscape (even if it is a fake and manufactured one) cannot be dismissed as a minor issue within the general public.
No “Ridership” Habit
Most Sioux Falls residents have never rode the city’s public transportation system because of the predominance of the car. This has not only created the stigma discussed above, but it has also created the lack of a ridership habit and an unfamiliarity of how to use public transportation.
It is more Expensive to Develop within the City
In a conversation with Erica Beck, a planner in the economic development department, she stated a number of reasons why it is more expensive to develop within the downtown. Most importantly, she cited environmental costs for mitigating former development and the need for parking ramps. As our conversation progressed, I asked whether or not the city had undertaken a study of comparing the cost to society of growing out versus growing within. She regrettably stated they have not. She also stated that projects such as downtown parking ramps and incentives for attracting downtown business development could not be sought out under the city’s Capital Improvement Fund (CIP) like horizontal growth initiatives such as new road paving and other infrastructure projects. The CIP program, therefore, appears to be another form of subsidy supporting outward expansion over infill. Because the city has yet to undertake the necessary study of the cost of sprawl, it is hard to know whether the city’s current growth strategy is truly the most economically efficient pattern of growth for the city.
The Desire for Speed & Traffic Engineers
Today, people’s schedules are often extremely rigid in order to gain the necessary efficiency as we now feel busier than ever before. This demand for personal efficiency and the increases in distance traveled and time spent in our cars has created a desire for quicker and more efficient road systems. To appease us, the city’s traffic engineers have created in-depth models to prove their solution, road widening, will satisfy our demands for quicker routes to
work. The problem is that the solution of road widening has been proven as a fallacy by empirical evidence. Today, the pseudo-’science’ invented by highway planners through the input of a vast array of collected data and computer models that simulate future traffic has in fact be proven to just attract more traffic. In turn, most road expansion projects have done little to reduce traffic congestion because of a phenomenon known as ‘induced traffic.’ Examples include a landmark study in 1989 in which the Southern California Association of Governments concluded that adding lanes and additional roads would not help cure Los Angeles’ well documented traffic issues. Further proof was shown in a University of California study that found for every 10% increase in road capacity, traffic increased 9% within four years (88-89, Duany). And even more surprisingly, both British and Danish planners have drawn conclusive evidence that the removal of downtown roads tends to boost economic activity. The British study even has gone as far as saying that new roads have led to higher unemployment (Duany 90). And although traffic engineers predictions for increased traffic are never proven wrong, their strategies have resulted in billions of dollars being spent and having “accomplished only one thing, which is to increase the amount of time that we spend in our cars each day (Duany, pg 91).” So although there is a demand for quicker commutes to work, it is time to realize “trying to cure traffic congestion by adding more capacity is like trying to cure obesity by loosening your belt (Duany pg 89).”
NIMBY
In an interview with city planner David Loveland, he told me of his experience that most people voicing opinions at public meetings were either voicing their displeasure with a local regulation that they believe impinged on their ‘right to do as they pleased on their land’ or they were attempting to control their surroundings. Loveland’s observation pointed to NIMBY’s (Not In My BackYard) role in the planning process and the high degree of self interests that is present in the city’s public debates. In democratic societies NIMBY can often represent valid concerns, but it can also represent a destructive form of self interest that prevents the development of mixed use development, socioeconomic integration, and environmental stewardship.
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Chapter 5: LearningCase from Around the World Studies on relevant sustainable transformations
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5.1 - Regional Change -Rurh River & Emscher Park Major Research Questions
the IBA was founded on the idea of a 10 year framework concerning the revitalization of a regionally connective green network and a collaborative approach to regional development. The aim for all work was to bring together local authorities in an attempt to provide the region with new aims and values for future development. And rather than focusing on simply erecting model buildings, the IB looked to provide local organization structures that could carry on beyond the tenure of the exhibition. The hope was that these scale-less organization structures of collaboration could provide Summary The Rurh Region is located in North Rhine-Westphalia state in the north- a mechanism for altering priorities and encouraging intelligent choices. It west corner of Germany. The region is comprised of 4435 sq kilometers and also provided a hub for constructing new channels for redevelopment funds is the third largest urban conglomeration in all of Europe with 7.3 million for strategically important projects. (Helsing Almaas) people. The region has an density of 2100 per sq km (5400 per sq mile) and is polycentric as it is comprised of a series of cities including Duisburg, The IBA was entitled “Emscher Park” and its was involved with over 100 Oberhausen, Essen, and Dortmund. (“Emscher Park: From Dereliction to projects over 800 sq kilometers along the Emscher River. The projects concentrated on a long term effort to connect the public green spaces on a reScenic Landscapes.”) gional level along the Emscher corridor, and the projects ranged from reThe Ruhr Region has a distinguished economic history. It has been long naturalization of water course to the building of new research centers. The been one of the most heavily industrialized areas of Germany and was the exhibition had 5 main project categories: remedial work on the industrial central weapon factory of the country during WWII. Rich with coal de- landscape, cleaning of the Emscher River system, new commercial and eduposits, the region also became the center of Germany’s “economic miracle” cational facilities, housing development, and the re-use of industrial instalin the 1950s and 1960s. However, in the 1970s the region began a sharp de- lations. These 5 project categories attempted to re-envision the industrial cline as its easy to reach coal mines ran out and new international markets landscape as a resource for new development rather than a barrier. (Helsing Almaas) opened up to industrialization created a structural crisis for the region. How can any physical redevelopment plan change the vast scale of all that human activity, understood and remembered through the backbreaking work, drilling, shifting, crushing, smelting? How can one change the operations of a whole local culture from the scale of coal and steel to the scale of a future not yet known?
After 2 decades of decline an international building exhibition (IBA) was organized in May of 1988 as an attempt to pioneer a new path for the development of the region. Utilizing the thinking of numerous intellectuals, 98
The IBA encouraged high quality architectural and landscape architectural design. Believing that design matters, the IBA believe the new buildings and landscape would become the face of the regions new ecological conscience. Additionally, the IBA believe it was important for the region to look back on
image courtesy of www.lwl.org its industrial past. Through converting a number of industrial buildings, the region has kept its unique sense of identity. Recently this unique sense of identity has been exploited in the tourism market through the creation of the Industrial Heritage Trail which seeks to show off a series of Industrial monuments throughout the region. (Helsing Almaas) The IBA also function as a regional think tank for development. The exhibition hosted a series of innovative workshops / seminars, international design competitions, and created new spatial planning guidelines centering around the German concept of “Baukultur” (translated as the culture of Architecture). By utilizing architecture to direct urban planning, the exhibition’s design process looked to change rather than accept the haphazard, uncontrolled development that is typical to modern urban sprawl by interacting with the spatial nature of regions existing urbanism. Through becoming more physically grounded in architecture, the planning process challenged the existing planning practices and concentrated on urban qualities rather than land use bubble diagrams. (Helsing Almaas) In practice, the IBA did not give funding of its own, but rather operated
by working with existing private and public funding sources and has no direct influence over local developers and municipalities. However, the IBA could suggest project proactively that it thought would enhance regional development efforts. The IBA had some political leverage that was created by the backing of exhibition’s special access to funding sources and its projects were given administrative priority. In return all IBA projects had to meet specified criteria concerning social, aesthetic, and ecological criteria. At the end of the work, the IBA was responsible for channeling 5 billion DM into the region. (“Emscher Park: From Dereliction to Scenic Landscapes.”) Through engaging some of Europe’s brightest minds in planning, engineering, and design the region created an unquantifiable level of intellectual capital for the region and gave its people an implemented vision for a more successful tomorrow. The IBA has continued on through this new body of local knowledge, the continuing development of a regional ecological conscience, and through new economic investments that built on the IBA’s ideological platform. Administratively, “Project Ruhr” has carried on the torch of the IBA. (Helsing Almaas) 99
“Through architectural quality determined on a case by case basis and moderated by a qualified authority, one allows urban planning from the bottom up”5.
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5.2 - Site Change - Suburban Transformations Project: Cottonwood Mall Revitalization Location: Holladay Utah (Salt Lake City Suburb) Urban Designers: Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company Developer: General Growth Properties
Existing: 760,000 sq feet enclosed regional mall Proposed: 650,000 sq ft. retail and office space + 500 dwellings Site Size: 57 Acres
Summary:
The Cottonwood Mall redevelopment project creates a new mixed use neighborhood from an under utilized and decaying regional shopping mall. Cottonwood Mall was built in 1962 and spurred the surrounding neighborhood to turn into an affluent trade area with growth potential. The site is completely owned by General Growth Properties and the retrofit was spurred by a decline in the malls economic viability. To highlight this decline the mall vacancy rate went from an already high 25% in 2004 to 60% in July of 2006. This created a hardship for the developer as tenants were no longer willing to enter into long term lease agreements. Because of the properties decline, the developer knew they would need to upgrade their property to keep it economically viable. (Dunham-Jones)
Utilizing an in house market study of the site in 2005, GGP decided the city’s demographic makeup lent itself to a vision of enhancing the market by adding new uses: a cinema, various forms of residential, and small shops to go along with the already established big box retailers. Already deciding on a mixed use program, GGP hired Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company (DPZ) to initiate a master planning process.
The master planning process was begun in 2006 with a 4 day private mini charrette that established a multi disciplinary approach for the site’s design, an urban structure, and diversified program for the site. The general plan was then studied as to its financial viability by the developer using an innovative company (ZVA) that had pioneered a new form of target market analysis that concentrated on the potential of an array of different housing typologies that did not exist within or around the current site. A land use plan calling for 24 Acres of mixed use buildings, 20 acres of parking and streets, and 13 acres of public space and parks with a maximum density of 10.7 units per acre became the final result. (Dunham-Jones) A second on-site design charrette focused on exploring the details of the existing plan thru a multi disciplinary approach that brought together the projects engineers, contractors, developers, architects, marketing specialists, and city officials. The process was held privately over a 9 day period and allowed for an accelerated design development pace because of candid 101
discussions and collaborative format. As Ellen Dunham Jones has stated in here book “Retrofitting Suburbia,” “These meetings were less about immediate problem solving and more about educating the consultants through dialogue about the design’s intentions, gathering information, airing questions, and determining directions and responsibilities for their resolution.”
vide 575,000 sq. feet of retail, 195,000 sq feet of office space and 500 housing units in a live-work-shop mixed environment. Furthermore, the proposal transforms 17 acres from pavement into permeable open space while anchoring the site in a new public plaza along the main street that has a variety of store sizes and configurations.
The design includes a number of innovative approaches that resulted from the charrette based process. The project incorporates a newly daylight stream bed, recommendations for narrower streets to create a slower, more pedestrian friendly street network, new housing typologies for the community, and a reduction of daily car trips by nearly 2/3 from the conventional big box development. Other unique design features used the site’s natural features to create view corridors of the surrounding mountains, plum trees on the plaza’s stairs that evoke the site’s history as an orchard, locating coffee shops to obtain eastern exposure, a cinema exit that looks toward the sunset, and shaded patios with mountain views for outdoor dining. (Dunham-Jones)
The project uses publicly approved TIF financing to help spread the high infrastructural costs of the site. The developer has estimated that upgrades for flood control are expected to cost $100 million while the total project will create a $550 million dollar investment in the community. The developer has marketed the project as positive in all regards for the community because it increases tax revenue, increases surrounding property values, and will keep spending local.
All of these design innovations look to support a transformed program. The developers are looking to attract a mix of 60% national retailers 40% local retailers and have worked to create a new zoning overlay district that provides a legal framework for mixed use development. The new proposal looks to pro102
The project provides a good example of how the malls of America are being transformed by American’s desire for place based, pedestrian friendly spaces. John Bucksbaum, the CEO of GGP may put it best saying, “This is a historic moment both for Holladay and for our company. We’ve been in the shopping mall business for 50 years, but today we start a new era” at the ground breaking in 2008. (“Cottonwood Mall Updates”)
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Project: Belmar Town Center Location: Lakewood, Colorado (suburb of Denver) Urban Designers: Elkus Manfredi Architects & Civitas Developer: Continuum Partners Existing: 1.2 million sq feet enclosed regional mall Proposed: 3.3 million sq ft. Enclosed Building (50% to 1300 dwellings, 27.5% Retail, 22.5% Office) & 9 acres of open public space Site Size: 104 Acres
Project Summary:
13 residential suburbs incorporated into Lakewood in 1969, in order to avoid annexation into Denver; since then Lakewood has grown into a powerful suburb of 144,000 people with no historic center. That is now changing as Continuum Partners have worked with two nationally renowned design firms to provide an implementable vision to transform an underperforming mall into a new, mixed use town center with 9 acres of civic minded public space. (Dunham Jones) Similar to the story of Cottonwood, the Villa Italia mall was very successful in its glory days. Built in the 1966, it was heralded as “the largest enclosed mall west of Chicago” at the time of its opening. From its opening through the first half of the 1990s, the mall was a critical to the economic viability to the community as it provided as much as 50% of the city’ tax base. But, just before the turn of the century the economic engine broke down as the mechanisms for new improvements failed. At this time the mayor, Steve Burkholder, appointed a citizens advisory committee to look into way to improve the mall. The committee soon came to realize that they cared more about the social and civic activities more than the mall. With this in mind the city decided to forego the quick fix of the “big box power station” and actively pursue a long term strategy of creating a new downtown for a suburb that never had one. In this search, Continuum was selected as the developer. Originally the plans were to be phased to keep the viable parts of the operation running; however, the project was accelerated after a number of the malls major department store escaped there lease agreements. This paved the way for a large scale redevelopment project that could create an instant downtown in 11 years. 104
This process minimized the risk of too much piecemeal development stalling out the project at a compromised stage. The Belmar development is expected to cost 750 million USD. Continuum found two innovative sources of funding: one a public improvement fee (PIF) it negotiated with city officials and a green bonds award sponsored by the federal government. The PIF is a 2.5 cent sales tax that is funneled to the developer to help pay the costs of development of a greyfield (infill) development. And the green bonds were used to fund a 1.8 megawatt rooftop photovoltaic system to take advantage of solar energy. The intention is to use solar energy to provide 20% of the projects energy (Dunham Jones). The new design has reduced daily car trips and vehicle miles traveled through its tripling of density, its connection to 8 regional bus routes, and its mixing of uses. The neighborhood also has a unique parking strategy based on the ideas of Donald Shoup, (author of “The High Cost of Free Parking”) that provides free structured parking while on street parking spots are metered to encourage the flow for the spots in highest demand. Architecturally the most interesting concept is the idea of wrapping blocks to conceal the massive footprints required by national retailers. Utilizing two levels of wrapping, “full wrap” and “partial wrapping,” large footprints like the grocer and cinema are wrapped and faced with retail and residential development to provide an active street front and a more human scale architecture. Continuing this theme, the residential architecture is designed with a civic intent. The site will house 1300 units that consists of apartments, condominiums, townhouses, and zero lot line homes. (Dunham Jones) Programmatically the developer has also made a number of strategic decisions for the long term health of the neighborhood rather than basing decisions just on short term economic motives. On example of this is Block 7. Block 7 is a series of row houses that have 500 to 1000 square foot studios and galleries that rent at a discounted rate. Another example is the “think tank” styled Laboratory of Arts and Ideas that organizes discussions, lectures and exhibitions “to create an intellectual and cultural community” that is so often missing in American
suburbs. Additionally, the developer has also curates a number of events including an Italian Festive, a weekly farmer’s market, and the city’s parade. In this way, the developer has decided to subsides a number of initiatives to keep the neighborhood healthy for the long term by encouraging socio-economic diversity. (Dunham Jones)
thermore, a 2.2 acre park has been located at the end the neighborhoods central north-south axis while a 1.2 acre plaza houses an oval ice rink that provides winter activity for the neighborhood. As one of Civitas landscape architects says, “Belmar is full of ideas intended to almost train suburban people in urban thinking” (Dunham Jones).
Physically the streets of Belmar are designed using classic American devel- Construction on Belmar began in 2001 and is scheduled to be completed opment standards. Belmar’s streets have 75 foot right of ways with generous in 2012 and according the book Retrofitting Suburbia, Belmar is “one of the sidewalk and only 34 feet for roadway. The “skinny streets” are proven to most impressive examples of instant urbanism we have seen.” slow traffic and improve the walk and bike ability of the neighborhood. Fur105
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Chapter 6: The FiveA Framework Emergent Ecologies of Sioux Falls for Understanding the Landscape & Urbanism of Sioux Falls
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The River is both the historical starting point and the key to the next wave of growth 108
6.1 - The Ecology of the River
As previously stated in Chapter 3, the relationship of the Big Sioux River and human settlement predates the history of Sioux Falls. Dating back to the time of free roaming bision and untouched prairies, the unique geometry of the river as well as its distinctive materialistic and ecological qualities have made it a magnet for settlement for centuries. Even today after 146 years of modern urban development, the natural system of the river is the one of the most visible elements of the city when seen from above even though it has been channelized and shifted to help protect the city from seasonal flooding. In many places this regularization is easily visible as dikes now protect a large portion of the western half of the city and a diversion channel was completed to create the river ‘loop.’ Even after all of these changes, the river still holds a different logic from the grid based urban development that is currently providing the basis for a lifestyle based on economic efficiency and car transportation. Along the river a different lifestyle is apparent; a lifestyle that embraces a slower pace of life, the joys of nature, and the happiness that only an evening stroll with one’s loved can bring. Because of the river’s unique geometry, almost all of the city’s current residents have the potential to access the river system within a 1.5 mile bike ride. However, in many places this potential is not a reality as the ecology of the river has been blocked by transportation infrastructure. It is time to change this and let the ecology of the River reign supreme again!
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The Big Sioux River
The Diversion Channel
Sioux Falls is located on a natural loop along the course of the Big Sioux River. This geometry has provided the city with its unique landforms and provided easy access to the river for most residents of Sioux Falls. As development of the city has sprawled to the west, Skunk Creek has allowed residents to keep this connection to the river system. However, the program associated with the river is missing. Although there is some canoeing, the water primarily remains passive as it is valued mainly for its asethetic and audatory qualities.
In the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, the city of Sioux Falls began the construction of an extensive flood prevention system that helped the city defend itself from seasonal flooding from winter snow melt. The largest of the projects was the construction of a 15,000 linear foot (4,600 m) diversion channel in the northeast corner of the city that completed today’s river ‘loop’. Anchored on the north by a dam and on the south by a 118 foot spillway, the diversion channel protects the natural flood plan from l00 year flood events.
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Heading west, the bike trail along Skunk Creek provides public access to the river system for many local residents and could potentially become a viable route to work and shopping if it was better connected.
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With the spillway in the background, the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s channelization and diking has created a division between the city and its biggest amenity, the river!
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The Dike System
The Flood Plain
As construction on the diversion channel proceeded, a dike system was also being built that channelized the river and helped further protect the city from flooding. In total 29 miles (46 km) were built along with a flood wall that protects the downtown. The dike system has resulted in the city turning its back on the river since the time of its completion with the only urban feeling portion of the river coming in the historic core. In the past 2 years, the entire dike system has been heighten to further protect the city from flooding. In the process, the tradition of seperating the river from the city has continued.
The diversion channel and dike system have dramatically influenced the flood plain and have kept a large portion of the city out of the 100 year flood plain. However, the city does remain suseptible to a 500 year flood event. The most notable things about the flood plan are its strong presence in the west and northwest portion of the city and the flatness of the city’s flood plain. The flatness has been used for efficient development since the completion of the flood prevention program, this includes the development of the cities major shopping center and the airport.
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The Greenway is home to another lifestyle and a diďŹ&#x20AC;erent form of smile!
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The Greenway
Part flood prevention strategy, part recreation belt the city’s greenway is one of its most cherished assets. The Greenway houses roughly half of the city’s park land and forms the only continuous pieces of bike paths and green within the city. Therefore, it is enjoyed by a wide range of citizens for a variety of purposes. However, the greenway is not as strong and expansive as a map may first lead one to believe. Starting in the south the greenway becomes a disconnected, one dimensional piece of the city. In the south the greenway is dominated by large sporting complexes and is cut off from the city by the interstate on the north and the river’s bluff on the south. This is especially prevalent at Yankton Trails Park. Furthermore, a large portion of the western half of the greenway lacks the public space and qualities of the east. Namely 3 golf courses and the cities fairgrounds make the western protion of the greenway look much more green and expansive than one experiences upon visiting. Many people, especially shoppers at The Sioux Empire Mall don’t even realize the greenway only lies within a 5 minute walk of the mall’s east entry. The western half has also been much more strongly influenced by the dike and the channelization of the river. This has created a lack of diversity in the sequence along the river as the dike’s section is homogenously reproduced.
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The Bike Trail
The greenway is tied together with a bike path that utilizes the parks and dike system to provide a continuous loop around the city. Mainly used for exercise and recreation, the bike path loop is too long for most daily users and usually provides a starting or destination point for walkers, runners, and cyclists. In recent years the bike trail has begun to be used by some commuters; however, that potential seems to be under utilized at the moment because of a lack of connections and a lack of winter maintenance.
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The Bridges
The river may create a connected green loop, but it also acts as a barrier for all forms of transportation within the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s overall structure. A mapping of the cities bridges shows what protions of the city are well connected across the river. At the moment, the downtown is the most connected with pedestrian, train, and vehicular bridges all providing the foundation for development on both banks. The other portions of the city are weakly connected at best. One example is the extreme lack of connections, 2 miles between bridges in one place, on the western portion of the river loop.
And on the bike paths mom can play mom rather than chauďŹ&#x20AC;er
A number of historic railroad bridges have been altered for pedestrians
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N. CliďŹ&#x20AC; Employment Center
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6.2: The Centers
With the development of the car as the primary method of transportation and zoning as the primary tool for structuring land use, Sioux Falls has developed an urban structure characterized by the development of 4 monofunctional centers surrounded by seas of housing. This has created a city that has begun to function more as a region than as a traditional city (pre-WWII); almost like a miniature version of Los Angeles.
The 4 centers have been in part formed by the natural landscape. Utilizing the river and its associated bluffs, all four centers are clearly seperated from each other and hold a different identity in the minds of Sioux Falls residents. The oldest of the centers is the historic core. Most often referred to as Downtown, the core houses the city’s history and the cities only mixed use zone. However, the mix is weak as few residents live downtown, and it currently acts as a center for jobs and commerce. The other three centers have their roots in the cities outward expansion since the 1960’s. Home of The Sioux Empire Mall, the commercial center in the southwest provides the largest conglomeration of national retailers and is the strongest commercial hub in the state. It is now also developing a strong job center to its south. In the north, the city has a large scale employment center that has developed between Minnesota Avenue and Cliff Avenue. The job center houses national banking operatins for Citi and Wells Fargo as well as providing a number of other service and light industries. The final and newest center is an emerging one. Known as Dawley Farms and spurred by national retailers WalMart, Target, Menards, and Century Movie Theatres an instant shopping center has emerged to satisfy the market forces of east side residences. To date the shopping center is expansive in nature and disconnected from the surrouning housing development by new highway development. 119
Commercial Centers
The 3 commercial centers have been complemented by thin strips of ribbon development along the city’s major thoroughfares that help to interconnect today’s shopping experience into a series of ‘drive-in’ experiences. As this mapping shows, the SW Center is currently the most developed and the majority of the commercial activity no longer happens in the downtown. This has created a city that no longer depends on its downtown for its commercial needs and because of this a movement pattern has developed that is based on this polycentric form.
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Work Centers
The office space in Sioux Falls is not spread throughout the city, rather a much higher concentration is located in the north. This has created the N. Cliff employment center that has strong connections to I-229 and I-90. An emerging office park in the Southwest portion of the city has started to counter balance this trend. The hospitals, located near the center, offer an important side note as the two major hospitals, Sanford and Avera Mckennan, are the city’s two largest employeers.
The Historic Downtown
The N. CliďŹ&#x20AC; Job Station
The Emerging East Side Commercial Center
The Mall & West Side Commercial Strip
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The Classification of Housing Stock
Low Income Housing
Affordable Housing
Multi Family High End Housing
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Living Centers
Low Income Housing
Affordable Housing
High End Housing
A majority of the city’s low income housing is concentrated in the core as single family houses or around the commercial zones as apartment buildings. The mapping on the left shows most of the single family homes in the northern portion of the core and mixed in with the offices in the north while the highest concentration of multi family housing is located around the SW shopping center. Trailer parks and manufactured homes also form a growing percentage of the cities housing stock and are predominately are located in similar locations or on the fringe of light industry.
The city’s affordable housing stock is almost solely small to medium sized single family houses. It currently forms a line running through the cities mid-section from west to east. This has created a stable socio-economic cross section when the city is cut in an east west direction. Furthermore, this form has also formed the basis for the creation of the Dawley Farms shopping center on the east side of the city as for about three decades the city commercial development has unproportionately grown to the west.
The High End Housing is almost fully concentrated along the southern bluff. Originally a place to view the city from, today the bluff has become part of an exclusive, high end housing market. Much of this was spurred by the design of a city run golf course, Prairie Green, which opened in 1995. This has created a strong socio-economic imbalance when the city is cut in a North - South manor; this imbalance is so strong that the school district has even drawn its high school boundaries in a north south manner in an attempt to balance the schools demographics.
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On the southern edge of the city their are signs of an increased density utilizing a new mindset that calls for neighborhood centers at the junction of arterial roads
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Planning for Centers
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Today, Sioux Falls is embarking on an ambitious new set of plans whose philosophy centers on a new way of treating the concept of center by breaking it down into a 5 tier hierarchy that creates a plan one may title ‘the city of a hundred centers.’ The 5 tiers of center are assorted into a hierarchy of regional, sub-regional, community, business park, and neighborhood.
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These centers are to be of a transitional nature with a basis in commerce and office space and a concentric progression utilizing zoning toward multifamily and single family housing. The community and neighborhood centers are meant to be complementary; they are to house community activities and possible local commercial activities like grocery stores and are located at the junction of arterial streets.
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It is unclear what spatial form this ‘city of 100 centers’ will look like at the site level, but it is undoubtedly a plan still based on car transportation and the continued expansion of the city
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Looking south from the State Penitentary, one can see the ďŹ&#x201A;ood plain, the start of the industry in the north, and further on the otherside of the river valley.
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6.3 - The River Bluffs
The river system has had a dramatic effect on the topography of Sioux Falls and one’s experience of the landscape within the city. The river’s process of cutting and eroding through 10,000 years of flooding has created a unique set of bluffs that form its valley’s edges. These bluffs provide the stunning views and the experience of moving in and out of the river’s valley as one moves through the city. Through these two experiential qualities, the river’s bluffs have helped give Sioux Falls its sense of place within the miles of interstate that transverse the center of America. Like the river, the bluffs have both an ability to connect (through view) but have a strong history of creating division. The following maps show how the river bluffs have influenced the growth of Sioux Falls, the experiential qualities of driving through the city, and today’s clear sense of seperation between the pieces of the city.
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The Relationship between the BluďŹ&#x20AC;s and Urban Growth
Historical Center
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Post World War II Growth
Last Wave of Growth
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Historic Rail Corridors
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The Grid + The Bluffs
The Interstate + The Bluffs
Most intercity commutes occur on the city’s predominate transportation geometry, the grid. While the grid is static by nature, the bluffs animate the experience of driving by closing and expanding views as one moves through the uniquely shaped river valley.
In a more practical way, the interstate was laid out to minimize the number of crossings of the city’s bluff system. Following the geometry of the river valley, the interstate system now seperates a large portion of the city from the river and often encloses the river between itself and the bluffs.
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The BluďŹ&#x20AC;s + The Emerging Centers
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Distinct Centers The bluffs have allowed the city’s four emerging centers to develop spatially and pyscologically seperate from one another. A mapping of the bluffs shows that the downtown and the mall are located along the river’s original course while the cities two other centers are disconnected from the original water course by the bluff landforms. Furthermore, today there is very little continuity between any of the centers because their time of development and program have each given them a very specific sense of place.
Segregation As previously mentioned in the discussion of the housing stock, Sioux Falls is economically segregated with a concentration of poverty falling toward the north. This segregation has been in large part by the way in which the city has used the south and north series of bluffs. To the south the bluffs were used to create high end housing, while to the north industry dominated. These historic development patterns have continued unchecked and with little intellectual commentary about the social problems and stigmatizing side effects this clear difference has created within the city. It is interesting to note how closely related the direction of the bluff landforms are to the line of segregation that currently lies within the city.
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6.4 - The Prairie Coteau The Big Sioux River drains a regional landscape structure known as the Coteau des Prairies that starts as a triangular landform in the northeast corner of South Dakota and ends south of Sioux Falls. The plateau was formed through repeated formation of glaciers in the region, therefore, its soil is composed of a thick layer of glacial till. The plateau has provide an ideal setting for the tall grass prairie ecosystem for thousands of years and is characteristized by a subtle set of hills that form a complex and interconnected drainage system. This drainage system is characteritized by thousands of wetlands and drainage ways that absorb storm water, provide habitat for many sensitive species, and create an asethetically pleasing dynamic landscape.
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Outside the city, one can see signs of the natural landscape and the regions dominant ecology, the prairie.
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Hills
Landform
Flat Spots
While the bluffs are easily discernible, the landform of the prarie is characterized by gentle hills with extended flat spots in places. These two landform typologies are mapped above and show the multiple independent hills that form the landscape.
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Hydrologic Divide
Because of the river’s loop the flow of stormwater within Sioux Falls is divided by a series of spines. These spines, mapped in red, show that Sioux Falls is divided into a series of natural catchment zones and drainage ways.
Tributaries
The hills concentrate this flow into chains of wetlands and streams that run between the hills and fracture the cities grid. The starting point for runoff is always located near the spine shown in red.
Wetlands
And just outside the city limits lies two large flat spots that our characterized by dozens, if not hundreds, of wetlands that filter stormwater. These prevent a barrier to growth on the southern edge of Sioux Falls.
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Prairie Parks
Most parks not located on the greenway are part of the Prairie Coteau ecology of the city. These parks are not well connected by either bike paths or a greenway; therefore, they are currently fragmented in nature. These parks also have the potential to collectively create a new landscape aesthetic for Sioux Falls if they utilize there collective ecology.
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The Prairie Grid
Like the bluďŹ&#x20AC;, the prairie ecology is traversed by series of grided roads. This allows people to traverse a series of diďŹ&#x20AC;erent ecologies on a single road; therefore, as one experiences the city along the existing road system one can recognize the ecology he is currently residing in or transitioning to.
Shot across the river valley outside Brandon, one can see the river valley, the bluďŹ&#x20AC;s and the subtle landscape of the Coteau des Prairies.
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6.5 - The Evolving Corridors The corridors are characterized by movement, and the city of Sioux Falls is surprisingly diverse in the variety of forms of movement occuring within it. Although most citizens, most commonly think of corridors as the road network in Sioux Falls, 4 other forms of corridors can inform one’s understanding of the city. The oldest surving corridors are the city’s railroad lines. Often tought of as obsolete, rail has been making a comeback in the US with many major cities now planning new light rail lines. Their relevance has also been increasing for freight shipping and while Sioux Falls has been dismembering its rail system, one could beg to question whether this is appropriate as gas prices rise above $4.00 per gallon. Other forms of corridors include the city’s bus lines, a newly proposed set of bike paths, and the drainageways that bisect the city’s landscape. Together with the road system, these corridors for the basis for a potential multi modal, sustainable movement system within Sioux Falls.
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Historic Rail Corridors
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Bus Lines
Although the cities bus lines have been stigmatized and lag a long ways behind the car in terms of eďŹ&#x192;ciency, the city does have the foundation for a successful system. However, the system is current monocentric focus on downtown does not work because of the lack of people in downtown. The system is also undermined by the lack of density throughout the city.
Proposed Bike Paths
A series of newly planned bike paths provide a vision for increasing the number of recreational bike lanes along with making the cities ďŹ rst steps to create on-street bicycle lanes. However, the vision lacks the connections necessary to make biking a viable transportation method for communiting to work and commercial centers.
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Green + Blue Corridors When overlaying the cities green and blue corridors on top of each other, a vast ecological network emerges. Although the network lacks clarity outside the greenway, the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s has a number of starting points for developing an interconnected green system to begin from because of its rich landscape. The numerous drainage corridors that traverse the Coteau des Prairie ecology have the potential to connect numerous parts of the city back to the river with an upgrading of the cities bike trail system. Furthermore, the wetlands to the south of the city provide an opportunity to create a Nature Reserve and protect a large portion of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surrounding landscape from further sprawl. At the same time, a few small landscape and bike trail investments could better connect Sioux Falls residents to their surrounding countryside. Lastly, the corridors within the city need to be protected as they have the potential to provide a number of ecological services including stormwater management, wind blocks, carbon sequestration, air ďŹ ltration, microclimate, animal habitat, and energy creation.
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The drainage corridors are an under utilized portion of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s green network and provide the opportunities to connect the currently disconnected prairie park system.
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The Interstate Loop
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Chapter 7: The Comprehensive Vision Utilizing Sioux Fallâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Assets for the Next Wave of Growth
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7.1 The Comprehensive Plan Taking a systems based approach, The Resilient City Comprehensive Plan restructures the existing context of the 5 emerging ecologies into a series of synergetic systems. By pulling forward the landscape, the plan seeks to structure the expansive city using it unique landscape to form both a system of resistance to sprawl as well as a connective tissue for the city’s existing form.
Emphasizing the river, the Resilient City showcases this foundational ecology. For it is the riparian ecology that has given shape to the landscape since the last ice age, and it is the river that formed the historic basis for settlement in Sioux Falls. Now, the river provides the structure for a series of new layers of infill that give the city an opportunity to increase life quality for its residence by growing within its current bounds. The river is energized by 3 of the cities 4 emerging centers. These centers currently lack mix use, but the vision calls for their diversification, intensification, and densification in order to provide new opportunities for high quality public space, reliable public transportation, and easier accessibility to the landscape. The growing within strategy is complimented by the protection and reprograming of the fringe. A growth boundary provides a political and economic statement about growth while a new green belt offers opportunities for energy generation from prairie winds, water cleaning from the abundant wetlands, and ecological farming.
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Growing Within
Establish a Growth Boundary
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Utilizing the suggested holistic study (see Chapter 9) of the societal costs of sprawl and the vast amounts of vacant land within the city for political backing, the city should work to establish an urban growth boundary that restricts the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expansion. This will undoubtedly create winners and losers in the development game, but cities like Portland provide a model for how an urban growth boundary can add quality of life for its citizens while lowering the overall cost of living for the society.
Strengthen the urban growth boundary by developing value in the surrounding landscape. DeďŹ ne the characters of the surrounding landscape and curate discussions of its cultural and environmental importance. By protecting its landscape, the city can generate its own wind energy, protect itself from harsh winter winds, and provide unique recreational opportunities for residents.
Growing Within
Reinforce growth boundary with a Sustainability Belt
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To Reduce the Overall Societal Costs Father Mother
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For the City
For the Family
A political growth boundary and complementary greenbelt would help reduce the rising costs of highways and streets in Sioux Falls. With 108.5 million USD in 2009 and 60.4 million USD in 2010 spent on roads, Sioux Falls needs to reduce the high percentage of the city budget spent on infrastructure. One big opportunity to reduce the city budget is to create a new layer of density within the city. This will allow the city to create new synergies with public transportation, bikeways, and give it the ability to spend money on high quality public space and parks rather than highways for cars.
Annual Household Income = $47,040 Ford Tauras = $6,000 Annually x3 Total = $18,000 Annually This means today the average resident could be spending 38% of income on transport.
To Protect the Valuable Farm Land
Growing Within
Farm land is no longer a disposable resource. With rising food prices and food shortages around the world, farm land is more precious then ever. Although Eastern South Dakota is filled with corn fields, the time has come for us to respect what the corn fields and our farmers mean in today’s global context. No longer should the last field farmers plant be sprawling single family houses.
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Use the Context to Create Specific Identities
4 Clear Identities
Growing Within
The 4 centers should not compete but rather complement each other. By developing complementary identies for the 4 centers and working to connect them through social networks, transportation systems, and landscape sequences the city can begin to function as one organism.
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Let the Landscape Define the Centers
Utlize the bluffs and the river to define the edges of the centers and their relationships to nature. Further study the edge dynamics between the center and its landscape in order to reject the transect notion of urbanism.
From the rock that lies beneath to the River that runs through it, its time for Sioux Falls recognizes the rich landscape on which it sits!
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Densify the Centers The 4 Centersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Program Commercial Research OďŹ&#x192;ce Public Industrial Residential
5.63 5.18 4.33 3.04 0.73 26.53
Million sf Million sf Million sf Million sf Million sf Million sf
Total Built Space
45.44 Million sf
The Medical Research Center
The Revived Cultural Hub
Growing Within
Housing Potential @ a varying average unit size between 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) and 1500 SF (140 sq. meters) equates to 44950 people @ 2.40 people per unit
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The Eco Center on the Prairie Edge The Regional Recreation Center The design sketching process showed the centers have the potential to house nearly 45,000 people at the densities shown in the zoom ins!
Develop a Strategic Program for Each Center Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
10% 10% 10% 5% 65%
Total Built Space
1.10 Msf 1.10 Msf 1.10 Msf 180k sf 7.17 Msf
100 k sq. m 100 k sq. m 100 k sq. m 17 k sq. m 670 k sq. m
10.67 M sf
987 k sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1500 SF (140 sq. meters) per unit results in 4780 units 4780 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 11,500 people
The Eco-Center on the Prairie Edge Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential Total Built Space
10% 10% 8% 0 72%
1.61 Msf 1.61 Msf 1.29 Msf 0 11.61Msf
150k sq. m 150k sq. m 120k sq. m 0 1.08M sq. m
16.13Msf
1.50M sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1500 SF (140 sq. meters) per unit results in 7740 units 7740 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 18,580 people
The Medical Research Center
Research Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
43% 5% 3% 3% 5% 42%
Total Built Space
5.18M sf 6.43k sf 3.21k sf 3.21k sf 5.56k sf 5.15M sf
481k sq. m 64k sq. m 30k sq. m 30k sq. m 56k sq. m 478k sq. m
12.17 M sf
1.13M sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) per unit results in 4,120 units 4120 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 9,880 people
The Regional Recreation Center Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential Total Built Space
35% 20% 5% 0 40%
2.28M sf 1.30M sf 325k sf
210k sq. m 120k sq. m 30k sq. m
2.60M sf
240 sq. m
6.50M sf
600 sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) per unit results in 2,080 units 2080 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 4990 people
Growing Within
The Revived Cultural Hub
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Make the Centers into Public Transportation Hubs
Growing Within
Express Bus Lines
A set of regional / express bus lines connect the 4 proposed centers of Sioux Falls and the surrounding suburban communities. Special bus lanes along these corridors speed up traffic and show the city values public transportation over individual car use!
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Local Bus Lines
Based from the four regional bus hubs, the local bus lines encircle the city’s four centers and help to focus public life while giving residents the flexibility to move quickly and freely throughout the city.
Growing Within
Create DensiďŹ cation Corridors to Connect the Centers
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Develop Mixed Use Neighborhoods along the Bus Corridors
Regional Tech Hub
Connected Family Living
Living by the Lake Young Intellectual Living
Growing Within
The Live Work Village
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The design sketching process showed the suplementary nodes have the potential to house over 54, 100 people at a density shown in the zoom ins! Proving that by densifying in only 9 places the city can accomodate 99,000 new residents meaning horizontal expansion is unnecessary.
Develop a Strategic Program for Each Neighborhood Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
8% 10% 5% 3% 74%
Total Built Space
421k sf 526k sf 263k sf 53k sf 3.90 Msf
39 k sq. m 49 k sq. m 24 k sq. m 5 k sq. m 362 k sq. m
Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
5.16 M sf
479 k sq. m
Total Built Space
Housing Potential @ 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) per unit results in 3,115 units 3,115 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 7,480 people
Connected Family Living Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
6% 12% 5% 5% 68%
Total Built Space
Living by the Lake 8% 20% 5% 0% 67%
500k sf 1.26M sf 315k sf 0 4.22M sf
47k sq. m 116k sq. m 29k sq. m 0 391k sq. m
6.29 M sf
585k sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1500 SF (140 sq. meters) per unit results in 2,810 units 2810 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 6,745 people
Regional Tech Hub
1.23 Msf 2.45 Msf 1.02 Msf 340k sf 13.9 Msf
114k sq. m 228k sq. m 95k sq. m 31K sq. m 1.29M sq. m
Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
18.94 Msf
1.50M sq. m
Total Built Space
10% 5% 5% 5% 75%
759k sf 380k sf 380k sf 126k sf 5.69M sf
70k sq. m 35k sq. m 35k sq. m 12k sq. m 528 sq. m
7.33M sf
681 sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1500 SF (140 sq. meters) per unit results in 9,267 units 9,267 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 22,240 people
Housing Potential @ 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) per unit results in 4554units 2080 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 10,930 people
Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
The Live Work Village
Total Built Space
10% 2% 5% 5% 78%
Totals
450k sf 90k sf 224k sf 75k sf 3.49 Msf
41 k sq. m 8 k sq. m 21 k sq. m 7 k sq. m 325 k sq. m
Commercial Office Public Industrial Residential
3.36M sf 4.07M sf 2.02M sf 594k sf 31.2Msf
311 k sq. m 436 k sq. m 204 k sq. m 55 k sq. m 2.9M sq. m
4.48 M sf
416 k sq. m
Total Built Space
41.24 M sf
3.91M sq. m
Housing Potential @ 1250 SF (115 sq. meters) per unit results in 2795 units 2,795 units times 2.4 people per Household equals 6710 people
Housing Potential 22,541 units @ 2.4 people per Household equals 54,105 people
Growing Within
Young Intellectual Living
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Growing Within 164
Existing Proposed
Innovate for Home Grown Economic Growth Tomorrow 1. Sanford Medical Research Corridor
Sanford Health is a regional health care conglomerate who has recently recieved over 500 million USD in donations from local philanthropist T. Deny Sanford. Sanford Health has large ambitions and is currently in the process of planning a regional medical research facility with over 2 million square feet in its initial phase.
2. Regional Economic Connector
For established companies that depend heavily on regional connections and regional travel supported by the airport, new mixed use buildings with modern offices offer a location on the river and potential views out over the river valley from the northern bluff. Connected by bus to the airport, its now convenient to use public transport to get almost anywhere!
3. Innovation Center for South Dakota Start-Ups
South Dakotans have too long depended on outside sources for economic growth. An incubator connected to the state’s major research university’s would allow for ambitious young professionals and recent graduates to expand their minds in search of new solutions to the problems of tomorrow. Located in under utilized buildings in the downtown area, these creative thinkers bring new residents to the downtown, a fresh new outlook, and a desire to stare tomorrow’s greatest challenges in the face.
Currently a neighborhood of small industrial buildings with various focuses, this area offers strong regional connections as well as easy access to the state’s major public research universities. The cluster should begin with small scale private development and if focused on a specific task of sustainable technology development this neighborhood could spur new economic growth in an under utilized portion of the city.
Growing Within
4. Sustainable Technology Cluster
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Re-Introduce Traditional Urban Housing Typologies
image courtesy of trdibble.wordpress.com
Growing Within
The Row House & The Courtyard
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Today, the Sioux Falls housing market is over saturated with detached single family homes. According to Shape Sioux Falls the city had over 64% of its housing stock in single family homes. This high percentage of reliance on one form of housing has created a self perpetuating market blind (and self perpetuating analysis by the city planning office) to the numerous other possibilities that are present in the global market place. With developers unwilling to deviate from today’s subsidized market place, the city needs to make a strong stance on its housing policy. This is especially necessary because single family housing currently consumes nearly 50% of the land area expansion under the city’s current plan. Through a diversification of the market that includes the restoration of the row house typology, the introduction of the 4 and 6 plex, and the introduction of the courtyard block, the city can slow its sprawling nature and provide a new quality of life for tomorrows residents.
New social capital can be developed at informal occasions such as this community barbecue in a local courtyard.
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Growing Within
Develop Mixed Use Architectural Strategies
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169
Growing Within
Connect to the Landscape
Utilize the Bluffs
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The Views
The bluffs provide dramatic views out over the river valley and many parts of the city. Located in blue is 11 promenient views that should be further studied as outlook points. By embracing the strategic importance of the height of the bluffs, new potentials and arguements for locating pending projects will become apparent.
The Wind
The height of the bluffs makes them vulnerable to the full force of the prairie winds. With South Dakota having the 3rd most potential for wind power for any state in the United States, it is time for its largest metropolitan area to envision the potential of a tomorrow by powering its next wave of growth with wind power.
As documented earlier, the cities growth over time utilized the bluffs in very different fashions. The bluffs became a segregation tool. Today it is necessary to work towards balancing this historic trend through new means of creative thinking & the injection of new programs into the northern half of the city.
Define the Extent of the Centers
The bluffs and the landscape should continue to be form givers to the urbanism of tomorrow. The bluffs and the river system naturally define the extent of the emerging centers along the river. When coupled with thoughts on bikability and friendly pedestrian commutes, the bluffs have the potential to define distinctive, self sufficient centers for sustainable daily living.
Connect to the Landscape
Work Toward a Socio Economic Balance
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Maximize the River
Connect to the Landscape
Proximity to the River
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The comprehensive plan locates nearly 70,000 people within a 1 mile radius of the river. This provides both a tax base for improvements along the river, but also provides the opportunity for a new lifestyle based on the potential of the river.
Reconnect People to the River
In order to connect these 70,000 people to the river conveniently, the plan calls for the building of a number of new connections. The majority of the connections involve restoring access to the river by either bridging or tunneling under the cities 3 major interstate highways.
Give Access to the River
When people arrive at the river, they should be allowed to touch the water and feel the natural comfort of being near a life giving body of water. Steps should be made to improve access and allow for ethusastic nature lovers to go for daily kayak rides on the river.
Intensifiy Program on the River
Along with new housing in close proximity to the river, a new layer of program should be added adjacent to the river. This program should be a mix of nature based recreation as well as new civic spaces. This tension between city and river would bring the river to the forefront of the city’s residents minds and provide places of rememberance for visitors alike. Proposals in the comprehensive plan include a series of new water promenades, a new event center downtown, a musuem and associated river square, a fishery, a botanical garden, and even a beach.
Connect to the Landscape
It is only by supercharging the river’s program that the city will ever be able to fully recognize the potential of the river to reform its identity.
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Connect to the Landscape
Layer the Corridors
174
Diversify the Conversation
The comprehensive plan diversiďŹ es and layers the concept of corridors to move the vision for tomorrow away from car based planning toward a more holisitic approach that levels the playing ďŹ eld between public transportation, rail, bike paths, and the ecological systems. These alternative forms of corridors should be as strong as the street grid and be promoted as potential form givers in The Resillient City.
Relocated Switchyard
In the last half century Sioux Falls has lost portions of its historic rail corridors. However, today, rail is re-emerging as an economically viable transportation source for freight. Because it is more energy eďŹ&#x192;cient than semi hauling, it is critical that the role of the rail corridors be reexamined especially in the context of industrial land use projections. This re-examination should include an attempt to keep ownership rights on all abandon railway corridors.
The Green Corridors
The natural drainageways should be restored to their natural condition in order to provide ecological functions and aid in the establishment of biological diversity within the city. These corridors have the potential to support a landscape identity of the city as well as connect the city with a new layer of bike and pedestrian paths.
Connect to the Landscape
The Rail Corridors
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Use the Drainageways to Connect the Edge to the Greenway
Connect to the Landscape
The Bike Loops
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The drainage corridors provide an opportunity to link the greenway to the proposed sustainability greenbelt through a new series of recreational bike paths. By building this new relationship between the fringe and the river, new potentials for recreational routes emerge for the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s residents. Residents can both enjoy the riparian landscape, the new wind farms, and the unique set of wetlands that have come to be known as the Great Prairie Wetlands. The Great Prairie Wetlands
With little investment many of the cities streets can be reconďŹ gured to house on-street bike lanes. In many cases this is as simple as painting lines on the street. By connecting the recreational trails with a more urban on-street biking network, the city can develop a robust trails system so all residents have the potential to bike to work.
Connect to the Landscape
On Street Biking
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Make Sustainability Visible
Connect to the Landscape
The aspects of sustainable design within the comprehensive plan should be expressed visually in as many aspects as possible. By providing clear symbols for a sustainable tomorrow residents can take pride in the sustainability of Sioux Falls as well as imagine a better tomorrow. By embracing the visual nature of the modern wind turnbine, open stormwater management systems, and the expression of solar panels, the city can become a regional example of sustainable development.
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Identify with the Native Prairie
Connect to the Landscape
Sioux Fallsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; native plant community is tall grass prairie and this should be recognized as part of the imagery of projects based on the Resilient City. The prairie may be a subtle landscape, but its unique plants and ability to absorb stormwater give it both symbolic and ecological importance to the Sioux Falls of tomorrow. It is the imagery of the prairie that has the unique potential to transform Sioux Falls from a placeless city to an imaginative landscape that captures the spirit of visitors and residents alike.
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180
Chapter 8: Spatial Explorations Sketches for Envisioning Tomorrow
181
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8.1 The Spatial Explorations The semester began with 9 study sites that were sketched upon to explore the potentials of the city’s different contexts and features. It was my belief that all 9 of these sites had to be explored in sketching to gage possible densities and hidden potentials within the city. The 9 sites were developed as part of the comprehensive planning process and helped compose the density studies that form a portion of chapter 7.
This chapter is composed of the development of 3 of the 9 original study sites that attempt to illustrate the design principles of the comprehensive plan through imagery, architectural drawings, the definition of key projects, and complementary phasing diagrams. These three sites are all parts of the center ecology and offer 3 of the most difficult challenges facing the city of Sioux Falls today. The three sites are the revitalization of the downtown, the restructuring of the city’s large regional shopping complex, and a new vision for a monofunction job center in the north.
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8.2 Test Site #1
Reconnecting to the Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Historic Core Revitalizing the Downtown Around the River
After years of decline, the downtown appears to be a focal point for the city today. With hot button issues including a proposed event center, a new plan for a riverwalk, and the suggestion for 10,000 new residents; the downtown has become the focus of the local urban design conversation. The following pages suggest 6 key projects that have the potential to transform the downtown into a sustainable core for the city that both embraces its unique landscape and history of 150 years of urban development.
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A beautiful South Dakota day has Joan and Eric out for a run along the river. They have recently moved to Sioux Falls and decided to purchase a town home in the northern portion of downtown. Today they are making a loop along the river as they are curious to see the new pedestrian bridge and the civic life sprawling out from newly designed art museum and public square. 185
Let the Landscape Drive the Form
Existing Rail Switch Yards Existing Downtown
The Landscape Forms
The bluďŹ&#x20AC;s have a strong presence in the downtown and form a bowl like valley. The west bank of the river houses the historic core and the functioning downtown. The east bank has typically been used for rail transport and industry. Today that is changing with the moving of the railroad switchyards. 186
Extend the Downtown East
With a high volume of vacant land on the east bank there is an opportunity for the downtown area to grow East. A focus should be put on spurring East bank growth.
Proposed Lookout Proposed Park
The Penitentiary
Existing Park
The Cathedral
Washington Pavillion
Mckennan Hospital
Focus Around the River
By developing East, the river greenway becomes a central focus for the downtown. In this way it provides an opportune meeting place for the new residents of downtown.
Enhance Views from BluďŹ&#x20AC;
Strategic points on the bluďŹ&#x20AC; already exist. Included is Mckennan Hospital, the Cathedral, and the Washington Pavillion. Other opportunities to enhance the view should be capitalized on in the form of public park space and new residential development. 187
The Existing Context
14
Infill Opportunities
7
6
15
The Legend 1. Big Sioux River 2. Falls Park 3. Phillips Avenue 4. 8th Street 5. Rail Switch Yards 6. Old Stockyards 7. John Morrell’s Meat Packing 8. Drake Spring Aquatic Center 9. City Hall 10. County Courthouse 11. Cathedral 12. Historic Houses 13. Residential 14. State Penitentiary 15. Minnesota Avenue 16. Cliff Avenue
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2 3
11
13
10 12
16 4
9 1
5 8
16
The Plan
15
The Legend
10
14 13 2 3 12
17 19
11
18
9
1. Big Sioux River 2. Falls Park 3. Phillips Avenue 4. 8th Street 5. New Event Center (Arena) 6. New Art Museum & Public Square 7. New Hotels 8. Beer Garden 9. Reduced Rail Lines 10. John Morrell’s Sustainable Meat Packing 11. County Courthouse 12. Cathedral 13. The Quarry Neighborhood 14. The Bluffs Neighborhood 15. Ridge Park 16. The Edges Neighborhood 17. Minnesota Avenue 18. Cliff Avenue 19. New Pedestrian Bridges
4 1 6 8 19 7
7 5
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The 6 Key Projects
Locate Proposed Arena
The city is currently planning a 12,000 seat event center and sports arena. Locating the event center downtown provides an opportunity to energize the river and the surrounding areas especially if a parking is strategically spread in a series of parking garages (shown in orange). 190
Spur Investment in 8th Street
Utilizing the energy from the proposed arena and an on-going street revitalization, the 8th street corridor provides an opportunity for small scale development within a pedestrian friendly environment. This development will be aided by the removal of the switchyards.
A Sustainable John Morellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
A historic ag industry in Sioux Falls, John Morellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s has nearly 3,400 employees. It is a meat packing plant and is seen as a deterent to development in the northern portion of downtown. The plan looks to engage Morellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and aid in the development of a sustainable master plan for its existing campus.
Develop Housing in the North
With a greener Morellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new housing on both sides of the river in northern downtown can be developed to accomodate a mix of socioeconomic groups. The current farmers market north of Falls Park is moved to the east bank of the river.
New Museum & River Square
A proposal for a new prairie art museum, river square, and hotel along the river provides a highly visible, central space for the city to develop around. Connected to the river walk and a proposed beer garden, this key project would be a key civic space for Sioux Falls.
Develop on the Bluff
From the bluďŹ&#x20AC; north of downtown, panoramic views abound. With green industry now in the valley, a residential neighborhood can take advantage of views as a set of small parks can provide public viewing points of the scenic landscape of the river valley and the revitalized downtown. 191
The Dimension of Time Transformation takes time and it is critical to recognize the dimension that time plays in any master plan. Time provides a dynamic medium in which key projects and unexpected events can greatly alter the final results.
This timeline looks at structuring the a process for the development of the 6 key projects proposed as well as a number of supplementary projects that are needed to intergrate the 6 key projects into a new vision for the downtown. Since only two of the key projects are object oriented, architecture pieces, the others must be developed as a process themselves. Therefore, it is important to begin a number of the key projects simultaneously. The timeline calls for 4 of the key projects to begin in the early years of the plan. Those projects being the new arena, the small scale redevelopment of 8th street, the transformation of Morell’s into a green industry, and the accumulation of housing throughout the downtown area. The two other key projects can spur growth and life quality once the momenteum has begun to build behind the first phase of key projects.
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Key:
Administration
Commercial Development
Parks & Greenway
Housing
Infrastructural
Transportation
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Principle #1: Make the River the Front Door
Entry to Event Center
Underground Parking
Train Tracks
Description
Entry to Event Center
The city is currently investigating sites for a new 12,000 seat arena and event center. A location on river coupled with a statement about reduced parking (especially reduced free parking) would allow for the arena to generate new economies in the downtown as well as high quality public spaces along the river.
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Terra Public Seati Riverwalk Ar
ace ing rea
Public Dock & Kayak Launch
Existing Riparian Zone
Bike Trail
Rain Bike Private Garden Trail Garden
Residential InďŹ ll
Existing Local Street Apartments
Section Location
A
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Principle #2: Create a Series of Terraced River Rooms
Public Square with new apartment behind
Art Museum
Relocated Statue of David
Public Steps
Description
Cafe @ the Art Museum
The city’s art scene has been growing with the growth of a downtown sculpture walk; however, Sioux Falls is still lacking a major art museum that exhibits the region’s culture. A new art museum coupled with the city’s 1st public square would provide a dynamic point for cultural development in Sioux Falls.
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Fire Pit
Square Extends over Water
Big Sioux River with 10th Street Bridge Behind
Section Location
Bike Trail
Private Mixed Use Terrace InďŹ ll
10th Street Bridge
The Idea Sketch
B
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Principle #3: Energize the River with Innovative Program
River Front Hotel
Private Hotel Garden
Pedestrian Path
Description
Beer Garden
Shoreline Bike Path Naturalization
The river is currently a passive object in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s planning practices, but it oďŹ&#x20AC;ers numerous possibilities to breathe new life into the city. Opportunities such as public swimming, saunas, and a new beer garden can attract tourists and new residents alike.
198
Big Sioux River
Sauna & Public Swimming Area
Bike Path
Slope Naturalization
Mixed Use InďŹ ll
Rain Garden + Parking
Section Location
C
199
Connecting the Parts Strengthen Public Transport
With over 11,000 new residents and a series of new oďŹ&#x192;ce and recreation programs ďŹ t into the downtown valley, it is now possible to make a viable public transportation system utilizing the existing bus station. 2 new local loops make it easy and convenient for all downtown residents to reach the bus station and connect up to the city. Furthermore, with express lines running on Minnesota & CliďŹ&#x20AC; Avenues all residents are withing a 5 minute walk of bus lines linking the 4 emerging centers. With a strong marketing campaign built upon dependable service, a ridership habit begins to develop within the downtown.
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Existing Bus Station
Connect with Green Streets
To bring the qualities of the river into the downtown a series of green streets should be devised to interconnect the established city parks. Green streets should handle stormwater in an open fashion, emphasize the native prairie landscape, and use street trees to give new architectural qualities to the streetscape.
Bike Paths for Everyday Life
Bike paths should no longer be thought of as a recreational layer in the city; rather, they should be thought of as a transportation potential for all residents. By modifying existing streets, on-street bike paths can create a synergy with the emerging river greenway to sponsor a lifestyle where biking to work becomes a cultural norm. 201
8.3 - Test Site #2
Reaching for the River
Exploring the Recofiguration of the Mall Today, the mall is a functioning regional economic power, however, the building’s declining condition and a rise in competition have started to call into question what the next step in the mall’s development will be. The following pages explore one possibility for the next step of the malls development showing the possible potential of creating a new pedestrian axis that reaches for the river.
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Bill and Todd are local lawyers who just closed a new business deal today. To celebrate they decided to take a stroll outside their oďŹ&#x192;ce for some fresh air. On their way back from the river, they discuss how impressed they are by the atmosphere that has developed around their oďŹ&#x192;ce in the last 10 years as its gone from desolate parking lots into a dynamic venue for shopping, eating, and recreation.
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The Existing Context
7 12
9
10
6
6
14
5 2
3
11
1
8
5
4
10 13
The Legend
1. Big Sioux River 2. The Empire Mall 3. The Empire East Mall 4. Large Grocery Store
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5. Existing Apartments 6. Car Dealerships 7. Book Store 8. Bowling Alley
5
5
5 9. Movie Theater 10. Hotels 11. Louise Avenue 12. 41st Street
13. 49th Street 14. Interstate 29
The Plan 12
4
7 14
2
3 10
7
8
1
6 5
11 9
10
The Legend
1. The Beach 2. Public Square 3. Pedestrian Street 4. New Bus Station
13 5. Rowing Club 6. Botanical Garden 7. Pocket Parks 8. Wrapped Department Store
9. Stormwater Corridor 1o. Parking Garages 11. Louise Avenue 12. 41st Street
13. 49th Street 14. Interstate 29
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Make 2 Cuts through the Mall
Currently the Mall complex is made up of two extremely large volumes that don’t allow for pedestrian scale exterior connections. This coupled with the massive parking lots have made the mall a car dominated landscape. The first of the big moves is to make two cuts through the existing structures that form the basis for both an architectural and urban design remodel. One cut allows for smoother North South flow while the other forms the foundation of a pedestrian axis that extends to the river.
Create 2 Tunnels Under the Interstate
The mall is fortified on all sides by heavily used roads. On the west an Interstate Highway provides the thickest barrier to pedestrian transportation. This highway cuts off all opportunities of walking or biking to the mall from the west. The proposal is to create two new pedestrian connections by tunneling underneath the highway to establish a bike path in the north and a new local street in the south.
206
The 3 Big Moves
Establish a Recreation Spine that Reaches the River
Utilizing the existing interior spine of the mall, a new pedestrian spine connects the mall to the riverfront. This allows for the spine to move from a heavy shopping program to a mixed use space to a nature based recreation space along a linear sequence. The new diversity provides a series of experiences that make it a destination for an entire day of family fun.
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The Spine Sequence 1- The Square
On Street Residential Parking
Residential with courtyard entrance
Description
Courtyard
The start of the new pedestrian spine is a public square. Connecting to a major street, Louise Avenue, and incorporating a mixed use program the square is the new entry to the mall. The squares prominent position allows it to mediate between the new public landscape and the private interests of the mall. The square is surrounded by residential units and a bus station that helps keep it active at all hours of the day.
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Pedestrian Path
Section Location 1
Roof Top Commercial Store Garden + OďŹ&#x192;ce Space
Public Square
Stormwater Outdoor Extension of Restuarant Channel
Restaurant
Underground Parking
Ground Floor Commercial Store
Bus Station & Parking Garage
Connect the Neighborhood with Bike Paths
Connect to the City with New Bus Station
Utilizing the two new tunnels and the new recreation park a new layer of bike trails connects the new mixed use center to surrounding neighborhoods.
A new bus transfer station is located in a central location to provide a high level of connectivity for the emerging center. 209
The Spine Sequence 2 - The Pedestrian Street
Existing Department Store
Commercial Store
Description
Stormwater Canal
The pedestrian street has varying widths to accomodate diďŹ&#x20AC;erent programs. In sequence 2, the stormwater channel seperates the active use from the passive user to provide an outdoor seating area. In sequence 3, the stormwater channel signals the river with its more natural design as the street opens up to allow for a public seating area for people watching. The program also is slowly changing to a higher percentage of residential units as one moves away from the mall.
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Cafe
Commercial Store
Section Location
2
3
The Spine Sequence 3 - Breakout Spaces for People Watching
Botanical Garden
Private Yard
Residential Units
Commercial Shop
Stormwater Channel
Breakout Space for Seating
Private Yard
Existing Apartments
Express the Hydrology
Add Residential and Mixed Use Functions
The mall is sited in the river’s flood plain and collects water from the surrounding bluffs. Today the mall’s construction has forced stormwater into one collection zone to the north and one to the south. Both of these channels can be opened up and expressed within the proposed design.
If the mall is to function as a working center, it is essential to raise the number of residential units in the area. By infilling with mixed use and residential buildings it is possible to add nearly 5,000 residents to the area. 211
The Spine Sequence 4 - The River Promenade
Botanical Garden
Delivery Zone
Description
Greenhouses
The pedestrian spine ends with a celebration of the riperian landscape. The botanical garden sets the tone as it showcases the local ďŹ&#x201A;ora in a new civic space. Next to the river local stone is used for seating and a terrace is created to allow visitors to touch and utilize the river. And once one crosses the river the character changes into a more natural design that is bolstered by the ďŹ rst beach on the river within the city.
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Pedestrian Path
Boat Launch
The Big Sioux River
Section Location
4
The Spine Sequence 5 - The Beach & The Landscape
Renaturalized River Bank
Swimming Area
Pull the River in with Blue Green Loops
Beach
Recreation Path
Renaturalized Riparian Area
Recreation Path
Because the west bank is densiďŹ ed it is important to pull the presence of the river into the new neighborhood. This can be achieved by utilizing the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hydrology and greening the stormwater corridors. By creating a green loop that is associated with the proposed bike path links, the daily experience of the neighborhood can be a green one.
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On Saturdays in the summer the beach ďŹ lls up with people. Local residents have never had the opportunity to swim in their river before. People of all ages and economic groups mingle. The beach has become a social hub and spontaneous meeting place as its only a 5 minute walk from the bus station.
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The Dimension of Time
Key:
Administration
Commercial Development
Map of Key Projects
2 3
4 5
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1
Parks & Greenway
Housing
Infrastructural
Transportation
Key Projects
The revitilzation of the mall depends on 5 key projects that need to be strategically phased over time. Below is a listing of the critical projects in chronilogical order of suggested implementation. 1. Establishing the Beach 2. Relocating the Bus Station to Mall 3. Cutting Up the Mall - The Pedestrian Spine 4. The Waterfront Promenade & Housing Development 5. The Botanical Garden
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8.4 - Test Site #3
The Live Work Medical Research Hub A Vision for Restructuring a Monofunctional Job Center
With well over 5,000 established jobs, the N. Cliff Avenue development corridor is a regional job center with strong connections to the city’s airport and major highways. This neighborhood is currently filled with a sea of asphalt and extremely large scale development plots. The exploration in the following pages shows how this neighborhood could be reorganized using the relocation of a proposed medical research campus and residential infill.
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After a morning rain, Jon is returning from his lunch break. He enjoys the 5 minute bike home for lunch to his new row house off cliff avenue. Going through the new Sanford Medical Research campus Jon overhears a group of researches enjoying a stimulating lunch conversation about a research paper they are currently writing. Further on, Jon notices the stormwater channel has filled up and is proud that he lives in a community that respects the environment.
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8
5 2
6 3
10 7 4
1
9
The Legend 1. Big Sioux River (Diversion Channel) 2. CitiBank Corporate Campus 3. Wells Fargo Corporate Campus 4. Daktronics 220
5. 60th Street North 6. Minnesota Avenue 7. CliďŹ&#x20AC; Avenue 8. Interstate 90
9. Airport 10. Railroad Track
16 13 13
10
12
2
12
3 6 5
9 14
12
7
11 4
6
12
15
1 8
1. Big Sioux River (Diversion Channel) 2. CitiBank Corporate Campus 3. Wells Fargo Corporate Campus 4. Daktronics
5. Central Park 6. Neighborhood Park 7. Research Corridor 8. Public Swimming
9. Kayak Landing 10. Sport Fields 11. Public Square 12. Proposed Housing
13. Proposed Industry 14. Minnesota Avenue 15. CliďŹ&#x20AC; Avenue 16. Interstate 90 221
The Two Big Moves
The River and Stormwater Meet
Today the diversion channel is a backside reinforced by a dike. The plan looks to begin a process of allowing the character of the diversion channel into the neighborhood by reconďŹ guring the dike with ďŹ&#x201A;ood gates and opening up the natural drainage channels within the neighborhood.
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Research Axis Reaches for the River
An existing street has been reconďŹ gured to house a mixed use medical research campus that has the potential for 5 million square feet of development. Based on cenral park that houses the centers main public transit hub, the research axis reaches the river to the west and the bluďŹ&#x20AC; to the east. 223
Park Space is Central
Parking and Kid Drop OďŹ&#x20AC;
Existing Daycare Facility
Description
New Median
Rain Garden
Mediating between the existing buildings and the new reserach facilities a new park space provides a stage for a new public transportation link and civic meeting space. Incorporating an existing stormwater channel, the park handles a large portion of the neighborhoods stormwater while asserting a new landscape aesthetic, the native prairie.
Section Location
A
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Bus Only Lane
Bus Stop
Pedestrian Path
5 Minute Walk to Bus Stops
Native Prairie Plantings
Stormwater Channel
Outdoor Dining
Pedestrian Path
Research Facility
Parks Connected with Green Streets
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Letting the Water In
Existing Railroad Track
Planted Dike
Description
Wetland for water Cleaning
Diversion Channel
The dike no longer has to make the river a backside. By transforming the dike through a series of terraces and a process of revegetation, new waterfront property is made while at the same time bringing new qualities to the river greenway. A small pocket of water brings the river into the neighborhood and oďŹ&#x20AC;ers a safe and convenient landing for kayakers while increasing the surrounding residential values.
Planted Dike
Section Location
B
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Rain Garden
Bike Trail
Private Garden
Mixed Use Building
Local Rail Line
Industry Organized using Railroad
Dock
Dock
Boat House & Rentals
Bike Access to the River Greenway
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Quality Neighborhood Parks Increase Quality of Life
Mixed Use Building
Medical Research Corridor
Breakout Space for Cafe
Description
Private Roof Top Garden for Residential Units
New housing typologies are introduced into the neighborhood to increase the number of residents and support public life. Capitalizing on the smaller scale street structure, new housing is mixed into the neighborhood as well as throughout the research corridor. The neighborhood park space utilizes newly created topography and existing stormwater ďŹ&#x201A;ows to create dynamic park spaces that capture the local kidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s imaginations.
Balconies Overlook the Park
Section Location
C
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Break Space for Researchers
Bike Trail
Kids Play
ds yground
Prairie Mound Play Area
Local Street with bike lane and on street parking
New Layers Added to Existing Grid
Garage
Alley
Apartments
Row Houses
Residence Located for Walkability
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Key Projects
The organization and densiďŹ cation of the N. CliďŹ&#x20AC; Avenue area depends on 5 critical projects. The most critical being the proposed medical research corridor and its phasing. Other critical projects include the organization of the neighborhoods industrial development around a new rail line, a new identity giving elementary school, an upgraded waterfront, and a new layer of housing.
Phase 1 - Medical Research Corridor
1. Medical Research Corridor 2. Rail Line & Industrial Organization 3. New Elementary School 4. Waterfront Promenade 5. Housing and Residential Streets
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Key:
Administration
Commercial Development
Phase 2 - Medical Research Corridor
Parks & Greenway
Housing
Phase 3 - Medical Research Corridor
Infrastructural
Transportation
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ChapterEstablishing 9: Ideas on Implementation an Agenda for a More Sustainable Tomorrow
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9.1 Transformation to Sustainability
Today, our world faces challenges of an unprecedented proportion. On a global scale, we face the challenges of climate change, a more competitive and interlinked economy, and a ri. On a national level we are facing drastic budget cuts, an obesity epidemic, and a decline in aďŹ&#x20AC;ordability for the middle class. And on a regional level we are facing low wages, a decling rural population, and growing metropolitan areas. These challenges are overwhelming and therefore easy to put oďŹ&#x20AC; until another day. Yet, its now time to ask if not now, then when? When will we explore the opportunities these challenges are presenting for making our world a better place? Change never comes easy as the status quo always oďŹ&#x20AC;ers the path of least resistance, but the status quo has been fractured. The dream that gave us the drive-in culture, the fast paced lifestyle, and the consumption based society can no longer be maintained. It is time to dream a new dream. It is time to pioneer a new way forward. It is time for Sioux Falls to open its collective creative mind and begin a transformation to sustainability. This call for change believes it is time for everyone to strive to be better Americans. We must strive to be more companssionate and loving people. We must push aside our preconceived ideas about tomorrow and open our minds to the opportunities of today. It is time for us all to creatively envision a tomorrow that exeeds the expectations of today.
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Conclusion 1. Study Societal Costs of Outward Expansion
One of the biggest barriers to sustainable development in Sioux Falls is a missing study that quantifies the cost of outward expansion. The first step in the proposed plan is an independent audit by a team of researchers to study the holisitc societal cost of the city’s outward expansion. The study should quantify the cost of infrastructural expansion, the life cycles cost of infrastructure maintenance, the gap between developer costs and real development costs, the lost potentials of infill development, the individual costs associated with a car based lifestyle, the cost of free parking, as well as the loss or gain of social capital. These should all be comparatively assessed against infill development currently be undertaken across the country and globe. 236
Conclusion 2. Form a Task Force to Study the Economic Impact of a Growth Boundary
Based on the societal costs of outward expansion study and the current subdization of road construction and free parking, a task force should be assigned to investigate the economic impacts of creating a legally enforcable growth boundary. Emphasis in the discussions should be given to overall society impacts over individual land developer concerns.
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The Sustainable Transportation Plan
Conclusion 3. Reduce Road Construction Subsidies; Fund Public Transportation Improvements
The 2011 budget spends 17% on road and highways within the city and only 2% on the city’s public transportation system. If the city redistributed all the money to be spent on widening existing roads to public transportation improvements, the 3 proposed bus hubs could be built and multiple new bus lines could be brought on line by 2035.
Conclusion 4. Form & strengthen regional and county planning relationships.
Sioux Falls is the leading regional hub and must educate, support and pull together the surrounding municipalities in the spirit of creating a synergetic region. The planning of Sioux Falls has the potential to set regional precedents and influence county policy. By promoting a growth from within agenda across the county and region, Sioux Falls could shape planning throughout Eastern South Dakota, Southwestern Minnesota, and Northwestern Iowa.
Conclusion 5. Hold an annual symposium on urban development and sustainable cities.
Today, Sioux Falls’ discussion on urbanism is nearly none existent. While the revitalization of downtown has recieved attention from a number of local architects, the city as a whole is nearly void of theoretical discussion. By inviting prominent regional guests and one keynote international speaker, an annual symposium could be organized to energize the conversation throughout the city. The symposium should be open to the public and marketed as an education opportunity for teenagers, college students, and professionals alike.
Conclusion 6. Restructure Zoning Codes and policies to embrace holistic, sustainable thinking.
The exploratory zoom ins presented in this book could never be built according to current zoning standards that require large setbacks, extensive buffer zones, and seperated functions. Because the zoning code legally controls development, it is critical that the city reexamine its current zoning codes and better align them with the holistic thinking that is necessary to achieve sustainable development.
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Conclusion 7. Develop a 3 person Creative Skteching Team within the Planning OďŹ&#x192;ce
To transform the planning oďŹ&#x192;ce from a reactive government body into a proactive one, the city should develop a team of designers interested in exploring the hidden potentials of the city through innovative analysis, design sketching, lifestyle envisioning, and image creation. Although many of the sketches will result in dead ends, it is critical to energize todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban development discussion with physical proposals, imagery of alternative lifestyles, and drawings that spark new discussions about the utilization of space. By encouraging a process of research by design, the city can put itself in a position to consistently evolve within the changing marketplace while also showcasing future development potenials.
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Conclusion 8. Create a city wide wellness plan to reduce obesity below 15% by 2020.
Conclusion 9. Create an Urban Life Plan. Hire an Urban Curator to coordinate events!
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Image of Prairie Potholes from the US Fish and Wildlife
Conclusion 10. Commission a Study of the Landscape Surrounding the City
Today, the sheer volume of open land has render the landscape valueless in the eyes of many residents. However, the landscape is quite spectular and has incredible value. Because of this the academic community in cooperation with the city should work to define the landscape’s unique characteristics, incredible ecological value, and future recreational potential. The study should define a series of strategies for protecting the natural landscape. 241
Conclusion 11. Create new mechanisms for supporting start-up companies with an interest in sustainability. Mechansims should include partnerships with regional universities, research grants, guaranteed loans, and subsidized oďŹ&#x192;ce space.
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graphic from cleantechbiz.blogspot.com
Conclusion 12. Provide grants for industries interested in creating sustainable campuses.
Industrial development should be supported and helped to push a more environmentally sensitive agenda. One key project identiďŹ ed in the master plan is the John Merillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Meat Packing Plant in the northern portion of downtown. Merillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s should be solicited to see if they have any interest in promoting a sustainable agenda and marketing campaign as they would be an ideal pilot project for the region. 243
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Conclusion 13. Form a Development Corporation to support public-private partnerships to help Fund InďŹ ll Development and Landscape Improvements along the Big Sioux River. Sponsor 20 key building projects over a 10 year period.
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