13 minute read
Chavez Foster
Chavez Foster Pharmacist
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A Few months ago, I was invited to Stanford University’s 2022 graduation from the Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering. I was in awe at the number of Ph.D. theses in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the realisation that these works were poised to unlock a lot of information which could enable greater conveniences in numerous specialties and disciplines of life. This was a great reminder of how much the world is evolving, and that the demands of mankind are burgeoning as we try to do more work in a shorter time. It should therefore come as no surprise, that artificial intelligence is being explored at depths, to help us create solutions and grow businesses. Dr. V.R. Palanivelu and Sona Vasanthi (2020) noted in a study that AI is seeing the most growth in the business sector, as companies can reach bigger audiences with great efficiency in services. AI’s popularity and utilization are growing and making a great impact in numerous fields. Harvard Business Review contributors Thomas Daveport and Rajeev Ronanki (2018) also highlighted that cognitive technologies are increasingly being used to solve business problems; indeed, many executives believe that AI will substantially transform their companies within three years. Artificial Intelligence refers to the stimulus of machines to dispense human/human-like intelligence. Machines are being programmed to think independently and produce human-like responses. Professor John McCarthy (2004) while at Stanford University defined Artificial Intelligence as the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to biologically observable methods. Tech research and consultancy company Gartner Inc (2022) underlines the fact that AI applies to advanced analysis and logic-based techniques, including machine learning, to interpret events, support and automate decisions, and take actions. AI can be grouped as strong AI (machine learning and deep learning applications) and weak AI (Siri, Alexa, and facial recognition). Traditionally the thought of computer programs exhibiting human intelligence has led to numerous conversations about “opening pandora box”; ethical considerations; and job security. However, Artificial Intelligence has helped us to solve numerous problems over years and created numerous solutions. AI is becoming increasingly popular and IBM Cloud Education (2020) lists a few of the common AI systems examples as Speech Recognition, Customer Service, Computer Vision, Recommendation Engines, automated stock trading, and fraud detection. These are systems we utilize daily to make life easier and less complicated from Siri to Alexa and facial recognition to more complex applications as seen in the tesla cars. AI boasts and promises growth and success in numerous disciplines and fields. Healthcare is one such field, specifically pharmacy and the pharmaceutical industry.
Artificial Intelligence in Pharmacy……….cont’d
The Pharmaceutical Industry has experienced tremendous growth in recent decades as a result of AI. AI is now being utilized in drug discovery and development, as well as the analysis of clinical trial data. Pfizer stated that thanks to process and technology optimizations, including a new machine learning tool known as Smart Data Query (SDQ): the COVID-19 vaccine clinical trial data was ready to be reviewed a mere 22 hours after meeting the primary efficacy case counts. Drug companies are progressively partnering with tech companies to meet increasing demands for cures and treatment options with minimal side effects. Sanofi and Atomwise recently crafted a billion-dollar partnership that will see the utilization of the AI platform Atomnet, to uncover and study up to five drugs. Softigel by Procaps has been creatively improving the technologies used to create softgels and other dosage forms, to aid the mode of administration and improve adherence. Several of the top pharmaceutical companies are partnering with AI organizations to develop systems to add value to their marketing, research, and productivity. AlphaFold is an AI program that can predict protein structures; this program recently opened the doors to endless possibilities in drug discovery. There is also nano-robotic AI which is being utilized to improve drug delivery and minimise adverse events. The pharmacist’s role continues to evolve with a widened scope of practice. Pharmacists are increasingly pressed with administrative responsibilities, phone calls, and documentation among other tasks. In 2017, the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) shared data from a survey of seventy-four responding countries and territories, representing 5,614 million people (76 % of the world’s population), which revealed that out of a total of 4,067,718 licensed or registered pharmacists, only 2,824984 are actively practicing. This may indicate a need for more pharmacists, but it is also an opportunity for pharmacies to consider the utilization of more AI applications in the dispensaries. The varying tasks in the dispensary sometimes result in a shortened time with patients. AI has the potential to impact the way the dispensary operates positively. Pharmacies can benefit from applications to improve patient compliance, support patient interventions and adherence, along with analyzing data to support guidelines and healthcare policies, amongst other things. Fitbits and tracking devices are very popular and can capture health data for patients that can impact their respective therapeutic management. Pharmacies can utilize these devices in their community health programs. Automated Delivery Systems (ADS) are used to dispense and supply patients’ medication. Director of Pharmacy Practice Laboratories at Wingate University Dr Nicholas Ferencz (2014) noted that ADS are an opportune way for patients to obtain drugs, but only if a pharmacist and other caregivers can intervene, when needed, before administration of the drugs received through such systems. There is also Kirby, which can count large quantities of tablets and capsules. The software in the dispensaries is becoming more eloquent to capture drug interactions and prescription-related problems while flagging discrepancies.
Artificial Intelligence in Pharmacy……….cont’d
Inventory, Telemedicine, emails, and automated response are areas poised to benefit meaningfully with AI applications in the dispensary. Researchers at Harvard John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) shared their findings on the use of AI systems to identify those who may be better suited to promote healthy behaviors in social groups and reduce associated risks.
The ethical concerns for artificial intelligence are numerous. AI is revolutionary and the need for ethical guidelines and committees to address the issues around Data Protection, Patient Privacy, Biases & Prejudices in creating AI Algorithms, Environmental Impact, Politics, the possibility of AI replacing Humans, and transparency in AI software, is growing exponentially. The conversation of opening pandora's box became more popular recently after a former Google engineer, Blake Lemonie (2022) voiced concerns about LaMDA, a google application in the works that potentially possess sentient abilities, in addition to human intelligence. How much is enough? At what point do we stop these AI explorations? Will sentient machines with machine learning abilities replace humans? Who will be responsible for possible errors in AI software? These are just a few questions that need consideration as the conversation surrounding AI evolves. Mankind is constantly searching for ways to make life easier and more efficient; but how much is enough? Jeff Goulbum in the Famous Jurassic Park Movie (1993) said, “Your scientists were so preoccupied with whether or not they could that they didn’t stop to think if they should.” Some pundits believe that the hype around AI will fade with time, as some of the predictions are overly ambitious. The developments continue to evolve, and as such, it is an opportune time for ethical groups and pharmacy groups to become a part of the conversation in their respective regions to maximize the utilization of AI for benefits; and reduce the postulated risks.
Artificial Intelligence has played and continues to play a pivotal role in disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment in the healthcare sector. There are several issues to be addressed about Artificial Intelligence, but there are also with numerous prospects to be explored for a brighter tomorrow. There are several research currently being pursued with the hopes of making greater impacts and advances. Government officials, healthcare policymakers, ethicists, and AI technocrats should ensure that ethical concerns are addressed and that these intelligent technologies will propagate more good with minimal harm. Under-Secretary-General for Political and Peacebuilding Affairs Rosemary DiCarlo (2022) told the United Nations Secretary Council that “We have a critical opportunity to build consensus on how digital technologies can be used for the good of people and the planet while addressing their risks; But collective action by Member States remains essential towards this goal”. Pharmacists and Pharmacies should align themselves to seize and create newer opportunities via training and workshops in AI. Whilst the initial cost to implement some of these AI applications may seem exorbitant, with the correct strategy and system, the returns are likely to worthwhile
Artificial Intelligence in Pharmacy……….cont’d
References
1. Blake Lemonie 2022, Google Engineer on his sentient AI claims interview with Bloomberg Technology. Retrieved August 1, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=kgCUn4fQTsc 2. Caricom 2022, More consensus needed over digital technology for ‘people and the planet’ Retrieved August 07, 2022, from: https://today.caricom.org/2022/05/24/more-consensusneeded-over-digital-technology-for-people-and-the-planet/ 3. Gartner Inc 2022, Gartner Glossary: Artificial Intelligence (AI). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/artificialintelligence 4. IBM Cloud Education 2020, Artificial Intelligence (AI), retrieved August 02, 2022, from: https://www.ibm.com/cloud/learn/what-is-artificial-intelligence 5. John McCarthy 2004, What is Artificial Intelligence? Retrieved August 02, 2022, from: http://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/whatisai/whatisai.pdf 6. Leah Burrows 2021, AI can help reduce the risk of HIV in high-risk communities Retrieved August 07, 2022, from: https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2021/02/using-ai-toreduce-the-risk-of-hiv/ 5. Nicholas Ferencz 2014, Safety of Automated Dispensing System. Retrieved August 07, 2022, from: 6. https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/safety-of-automated-dispensing-systems 7. Pfizer, how a Novel ‘Incubation Sandbox’ Helped Speed Up Data Analysis in Pfizer’s COVID-19 Vaccine Trial. Retrieved August 07, 2022, from: https://www.pfizer.com/news/ articles/ how_a_novel_incubation_sandbox_helped_speed_up_data_analysis_in_pfizer_s_covid_19 _vaccine_trial 8. Rosemary DiCarlo 2022, Remarks by Under-Secretary-General Rosemary DiCarlo to the Security Council on Technology and Conflict. Retrieved August 01, 2022 from: https:// dppa.un.org/en/remarks-under-secretary-general-rosemary-dicarlo-to-security-counciltechnology-and-conflict 9. Thomas Davenport and Rajeev Rononki 2018, AI and Machine Learning: Artificial Intelligence for the Real World. Retrieved August 07, 2022, from: https://hbr.org/2018/01/ artificial-intelligence-for-the-real-world 10. VR Palanivelu and B Vasanthi (2020), Role of artificial intelligence in business transformation retrieved August 06, 2022, from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Palani-Velu/ publication/345304894_ROLE_OF_ARTIFICIAL_INTELLIGENCE_IN_BUSINESS_TRANSFO RMATION/links/5fa24741a6fdccfd7b9b7be0/ROLE-OF-ARTIFICIAL-INTELLIGENCEIN-BUSINESS-TRANSFORMATION.pdf
Shereen Cox
President, Bioethics Society of the English-Speaking Caribbean
Doctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Medical Ethics, University of Oslo
22
Scientific Progress and Ethics: the Responsible Stewardship of Technological Advancement By: Shereen Cox
"Scientific progress makes moral progress a necessity; for if man's power is increased, the checks that restrain him from abusing it must be strengthened" (Madame de Stael)
Technological advancement over the past century has made what was once considered fiction a reality. While many gave no more than a passing thought to the drama of fighting deviants in science fiction movies released by Marvel and DC movie industries, others were fascinated by the possibilities. Imagine being invincible and evading death (immortality) like Wolverine or to get to live through centuries and never age like Captain America (longevity). Significant investments by a group of individuals who are purporting a philosophy known as transhumanism are realizing some of these fantasies that were was once considered only an excellent script for the movies. We are now on the cusp of a new paradigm of living – an era where human lives are intertwined with technology. An era where technology is so advanced that algorithms guide clinical diagnosis and treatments, and cure disabilities. Technological advancement is geared towards human enhancement cognitively, physically, and socially. The spectrum includes gene therapy, regenerative medicine, advanced bionic technology (cyborgs), and applications of artificial intelligence in research and health. These enable advancement in managing disease and have provided possibilities for longevity and enhanced levels of intelligence, key features of the so-called transhumanist movement.
Transhumanism is a philosophical belief that advancements in science and technology will transform humans beyond our current capabilities. This is becoming a growing and highly controversial global sociopolitical movement (Porter, 2017). Despite the controversial dimension of transhumanism, we must acknowledge that mankind is progressing scientifically, and the plethora of possibilities and repercussions will be the subject of endless debates by scientists, moral philosophers, anthropologists, social scientists, politicians, and ordinary citizens. One scholar early in the discourse on the impact of technology on human life is David Collingridge. He disputed what is now notably known as the Collingridge Dilemma. He posits that with the advancement in technology, society is faced with both an information problem and a power problem. Firstly, it is difficult to predict the consequences of technology during the developmental stage (information deficit), and secondly, it is hard to control the technology once it has become part of society (Genus & Stirling, 2018; Wikipedia, n.d.). Adam Thierer describes this dilemma as the pacing problem in that it is challenging to manage technological advancements when the technology is outpacing the regulation of the technology (Thierer, 2018). An approach to this dilemma is responsible research and innovation, where innovation is allowed but with measures to ensure accountability- a form of preemptive control (Genus & Stirling, 2018).
Other scholars have argued for accountability as a suitable response to the Collingridge dilemma, however, accountability may be reactive, e.g. punitive measures for scientific misconduct with-
Scientific Progress and Ethics……….cont’d
Sven Ove Hansson notes, "It is mandatory to limit, regulate, or prevent potentially dangerous technologies even before the scientific proof is established". He outlines four components for responsible stewardship in regulating technology. These are: 1) the threat component, expressed in the phrase "potentially dangerous technologies"; 2) the uncertainty component, expressed in the phrase "even before scientific proof is established"; 3) the action component, expressed in the phrase "to limit, regulate, or prevent"; and 4) the prescription component, expressed in the phrase "is mandatory"(Hansson, 2009).
The WHO promotes six principles for ethical and scientific progress in technologies such as AI. These are also applicable to advanced bionic technology (man/machine integration), regenerative medicine, and genetic manipulation. The principles are 1) protecting human autonomy, 2) promoting human well-being and safety and the public interest, 3) ensuring transparency, explainability, and intelligibility, 4) fostering responsibility and accountability, 5) ensuring inclusiveness and equity, and 6) promoting AI that is responsive and sustainable (WHO, 2021c). The guiding principles are comprehensive and provides a framework for discourse on balancing science with technological advances. Technological advancements in human genome research, AI and regenerative medicine are creating possibilities beyond our imagination but hopefully not beyond our control.
References
1. Genus, A., & Stirling, A. (2018). Collingridge and the dilemma of control: Towards responsible and accountable innovation. Research Policy, 47(1), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/ J.RESPOL.2017.09.012
2. Hansson, S. O. (2009). Risk and Safety in Technology. Philosophy of Technology and
Engineering Sciences, 1069–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-51667-1.50043-4 3. Jensen, S. R. (2020). SIENNA D3.4: Ethical Analysis of Human Enhancement Technologies. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.4068071
4. Porter, A. (2017). Bioethics and Transhumanism. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy:A
Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy, 42(3), 237–260. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/jhx001 5. Reinares-Lara, E., Olarte-Pascual, C., & Pelegrín-Borondo, J. (2018). Do you want to be a cyborg? The moderating effect of ethics on neural implant acceptance. Computers in Human
Behavior, 85, 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHB.2018.03.032
6. Thierer, A. (2018). The Pacing Problem, the Collingridge Dilemma & Technological Deter minism. In The technology Liberation Front. https://techliberation.com/2018/08/16/the-pacingproblem-the-collingridge-dilemma-technological-determinism/
7. WHO. (2021c). WHO issues first global report on Artificial Intelligence (AI) in health and six guiding principles for its design and use. In World Health Organisation. https://www.who.int/ news/item/28-06-2021-who-issues-first-global-report-on-ai-in-health-and-six-guidingprinciples-for-its-design-and-use
Artificial Intelligence in Pharmacy and the Pharmaceutical IndustryChavez Foster
