Design Considerations: Accessible "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal..." - Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 In daily life, as we maneuver through society, nothing is more important yet taken for granted more often than access. For millions of people with disabilities, the access that most of us take for granted is difficult, impossible, or achievable only with the intervention of a third party. We live in what is considered an independent society, yet independent access to programs, facilities, and employment are not easily achievable by many. Physical access is historically the arbiter of success and the source of opportunity in education, employment, and social freedom. Thus, accessibility is a civil rights issue for many people with disabilities and for our society. See the History of Accessible Building Design to learn more.
Definition and Goals of Accessible Design If we live long enough, all of us may eventually have a disability that requires a modification of the built environment. The number of Americans having a disability is projected to grow rapidly as our population ages. One outgrowth of this is that the line between who is and who is not a person with a disability will steadily erode. We must redefine and redirect our traditional understanding of designing for accessibility to not only include those persons permanently disabled, but also those temporarily disabled due to an injury as well as any other potentially debilitating condition.
Provide Equal Access For Americans with disabilities, access means simply being able to use, enjoy, and participate in the many aspects of society, including work, commerce, and leisure activities. While removing architectural barriers may allow people with disabilities to circulate within and around a facility, other factors, such as transportation, affect their ability to fully participate in activities. Designers and other suppliers of services and goods need to provide equal access for all without undermining the needs of people with disabilities.
of practical results. Good architecture achieves useful, humane and economical results, regardless of what that result looks like. The early 21st century is a remarkable period in architecture because the continuation of traditional styles includes both pre-Modern historical styles in great variety (Classical and its many derivatives, Romanesque, Gothic, Victorian, Craftsman, Art Deco, Post-Modern) and Modern forms which now have their own traditions, as well as the continuingly evolving forms of contemporary architecture. This variety of appropriate expression can be seen in these two examples of federal building projects. The overall scope of architecture was first formulated in the first century B.C. by Vitruvius, a Roman architect who described architecture's obligations to provide commodity (utilitas), firmness (firmitas) and delight (venustas) in the comprehensive guide, "The Ten Books of Architecture". Firmness refers to a building's ability to stand up over time to natural forces. Commodity addresses how the building serves its function and can be made more useful to the occupants. Delight refers to the aesthetics. Delight can also refer to how a building makes you feel: ranging from awe to joy to fear to love to peace. Delight in built space (whether it is positive or negative) can also be auditory, tactile, olfactory, thermal, visual, and even kinesthetic. Although reinterpreted over the centuries, these three aspects of architecture still serve to describe the importance of accommodating the building's requirements, remaining standing, and offering the observer and user an imageable form, a sense of place, and an interpretation of the technology of the time. It is important for the client and building users to be well informed about the possibilities of architecture. This will enable them to assist the architect and design team in providing the building design that will meet the client's and users' needs.
What is "Equal Access"?
One way to become acquainted with the possibilities of a given task is to become familiar with a number of buildings of the same type. New building types emerge constantly in an era of developing technology.
Providing equal access means ensuring all individuals can make use of transportation, buildings and facilities, programs and services, employment opportunities, and technology. It also means offering all users the same provisions for privacy, security, and safety.
Familiarity with architectural ideas is also useful so that the discerning client can understand where the architect and design team stands in the spectrum of possibility. The list of books and websites at the end of this page is a starting point.
Design professionals can promote equal access by incorporating and integrating accessible features throughout a building's program.
Most designers agree that aesthetically successful architecture comes from an integrated approach. The best aesthetic solutions are inspired by the project's programmatic requirements. Beginning with a correctly formulated problem (or program) developed with the client's participation to design reviews involving the delivery team to Facility Performance Evaluations conducted with building occupants, this process leads most effectively to the best aesthetics AND cost-effective, secure/safe, sustainable, accessible, functional/operational, etc. solution.
Why Provide "Equal Access"? Providing equal access removes discrimination and protects human rights. An accessible built environment provides the opportunity for all people to fully participate in and contribute to their families, communities, and society. Equal access offers individuals the occasion to improve the quality of life and standard of living for themselves, their families, and other people in the world. Finally, providing equal access is required, to varying degrees, in order to meet applicable building codes, accessibility standards, and accessibility guidelines.
How Do We Achieve "Equal Access"? Equal access must be an integral part of the life-cycle process (planning, programming, design, construction, operation, and maintenance) of buildings and facilities, not an afterthought. Accessible features should blend seamlessly with the design. All stakeholders on the project should work together from the start to coordinate and optimize the design of the site and the building. A building and its site should be designed as an integrated whole, rather than as a collection of isolated systems (see also WBDG Functional—Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration). Design and construction decisions impact accessibility. Single building elements or systems should not be added, deleted, or modified anytime in the life of the building until they are coordinated and evaluated with the other elements and systems in the whole building package and with all parties involved. Keep in mind that "equal access" applies to programs, services, benefits, transportation, fixtures, furnishings, equipment, employment opportunities, and technology. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in aspects of all programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial assistance, in Federal employment, in the employment practices of Federal contractors, and in federal procurement practices. During the early stages of developing a building, when the planning, programming, and concept design are being shaped and molded, there may be many goals. An owner may talk about the ultimate design providing a "user-friendly work environment" and "future flexibility." What exactly does this mean? Physically, these concepts are demonstrated with spaces that can be easily modified and that can serve a variety of purposes for a diverse group of users. Flexible design principles include spaces that: -are easy to modify, can serve multiple uses and/or users, accommodate future technologies and are life-cycle cost-effective. Aesthetics Overview aes•thet•ics: 1: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of the beautiful and with judgments concerning beauty… Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy which studies concepts of beauty. Not surprisingly, theories of beauty vary over time and reflect preferences which, when widely agreed upon are called taste, and which also reflect more basic currents of thought in societies. The term does not describe an additional element added to, say, sub-art to make it better - rather aesthetics is simply a realm of study, free of specific values. Architecture is subject to evolving concepts of beauty, just like the other arts. Most obviously, aesthetic theories in architecture are related to what buildings should look like - these preferences change and are most cogently discussed as history, after those preferences have achieved realization as buildings. The appearance of buildings is also inherently a choice which is made by the architect in full collaboration with the client, building users, other consultants, and the public, in the achievement
Find the Appropriate Language and Elements of Design Overview Detail of Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Building—St. Louis, MO In the late nineteenth century, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan wrote, "Form follows function." This dictum became one of the rallying cries of twentieth century modern design, and remains one of the best known architectural aphorisms today. What Sullivan implied was that architecture—or in his phrase, "form,"—is a natural consequence of meeting functional requirements. For many, particularly those uncomfortable with the subjective and decorative dimension of design, this was an appealing message. But even a cursory look at Sullivan's own architecture reveals that his work is far from purely functional. Indeed, Sullivan is often described as one of the greatest ornamental detailers in American architectural history. It was this aspect of his work that attracted his most famous protégé, Frank Lloyd Wright. Countering Sullivan's position, it has also been argued¹ that there is no such thing as a purely utilitarian object—that there are always multiple ways of meeting the same functional objective (for example, getting people from the first floor to the second; bringing light into a room; or making a hinge). Once a choice has been made, an aesthetic consideration has come into play. The architect is responsible for integrating the design elements of the building and will make decisions and selections which support this integration. The point is that while it is appealing to reduce design decision making to a brief set of rules or axioms, nearly all designers agree it is impossible to do so. It is also essential to be aware of current social, economic, and technnological developments which continue to change what is possible in the realm of aesthetics.
The Language of Aesthetics It is relatively easy to determine if a given design contains the right square footage or the right number of rooms. It can be more difficult to evaluate its aesthetic success. Complicated, and often conflicting, formal and compositional desires must be weighed in the light of technical, economic, and social constraints. To assist in this process, like most professionals, architects and other designers share a language and vocabulary that helps them reduce complex ideas into short phrases or highly charged terms. An architectural language is a vocabulary of forms arranged according to a particular grammar. The particular forms used become the 'words' of the language and how those forms are put together is the 'grammar' of the language. To the uninitiated, the use of the language and terms can be dismissed as jargon. But, to the designer, this shared terminology is very much at the heart of aesthetic communication. Indeed, designers must be aware that no matter what design language is used, key players on the project team must be able to understand and communicate well with each other (visually and verbally) to produce successful solutions. Cost—Effective "We no longer build buildings like we used to, nor do we pay for them in the same way. Buildings today are... life support systems, communication terminals, data manufacturing centers, and much more, They are incredibly expensive tools that must be constantly adjusted to function efficiently. The economics of building has become as complex as its design." (Wilson, in foreword to Ruegg & Marshall, 1990)
Every owner wants a cost-effective building. But what does this mean? In many respects the interpretation is influenced by an individual's interests and objectives.
Only after the overall risk is fully understood should mitigation measures be identified, prioritized, and implemented. Basic principles underlying this process include:
• Is it the lowest first-cost structure that meets the program? • Is it the design with the lowest operating and maintenance costs? • Is it the building with the longest life span? • Is it the facility in which users are most productive? • Is it the building that offers the greatest return on investment? While an economically efficient project is likely to have one or more of these attributes, it is impossible to summarize cost-effectiveness by a single parameter. Determining true costeffectiveness requires a life-cycle perspective where all costs and benefits of a given project are evaluated and compared over its economic life.
The impacts of natural hazards and the costs of the disasters they cause will be reduced whether mitigation measures are implemented during new construction (preventively) or as retrofits (correctively). Proactively integrating mitigation measures into new construction is typically more economically feasible than retrofitting existing structures. Risk reduction techniques must address as many applicable hazards as possible. This approach, known as multi-hazard mitigation, is the most Cost-Effective approach, maximizes the protective effect of complementary mitigation measures and optimizes multi-hazard design techniques with other building technologies.
In economic terms, a building design is deemed to be cost-effective if it results in benefits equal to those of alternative designs and has lower life-cycle costs. For example, the HVAC system alternative that satisfies the heating and cooling requirements of a building at the minimum lifecycle cost, is the cost-effective HVAC system of choice. The federal government has numerous mandates that define program goals with the expectation that they be achieved cost-effectively. The challenge is often how to determine the true costs and the true benefits of alternative decisions. For example, what is the economic value in electric lighting savings and productivity increases of providing daylight to workplace environments? Or, what is the value of saving historic structures? Alternately, what is the cost of a building integrated photovoltaic system (BIPV), given that it may replace a conventional roof? Historic Preserv ation Overview Preserving historic buildings is essential to understanding our nation's heritage. In addition, it is an environmentally responsible practice. By reusing existing buildings historic preservation is essentially a recycling program of 'historic' proportions. Existing buildings can often be energy efficient through their use of good ventilation, durable materials, and spatial relationships. An immediate advantage of older buildings is that a building already exists; therefore energy is not necessary to create new building materials and the infrastructure is already in place. Minor modifications can be made to adapt existing buildings to compatible new uses. Systems can be upgraded to meet modern building requirements and codes. This not only makes good economic sense, but preserves our legacy and is an inherently sustainable practice. (See also Sustainable and Sustainable Historic Preservation.)
Recommendations Design professionals agree that the most successful way to mitigate losses of life, property, and function is to design buildings that are disaster resistant. This approach should be incorporated into the project planning, design, and development at the earliest possible stage so that design and material decisions can be based on an integrated "whole building approach." A variety of techniques are available to mitigate the effects of natural hazards on the built environment. Depending on the hazards identified, the location and construction type of a proposed building or facility, and the specific performance requirements for the building, the structure can be designed to resist hazard effects such as induced loads. Later in the building's life cycle, additional opportunities to further reduce the risk from natural hazards may exist when renovation projects and repairs of the existing structure is undertaken. When incorporating disaster reduction measures into building design, some or all of the issues outlined below should be considered in order to protect lives, properties, and operations from damages caused by natural hazards. Earthquakes Building design will be influenced by the level of seismic resistance desired. This can range from prevention of nonstructural damage in frequent minor ground shaking to prevention of structural damage and minimization of nonstructural damage in occasional moderate ground shaking, and even avoidance of collapse or serious damage in rare major ground shaking. These performance objectives can be accomplished through a variety of measures such as structural components like shear walls, braced frames, moment resisting frames, and diaphragms, base isolation, energy dissipating devices such as visco-elastic dampers, elastomeric dampers, and hystereticloop dampers, and bracing of nonstructural components. Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tornadoes
Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings, archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Resources Protection Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.
The key strategy to protecting a building from high winds caused by tornados, hurricanes, and gust fronts is to maintain the integrity of the building envelope, including roofs and windows, and to design the structure to withstand the expected lateral and uplift forces. For example, roof trusses and gables must be braced; hurricane straps must be used to strengthen the connection between the roof and walls; and doors and windows must be protected by covering and/or bracing. When planning renovation projects, designers should consider opportunities to upgrade the roof structure and covering and enhance the protection of fenestration. The Additional Resources section of this page includes several FEMA publications for designing community shelters, constructed to protect a large number of people from a natural hazard incident, and "residential safe rooms" for occupant refuge during windstorms.
Productive
Flooding
The Office of Governmentwide Policy at the GSA headquarters building in Washington, DC was designed to maximize flexibility, allowing new occupants to change the space to fit their group and individual needs. Organizations, work practices, and the workforce have changed dramatically in the past two decades. Technological advances, demographic shifts, and continual demands for innovation have created pressures for the workplace to catch up with the changing nature of work.
Flood mitigation is best achieved by hazard avoidance—that is, risk-informed site selection away from coastal, estuarine, and riverine floodplains. Should buildings be sited in flood-prone locations, they should be elevated above expected flood levels to reduce the chances of flooding and to limit the potential damage to the building and its contents when it is flooded. Flood mitigation techniques include elevating the building so that the lowest floor is above the flood level; dry flood-proofing, or making the building watertight to prevent water entry; wet floodproofing, or making uninhabited or non-critical parts of the building resistant to water damage; relocation of the building; and the incorporation of levees and floodwalls into site design to keep water away from the building.
Organizational effectiveness today means using space more wisely. This does not just mean cutting costs. It means designing for flexibility to enable space to change as work groups and projects evolve. Wise use of space also means creating the right context for concentration, learning, communication, and collaboration—the building blocks of productivity. It is often hard to quantify the impacts of specific components of the indoor environment on productivity, because individual and group work effectiveness is tied to many different factors— including compensation levels, management practices, and environmental comfort. It is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate individual physical factors, such as the presence or absence of team rooms, daylighting, natural meeting places, or control over the environment. This problem is exacerbated in the case of white-collar workers whose "output" is knowledge or insight that cannot be easily quantified. Resist Natural Hazards Buildings in any geographic location are subject to a wide variety of natural phenomena such as windstorms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. While the occurrence of these incidents cannot be precisely predicted, their impacts are well understood and can be managed effectively through a comprehensive program of hazard mitigation planning. Hazard Mitigation refers to measures that can reduce or eliminate the vulnerability of the built environment to hazards, whether natural or man-made. The fundamental goal of hazard mitigation is to minimize loss of life, property, and function due to disasters. Designing to resist any hazard(s) should always begin with a comprehensive risk assessment. This process includes identification of the hazards present in the location and an assessment of their potential impacts and effects on the built environment based on existing or anticipated vulnerabilities and potential losses. When hazard mitigation is implemented in a risk-informed manner, every dollar spent on mitigation actions results in an average of four dollars' worth of disaster losses being avoided. It is common for different organizations to use varying nomenclature to refer to the components of risk assessment. For example, actual or potential adversary actions such as sabotage and terrorist attacks are referred to as "threats" by the law enforcement and intelligence communities, while natural phenomena such as hurricanes and floods are generally referred to as "hazards" by emergency managers; however, both are simply forces that have the potential to cause damage, casualties, and loss of function in the built environment. Regardless of who is conducting the risk assessment, the fundamental process of identifying what can happen at a given location, how it can affect the built environment, and what the potential losses could be, remains essentially the same from application to application.
Rainfall and Wind-Driven Rain One of the primary performance requirements for any building is that it should keep the interior space dry. All roofs and walls must therefore shed rainwater, and design requirements are the same everywhere in this respect. For example, roof drainage design must minimize the possibility of ponding water, and existing buildings with flat roofs must be inspected to determine compliance with this requirement. Recommendations for addressing rainfall and wind-driven rain can be found in the International Building Code (IBC) series.
Hazard Mitigation and Sustainability Unsustainable development is one of the major factors in the rising costs of natural disasters. Given that hazard mitigation is at the core of disaster resistance, then, many design strategies and technologies serve double duty, by not only preventing or reducing disaster losses but serving the broader goal of long-term community sustainability. For example, erosion control measures designed to mitigate flood, mudslide, rainstorm, and other damage to a building's foundation may also improve the quality of runoff water entering streams and lakes. Similarly, land use regulations prohibiting development in flood-prone areas may also help preserve the natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. Regardless of whether hazard mitigation is undertaken before or after a disaster—on the basis of a risk assessment in the former case, and as a result of unforeseen damages or a renewed understanding of vulnerability in the latter—it is always an inherently proactive endeavor. In situations where mitigation efforts are integrated into a holistic post-disaster recovery strategy, the principles of sustainability should guide every aspect of the recovery effort. By carefully balancing the full spectrum of interests relating to the built environment, psychosocial recovery, economic redevelopment, and preservation or restoration of the natural environment, an impacted community can ensure that the net result is enhanced long-term disaster resilience.
Climate change Ongoing changes in climate patterns around the world are likely to begin altering the behavior of hydrometeorological phenomena within our lifetimes. The frequency and severity of floods, storms, droughts and other weather-related disasters is expected to increase, as is the risk from associated changes in the manifestation of other hazards such as wildfires. High-performance
buildings should be designed to be part of the solution rather than part of the problem wherever possible, incorporating strategies to both mitigate climate change itself (e.g., greenhouse gas emission reduction) as well as to adapt to changing environmental conditions by leveraging traditional hazard mitigation strategies (e.g., elevating structures in increasingly floodprone areas, creating clear zones around buildings in areas with increasing wildfire risk, etc.). Sustainable Building construction and operation have extensive direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Buildings use resources such as energy, water and raw materials, generate waste (occupant, construction and demolition) and emit potentially harmful atmospheric emissions. Building owners, designers and builders face a unique challenge to meet demands for new and renovated facilities that are accessible, secure, healthy, and productive while minimizing their impact on the environment. Considering the current economic challenges, retrofitting an existing building can be more cost effective than building a new facility. Designing major renovations and retrofits for existing buildings to include sustainability initiatives reduces operation costs and environmental impacts, and can increase building resiliency. Recent answers to this challenge call for an integrated, synergistic approach that considers all phases of the facility life cycle. This approach, often called "sustainable design," supports an increased commitment to environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an optimal balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the mission and function of the intended facility or infrastructure. The main objectives of sustainable design are to avoid resource depletion of energy, water, and raw materials; prevent environmental degradation caused by facilities and infrastructure throughout their life cycle; and create built environments that are livable, comfortable, safe, and productive. EPA's New England Regional Laboratory (NERL) achieved a LEED Version 1.0 Gold rating. From conception the project was charged to "make use of the best commercially-available materials and technologies to minimize consumption of energy and resources and maximize use of natural, recycled and non-toxic materials." Chelmsford, MA While the definition of sustainable building design is constantly changing, six fundamental principles persist. Optimize Site/Existing Structure Potential Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection, including consideration of the reuse or rehabilitation of existing buildings. The location, orientation, and landscaping of a building affect the local ecosystems, transportation methods, and energy use. Incorporate Smart growth principles in the project development process, whether it be a single building, campus or military base. Siting for physical security is a critical issue in optimizing site design, including locations of access roads, parking, vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting. Whether designing a new building or retrofitting an existing building, site design must integrate with sustainable design to achieve a successful project. Optimize Energy Use With America's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, concerns for energy independence and security increasing, and the impacts of global climate change arising, it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable energy resources in federal facilities. Protect and Conserve Water In many parts of the country, fresh water is an increasingly scarce resource. A sustainable building should reduce, control, and/or treat site runoff, use water efficiently, and reuse or recycle water for on-site use, when feasible. Use Environmentally Preferable Products A sustainable building is constructed of materials that minimize life-cycle environmental impacts such as global warming, resource depletion, and human toxicity. Environmentally preferable materials have a reduced effect on human health and the environment and contribute to improved worker safety and health, reduced liabilities, reduced disposal costs, and achievement of environmental goals. Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a building has a significant impact on occupant health, comfort, and productivity. Among other attributes, a sustainable building maximizes daylighting; has appropriate ventilation and moisture control; and avoids the use of materials with high-VOC emissions. Additionally, consider ventilation and filtration to mitigate chemical, biological, and radiological attack. Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices Considering a building's operating and maintenance issues during the preliminary design phase of a facility will contribute to improved working environments, higher productivity, reduced energy and resource costs, and prevented system failures. Encourage building operators and maintenance personnel to participate in the design and development phases to ensure optimal operations and maintenance of the building. Designers can specify materials and systems that simplify and reduce maintenance requirements; require less water, energy, and toxic chemicals and cleaners to maintain; and are cost-effective and reduce life-cycle costs. Additionally, design facilities to include meters in order to track the progress of sustainability initiatives, including reductions in energy and water use and waste generation, in the facility and on site.
Related Issues Building resiliency is the capacity of a building to continue to function and operate under extreme conditions, such as (but not limited to) extreme temperatures, sea level rise, natural disasters, etc. As the built environment faces the impending effects of global climate change, building owners, designers, and builders can design facilities to optimize building resiliency. Building adaptability is the capacity of a building to be used for multiple uses and in multiple ways over the life of the building. For example, designing a building with movable walls/partitions allow for different users to change the space. Additionally, using sustainable design allows for a building to adapt to different environments and conditions.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to: Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design and conservation practices; Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating, photovoltaics, geothermal, and groundwater cooling; Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions and utility interface requirements; Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and optimize system control strategies by using occupancy sensors CO2 sensors and other air quality alarms; and Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, annual reporting, and periodic recommissioning.