Study Guide for Ancient India How to study for your Assessments: START EARLY – NOT THE NIGHT BEFORE THE TEST! Read through your Study Guide multiple times, then cover up part of it and see if you can say it back without looking. Read through the Study Guide some more and highlight the material that you can't say back. Read through the Study Guide some more, only looking at the highlighted parts. Use a different color highlighter to rehighlight the material you still don’t know. Read through the Study Guide some more, only looking at the newly highlighted material. If there is material that you still don’t know, use a 3rd highlighter color to mark that stuff. When you read the Guide again, only look at that 3 rd color highlighted material. Keep going like this until you feel pretty confident that you know the material.
Record yourself reading the material that you don’t know well and listen to the playback while you do chores or are in the car. Draw little pictures of important ideas, or make up rhymes to help you remember. Have a family member quiz you over the material. Write your own test questions over the material. Get with a friend and take turns asking each other test questions over the material. Rewrite the study guide in an outline, art notes, or idea web format and study that version.
GOVERNMENT TARGETS Government Type
TARGET: I can compare the source of power in this government to other governments.
Aryans: The Aryans were organized into tribes. Each tribe was led by a raja, or prince. The rajas ran their own small kingdoms, which often fought among themselves over cattle and treasure and over women kidnapped from other states. These small rival kingdoms existed in India for about a thousand years, from 1500 B.C. to 400 B.C. Mauryan Dynasty: India's first empire was founded by an Indian prince named Chandragupta Maurya. He founded the Mauryan dynasty in 321 B.C. A dynasty is a series of rulers from the same family. To run his empire, Chandragupta set up a centralized government in his capital, Pataliputra. In a centralized government, rulers run everything from a capital city. He controlled his empire with a strong army, a good spy system, and a postal system for communications. Many historians think the empire's greatest king was Asoka. Asoka was a strong military leader, but he came to hate bloodshed. Asoka was history's first great Buddhist king. He built hospitals for people and for animals, too. He built new roads so it was easier to trade and put shelters and shade trees along the roads where travelers could rest. Asoka sent many Buddhist teachers throughout India and the rest of Asia to carry the religion to new believers. In India, laborers carved the Buddha's teachings on stone pillars for people to read. Asoka also had laborers build thousands of stupas. Stupas are Buddhist shrines that have the shape of a dome or mound. Gupta Dynasty: Hundreds of years after the Mauryan dynasty, another prince named Chandragupta founded the Gupta dynasty. When he died, his son, Samudragupta, took over the throne and expanded the Gupta empire in northern India. The Guptas ruled for about 200 years. Gupta rulers had one advantage over the earlier Mauryan kings. The empire was smaller and that made it easier to manage. During the Gupta empire, art and science also began to develop. Earlier, you learned that Greece had a golden age of art and learning. India also had a golden age of art and learning during the Gupta empire. Theocracy in Tibet: In Tibet, the Buddhist leaders, called lamas, also led the government. When religious leaders head a government, it is called a theocracy. The Dalai Lama was the lama who headed the government, and the Panchen Lama was the lama who led the religion. Both were considered reincarnations of the Buddha.
Democratic Principals
TARGET: I can describe how this government used democratic principles (justice, equality, responsibility, freedom).
Although he was a Buddhist, Asoka allowed his Hindu subjects to practice their religion. His tolerance was unusual for the time. India has a long history of “governments by discussion,” in which groups of people having common interests made decisions on matters that affected their lives through debate, consultation, and voting. During Buddha’s times, though the rulers were not elected and the king’s son would succeed his father, the day-to-day decisions of governance were taken in village assemblies. Decisions of village assemblies were respected by the king.
Rights and Responsibilities compared to US citizens
TARGET: I can compare the rights and responsibilities of individuals in this culture to the rights and responsibilities of US citizens today.
India’s caste system promoted discrimination against many members of the society. The caste you were born into decided your career, your marriage, and your social circle. People were not free to move up socially, even if they had the desire and abilities to do so. The Untouchables were denied schools, legal rights, and political representation for a very long time. In the United States, our Constitution guarantees equal rights for all citizens, regardless of gender or financial status. All citizens are treated equally under the law, can exercise their political rights, and have access to public education. While social classes do exist in the US, people can move up or down between them depending on how they choose to live their lives.
CULTURE TARGETS Elements of Culture
TARGET: I can explain how cultural elements in this society helped define this group and give them unique perspectives.
Beliefs Hindus believe in reincarnation, that people pass through many lives to reach the Brahman. It is very important in Hinduism and it influences how Hindus live their daily lives. It even affects how they treat animals because they consider all life sacred. Hindus are vegetarians, or people who don’t eat meat. To earn the reward of a better life in their next life, Hindus believe they must perform their duty. Dharma is the divine law. It requires people to perform the duties of their caste. The consequences of how a person lives are known as karma. If Hindus do their duty and live a good life, they will have good karma. This will move them closer to the Brahman in their next life. The belief in reincarnation made Hindus more accepting of the caste system. People believed they had to be happy with their role in life and do the work of their caste. A dedicated Hindu believes that the people in a higher caste are superior and that they are supposed to be on top. The belief in reincarnation gave hope to everyone, even servants. If servants did their duty, they might be reborn into a higher caste in their next life. It also kept those in power in control of people without power. Customs/traditions One custom shows how the lives of Indian men were considered more important than the lives of Indian women. In India, people were cremated or burned when they died. When a man from a high-caste family died, his wife was expected to leap into the flames. This practice was called suttee. If the wife resisted and did not kill herself, it was a great shame. Everyone would avoid the woman from then on. Language Sanskrit was the language of ancient India. It developed into Hindi—the most widely used language in India today. The earliest example of written Sanskrit appears in the four Vedas—the oldest writings of the Hindu religion. Literature Most Indian literature stresses the importance of dharma. Each person, regardless of social status, must do his or her duty. The Upanishads are ancient religious writings that describe mankind’s search for a universal spirit. Those writings say that every living being has a soul that wants to be reunited with Brahman and that this happens when a person dies. The Vedas of India are ancient hymns and prayers for religious ceremonies. Famous epics in India: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are both long poems about brave warriors and their heroic deeds. The Mahabharata is the longest poem in any written language—about 88,000 verses. It describes a great war for control of an Indian kingdom. The best-known section is the Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord." It is very important in Hindu writings. In it, the god Krishna preaches a sermon before a battle. He tells his listeners how noble it is to do one's duty even when it is difficult and painful. The Ramayana is another epic. It tells of the adventures of a great king Rama and his queen Sita. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana contains many religious and moral lessons. Rama is the perfect hero, king, and son. Sita is the perfect, faithful wife. These poems told thrilling stories about great heroes. The Panchantantra is similar to Aesop's fables. In these tales, talking animal characters present lessons about life. One of India's best-known authors was Kalidasa. He lived during the Gupta dynasty. Kalidasa wrote plays, poems, love stories, and comedies. His poem The Cloud Messenger is a love story that also contains beautiful descriptions of the mountains, forests, and rivers of northern India. Architecture The Harappans left no written records, and we do not know much about their society or government. From the ruins of two of their cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, historians can tell that the royal palace and the temple were both enclosed in the fortress. This reveals that religion and politics were closely connected. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were large, well-planned cities for their time with as many as 35,000 residents. Most houses had flat roofs and were built with mud bricks that were baked in ovens. These ancient city dwellers had some surprising conveniences. Wells supplied water, and residents even had indoor bathrooms. Wastewater flowed to drains under the streets, running through pipes to pits outside the city walls. Houses also had garbage chutes connected to a bin in the street. It is likely the city government was well organized to be able to provide so many services.
Social Institutions influence on behavior
CULTURE TARGETS CONTINUED TARGET: I can investigate how social institutions in this society responded to human needs, structured society, and influenced behavior.
Family In ancient India, the family was the center of life. Grandparents, parents, and children all lived together in an extended family. The oldest man in the family was in charge. Men had many more rights than women. Unless there were no sons in a family, only a man could inherit property. Only men could go to school or become priests. In high-caste families, a boy had a guru, or teacher, until he went to the city for more education. Young men from these families could marry only when they had finished 12 years of schooling. In India, parents arranged marriages for their children. Even today, parents arrange 90 percent of marriages in India. Girls often married as young as 13. Divorce was not allowed, but if a couple could not have children, the husband could marry a second wife. Social Classes The Aryans believed that society was divided into four classes called varnas. In the top varna were Brahmans, the priests—the only people who could perform religious ceremonies. Below them, the Kshatriyas were warriors who ran the government and army. On the next level down were the Vaisyas, or commoners. Vaisyas were usually farmers and merchants. Below them came the Sudras. Sudras were manual laborers and servants and had few rights. Sudras were not Aryans. The name Sudra comes from the Aryan word for the dark-skinned people who had been conquered. Most Indians belonged to the Sudra caste. One of the results of the Aryan invasion of India was the development of a caste system. A caste is a social group that someone is born into and cannot change. A caste dictates what job you will have, whom you can marry, and with whom you can socialize. There was one group so low that it was not even part of the caste system. Its members were called Pariahs, or the Untouchables. They performed work other Indians thought was too dirty, such as collecting trash, skinning animals, or handling dead bodies. Life for an Untouchable was very hard. Most Indians believed that being near an Untouchable was harmful, so they forced them to live apart from others. Religion Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world, and today it is the third largest. Hinduism grew out of the religious customs of many people over thousands of years. This might explain why Hinduism has thousands of gods and goddesses. Hindus tend to think of all gods and goddesses as different parts of one universal spirit. This universal spirit is called Brahman (the priest caste is also called Brahman). Buddhism was a new religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in India. Siddhartha believed that the only way to find the truth about the world was to give up all desires. By giving up the desire for fame, the desire for money, and the desire for all worldly things, pain and sorrow would vanish. If a person gave up all desires, he or she would reach nirvana. Nirvana is not a place but a state of wisdom. Central to his teachings were the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. One reason the Buddha's ideas became popular was that he did not accept the caste system. The Buddha did believe in reincarnation, but with a difference. If people wanted to stop being reborn into new lives, the Buddha said, they would only have to follow his Eightfold Path. Many people liked the Buddha's message, especially Untouchables and low-caste Indians. For the first time, these groups heard that they, too, could reach enlightenment.
Impact of Cultural Differences
TARGET: I can explain how interactions between this society and others led to conflict, compromise, and cooperation.
Conflict Buddhism Splits: As more and more people practiced Buddhism, disagreements arose about the Buddha's ideas. Finally, Buddhists split into two groups. The first was Theravada Buddhism. Theravada means "teachings of the elders." It sees the Buddha as a great teacher, not a god. The second kind of Buddhism is called Mahayana Buddhism. It teaches that the Buddha is a god who came to save people. Mahayana Buddhists believe that following the Eightfold Path is too hard for most people in this world. They believe that by worshiping the Buddha instead, people will go to a heaven after they die. There, they can follow the Eightfold Path and reach nirvana.
ECONOMICS TARGETS Scarcity: decisions about use of natural resources, human resources, & capital goods
TARGET: I can explain how scarcity required this civilization to make decisions about how to use productive resources.
Harappans: Most Harappans were farmers. Aryans: Unlike the Harappans, they were hunters and herders instead of farmers. Because they herded animals, Aryans were nomads. After their cattle, sheep, and goats had grazed a field until it was brown, they moved on in search of fresh grass and water. Like many nomads, Aryans were good warriors. When the Aryans arrived in India, they no longer lived as nomads. They became farmers but continued to raise cattle. The largest cities and towns are situated along major river systems and coastal areas where people could control the movement of goods and raw materials along the trade routes. Built on enormous mud-built platforms high above the floodwaters, the cities had a vantage point from which to view the surrounding plains. Watch towers built along the city walls could provide lookouts to signal the approach of riverboats and caravans. To cover the costs of governing and defense, farmers were required to pay their rulers a share of their grain harvest. This “land tax” was called lagaan.
Supply & Demand
TARGET: I can explain how supply and demand functioned in this civilization.
Harappans: They grew rice, wheat, barley, peas, and cotton. City dwellers made copper and bronze tools, clay pottery, and cotton cloth, as well as jewelry from gold, shells, and ivory. One item rarely found in the ruins of Harappan cities was weapons. This suggests that the Harappans were not only prosperous but also peaceful. Aryans: Cattle were a prized possession because they provided meat, milk, and butter. Cattle were so important that the Aryans even used them as money. Individual wealth was measured by the number of cattle a person owned. Eventually, the Aryans would declare that cattle were sacred and forbid them to be used as food. They were expert horse riders and hunters. They had metal-tipped spears and wooden chariots, which they sometimes used to invade nearby villages for food. India’s varied climate supported many types of crops. In the north, farmers grew cotton and grains such as wheat, barley, and millet. Rice was grown in the river valleys. In the south, there was a mix of crops, including spices such as pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. On the coast, people produced salt in big evaporation flats.
How are goods & services exchanged
TARGET: I can describe how goods and services were exchanged by this civilization.
Local trade was primarily focused on supplying the cities with food and the raw materials for producing tools, status objects and trade goods. Trade was conducted through a barter system initially, and later through the use of coins. Many Indians were involved in trade. From the Harappan period on, Indian people were selling West Asian things like gold to people in China, and Chinese things like silk and pottery to people in West Asia. Traders in India also exported Indian things to China and West Asia, especially iron, salt, cotton cloth, and spices like cinnamon and pepper. All this trade made India a very rich country. But because the trade mainly went through northern India, the northern part of India was usually richer than the southern part. After a while, people began to trade using ships on the ocean, which was safer and easier than using pack animals on land. This was good for South India, because some of the ships went to ports in the south, or sailed right around the south of India. Trade created jobs for people in India and made many people and cities prosperous. Cities grew up along the trade routes, and many people traveled. Some people, called pilgrims, traveled for religious reasons. They often used the trade routes to travel to a religious shrine or site. Just as cities today make money from tourism, Indian cities that were famous for their temples became wealthy from visiting pilgrims.
Productivity increases from new knowledge, tools, & specialization
TARGET: I can give examples of ways this civilization was able to increase productivity through inventions and innovations.
Aryans were skilled ironworkers, and they improved farming in India. They invented an iron plow to help clear India’s many jungles and built canals to irrigate. They slowly turned the Ganges River valley into good farmland. Indian mathematicians, especially in the Gupta period, made important contributions. Aryabhata was the leading mathematician of the Gupta empire. He was one of the first scientists known to have used algebra. Indian mathematicians developed the idea of zero and a symbol to represent it. They also explained the concept of infinity–something without an end.
GEOGRAPHY TARGETS Relative Location
TARGET: I can recognize where on the Earth this civilization was located.
India is a subcontinent because even though it is part of Asia, huge mountains make a barrier between India and the rest of Asia. These mountains are the Himalaya, the highest mountains in the world. The Arabian Sea is off India’s west coast, the Indian Ocean is off the southern coast, and the Bay of Bengal is off India’s east coast. Today, there are five nations that occupy the Indian subcontinent: India, Pakistan in the northwest, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh in the northeast.
Physical Region Type
TARGET: I can describe characteristics of this region.
India has two very fertile river valleys. Both are fed by the mountains in the north. When the snow in the Himalaya melts, water flows into the Ganges River and the Indus River. The Ganges River runs south of the Himalaya and flows into the Indian Ocean. The Indus River flows west into the Arabian Sea. The area around the Indus is called the Indus River valley. South of the river valleys is the dry and hilly Deccan Plateau. The eastern and western coasts of India are lush, fertile plains. Monsoons are an important part of the Indian climate. A monsoon is a strong wind that blows one direction in winter and the opposite direction in summer. The winter monsoon brings the cold, dry air of the mountains. The summer monsoon brings warm, wet air from the Arabian Sea, which produces drenching rains.
Human Environment Interactions
TARGET: I can describe how this society’s human/environment interactions impacted human activities and the environment.
Migration The Aryans lived in central and south central Asia. After 2000 B.C., the Aryans began migrating through the mountain passes in the Himalaya. They entered the Indus River valley and by 1000 B.C., the Aryans had conquered the Harappans and controlled northern India. Later, they would move into the Deccan Plateau and conquer everything except the southern tip of India. Settlement The first civilization grew up near the Indus River. Because people had a surplus of food, they could spend time doing other things, such as making tools or building houses. As people began to trade their extra food and goods with other people, their wealth grew. This allowed them to build larger and larger cities. India's first civilization in the Indus River valley is called the Harappan or Indus civilization. More than a thousand villages and towns were part of this civilization, which stretched from the Himalaya to the Arabian Sea. We know something about the way these people lived from studying the ruins of two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Harappan civilization collapsed about 1500 B.C. Historians think that several earthquakes and floods damaged the cities. Then the Indus River changed its course, killing many people and forcing others to flee the area. At the same time, a group of people called the Aryans invaded the river valley and destroyed the Harappan civilization. Trade Overland trade would have been undertaken after the monsoon rains are over. Sea trade was helped by the monsoon winds. The northeast monsoon winds would have pushed boats west towards the Red Sea from May to June while the south-easterly winds in August would have provided wind power for the return journey east. Development In India, just as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the first civilizations developed in fertile river valleys. Activities limited or promoted by environment The climate affects the agricultural production in the country. If the rains come on time and the rainy season lasts long enough, the crop will be good. Failure of rains results in the onset of drought, scarcity in the production of food grains, and famines. Flooding causes the destruction of maturing crops leading again to food shortages and the destruction of villages located on the banks of rivers.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE TARGETS Biggest Impacts on the future & today’s cultures
TARGET: I can analyze how this civilization influenced or had lasting impacts on modern societies.
Early humans understood the idea of nothing, but they did not have a symbol to represent that idea. During the Gupta dynasty, Indian mathematicians invented the symbol "0" and connected it with the idea of nothing. The Indians' invention of zero had a great impact on the study of mathematics and science—then and now. Without the concept of zero, modern technology, such as computers, would not be possible. Gupta mathematicians created the symbols for the numbers 1 to 9 that we use today. These number symbols, or numerals, were adopted by Arab traders in the A.D. 700s. European traders borrowed them from the Arabs. Use of these numbers spread through Europe in the A.D. 1200s, replacing Roman numerals. Today, this system of number symbols is known as the Indian-Arabic numerical system. Early Indians also invented mathematical algorithms. An algorithm is a series of steps that solve a problem. If you follow the steps you get the right answer. Computer programmers today often use algorithms to tell computers what to do. Ancient Indians made important contributions in other scientific fields, especially astronomy. They followed and mapped movements of planets and stars. They understood that the Earth was round and revolved around the sun. They accurately calculated the days per solar orbit and the days per lunar orbit. They also seem to have understood gravity. Indians developed ideas about what the universe was made of. As early as the 500s B.C., Indian thinkers believed that the universe was made up of many very tiny particles. They came up with ideas of atoms before the Greeks in the West did. In the field of medicine, Gupta doctors were advanced for their time. They could set broken bones and perform operations. They also invented many medical tools. An Indian doctor named Shushruta carried out an early form of plastic surgery. He worked to restore damaged noses. Indian doctors used herbs in treating illnesses. They also believed it was important to remove the causes of a disease and not just cure the disease itself. The religions developed in ancient India have had lasting impacts on later cultures. Hinduism has nearly one billion followers in the world today, and Buddhism has about 500 million.