Gender, Poverty and Environment in Rural Kyrgyzstan: ISSUES OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, BIODIVER by BNT.PRO

Gender, Poverty and Environment in Rural Kyrgyzstan: ISSUES OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Authors

Lead authors: Elena Kim, Nurgul Ukueva Contributing authors: Rahat Sapyrbekov, Akylai Muktarbek Kyzy, Asel Myrzabekova

Illustrations: Nurgul Ukueva, Elena Kim, Asel Myrzabekova, Akylai Muktarbek Kyzy

Photos: Aiperi Janyzakova, Asel Myrzabekova and Elena Kim, American University of Central Asia Cover photo: Asel Myrzabekova and Elena Kim, American University of Central Asia

Gender, Poverty and Environment in Rural Kyrgyzstan: ISSUES OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

UNDP, the United Nations Development Programme, partners with people at all levels of society to help build nations that can withstand crisis, and drive and sustain the kind of growth that improves the quality of life for everyone. On the ground in 170 countries and territories, we offer global perspective and local insight to help empower lives and build resilient nations. www.undp.org UNEP, the United Nations Environment Programme, is the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda,promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. UNEP work encompasses: assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends; developing international and national environmental instruments; and strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment. www.unep.org PIE, the Poverty-Environment Initiative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is a global UN effort that supports country-led efforts to mainstream poverty-environment linkages into national development planning. PEI provides financial and technical assistance to government partners to set up institutional and capacity- strengthening programmes and carry out activities to address the particular povertyenvironment context.

Contents Acronyms.......................................................................................................................................6 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................9 The problem ...............................................................................................................................9 Gender and environment links .............................................................................................10 Gender and Environment in the Kyrgyz Republic ..................................................................13 Gender and access to natural resources ...................................................................................19 Access to land ......................................................................................................................20 Biodiversity and gender .......................................................................................................23 Gender and biodiversity knowledge ....................................................................................25 Gender and biodiversity valuing ..........................................................................................26 Biodiversity loss...................................................................................................................27 Gender differences in vulnerability to biodiversity loss ......................................................28 Coping with biodiversity loss ..............................................................................................29 Climate change and gender ......................................................................................................31 Forests ..................................................................................................................................32 Analytic framework .....................................................................................................................36 Gender in Sustainable Livelihood Framework (GSLF)...........................................................36 Assets ...................................................................................................................................39 Markets ................................................................................................................................39 Access to organization and decision-making .......................................................................40 Risk and vulnerability to environmental degradation..........................................................41 Policies and institutions33 ...................................................................................................43 Biodiversity and gender .......................................................................................................43 Impact of biodiversity loss ...................................................................................................44 Climate change ....................................................................................................................44 Gender-differentiated climate change impacts....................................................................45 Adaptation and mitigation....................................................................................................45 Methodology................................................................................................................................47 Research locale ........................................................................................................................47 Methods of data collection .......................................................................................................47 Sampling technique ..............................................................................................................47 Analytical tools ........................................................................................................................48 Results .........................................................................................................................................48 Household composition and Demographic characteristics of respondents .............................48 Access to land ..........................................................................................................................52 Household living-arrangements ...........................................................................................55 Access to finance .....................................................................................................................56 Alternative income sources .....................................................................................................70 Access to markets ....................................................................................................................70 Access to information ..............................................................................................................72 Gender and biodiversity...........................................................................................................87 Using biodiversity....................................................................................................................94 Contribution to biodiversity conservation ...............................................................................97 Gender and climate change......................................................................................................99 Climate change in KR and adaptation .....................................................................................99 Vulnerability to climate change and biodiversity loss...........................................................110 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................113

Acronyms Aiyl Okmotu

Village administration. Also, an administrative and territorial unit

Ala-kyiz

Traditional handmade felt carpets used to decorate and insolate yurts

Dzhailoo

Also â&#x20AC;&#x153;jailooâ&#x20AC;?, summer pasture land

Gender

A contested term which typically refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes. They are context/ time-specific and changeable (UN, 2000). In this dissertation I interrogate this conventional definition.

Global Environmental facility

The financial mechanism for implementation of the Rio conventions on biodiversity, climate change and desertification. The GEF unites 183 countries with the Convention Secretariats in partnership with international institutions, nongovernmental agencies, indigenous and local communities, the private sector, and civil society through one or more of the ten designated agencies such as UNDP, UNEP, FAO, UNIDO, AfDB, ADB, EBRD, IADB, IFAD

Komsomol

Youth division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and a political party of the Soviet Union represented in the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union

Kumis

Fermented drink made from mare's milk

Kurut

Ball-shaped dry young cheese

Oblast

Province

Practical gender needs

The needs women identify in their socially accepted roles in society. They are a response to immediate and perceived necessity, identified within a specific context (Moser, 1993)

Som

The currency of the Kyrgyz Republic

Shyrdak

A traditional handmade stitched felt carpet

Strategic gender needs

The needs women identify because of their subordinate position in society. Meeting strategic needs assists women to achieve greater equality and change existing roles, thereby challenging womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s subordinate position (Moser, 1993)

Tushturduk

A wall cover traditionally handmade and hand-embroidered

Valenki

Traditional winter boots

Yurt

A dome-shaped felt tent

Chapter 1. Introduction

Sustainable development requires action on three fronts: social, economic and environmental. Women are central to progress in each area, as reaffirmed by the 2012 Rio+20 agreement, which makesc ommit ment s t o ensuring womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s equ al right s a nd op portu nit ies . T his requires empowering women and dropping discriminatory barriers in diverse areas, among them agriculture, energy, health, education, employment and disaster risk reduction. UN Women, http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/economic-empowerment/sustainabledevelopment-and-climate-change 9

Introduction The problem Over the past 20 years, securing global

gender equality. Based on these

agreements on gender equality, women’s

developments and the promise that the new

empowerment and sustainable development in

sustainable agenda will address the

concrete areas of actions has worried

dimensions that lag behind and build on the

governments, women’s organizations, and

achievements of the MDGs, practitioners,

international institutions. Increasing is the

scholars and analysts around the world ask

recognition that gender equality and women’s

questions about how to effectively localize

empowerment are indispensable for effective

these global commitments around the globe.

sustainable development. However, despite some progress on the achievement of the

Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Millennium Development Goal 3 gender equality and women’s empowerment remain

Targers (inter alia):

an “unfinished business” across all countries.



September 2015 marks a shift in the global development agenda as world leaders formally adopt the post-2015 “Transforming our world:



the 2030 agenda for sustainable development” document. The new sustainability agenda aims to address the root causes of poverty and inequality and the universal need for



development that works for all people. In this post-2015 agenda the goal on gender equality incorporates many more areas than the one in



the MDGs. The new stand-alone SDG on gender equality has targets on violence against

Ensure women’s full effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision – making in political, economic and public life. Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws. Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women. Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

women and girls, harmful practices, unpaid care work, women’s political, economic and

Source: http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/infocus/women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-5-gender-equality

public participation, sexual and reproductive rights, access and rights to economic resources, use of enabling technology, and policies and legislation on 9

Within the new sustainable development

at the intersection of gender, environment,

agenda linkages between gender equality,

and sustainable development for the

women’s rights and environmental

implementation of global agreements,

development have special importance given

promotion of transparency and

that tight inter-connectedness among those

accountability, expanding access to

have been long recognized as significant.

environmental information and aid

However, it has been noted that while gender

effectiveness. Recognizing serious challenges

bias, poverty and environmental risks are the

ensuring that gender equality and women’s

elements of vulnerability which are

empowerment are central to environmental

intersecting and each element has received

decision-making and sustainable development

attention individually, little focus has been

EGI provides a more independent monitoring

paid to the interrelationships between them

mechanism that bridges these gaps by

and variations in these links across regions.

measuring country performance at the

Various attempts have been made in order to

intersection of gender, environment, and

bridge the gaps between those elements. Bina

sustainable development. Yet, while national

Agarwal (1997) coined the term GEP (V) Index

level indicators like GEP or EGI provide some

(the Gender-Environment-Poverty

representation of the state’s position in terms

vulnerability Indices) for ranking states by

of its situation vis-a-vis women’s

their extent of gender bias, poverty incidence

empowerment and environmental protection,

and environmental risks taken together to

a deeper understanding about the issue that

provide pointers on the regions which warrant

would incorporate a more ‘people-centered’

immediate policy attention for helping the

approach continues to be required. Local

most disadvantaged section of the population

practices, community-level activities, locally-

affected by environmental decline. The

defined challenges and opportunities have a

Environment and Gender Index (EGI) by the

strong potential to create a knowledge base

International Union for Conservation of

for effective policy informing and decision-

Nature (IUCN), Switzerland assesses the

making and must be carefully studied.

conditions for gender equality and women's empowerment in the environmental arena

Gender and environment links

responding to the problem of lacking integration between environmental and

Linking gender and environment is often seen

gender programming on global level. The goal

through evidence that women and men have

of the index is to offer a standardized

different needs in relation to natural

mechanism to measure country performance

resources. Some of the key assumptions of

gender issues in natural resources

for equitable access for natural resources.

management highlight that rural women and

Evidence from around the globe has

men have different roles, responsibilities, and

demonstrated that reduced poverty,

knowledge in managing natural resources.

sustainable livelihood and food security

Rights to and access to natural resources such

among rural women and men is a pre-

as land, water, forests, animals are highly

requisite for improved natural resource

gendered as well as access to new technology,

management practices and protection of the

information and training related to natural

environmenti. Important inequalities arise

resource management as most of the related

when rights and access become biased

initiatives are disproportionately targeted to

disadvantaging particular social groups, most

men. At the same time degradation of the

often, poor women. The result is a lost

natural resources can lead to new forms of

opportunityâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;gender equality could open the

cooperation as well as controversy and

door to greater strides in many aspects of

conflict between men and women. All this is

natural resource management and

exacerbated by the fact that women are still

sustainable developmentâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;as well as the

largely absent from natural resource-related

broad reality of gender-blind decision making

decision making processes at all levels.

that further entrenches hardships for

Compounding this is a set of socially

womenii.

constructed determinants contributing to

Maximizing the lost opportunity is an

womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disempowerment such as insecure

ambitious goal especially at the point in time

land and tenure rights and the double burden

when the global development agenda is

of responsibilities inside and outside the

transiting to more pronounced sustainable

household. Men and women are treated

development commitments and the world,

differently under legal, political and social

including, Central Asian states will seek for

regimes and such treatment has implications

local forms of expressions and

for their ability to manage resources

implementations of the post-2015 goals.

effectively. All this happens simultaneously

Questions arise about enabling environment

with a growing acceptance in the face of t h e

for ensuring national realization of gender-

evidence clearly illustrating that addressing

integrated environmental development

gender-specific aspects of natural resources

planning and programs. What

will have an important capacity to provide policy makers with information for more effective natural resource use, biodiversity conservation policies and provide guidance

challenges are there and how are they to be

environmental degradation, economic

overcome? What kind of knowledge,

struggles inherent for developing world and

methodologies, and instruments can be

new policies. Knowledge about current

mobilized to support the regional governments

situations, practices, opportunities and

to successfully integrate gender into their

barriers that these people encounter in their

sustainable development strategies and

everyday lives will be crucial for building up

programs? What opportunities and bottlenecks

sufficient understanding required to ensure

exist for further progress needs to be made?

fair and sustainable national programming

What lessons have been learnt and what

and planning in parts of the world such as

success stories can be up-scaled to successfully

Central Asia.

achieve the gender equality indicators? While

The general research questions that guide this

effective integration of gender and

research are “what are specific areas of inter-

environmental issues into relevant

linkages among the issues gender equality,

development programming continues to be a

rural poverty and environmental degradation

global challenge, but in Central Asia the

in the Kyrgyz Republic?” “What are gender

problem at hand is that the limited

implications for sustainable livelihoods in rural

understanding of integration of gender

Kyrgyzstan?”, “What are gender-

perspectives into environmental policies and

differentiated impacts of environmental

programmes prevent full achievement of

degradation in Kyrgyzstan?” Sub-questions

sustainable development goals.

pertain to how gendered is natural resource management and access in rural Kyrgyzstan?

This research study raises similar concerns in

What are the gendered effects of biodiversity

how to best bring development in ways that

loss and climate change? What risks are

would reduce poverty, save natural

involved for women and men as environment

environment and bring social justice. It

continues to degrade? What is the level of

understands that relevant national

knowledge, interests as well as attitudes and

development policies must be built upon a

practices among women and men about

good balance between confirmed solutions

environmental vulnerability and mitigation?

and local knowledge, practices and culture. While the former are universal methodological tools with wide coverage, the latter is complex due to its narrow specificity and country-tocountry variations. Variously located people will be affected by global

Government reports on the issue of national

Gender and Environment in the Kyrgyz Republic

policies

addressing

gender-aware

environmental protection in Kyrgyzstan have been produced in obligation of the Kyrgyz

In Kyrgyzstan, the availability of national

Government to implement more than 30

resources to a large section of the rural

international treaties

population, and especially to the poor, has

human rights enshrining gender equality

been eroded severely in recent decades by

and

their growing degradation both in quantity

conventions and 3 protocols it ratified.

and quality. Inequality in the distribution of

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

what is available persists. Degradation of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and

natural resources in Kyrgyzstan is manifest in

and protocols on

international

environmental

Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action

deteriorating soil conditions, depleting water

(BPfA) are of special importance as they

resources, disappearing forests. Social

implicate accountability for the realization of

impacts of the degradation are enormous for

the provisions set inter alia recognizing rural

those communities whose livelihoods are

womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

dependent upon the use of natural resources.

rights

benefit

from

rural

development and to be empowered to

The most vulnerable are poor households and

manage environment through equal access to

women among them. Understanding about

productive resources.

how environmental degradation in the region Adopted in 1995 at the United Nations

affects rural women and men needs to be

organized Fourth World Conference on

widened. The level of knowledge about inter-

Women in Beijing, t h e Beijing Declaration

linkages between gender equality and

and Platform of Action is an international

environmental degradation in Kyrgyzstan and

declaration of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights which sets out

in Central Asiaiii is unsatisfactory. Ukueva and

an expansive vision and landmark set of

Kim (2014) note an apparent lack of specific

commitments for achieving gender equality

literature on the topic and discuss available

obliging countries to take measures for

published resources remain markedly scarce.

national and international action for the advancement of women. If implemented, the Platform for Action will enhance the social, economic and political empowerment of women, improve their health and their access

to relevant education and promote their Beijing Platform of Action under its key priority “Women and the Environment” proposes key messages:

reproductive rights. Supporting the Platform for Action, the UN General Assembly called

• Women’s dependence on and unequal access to land, water and other resources and productive assets, compounded by limited mobility and decision-making power in many contexts, also mean that they are disproportionately affected by climate change. Natural disasters, including those related to climate change, have greater impacts on poor women. • Gender inequalities are worsened by the lack of universal access to improved water sources and modern energy services in terms of the time and labour burden of unpaid work. • Accelerating progress will require greater efforts to mitigate the impact of climate change, natural disasters, ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss on women and their families; ensuring women’s access and control over land and productive resources and their voice and agency in environmental and sustainable development decisionmaking and action at all levels.

upon all States, UN agencies and other international organizations as well as NGOs and the private sector to take action to implement its recommendations. Today Beijing Platform of Action is viewed to be the international program of human rights for women. It has become a basic document, based on which Kyrgyzstan began building a

Source: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/environ.htm

national strategy for the advancement of women. Since 1996, Kyrgyzstan has adopted five national programs for achieving gender Beijing Platform of Action has direct reference to the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity. In its point K it states that countries must:

equality to implement the Beijing Platform for Action. Among them National Programme «Ayalzat», National Plan of Action for Achievement of Gender Equality (NAP) (2002-

“Encourage, subject to national legislation and consistent with the Convention on Biological Diversity, the effective protection and use of the knowledge, innovations and practices of women of indigenous and local communities, including practices relating to traditional medicines, biodiversity and indigenous technologies, and endeavor to ensure that these are respected, maintained, promoted and preserved in an ecologically sustainable manner, and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge; in addition, safeguard the existing intellectual property rights of these women as protected under national and international law; work actively, where necessary, to find additional ways and means for the effective protection and use of such knowledge, innovations and practices, subject to national legislation and consistent with the Convention on Biological Diversity and relevant international law, and encourage fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising

2006), NAP 2007-2010, NAP 2012-2014, NAP till 2020. Twelve priority areas of the Beijing Platform for Action: A. Women and poverty B. Education and training of women C. Women and health D. Violence against women E. Women and armed conflict F. Women and the economy G. Women in power and decision-making H. Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women I. Human rights of women J. Women and the media K. Women and the environment L. The girl-child

from the utilization of such knowledge, innovation and practices”.

negotiations. The UN Convention to Combat

CEDAW promotes improving rural women’s

gender which stresses “the important role

coping opportunities with ecological stresses

played by women in regions affected by

and

their

desertification and/or drought, particularly in

participation in climate change discussions.

rural areas of developing countries, and the

These sources tend to give precedence to

importance of ensuring the full participation

different aspects of gender equality (violence

of both men and women at all levels in

against women, political participation, etc.)

programmes to combat desertification and

over women’s environmental needs with little

mitigate the effects of drought”. The United

specification of gendered aspects of access to

Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

natural resources, conservation of biodiversity

(CBD) also recognizes the “vital role that

or climate change mitigation. At the same

women

time, some key international agreements on

sustainable use of biological diversity and

sustainable

Kyrgyzstan

affirms the need for the full participation of

ratified explicitly provide for gender equality

women at all levels of policy-making and

for their achievement.

implementation

adaptive

resilience

development

that

and

Desertification (UNCCD) has a mandate on

play

conservation” The UN Framework Convention on Climate

the

for

conservation

biological

(Convention

and

diversity Biological

Diversity, p. 2). It also promotes gender-

Change (UNFCCC) promotes gender balance

specific ways in which to document and

in recognition that “women are at the

preserve women’s knowledge of biological

center of the climate change challenge.

diversity. Agenda 21 in its Chapter 24, entitled

Women are disproportionately affected by

Global Action for Women towards Sustainable

climate change impacts, such as droughts,

Development, calls upon governments to

floods and other extreme weather events,

make the necessary constitutional, legal,

but they also have a critical role in combating

administrative, cultural, social and economic

climate change. The convention’s supreme

changes in order to eliminate all obstacles to

decision-making body, the Conference of the

women’s full involvement in sustainable

parties, COP, at

development and in public lifeiv.

its

eighteenth session

adopted a decision on promoting gender balance and improving the participation of women

UNFCCC

World Summit on Sustainable Development

managing biodiversity resources. In many

(WSSD) calls for improvement of the status,

societies, women as well as men are agents of

health and economic welfare of women and

change, but their contributions do not receive

girls through full and equal access to

equal recognition. Gender equality between

economic

women and men has a cumulative effect of

opportunities,

land,

credit,

education and health-care services. Rio+20

improved biodiversity management and

calls for enhancement of the welfare of

protection, and poverty alleviation for

women

communitiesv.

and

mobilization

their

full

potential for sustainable development and Specifically, Paragraph 13 of the Preamble to the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity states:

poverty eradication. It also promotes the collection,

analysis and use of gender

sensitive indicators and sex-disaggregated

gender equality. The Conference of the

“Recognizing also the vital role that women play in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and affirming the need for the full participation of women at all levels of policy-making and implementation for biological diversity conservation...”.

P a r t i e s to the Convention on Biological

Task 4 of the programme of work asks

data. The United Nations Convention on B i od iv e r si ty also has clear commitments to

Diversity committed to integrating gender

“Parties to develop, as appropriate, mechanisms for promoting the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities with specific provisions for the full, active and effective participation of women in all elements of the programme of work, taking into account the need to:

equality into the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. The Executive Secretary of the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity h a s placed great importance on the fact that gender equality is a prerequisite to poverty eradication and sustainable development. The

a. Build on the basis of their knowledge;

livelihoods of rural communities are often b. Strengthen their access to biological diversity;

closely tied to the use and conservation of biodiversity. In these communities, women

c. Strengthen their capacity on matters pertaining to the conservation, maintenance and protection of biological diversity;

play a leading role in caring for their families and communities, in sharing their intellectual and social capital, and in protecting and

d. Promote the exchange of experiences and knowledge; and e. Promote culturally appropriate and gender specific ways in which to document and preserve women’s knowledge of biological diversity”. 16

However, as Ukueva and Kim’(2014) assessed

global conventions. Review of the available

environment-focused

national

reports,

reports

the

frameworks

extent to which gender issues were covered

international documents demonstrates a

ranged from little to zero. In few cases where

serious lack of integration of gender issues.

include

expression

specifically on examining gender in terms of

“gender

core environmental issues such as climate

equality” or even “gender justice” in its texts

change, biodiversity and access to natural

but only in mentioning or as something

resources. One is by Korotenko et al. (2013)

aspirational. This finding is consistent with

“Gender, Environment and Climate Change”

the Environment and Gender Index (EGI)

research report which analyzes the dynamics

(Global Gender Office of International Union

of gender relations in the Kyrgyz Republic in

for Conservation of Nature, 2013). It states

the context of changing environment. The

that only 11 percent of available UNFCCC reports

from

Kyrgyzstan

include

report is broad-based encompassing many

some

sectors such as gender division of labor,

information on gendervi. 12 percent of

access to resources, and decision-making.

reports on CBD have any mentioning of gender.

None

The research is based on the premise that

the national UNCCD

“climate change is not gender-neutral” (p.

reports include gender analysis. General

43) and that connections between gender

country performance rating results indicate

and climate are the issue of justice, security

that Kyrgyzstan belongs to the group of

and human rights. Two large chapters

“moderate” performers on the EGI (0.54). Its

rating

number

out

aforementioned

Two national research reports focus

analytic aspect to it. For instance, a report might

the

within

research and reviews they observed that the

“gender” is used as a word it largely lacks

produced

comprise the report. First one focuses on a

nationwide analysis climate change and its

countries, where Finland is the highest

gender dimension and is mainly based on

performer (0.84) and Democratic Republic

secondary resources. The second chapter

of Congo is the lowest performer (0.27).

presents findings from an empirical study in

Lack of effective integration of gender

two provinces of Kyrgyzstan.

issues into national environmental planning and reports is alarming not only because of

The authors (Korotenko et al, 2013) begin with

its social implications but also because it

a claim that linking climate and gender

undermines

inequality is new in Kyrgyzstan both on the

the

quality

national

implementation of the

level of theory and practice. Whereas globally women are more vulnerable to climate change risks any long- term social measures for climate change adaptation are insufficient due to lack functional and comprehensive

policy. The authors are particularly concerned

finally, there are only few specialists with

that climate change trends and associated

practical skills of application of general

decline in the availability of natural resources

gender basics in water resources

will even deteriorate women’s vulnerability in

management”. The authors’ own field

terms of accessing them, having control over

research shows that irrigation continues to

them and participation in decision making

be considered a “male” domain with 60% of

regarding their use. Available climate

respondents indicating exactly such division

programs are largely gender-blind. Women

of labor among men and women where men

tend to be excluded from the decision-making

irrigate, whereas women weed, process

processes which have defining impact on

crops, and collect harvest. The authors make

access to natural resources. The report makes

recommendations to better involve women

an important claim that women must be seen

in the management of irrigation systems for

as important actors in distribution of natural

a more efficient and fair use of water

resources and reduction of conflicts that may

resources. The report indicates that 75% of

arise around this issue because they have

respondents experience problems with

both experience and knowledge for

irrigation, unfair distribution of water, and

contributing to sustainability of their

poor irrigation infrastructure. Nearly all

community.

women in the targeted areas did not participate in decisions about water. In the

In analyzing the core trends of climate

section called “access to adequate

change in Kyrgyzstan, the authors of the

sanitation”, the report refers to data about

report highlight as the “most vulnerable”

access for men and women to the decision-

such sectors as water resources, health,

making for water at different level including

agriculture, and climate emergencies.

number of key specialists, managers,

Analyzing access to water, Korotenko et al.

membership of Water User Associations

emphasize that gender-sensitive water

(WUA). In 2009 women only made 18% of

resources management is recognized and

people working in the Water User

stipulated in many international documents

Associations, among them 6 women were

including the UN-Millennium Summit (New

chairing the WUA, 9 were vice-chairs, 160

York, 2000) and World Summit on

worked as accountants. In discussing

Sustainable Development (Rio 92,

accessing safe drinking water, the report

Johannesburg, 2002). However, in

provides data about women’s roles in

Kyrgyzstan gender issues in sustainable

utilization and purification of drinking water

development is profoundly lacking. The

noting that women are better informed

authors claim that “no quality data and

about the quality of water and about how to

research studies on consideration of gender

increase its safety. Similar to the above

issues in water resources management, and

mentioned analysis, Korotenko et al. observes

a higher access to productive natural

serious problems with women’s access to land

resources and more decision-making power in

resources recognizing that agricultural land

the management of the resource and control

reform in 1990s was largely gender-blind. As a

over the income received from the resource

result, distribution of farm land and their

use. The reported causes for such inequality

formalization was biased toward men giving

lies in the historically developed power and

them ownership in 84.9% of cases. 64.17 % of

property relationships, gender stereotypes

these male land owners do not allocate land to

and women’s low representation in decision-

their female children. Women constitute only

making organizations. The report makes a

15.1 % of the leaders of peasant communities

recommendation that a well-developed

(farms) in 2010. They tend to be excluded from

effective strategy for poverty reduction and

the process of resource distribution and,

awareness raising can serve to better involve

subsequently, have less access to them. The

women and men into improving their well-

report states that in 43.3% of the surveyed

being and quality of life.

households men make decisions regarding

Gender and access to natural resources

land and livestock, only in 27.5 % of cases decisions are made by both women and men.

It is now known that the developing world's

Another study by Djangaracheva et al. (2007),

1.3 billion rural poor make up the world's

“Access of men and women to natural

largest group of natural resources managers

resources in Kyrgyzstan”, provides a detailed

(FAO, 2015). It is also widely recognized that

description of findings generated within a

understanding their roles and responsibilities -

2007 sociological study investigating public

including the gender dimensions of natural

perceptions of the access to natural resources

resources management - is a starting point for

in Kyrgyzstan. This document focuses on

reversing environmental degradation.

presenting participants attitudes, opinions, impressions, and expectations in relation to

Women manage natural resources daily in

women and men’s access to water, land,

their roles as farmers and household

medical plants, fish, and forests in two (out of

providers. Typically, they are responsible for

seven) provinces of Kyrgyzstan. It recognizes

growing subsistence crops, and often have

a problem of a profound lack of any

unique knowledge of local crop species. To

systematic research focusing specifically on

meet family needs, rural women and girls

investigating access to and control over

walk long distances to collect fuel wood and

natural resources by differentiated social

water. Despite their reliance on natural

groups. Conclusions claim that men have

resources, women have less access to and

economic

resources,

including

land

control over them than men. Usually it is men

(Undeland, 2008).

who put land, water, plants and animals to

Ukueva and Kim’s reviewed studies agree on

commercial use, which is often more valued

the fact that the formal Kyrgyz legislation

than women's domestic uses (FAO, 2015).

system does not coincide with customary laws

Gender inequality is evident in accessing to

and traditions, and legal gender equality on

land. In Kyrgyzstan, like in many other

papers does not necessarily mean women’s

countries this is the most evident in relation

equal rights and opportunities in reality.

to access to land.

Moreover, the literature also points out that the customary arrangements prevail over

Access to land

legal provisions in Kyrgyzstan. To illustrate,

In terms of the scholarly research of the

there are customary laws in terms of

topic, several studies have looked at women’s

household living arrangements where men

access to land in Kyrgyzstan (Undeland, 2008,

are traditionally registered to be the heads of

Kerven et al, 2011; Giovarelli, 2004; ADB,

the households. Customary norms are even

2005). One of the common conclusions of all these

studies

that

formally

Kyrgyz

Kyrgyzstan’s

land

Kyrgyz

Population

and

Housing

Census

male heads caused by the latters’ death, out-

equality of rights in the legislation goes back

migration or separation. As Figure 1 shows,

to the Soviet era, which ensured high degree

about

of gender equality through centralized control

44 percent of female-heads are

widows, and 21 percent of them are divorced

and contributed to the development of Kyrgyz

or separated, whereas only 4 percent of male-

women (Undeland, 2008; Giovarelli, 2004).

heads are widowed and only 3 percent are

After the break-up of the Soviet Union

divorced. In rural areas, 64 percent of

Kyrgyz government has continued to adopt

households with female heads have female

gender- liberal laws and has been in the

heads because their husbands have passed

forefront of gender legislation in Central

away. In male-headed households men rule

Asia. For example, Kyrgyz Government has

and make decisions on managing household’s

adopted a number of National Actions

resources (Undeland, 2008). Because they

Plans to Achieve Gender Equality since

have greater rights to land, they control land

2002, one of the objectives of which was to access

where

established as heads due to the absence of

(Undeland 2008, Kerven etl 2011). The

equal

areas

2009Data). In these households women were

women with regards to their access to land

women’s

rural

only about 22-23 percent (according to the

legislation

provides de jure equal rights to men and

guarantee

percentage of female-headed households is

legislation system is liberal and gender balanced.

prevalent

usage and generally continue to exercise such

to 20

control even in the case of divorce(Giovarelli,

2004).

Figure 1. Marital status of Household Heads by Gender, 2009

Source: Kyrgyz Population and Housing Census 2009 Figure 2. Marital status of Rural Household

Source: Kyrgyz Population and Housing Census 2009

Land inheritance practices within the Kyrgyz customs are patrilineal. By the

parents. Daughters rarely inherit animals

Kyrgyz customary tradition, land and animals

and land (Undeland, 2008). In the absence of

are usually handed down to the youngest

male children, the land will be passed to

son, or the son who stays with the

male relatives of the fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lineage. 21

Upon marrying, women typically leave

publications about gender, environment

their birth community and parental house

and poverty as intersecting, Ukueva and

to join their in-laws. Although women may

Kim,

be provided with dowry as they marry,

knowledge and recommended inter alia

these are mainly household items and

to conduct research aimed at bridging

nearly never land, neither immovable

those gaps. This research attempts to

property nor animals. In case of a divorce,

add to the existing research and to

women typically return to paternal village

produce

to stay with their parents. The land and

women’s

animals stay with her husband often

environment-related

without compensation (Undeland, 2008;

different methodological

Giovarelli, 2004). Undeland (2008) also

(quantitative and qualitative) with a

points out that women have problems

commitment

with access to livestock. Following Kyrgyz

perspective it aims at provided a more

customary arrangements men

comprehensive and in-depth analysis

h a v e control over animals in the

about rural women’s relationship to the

house, and livestock is considered to be a

natural

‘male’ activity.

rural

identified

new

gaps

existing

knowledge

role

and

about

access

sectors.

in Using

approaches

‘people-centered’

environment in Kyrgyzstan, women’s

active

roles

biodiversity conservation and climate Major studies on forests in Kyrgyzstan by

change

Fisher et al. (2004) and Undeland (2012)

utilize. To reiterate, research questions

are comprehensive pieces of research

are:

covering range of issues on forests and

1. What are specific areas of inter-

forest sector in Kyrgyzstan, including forest

linkages among the issues gender

management and effects of forests on the

equality, rural poverty and

nearby

environmental degradation in the

communities

and

poverty.

adaptation

strategies

Unfortunately, they do not address gender

Kyrgyz Republic?

aspects of forest access and management.

2. What are gender implications for

Undeland (2012) only mentions that the

sustainable livelihoods in rural

current forest management system favors

Kyrgyzstan?

people—usually

3. What are gender- differentiated

comparatively

they

advantaged—who have the manpower and

impacts of environmental degradation in

resources to maintain and protect the

Kyrgyzstan?

forest, and that female-headed households are

excluded.Having

analyzed

available

Sub-questions pertain to: and men as environment continues to degrade?

1. How gendered is natural resource management and access in rural Kyrgyzstan?

4. What is the level of knowledge, interests as well as attitudes and practices among women and men about environmental vulnerability and mitigation?

2. What are the gendered e f f e c t s of biodiversity loss and climate change? 3. What risks are involved for women

Biodiversity and gendervii Kyrgyzstan covers only 0.13% of the world’s

Kyrgyzstan, 160 species of mountain and plain

amphibians; 33 reptiles; 368 birds and 83

landscapes. Of the total vascular wild plants,

mammals (including the Snow leopard, which

more than 200 are used for technical needs,

is of spiritual significance to the Kyrgyz

400 species of wild plant commonly

culture). There are 22 identified ecosystems in used for medicinal purposes; however, in

shortage of economic incentive measures; lack

officially Kyrgyzstan is among 200 priority

of political and public understanding of the role

ecological regions of the planet due to its

and importance of biodiversity; and complex

highest concentration of the species diversity of

regulating mechanisms. Due to a lack of

flora and fauna. Species richness includes:

institutional capacity, scientific information on

3,786 higher plants; 75 fish species; 4 known

the current state of biodiversity in Kyrgyzstan,

species, 2 %of the world’s flora and 3 % of

excluding the most common species is

fauna species are traced here. Today landmass

lackingviii. Abrupt change of habitat and straight

but includes 1% of the world’s recognized

removal of plants and animals from nature

pharmacopoeia use, only 200 species of wild

brought to extinction of 11 species and put

plants are used11. Most ecosystems in

under threat of extinction some others. Fauna

Kyrgyzstan are degraded, due mainly to

of large and average mammals - 3 species has

overgrazing, logging, poaching and hunting. The

been extinct and 15 species are under the

severe economic crisis following independence

thread; fauna of birds – 4 species has been

in 1991 has also put severe pressure on

extinct, 26 species are under the threat;

biodiversity resources.

medicinal plants and also plants with decorative

Serious constraints hamper efforts to reduce or

and technical importance – nearly extinct 3

slowdown biodiversity loss including: the lack of

species and 54 species are under threat of

a national coordinating body between agencies,

extinction. The rare and endangered species of

ministries, NGOs and local communities;

flora and fauna, included into the Red Book of

Conservation of Biological Diversity. These

the Kyrgyz Republicix are 53 species of birds, 26

reports represent important documents which

mammal, 2 amphibians, 8 reptiles, 7 species of

inform what and with what success have been

fish, 18 arthropods, and 89 higher plant species.

done in relation to conservation of biodiversity in the country including about challenges and

In 1996 Kyrgyzstan ratified the United Nations

risks. Analysis of these reports shows very little

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Since

data about how women are enrolled in

then four national reports on biological

conservation of biodiversity or how programs

diversity have been issued by the Government

and policies integrated both women and men

with support from international organizations.

into the planned activities. For example, the

The Kyrgyz Republic has ratified the

Fourth National Report on Biodiversity

Convention on biological diversity in 1996.

mentioned that a 2002 study on Conservation of

The first step in its implementation became

Biodiversity in Western Tian Shan revealed

development of the National Strategy and

womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s active participation in the process of

Action Plan on biodiversity conservation

medicinal plants gathering. This was the only

(NBSAP). It was the first national document for

piece of information found in a more than a

Kyrgyzstan that set plan of concrete measures

hundred pages report. Having said that it must

on key issues of biodiversity conservation. The

be noted that international sources increasingly

plan is based on analysis of state of specific and

recognize importance of gender in biodiversity

ecosystem diversity, economic, institutional,

issues.

legal, educational and scientific capacity of the republicx. Since ratification of the CBD, Kyrgyzstan is obligated to provide periodic reports on the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s progress towards

Gender and biodiversity knowledge Rural women and men play important roles in

the type of knowledge rural women and men

biodiversity management, use, and

have. Experience-based local knowledge

conservation through their different tasks and

interweaves with cultural values and develops

responsibilities in food production and

and adapts continuously to a gradually

provision. Because men and women differ in

changing environment. Rural women’s and

their roles, their use of natural resources, their

men’s local knowledge, skills, and innovations

relationships with biodiversity may be quite

raise the issue of recognition and protection

divergent. Gender related differences in terms

of farmers’ rights.

of labour, property rights and decision- making

However, women’s roles and knowledge are

processes and perceptions also shape

often overlooked or underestimated in

knowledge systems, so men and women end

natural resource management and related

up with varying forms of expertise. The

policies and programs. Some studies have

different tasks and responsibilities of rural

expressed concern that local knowledge is

women and men have enabled them to

disappearing and women do not pass this

accumulate different types of local knowledge

information on to their daughters, and men

and skills. Men may know a great deal about

no longer pass it down to their sons.

trees used for timber, for example, while women are authorities on those providing fruits, medicines and fodder. Women’s understanding of local biodiversity tends to be р

broad, containing many unique insights into local species and ecosystems gained from centuries of practical experience. Local knowledge serves as a critical livelihood asset for poor rural women and men for securing food, shelter, and medicines. The type of knowledge farmers possess varies by age, gender, roles and responsibilities, socioeconomic status, and environment. Access to or control over resources as well as education, training, information, and control over the benefits of production also influence 25 4

Gender and biodiversity valuing monocultures.

Today rural women around the world are tightly linked to biodiversity and natural

Women are also the primary collectors of wild

environment. Women collect and conserve

foods that provide important micronutrients in

edible plants, collect firewood and bush

diets, are vital for the survival of their

products for food, medicine, paint and house

households during food shortages, and may

building. Women take charge of agricultural

also provide income. In the Kalahari Desert,

activities, apart from working with men on the

fruits, gums, berry, and roots gathered by the

land, they manage home gardens, grow

Kung women provide 60 percent of the daily

vegetables, etc. They also often take

calorie intake. In the Lao Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Democratic

responsibilities for improvement and

Republic, women gather 141 different types o f

adaptation of many plant varieties. Through

forest products. Women possess extensive,

the multivariate process of seed selection,

often unrecognized, knowledge of the wild

they choose certain desirable plant

plants for achieving household food security

characteristics and decide on the quantity and

and nutritional well-being, especially among

variety to be saved as well as the method of

the rural poorxi.

preservation. The moment that the crops

Another womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s task tied closely to

begin to flower, women begin observing the

biodiversity is the collection of medicinal

plants, and later harvest seeds based on their

plants, which may be used for curing ailments

size, grain formation and resistance to pests

while also serving as fodder and fuel or even as

and insects. As natural resource managers,

manure and pesticide. Yet their knowledge is

they influence the total amount of genetic

immense, because community well-being

diversity conserved and used. Women are

depends on it, and preservation of this

typically involved in the selection,

knowledge is crucial for maintaining

improvement, and adaptation of local plant

biodiversity. Plant and animal products often

varieties, as well as seed exchange,

end up in artefacts, clothing, housing and

management, and saving. They often keep

utensils. For example, women of the Yakutat

home gardens where they grow traditional

people in the Pacific North- West of North

varieties of vegetables, herbs, and spices

America were famous for the beauty and utility

selected for their nutritious, medicinal, and

of their basketry, used as drinking cups,

culinary advantages. Women, therefore, play

baskets, travelling trunks, mats, floor coverings

an important role in maintaining biodiversity,

and hats. The baskets also had a strong

working against the decrease in biodiversity

spiritual meaning.

caused in part by men favoring cash-oriented 26 4

Biodiversity loss women in less developed countries are the

Agricultural ecosystems and food security are

principal basic food producers. This sector is

especially vulnerable to biodiversity loss.

very exposed to risks of food insecurity.

There are localized negative impacts on small landowners, subsistence farmers, and

Extinction of species, changes in species

fishermen, and declines and increases in cereal

composition, disruption of symbiotic

crop yields depending on the region. Since the

relationships, changes in trophic cascades,

practice of agriculture began more than

among others changes in the quantity and

12,000 years ago, about 7,000 species of

quality of natural resources could reduce the

plants have been cultivated for food, and

productivity of ecosystems. Rural women in

today 90% of our food is provided by only 15

developing countries collect forest products xii

species of plants and eight species of animals .

and used them as fuel, food, medicines or

Conserving varieties of wild ancestors of these

food for their animals. The reduction or

foods could provide alternatives so that, in

disappearance of these products will have a

future, new species could be developed that

negative impact on the wellbeing and quality

are resistant to drastic climate changes.

of life for them and their families. Women

Unfortunately, many of these wild ancestors

often rely on a range of crop varieties (agro-

are already in danger of extinction. For

biodiversity) to accommodate climatic

example, it is predicted that a quarter of the

variability, but permanent temperature

wild potato species will disappear in the next

change will reduce agro-biodiversity and

50 years. In the agriculture sector, rural

traditional medicine options.

27 4

Gender differences in vulnerability to biodiversity loss Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is

to resources such as land, credit, education,

susceptible to and unable to cope with

as well as unequal opportunities to

adverse effects of climate change including

participate in and influence decision-making

climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability

processes.

is a function of the character, magnitude and

Therefore, women are not vulnerable

rate of climate change and the variation to

because they are “naturally weaker” but

which a system is exposed, its sensitivity and

because women and men face different

xiii

its adaptive capacity .

vulnerabilities due to their different social roles. For example, many women live in

When we discuss vulnerabilities and the role

conditions of social exclusion. This is

women and men can play as change agents,

expressed in facts as simple as differentials in

the starting point is an analysis of the

the capacity to run or swim, or constraints on

differentiated relationship women and men

their mobility, and behavioral restrictions,

have with environmental resources. Women

that hinder their ability to re-locate without

and men relate differently to the environment

their husband’s, father’s or brother’s

for a combination of the following reasons:

consent. It has also been found that the • Level of dependence on environmental

vulnerability and capacity of a social group to

subsistence resources;

adapt or change depends greatly on their

• Unequal relations in using, having access to,

assets. Next to their physical location,

and controlling resources, and in the

women’s assets such as resources and land,

distribution of benefits;

knowledge, technology, power, decision-

• Ownership, protection and rights on

making potential, education, health care and

resources; and

food have been identified as determinant

• Differentiated knowledge about resources,

factors of vulnerability and adaptive capacity.

their products and environmental problems.

The more assets people have, the less vulnerable they are and the greater the erosion of people’s assets, the greater their

Clearly, biodiversity loss entails different

insecurity. Data from around the world

consequences for women and men in the

indicates that women tend to have less or

performance of their productive,

limited access to assets (physical, financial,

reproductive, and community roles. There is

human, social and natural capital. The impact

significant socioeconomic differentiation

of biodiversity loss, particularly within

between men and women that is deeply

common property resources, threatens

rooted in social structures around the

household food security and livelihoods.

world17. These include differences in access

These resources prove particularly important xiv

for poor rural women, who lack secure land common resources for fuel wood, fodder, and

tenure and depend on these

technological improvements have created

food and, therefore, the well-being of their

farming systems that are highly dependent on

householdsxv.

external inputs such as agrochemicals, and

Commercialized agriculture often relies on the

these systems often bypass women. Because

replacement of a wide range of locally adapted

of their limited access to financial resources,

plant and livestock varieties with a relatively

women may have difficulty acquiring seeds,

small number of uniform, high yielding

technology, and fertilizers as well as

varieties, causing the erosion of local plant and

information and training. These processes

animal genetic resources. With the increased

have negative impacts on small farmers,

commercialization of agriculture, as part of

especially women, who rely on a wide variety

their environmental risk management

of genetic diversity.

strategyxvi.

Coping with biodiversity loss participation in programs and projects dealing

Coping strategies such as the improved

with biodiversity conservation, management,

management of biodiversity should give

and use affects gender-responsive outcomes.

options for poor rural women and men to

Researchers and breeders often work in

reduce their vulnerability to the effects of

isolation from women and men farmers and

biodiversity loss and to build the potential to

are sometimes unaware of their needs and

react to further changes. Poor rural women

priorities beyond yield and resistance to pests

and men farmers often spread risk by growing

and diseases. Moreover, extension agents and

a wide variety of locally adapted crops, some

research organizations tend to consider many

of which will be resistant to drought or pests,

local varieties and breeds to be low-

and livestock breeds that have adapted to the

performing and inferior. National policies that

local agro-ecological zone. Diversification,

provide incentives such as loans and direct

coping strategy adopted by rural households,

payments for the use of modern varieties and

will protect them against climate change,

breeds contribute to the loss of genetic

desertification, and other environmental

diversity and affect traditional gender rolesxvii.

stresses. Women and men farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; full and equal

Climate change and gender It generally known by today that impacts of

the decision-making on climate change at all

climate change, such as drought, floods,

levels. This severely limits their ability to

extreme weather events and reduced food

contribute and implement solutions and apply

and water security, affect women and men

their e x p e r t i s e .

differently with the poorest being the most

In Kyrgyzstan, according to the Second

vulnerable (UNFCCC). Because more than

National Communication to the UNFCCC,

seventy per cent of the world’s poor are

Kyrgyzstan’s State Agency on Environmental

women, their vulnerability is believed to be

Protection

higher, however, even though women are

temperature increases across all regions of

therefore disproportionately affected, they

the country ranging from 3.5 degrees to

play a crucial

8.4

role in climate change

degrees

and

Forestry

Celsius

predicted

2100.

These

adaptation and mitigation actions. Being

estimates surpass the 2-degree window that

predominantly

some scientists identify as the threshold to

responsible

for

food

production, household water supply and

“dangerous

energy for heating and cooking, women will

Development Bank reports, despite having

experience more difficulties at these tasks as

one of the lowest greenhouse gas (GHG)

climate change impacts increase. However, as

emission per capita in the world, the

research shows, women do have knowledge

Kyrgyz Republic is one of the most climate

and coping strategies that give them a

vulnerable countries in Central Asia. As a

practical understanding of innovation and

landlocked

skills to adapt to changing environmental

approximately 94% of its territory located at

realities as well as to contribute to the

more than 1,000 meters above sea level and

solution. These strategies to deal with climate

about 42% higher than 3,000 masl—the

variability are still a largely untapped resource.

Kyrgyz Republic faces unique challenges.

But, women are often faced with difficulties

Because of its geography and topography,

when it comes to the general accessibility of

the Kyrgyz

financial resources, capacity- building activities

disasters is estimated to reach up to 1–1.5%

and technologies. This often stands in the way

of GDP.

of women’s empowerment in general and their role in relation to climate change adaptation and mitigation in

particular.

Women also tend to be underrepresented in

climate change”.

mountainous

Republic’s

Asian

country—with

climate

induced

Over the last few decades the Kyrgyz

poverty and accelerating economic

Republic has experienced an increase in

growth, the country will need to chart a

climate induced disasters and this trend is

climate resilient development path.

likely to continue as the consequences of

The coping capacity of institutions and

climate changeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; particularly increases in

communities is significantly hindered by

temperature and the reduction of

the limited knowledge and awareness of

snowfallâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; will likely increase the frequency

climate change risks, and the lack of

and severity of floods and droughts.

appropriate mechanisms to address them.

Temperatures are rising fastest at the

Data and information on current climate

highest altitudes, affecting glaciers, snow

variability, future climate change, and its

and ice, and threatening the communities

impacts on economic growth and human

that depend upon them. Retreating

development are insufficient to inform

glaciers and changes in seasonal snow fall

decision making. Monitoring systems are

and melt will lead to greater uncertainty

inadequate for predicting the likelihood of

about water discharge patterns and may

extreme events

threaten hydropower generation, domestic

changes

water supply, agriculture production and

resources for acquiring and maintaining

infrastructure. The very low capacity of

equipment

institutions and individuals to anticipate

responsible agencies to generate, store,

and manage these risks prevents the

and analyze climate data, and produce

Kyrgyz Republic from implementing

information for decision makers (ADB,

measures to increase its resilience.2 To

2014).

and assessing possible

weather

restrain

patterns.

the

Limited

ability

achieve the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal of reducing

Forests Forests make a significant contribution to

resources and different roles in tree and forest

livelihoods in the developing world. An

management. Women practice traditional

estimated 1.2 billion people rely on agro-

agro-forestry production systems, such as

forestry farming systems (FAO, 2015).

home gardening, and harvest and sell wood

Although the net loss of forests is slowing

and tree products as part of small-scale

down, deforestation and forest degradation

enterprises. They are mainly responsible for

continue, especially in tropical regions.

collection of fuel wood for the household, and

According to FAO (2015), Rural women and

of wild plants used as food and medicines.

men often have disparate knowledge of forest

Men are involved more in high-value activities

such as cutting and hauling timber. But gender

more reliant on forest foods and natural

roles vary – in parts of Nepal, men weave

disasters,

bamboo baskets, while in Lao PDR, women

become more reliant on forest products and

are more active in the craft. Women are the

services (FAO, 2015).

sole collectors of fuel wood in Bhutan, but

displaced

rural

people

also

Given their responsibility for meeting

men help out in Sri Lanka.

household food and fuel needs, depletion of

Research suggests that trees and forests are

forest resources increases burdens on women

more important to rural women’s livelihoods

especially. A study in Malawi found

than to those of men. In Madagascar poor

deforestation was forcing elderly women to

women in one community earned 37% of their

walk more than 10 km a day to collect fuel

income from forest products, compared to

wood. Women spend on average 800 hours a

22% earned by men. In Andhra Pradesh, 77%

year in Zambia and 300 hours a year in

of women’s income in some areas was derived

Tanzania on the same task. In East Africa, fuel

from forests (FAO, 2015).

wood scarcity has led to a reduction in the number of meals cooked in poor households

In many countries, forest land is owned by the

(FAO, 2015).

state, while local men have rights to trees and women to tree products such as fruit. On

In spite of its rather small area it is a forest

Pacific islands, women harvest breadfruit for

of Kyrgyzstan that plays a key role in

food, but breadfruit trees are controlled by

providing ecological stability and forming of

men, who use its timber to make furniture.

climate (Walker, 2008). Forests occupy 4,32%

For both men and women, access to forest

(864,9

thousand

hectares)

country’s

xviii

resources is becoming complex, as rights based

territory . They stimulate augmentation of

in negotiable customary law give way,

rainfall, protect soil cover from erosion,

increasingly, to government action to protect

strengthen flanks of hills, conduce to moisture

threatened forest habitats by restricting human

conservation in underground horizons, and

encroachment (FAO, 2015).

regulate surface flow, preventing thereby

Restrictions on access affect men and

floods and torrents. These ecosystem services

women in different ways. Forests can be

cannot be done in such effective way by

crucial

other natural ecosystems. Forests are also

strategies.

farming In

sub-

women’s

survival

Saharan

Africa,

responsibility for caring for

present

important

recreation-esthetic

resource, necessary for tourism development.

household

members afflicted by HIV/AIDS falls mainly

Natural

on women, leaving less time for agricultural

reduces accumulation of greenhouse gases in

production. As a result, they are becoming

atmosphere. They may play a certain role in

forests

preserve

carbon,

which

â&#x20AC;&#x153;arrears in exchange for ecologyâ&#x20AC;? programme.

reforestation

There is large diversity of forests concentrated

forests loss. Lots of forest massifs have turned

in Kyrgyzstan; by its concentration it does not

into sparse growth of trees. Practicing cattle

have any analogs in other countries of the

pasturing and other types of utilization

region. Juniper, spruce and spruce-pine,

counteracts to second growth of forests

maple, parvifoliate, nut-forests and also

(Walker, 2008).

pistachio and almond forest can be found

62.40 head/sq km), that mostly grow by

Nut-forests and spruce-pine forests have

the stream canals. Continuing settlement

global meaningfulness as the largest and most

tendency by river valleys leads to their

preserved relic forest tracts. Presence of

degradation and substitution by cultivated

preserved natural mountain forests warrants

lands. In many places parvifoliate forests

to inclusion the territory of Kyrgyzstan into

have entirely disappeared (Walker, 2008).

one of the key ecoregions of the planet.

In general, condition of forests correlates

Nut-forests, pistachio and almond forests

with anthropogenic stress (particularly with

keep in itself rich genetic resource of

population

ancestral forms of cultural variety of walnut,

symptom is a growth of population density

almond and pistachio, which are necessary for

(up to 20.59 head/sq km) in caryocarpous

breeding of new varieties. Use of nonlike

density, existence of roads,

pasturing, arable lands). Quite alarming

apple trees, plum trees, grapes, cherry plum,

products

compensate

parvifoliate forests (population density

for the conservation of biological diversity.

forest

cannot

The greatest anthropogenic stress lies on

here. All of them have irreplaceable meaning

arboreal

works

forests that are on the second place after

funguses,

parvifoliates. This kind of situation

berries, yields, medicinal herbs, hunted

incompatible with further conservation of

species etc have certain perspectives (Walker,

caryocarpous

2008).

forests,

most

which

practically has stopped second growth. A On the score of scarce reserves and special

lot of pistachio and almond massifs have

role

stability

virtually disappeared, and high population

mountain forests cannot be considered in the

density has also been noted there (16.69

capacity of

wood.

head/sq km). Noticeable losses are brought

Meanwhile there are 6 types of felling

by natural and anthropogenic originated

permitted in the Forest Code that actually are

conflagrations (Walker, 2008).

maintaining

source of

ecological

industrial

the cover for logging. More than a half offorest territory has been lost since last half a century. Second growth and inadequate

Analytic framework

The concept also encompasses the realization that while economic growth may be essential for

This research is mainly informed by the analytic

framework

called

Gender

poverty reduction, there is no

relationship between the two since it all

Sustainable Livelihood Framework (GSLF).

depends on the capabilities of the poor to take

Investigation of the issues of gender in natural

advantage of expanding economic opportunities.

resource management will be done solely on

Importantly Sustainable

the basis of GSLF. In addition to the GSLF, the

their situation and needs best and must

environmental degradation related to six aspects

including

time,

Livelihood concept

recognizes that the poor themselves often know

study will analyze gender-poverty effects of

critical

automatic

therefore be involved in the design of policies

income,

and project intended to better their lotxxi.

nutrition, health, social support network, and knowledge systems. Somewhat outside of

Literature on SL frameworks distinguishes at

GSLF, the study will also investigate gendered

least

impacts of biodiversity loss and gender

Livelihood: UNDP, CARE and DFIDxxii. The

differences in the effects of climate change

UNDP approach to SL serves to provide

including adaptation and mitigation. Below is a

integrated support activities to improve the

detailed description of the elements of the

sustainability of livelihoods among poor and

conceptual frameworkxix.

vulnerable groups by strengthening the

three

approaches

Sustainable

resilience of their coping and adaptive strategies.

Gender in Sustainable Livelihood Framework (GSLF)xx

CARE

has

used

Household

Livelihood Security (HLS) as a framework for programme analysis, design, monitoring, and

A prominent feature of Sustainable Livelihood

evaluation where livelihood encompasses

(SL) Framework is a conceptual commitment to

three fundamental attributes

the realization that poverty is not just a question of low income, but also includes other dimensions such as bad health, lack of social

interaction:

the

capabilities

(such

possession as

and their of

education,

human skills,

health, psychological orientation); access to

services, etc., as well as a state of vulnerability and feelings of powerlessness in general.

the

more realistic framework for assessing the direct

existence of economic activities. CARE puts

and indirect effects on people’s living conditions

particular emphasis on strengthening the

than, for example, one dimensional productivity

capability of poor people to enable them to

or income criteria. There is, however, a criticism

take initiatives to secure their own livelihoods.

that SL approaches largely fail to address the

It therefore stresses

empowerment as a

issue of social dominance and power within the

fundamental dimension of its approachxxiii.

communities. Gender, is believed to be one of

DFID’s definition of sustainable livelihoods

the most overlooked aspects of social relations in

advocates for poverty-focused development

all three SL approachesxxiv.

tangible and

that

intangible assets;

people-centered,

and

SL approach by UNDP and CARE is

responsive, in

predominantly used to facilitate the planning of

sustainable and dynamic partnership, all aiming

concrete projects and programmes. For the

to increase the

DFID the SL approach is more of a basic

participatory,

multi-level,

conducted

agency’s effectiveness in

framework for analysis. Within this approach,

poverty reduction. Important in this approach is ensuring

livelihoods are defined as comprising the

that support activities correspond to issues of

capabilities, assets (including both material and

direct relevance for improving poor people’s

social resources) and activities required for a

livelihoods.

means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when “it can cope with and recover from

There are apparent advantages to using

stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance

the SL frameworks. One is a more holistic view on

what

resources

are

important

its capabilities and assets both now and in the

future, while not undermining the natural

resources/assets of different kinds, and thus

resource base”xxv.

their livelihoods. Additionally, it provides a to the poor. These approaches also facilitate

Among the three SL approaches, the DFID

an understanding of the underlying causes of

approach is believed to be more suitable for

poverty by focusing on the variety of factors,

those interested in integration of gender.

at different levels, that directly or indirectly determine or constrain poor people’s access

Consequently, in this research project the

asymmetries in access to and control over

authors

assets

utilize

Sustainable

Livelihoods

and

gender

asymmetries

Approach (SLA) by DFID to conceptually frame

participation and power in land, labor,

the complexities and synergies of gender

financial, and product markets (Figure 3). The

equality, sustainable livelihoods, and poverty

key elements in the livelihood strategies

reduction.

Sustainable

include assets, markets, information and

Livelihood Approach aims to capture gender

organizations, risk and vulnerability, and

inequalities in key elements of the livelihood

policies and institutions. They are discussed in

strategies looking specifically at gender

the following paragraphs.

The

Gender

Figure 3. Sustainable Livelihoods through a Gender Lens

Source: Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD

Assets productivity often bypass women farmers and

Rural gender divisions of labor result in women’s

reduce their productivity. This study will look

and men’s different needs for natural resources.

specifically at the gender-based access to natural

Because women (and sometimes girls) are often

resources required for the rural population to

responsible for providing their households with

achieve agricultural productivity. Within the

the basic necessities of life such as food, fuel, and

chosen

and often face a variety of gender-based

framework,

achieve

agricultural productivity for livelihoods rural

constraints as managers of natural resources. In

women and men combine a range of assets.

many societies discriminatory customary and

Critical assets for securing food and livelihood for

social practices curtail women’s rights to land.

their households and for the conservation and

Women frequently have use rights that are

sustainable use and management of natural

mediated by their relationships with men. The

resources include:

socially constructed gender differences in access to and control over assets dictate

analytic

power

•

asymmetries and negotiating power between

Natural resource assets: Land, water,

forests, biodiversity

men and women within the household and •

community. For example, insecure land tenure

Financial assets: Credit, capital and

income

reduces rural incentives and limits access to credit essential for making investments in improved

•

Physical assets: Technologies

•

Information assets: Training, access to

natural resources management and conservation practices. Consequently, yielding

the

substantial

technological gains

information, local knowledge

advances agricultural

markets often is tangible upon access to capital,

Markets

mobility and sociocultural factors, thus providing a

Access to agricultural markets mediates sources of potential for gender asymmetries. Women, in income required for sustaining needs of the rural comparison to men, continue to face many household and family welfare. Agricultural markets challenges in accessing and benefiting from markets. include products, input, labor, land markets, etc.

They face illiteracy, lack of market information, and

xxvi Women tend to be involved in local markets and transport to markets .

such local trade can improve rural livelihoods by providing them with a source of income and, at the same time, an incentive to manage, use, and conserve a variety of local plants. But participation in

Access to organization and decisionmaking

asymmetries in organization and information

Access to decision making and organization is

asymmetries in these three areas. Information

about womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in formal and

includes market information, information on

informal forms of collective action, including

risks and hazards, legal rights, and skills to use

the political and governance

to develop the rights to access markets,

farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

organizations

and

often

structures,

extension

servicesxxvii.

The

intensify

gender

improve income, and manage risksxxviii.

commercial

However, the problem remains that women

networks and their opportunities to benefit from

reinforce

face

basic

obstacles

men

participating

use and manage natural resources in different

agricultural services and information. Men

ways, their full and equal participation in

relatives often mediate womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s access to

community-based decision-making processes

information, markets, and credit. Extension

remains critical for safeguarding local natural

personnel in agriculture and natural resources

resources. Access to and engagement in

frequently

organizations affects access to assets and

erroneously expecting that the men will

markets as well as risk and vulnerability and,

convey information to their wives (Agarwal

thus, impact sustainable livelihoods. Gender

2003).

speak

organizations,

assumption here is that as women and men

than

only

accessing

men,

often

Men’s out-migration leaves women to assume

Risk and vulnerability to environmental degradation

men’s traditional roles and responsibilities,

In general terms, risks of environmental

increasing their work burden, but leaving

degradation include natural hazard risk,

them without equal or direct access to

human conflict, human and animal disease

financial, social, and technological resources

epidemics, food insecurity, agro-ecological

(Lambrou & Laub, 2004). Additionally, natural

and geographic factors such as water

resources degradation and natural disasters

variability and drought proneness, and

impact rural peoples’ ability to manage and

market and price risks (including trade

conserve natural resources. Important for this

xxix

shocks) . Social dimensions of poverty such

study

as asset ownership, age, and gender

inquire

into

the

specific

environmental risks and vulnerability local

contribute to raising vulnerability to these

women and men face in the Kyrgyz Republic

risksxxx. The effects of natural resource

and to generate understanding about the local

degradation have gender specificity because

contexts of their vulnerability. It is believed

vulnerability depends on the types of

that this knowledge will be important for

resources women and men rely on and their

designing programs to mitigate negative

entitlement to mobilize these resources.

impacts of degradation on rural women and

Poor rural women lacking secure sources of

men. In this research the gender- poverty

income often depend on common property

effects of environmental degradation will be

resources for fuel wood, fodder, and food

studied in relation to 6 critical areas of impact

and, therefore, for the well-being of their

to the population: time, income, nutrition,

households. The depletion of common

health, social support network, and knowledge

property resources poses, thus, a severe

systems. Following is a brief description of

threat to their livelihoods and food security.

each area.

Demand for labor and health risks for women

are

also

environmental

associated

degradation

depletion

resources

women’s

time

for

may

labor-

Depletion of and reduced access to resources

with

lengthens the working day of women because

because

of the increased time and labor they have to

increase

invest

intensive

collect

resources

for

their

household tasks, such as having to walk

households. At the same time, decline in items

longer distances for the collection of fuel

gathered from natural resources immediately

wood and water. When natural resources

reduces income. Also, the extra time needed

become

the

for gathering reduces that available to women

livelihoods men tend to out-migrate to

for crop production and can adversely affect

secure income.

crop incomes.

insufficient

support

Decline in village grazing land and associated

fodder shortage affects the quality and

nearby villages cannot be reconstituted easily.

quantity of the raised animals, thus, directly

At the same time, gathering of food and

affecting

income.

medicinal items done mainly by women and

natural

children in many regions help them acquire a

resources will upset quality of nutrition and

considerable knowledge of the nutritional and

dietary choices. Also, when fuel wood

medicinal properties of plants, roots, and trees.

shortages are acute poor household tend to

This knowledge is at risk of loss due to

economize on fuel by shifting to less

depletion of the variety of the flora.

the

Deteriorating

sources productivity

of of

nutritious foods which need less fuel to cook or can be eaten raw or eat leftovers which could rot, or miss meals altogether. These nutritional consequences impinge on all household members while women and female children bear the greater burden because of the noted gender biases in intrafamily allocations for food and healthcare32. Apart from the health consequences of inadequate nutrition, poor rural women are also more directly exposed than are men to water-borne diseases, and to pollution of rivers and ponds with fertilizers

and

pesticide run-offs, because of the nature of domestic

and

agricultural

tasks

they

perform such as fetching water for home use and animals, washing clothes near ponds. Degradation of forests, grazing lands etc. give rise to submersion of villages and disruption of social support networks. Such support can include reciprocal labor â&#x20AC;&#x201C;sharing arrangement during peak agricultural seasons, loans in cash or kind. Women in poor households typically depend on such informal networks, which they help to build through daily social interaction, marriage alliances. Spread across

Policies and institutionsxxxi Broader

political,



socioeconomic,

practices that may influence women’s

and

and men’s access rights and cultural

environmental context shape natural resources

values that may influence gender-

management strategies of women and men at

based decision making on crop,

the household level and require a better

livestock, and fish selection and

understanding. Producing this understanding involves

analysis

policies,

Culture: such as cultural norms and

management.

processes,

institutions and their effects on women’s and

Policies and institutional changes in sectors

men’s livelihood strategies.

other than natural resources and agriculture include economic and energy development,

This involves analyzing the current and

demographic trends and migration patterns,

potential impacts of policies, processes, and

incidence and impact of disease, and conflicts.

institutions on rural women’s and men’s livelihood

strategies

and

outcomes.

Policies, processes, and institutions have

The

different impacts on women and men’s access

political and institutional context includes the

to and control over livelihood assets.

following: 

Policies: environmental, economic, energy/bioenergy,

 



and

Biodiversity and gender

trade

agreements

Outside of the strict Gender in Sustainable

Legislation: such as land rights and

Livelihood Framework, this

intellectual property rights

additionally undertake an effort to investigate

Incentives: such as for growing cash

gender-responsive

crops or improved varieties that could

knowledge, attitudes, interests and practices.

replace local varieties or for growing

The

biofuel feedstock

awareness, understanding and interest in

Institutions: extension services that

biodiversity as well as practices contributing

promote technology developments

to biodiversity conservation.

and external innovations

Rural women and men play important roles in

study

biodiversity

will

research will

biodiversity-

measure

management,

community

use,

and

conservation through their different tasks and responsibilities in food production and provision (FAO 2005). Consequently, they have

different

needs,

priorities,

and

knowledge about diverse crops, plants, and

animals. Women are typically involved in the

1996). New farming systems rely heavily on

selection, improvement, and adaptation of

external inputs such as fertilizers, seeds,

local plant varieties, as well as seed exchange,

trainings, etc. which often bypass women due

management, and saving. They often keep

to their limited access to financial resources.

home gardens where they grow traditional

These processes have negative impacts on

varieties of vegetables, herbs, and spices

small farmers, especially women, who rely on

selected for their nutritious, medicinal, and

a wide variety of genetic diversity as part of

culinary advantages. Women are often the

their

primary collectors of wild foods that provide

strategyxxxiii.

environmental

risk

management

important micronutrients in diets, vital for the survival of their households during food

Climate change

shortages, and may also provide income.

Global climate change processes produce

However, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roles and knowledge are

effects which are highly differentiated along

often overlooked

social groups, especially poor women and

or underestimated

natural resource management and related

men.

policies and programs (Howard 2003). While

mitigate risks related to changes in climate

this

knowledge

variability heavily rely upon control and

interweaves with cultural values and develops

access to critical livelihood assets such as

and adapts continuously to a gradually

land,

experience-based

local

Resilience

credit,

and

opportunities

technology,

information,

have

markets, and organizations (Masika 2002).

expressed concern that this knowledge is

Because of gender-based inequalities in

disappearing.

accessing those critical assets, women have

changing

environmentxxxii,

studies

more exposure and have higher vulnerability

Impact of biodiversity loss

to climate change impacts. However, a focus on technical solutions by

Biodiversity loss, particularly within common

climate change policy makers prevented

property resources, poses a direct threat to

policy action with consideration of gender,

household food security and livelihoods.

i.e., gender-based roles and relationships vis-

Commercialization of agriculture often leads

Ă -vis natural resources, gender-differentiated

to replacement of a wide range of locally

impacts

adapted plants and livestock varieties with a

climate

change,

gender-

differentiated risks and vulnerabilities of

relatively small number of uniform, high

women and men, and structural constraints

yielding varieties, causing the erosion of local plant and animal genetic resources (FAO,

that curtail women’s access, control, and

(Fothergill

1998;

2001).

Mobility

ownership over assets.

restrictions, dress codes, and culturally

Gender-differentiated climate change impacts

ascribed roles and behaviors disadvantage women.

Climate change has effects with gender-based

Adaptation and mitigation

consequences because of the gender division of labor in rural households. The tasks women

Rural women and men have different

and men perform and the time they use to

adaptive

perform those tasks will undergo changes as a

differentiated gender-based power relations

result of desertification, soil salinization or

and unequal access to productive resources

water depletion. Increased work burden and

and

reduced nutritional status are among the

vulnerability,

most likely consequences for women. As food

capacity, and ability to recover from climate

preparation and income- generating activities

change impacts (Masika, 2002). Nevertheless,

become more challenging nutritional status of

women play an active role in adapting to its

the family and their welfare will suffer. Water

impacts to secure food and a livelihood for

degrading has an especially drastic impact on

their household. Increasing the quantity and

women and children making them more

quality of medicinal and nutritious plant

physically vulnerable to water-borne diseases

varieties is one type of tasks that women

such as diarrhea and cholera because they are

specifically perform. They are the main seed

the main suppliers of household water and

keepers and as such they possess knowledge

users of water for domestic chores.

of a variety of genetic resources to adapt to

capacities

assets.

because

Women exposure

have to

risk,

the

distinct coping

varying climate including resistance to pests Women and children are 14 times more likely

and droughts.

than men to die as a result of disasters

People regularly cope with all kinds of “daily”

(Aguilar 2008). Women’s disaster exposure

disasters and have developed local strategies

results from their overrepresentation in

for reducing risk and responding to natural

highly vulnerable social groups, including the

disasters (UN, 2001). Women’s response to

poor and elderly, that are less able to prepare

natural disasters and strategies for reducing

for, survive, and cope with disaster (UN 2004). Additionally for,

risks often remain limited due to poorer

women do not

access to emergency decision-making, social

receive timely warnings or other information

and kin networks (Kumar-Range 2001), lack of

about hazards and risks

savings or assets against external shocks (Masika 2002). Failure to have

women’s informal sector work recognized

Awareness and perception of climate change

may reduce their access to economic recovery

included the following components:

assistance and undermine perceptions of



Knowledge and concerns

women as full contributors to the recovery



Observed climate change

process. Indeed, relief workers view women as victims rather than potential agents of

Impact and vulnerability were measured in

change, which leads to the reconstruction of

terms of

although



Dependence upon natural resources

women and children remain most vulnerable,



Access and control to assets

gender

inequalities.

However,

many women at local levels actively work to mitigate hazards and strengthen the disaster

Mitigation

resilience of households and communities.

and

adaptation

were

conceptualized in terms of the following existing strategies:

In this research the investigators studied gender and climate change on the basis of



Autonomous adaptation strategies



Adaptation strategies at the farm

three constituents of the variable:

production

1. Awareness and perception of climate change 2. Impact and vulnerability to climate change



Adaptation at the community level



Adaptation at the household level

Barriers to climate change adaptation were

3. Mitigation and adaptation

investigated in terms of all of the four

4. Barriers to climate change

strategies above.

adaptation

Methodology vulnerability 2.4 Roles in biodiversity conservation

Research locale Purposive sampling has been used to select two

distant rural

areas

of Northern 3.

Kyrgyzstan, Naryn and Issyk-Kul provinces. The villages selected were Zhany â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Aryk in

3.1 Awareness and perception of climate change; 3.2 Impact and vulnerability to climate change; 3.3 Mitigation and adaptation; 3.4 Barriers to climate change adaptation.

Naryn oblast and Jenish in Issyk-Kul oblast. The choice of these two villages was based on the fact that women in Zhany â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Aryk have been

actively

involved

Climate change:

agricultural

practices compared to other locations within the district. Jenish was selected on the basis

Qualitative component of the study will

of its vicinity to protected and forested

include in-depth interviews with residents

areas.

the

selected

villages,

participant

observation and expert interviews. The

Methods of data collection

goal of the qualitative research is to gain an in-

Primary data will be collected through the usage of a combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Household survey will be collected that will include: 1. Access of women and men to natural resources:

depth understanding of the

everyday practices and barriers faced by women in routine accessing of land, water and other natural resources. This part of the study also aims at acquiring specific instances illustrating how exactly women are affected by climate change and what concrete

1.1 Natural resource assets; 1.2 Financial assets; 1.3 Markets; 1.4 Information and decision making assets.

examples

contribution

exist

conservation

their of

biodiversity.

Sampling technique 2. Biodiversity: 140 households took part in the 2.1 Knowledge and attitudes 2.2 Interests and practice

household survey. Additionally, 441 adult participants were randomly selected to participate in individual survey. 30 in-depth

2.3 Impact of biodiversity loss and

interviews

with

women-farmers,

variances to illustrate relationships

representatives of village organizations

between variables

chosen

Qualitative data:

through

purposive

sampling

technique. comprised the pool. At least two weeks

participant

Qualitative data was analyzed using

observations

social

constructivist approach in social

formatted into ethnographic observations

research

paying

attention

‘rich

will be part of the primary data package.

descriptions’ of meanings, interests, worries and concerns with specific contextualization

Analytical tools

of the

individuals’

circumstances and

situations. A phenomenological analysis of

Quantitative data:

the collected data included a number of

Household survey data was analyzed

standard procedures such as transcription

using

of interviews, reading for the transcripts

 Descriptive statistical tools such

with an openness to emerging meanings. To

as frequency distribution, ranges,

follow Keen (1975), we treat data not as an

and percentages

example of this or that theory but rather

 Inferential statistical tools such as

explore a phenomenon in its own right,

regressions, correlation and analysis of

meaning and structure.

Results Household composition and Demographic characteristics of respondents It is traditionally accepted, that men should

Table 2). Female-headed households are

be the heads of the households and manage

smaller in size with an average size of less

household

Kyrgyzstan.

than four people. The average age of the

Customary norms are even more prevalent in

household head is around 49 years, female

rural areas. The two villages in our survey are

heads are younger, the average age of female

no exception. Only 4.5 percent of households

heads is 43.

in this survey have female heads. Female-

Overall,

headed households are observed only in

smaller in size, have less working-age

Jenish village in Issyk-kul, no female heads are

members, and less members with higher

reported in Naryn. The average size of the

education

sampled households is 5.01 persons (see

households (Table 1). There are small regional

resources

female-headed

compared

households

are

male-headed

differences

household

composition

children but less working age members and

presented in Table 1. Households surveyed in

with younger heads.

Naryn are slightly larger in size with more Table 1: Household Composition by region

Variable Household Size Age of the household head Number of people with higher education Number of working age members of the household Number of children under age 1 Number of children under age 6 Number of children aged 7 to 15 Number of children under age 18 Average age Number of elderly members Number of married members Age of the oldest member Age of the youngest member Number of female members Number of adults over age 22

Issyk-Kul Naryn Std. Std. Obs Mean Dev. Min Max Obs Mean Dev. Min Max 82 5.01 1.56 1 9 52 5.25 1.44 2 8 82

49.16 11.68

44.54 12.57

0.74

1.04

0.52

0.85

2.78

1.10

2.48

0.98

0.12

0.33

0.10

0.30

0.62

0.87

0.92

0.88

0.94

1.06

1.02

82 82

1.84 30.15

1.21 8.12

0 14

5 57

52 52

2.19 1.24 0 28.37 10.41 12.34

4 57

0.39

0.64

2.41 1.12 53.70 12.85

0 31

4 83

52 52

82 82

0.58

0.80

2.54 1.13 52.17 15.44

0 27

6 90

9.87

8.95

0.1

8.14

9.89

0.11

2.41

1.23

2.37

0.97

2.84

1.05

2.81

1.07

Table 2: Household Composition by gender of the household head All Male Headed Households Female-Headed Households Std. Std. Std. Variable Obs Mean Dev. Min Max Obs Mean Dev. Min Max Obs Mean Dev. Min Max Household Size 134 5.10 1.51 1 9 128 5.17 1.47 2 9 6 3.67 1.75 1 6 Age of the household head

134

47.37

12.20

128

47.56

12.33

43.17

8.64

Number of people with higher education

134

0.66

0.97

128

0.66

0.97

0.67

1.21

Number of working age members of the household

134

2.66

1.06

128

2.71

1.04

1.67

1.21

Number of children under age 1

134

0.11

0.32

128

0.12

0.32

0.00

Number of children under age 6

134

0.74

0.88

128

0.77

0.89

0.00

Number of children aged 7 to 15 Number of children under age 18 Average age

134

0.99

1.04

128

0.98

1.04

1.17

134 134

1.98 29.46

1.23 9.08

0 12.34

5 57

128 128

1.99 29.36

1.23 8.81

0 12.34

5 57

6 6

1.67 31.45

1.21 14.71

0 19.75

3 57

Number of elderly members

134

0.46

0.71

128

0.47

0.72

0.33

0.52

Number of married members Age of the oldest member

134 134

2.46 53.10

1.12 13.88

0 27

6 90

128 128

2.56 53.38

1.03 13.92

0 27

6 90

6 6

0.33 47.33

0.82 12.53

0 31

2 66

Age of the youngest member

134

9.20

9.33

0.1

128

8.68

8.49

0.1

20.17

18.19

Number of female members

134

2.40

1.13

128

2.40

1.12

2.33

1.37

Number of adults over age 22

134

2.83

1.05

128

2.89

1.02

1.50

0.84

For the purposes of this study, the household

0 soms, and its maximum reaching 90000 soms

income and income per capita is an aggregate

month. Households living in the village in Issyk-

average monthly income estimated by including

kul have the highest income (90000 Soms) and

earnings from various sources. It is combined

have higher average and median incomes

income of all household members including

compared to residents of the village in Naryn.

wages, pensions, income from household

The mean income of households in Issyk-kul is

enterprises, social security benefits, private

more than 1.5 times higher than the mean

transfers, compensatory and other types of

income of the households in Naryn. The female-

extra payments, interests, dividends, rent and

headed households have smaller mean income

other income generated from asset ownership.

than male-headed households, however the differences are small in size.

The mean income of the surveyed households

Mean income per-person in these 2

amounts to 17264 soms per month, the median

villages is 3581 Soms per month, the median is

income is 14150 soms per month. The

2900. IT is significantly higher in Issyk-kul than in

household income distribution shows a wide

Naryn,

dispersion with standard deviation of 14150

households.

and

higher

for

Soms per month, minimum value of income of Table 3: Household income, Soms per month Variable Obs Mean Median All 141 17264.33 14150 Naryn 52 13044.90 12100 Issyk-Kul 82 20290.67 16150 Female-headed 6 15805.17 15758 Male-headed 128 17557.34 14225

Std. Dev. Min Max 14442.27 0 90000 9431.71 0 39800 16468.97 2000 90000 8190.11 4700 25000 14801.54 0 90000

Table 4: Per-capita household income, Soms per month Variable Obs Mean Median Std. Dev. Min Max All 134 3581.05 2896.67 2809.59 0 15450 Naryn 52 2838.84 1988.33 2814.88 0 15450 Issyk-Kul 82 4051.71 3439.29 2719.30 650 15000 Female-headed 6 4426.11 4404.83 1378.17 2775 6805.33 Male-headed 128 3541.43 2790.00 2855.98 0 15450

female-headed

traditions, and legal gender equality on

Access to land

papers does not necessarily mean women’s

Formally, Kyrgyzstan’s land legislation is

equal rights and opportunities in reality. For

liberal and gender balanced, and provides

example, with regards to land ownership,

de jure equal rights to men and women with

living arrangement, inheritance and divorce

regards to their access to land (Undeland

practices within the Kyrgyz customs

2008, Kerven etl 2011). The equality of rights

patrilineal.

in the legislation goes back to the Soviet era,

as Kyrgyz Integrated Household Survey,

through centralized control and contributed

Living Standard Measurement Survey, or Life

women

in Kyrgyzstan Survey)

(Undeland, 2008; Giovarelli, 2004). After the break-up

the

Soviet

Union

example,

not

use of natural resources. Lack of available data and evidence makes it difficult to

For

assess gender equality and equity in reality.

Kyrgyz Government has adopted

This study is the first attempt to collect

a number of National Actions Plans to

such data. It is a pilot study, which looks at

Achieve Gender Equality since 2002, one of

two northern villages in Kyrgyzstan,

the objectives of which was to guarantee

Overall, each household owns on average 2

including land (Undeland, 2008).

parcels of land with an average total area of

However, formal Kyrgyz legislation system

1.33 hectares per household.

does not coincide with customary laws and Table 5: Household Access to Land

Number of parcels owned by each households Land area per household (in sotkas)

Issyk- kul and Naryn oblasts.

women’s equal access to economic resources,

Variable

provide

or gender differences in terms of access and

liberal laws and has been in the forefront of Asia.

information on the gender of a land owner,

Kyrgyz

government has continued to adopt gender-

gender legislation in Central

nationally

representative surveys for Kyrgyzstan (such

which ensured high degree of gender equality

to the development of Kyrgyz

Unfortunately,

are

Mean

Std. Dev.

Min

Max

2.05 133.01

0.64 90.13

0 0

3 565

The data of this study shows striking

obtained.

gender disbalance in terms of land

percent), fewer women (21 percent)

ownership. Only eight percent of the

obtained land through allocation from

land parcels in the village is officially

local officials (aiyl okmotu). Compared

registered under female owner (Figure

to men (11 percent), more female

4).

owners (21 percent) obtained land

There are also gender differences in

through purchases.

the ways t h e l a n d p a r c e l s w e r e

Figure 4 : Gender of the Land Owner

92%

Male

Female

Figure 5: How owners obtained land, by gender of the owner

Compared

men

(39

Male

Female

21.4%

39.2% 48.0% 57.1% 21.4% 2.0% 10.8%

Inherited Donation from relative

Purchased Through allocation from Aiyl Okmoty

Graphs by Gender

Household living-arrangements

size, have less working-age members, and less members with higher education compared to male-headed households (Table 2). Female-headed households are also poorer than male-headed households (Figure 4).

In Jenish village, only seven percent of households have female heads, 93 percent of households are headed by men (Figure 3). Female-headed households are smaller in Figure 6: Gender of the Household Head

Total monthly income of ho KGS 6;useholds, 7%

76; 93%

Male-headed households

Female-headed households

Figure 7

maximum

minimum

average

20000 40000 female-headed household

60000 80000 male-headed household

55 9

100000

Access to finance It is interesting to note, that although women Access to financial services can help households

are generally poorer than men and lack control

smooth their consumption over time and

over assets, they are better at repaying loans,

reduce their vulnerability to different shocks,

and better savers than men. Targeting women

build assets, participate more effectively in

may therefore not only result in improved

market activities, and overall reduce poverty

financial inclusion but also will lead to improved

and improve their lives. Therefore, universal

financial

access to finance and financial inclusion should

institutions.

sustainability

rural

finance

be a crucial part of achieving inclusive growth.

This chapter of study had the following set of

The term â&#x20AC;&#x153;financial inclusionâ&#x20AC;? does not only

objectives: i) to identify the level of access to

imply access to microcredits for the poor, but

finance of people; ii) to identify the level of

can be broadly defined as universal access to

gender inequality in access to finance; iii) to

financial products such as deposits and loans,

identify the level of access of men and

and financial services, such as insurance and

women to external financing. The total

equity products at a reasonable cost. Having

number of respondents in this module is

said that financial inclusion is one of the areas

441: 241 respondents in Jenish village, Issyk-

where we observe a large gender gap. Women

Kul oblast, and 200 respondents in Jany-Aryk

in developing economies disproportionately

village, Naryn oblast.

face financial access barriers that prevent them

Larger share of male respondents have

from pursuing economic opportunities and

their own money to use (69 percent),

improving their lives. They are less likely than

comparing

men to have formal bank accounts, access loans

with

female

(50

percent)

respondents (Figure 8). So, in the sample

and credits and insurance and other types of

women have less access to finance than men.

financial services.

Figure 8. Access to finance, by gender

Do you have any money of your own that you alone can decide how to use?

Female

Male

20%

40% No

60%

80%

100%

Yes

Issyk-Kul oblast and around 42 percent in Naryn (Figure 9). So, women in Issyk-Kul have greater access to finance than women in Naryn.

According to data obtained from the study, both in Naryn and Issyk-Kul oblasts men more often have their own money that they can alone decide how to use. If more than 70 percent of men have their own money, for women this number is less than 50 percent in Figure 9. Access to finance, by region and gender

Issyk-Kul

Do you have any money of your own that you alone decide how to use? female male

Naryn

female male 0%

20%

40% No

60% Yes

80%

100%

Figure 10 shows that 83 percent of respondents do not have a bank account, and there is no significant difference

between men and women. Majority of those who have bank account work in public sector (teachers, ayil okmotu workers).

Figure 10. Using bank account

Do you have a bank account in your own name? 0% 17%

83%

Yes

Yes, a joint account

slightly more often than men. There is a large difference in using bank account between Issyk-Kul and Naryn regions: more people in Issyk-Kul have bank accounts than in Naryn (Figure 11).

Men in Issyk-Kul less often have bank accounts than women, which might be related to the high number of teachers and public worker women in the sample. In Naryn women also use bank accounts

Figure 11. Using bank account, by gender and region

Issyk-Kul

Do you have a bank account in your own name? male

female

Naryn

male

female 0%

20%

40% No

60%

80%

100%

Yes

to women (Figure 12).

Only 12 percent of all respondents heard about programs that give loans Figure 12. Information about gender specific loan programs

Do you know of any programs in your area that gives loans to women?

12%

88%

Yes

from less than 14 percent of women in Issyk-Kul to 7 percent of women in Naryn. The share of men knowing about these programs is 6 percent and 7 percent in Issyk-Kul and Naryn, respectively.

In Issyk-Kul, more people know of programs that give loans to women (Figure 13). Women in both regions know about such programs more than men,

Figure 13. Information about gender specific loan programs, by region and gender

Issyk-Kul

Do you know of any programs in your area that gives loans to women? male female

Naryn

male female 75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

Yes

money either from financial institutions or from relatives/friends. There is almost no differences in responses by male and female respondents

Large number of households have experienced a need for additional financing. Overall, 38 percent of individuals said that they had to borrow . Figure 14. Need for additional financing, by gender

Have you ever experienced a need for additional financing? Yes

10%

20%

30% Female

40% Male

50%

60%

70%

need for additional financing, but in Naryn only 15 percent of households experienced it. There is almost no difference in responses of men and women in the same region.

Among the surveyed respondents, in Jenish village of Issyk-Kul oblast more people experienced a need for additional financing than in Naryn oblast. Almost half of households in Issyk-Kul experienced a Figure 15. Need for additional financing, by region and gender

Issyk-Kul

Have you ever experienced a need for additional financing? male female

Naryn

male female

10%

20%

30%

40% No

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Yes

for additional financing than in Naryn. 20 percent of households with female head in Issyk-Kul also needed additional financing at some point of time (Figure 16).

In the surveyed villages, there are very few female household heads: 5 households out of 88 in Issyk-Kul are headed by women, and no households in Naryn oblast. Households with male head in Issyk-Kul experience less need

percent), percent) (Figure 17).

Figure 16. Need for additional financing, by gender of the household head

or relatives/friends (8

According to collected data, those who need extra financing, go to commercial banks (20 percent), micro- credit companies (11 Figure 17. Sources for external financing

Have you sought external financing? 8% 11%

20%

Yes, loan from a bank

61%

Yes, loan from a micro-credit company

Yes, a loan from relatives

credit companies, comparing to men (Figure 18).

Men more often than women take loan from a bank when they need extra financing, while women take more loans from micro-

63 9

Figure 18. Sources for external financing, by gender

Have you sought external financing? Yes, a loan from relatives Yes, loan from a micro-credit company Yes, loan from a bank No 0%

10%

Female

20%

30%

Male

64 9

40%

50%

60%

70%

Most of respondents in Naryn have not sought external financing (almost 80 percent of households), both men and women. In Issyk-Kul, almost half of respondents have sought external financing from different credit organizations or relatives/friends.

Figure 19. Sources for external financing, by region and gender

Have you sought external financing? 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Male

Female

Yes, loan from a micro-credit company

Yes, loanMale from a bank

Female

Yes, a loan from relatives

Naryn

Issyk-Kul car each, and 5 percent land and 21).

Most of applications required some collateral (61 percent): 65 percent of required collateral was house, 15 percent cattle and Figure 20. Need for collateral

(Figures 20

Figure 21. Type of collateral needed

Did your application require any type of collateral?

If yes, what type of collateral?

No 39% Yes 61%

house

Yes

land

cattle

car

type of collateral than in Issyk-Kul (Figure 22).

Among those who took a loan, less respondents in Naryn oblast needed any Figure 22. Need for collateral, by region

DID YOUR APPLICATION REQUIRE ANY TYPE OF COLLATERAL? No

Yes

64 14 NARY N

ISSY K -K U L

share of households had cattle and land as collateral for the loan. In Naryn more households had car and house as collateral (Figure 23).

There is no difference in responses of men and women about collateral required, but there are some differences between people in two regions: in Issyk-Kul, higher Figure 23. Type of collateral needed, by region

What type of collateral?

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

house 100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

car

land

cattle

Among the analyzed mostapplications for successful (87 percent) or

successful (11 percent). Only 2 percent of applications for financing was rejected (Figures 24-25).

households, loans were partly

Figure 24. Application for financing

HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS YOUR APPLICATION FOR FINANCING? successful

partly successful

11%

unsuccessful, my application was rejecteĐ˛ 2%

87%

Figure 25. Application for financing, by region

How successful was your application? successful 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% unsuccessful, my application was rejected

partly successful

Naryn

Issyk-Kul

Most of loans were used for buying new cattle (57 percent). Much less of external financing is used to buy car (9 percent), land (8 percent), agriculture (6 percent) and business purposes (6 percent), or to build/renovate house (6 percent) (Figure 26). Figure 26. How loans are used consumptionfurniture house 2%

car

toi

land 8%

business 6% agriculture 6% deb ts 1%

cattl e

coal for a loan are the main challenges faced by 2% people (Figure 27)

57% Most respondents did not face any challenges while taking a loan (52 percent). Documents and money required during the application Figure 27. Challenges while getting loan

What challenges you faced while getting loan? 1%

10%

52% 37%

time

money

documents

no challenges

Overall, according to data the gender differences in access to finance are smaller

than regional differences. Large part of respondents need external financing and prefer

to address the microcredit organizations or relative/friends rather than commercial banks. Most people do not have bank accounts and are not familiar with gender specific loan programs.

Alternative income sources In-depth interviews revealed a number of

one who is supposed to work, not her. I

gender-specific ways to earn additional income

will provide for her. Now I have money

that local women use. Running a small sewing

for everyday expenses and also pay for

workshop, bakery or cheese production are

my daughter’s studies at the

some of the examples. Woman also actively use

university”.

natural resource for income generation, these activities are described in the later parts of the

Nazira’s income brings about 750 to 1500 som

report.

per day depending on the season. More in the fall and winter than in the spring and summer due to cultural scheduling of celebrations after

Case study: Nazira and her bakery

the harvest. She spends all her days making bread and complains of the burden:

Nazira has three children, two of which is a university student and the other two are still

“My life has become more difficult.

school children. For the last four years Nazira

Sometimes I get so tired, that I want to

has been baking bread, buns and rolls for sale.

give up everything. But if I do give up, it

The idea came to her as her family experienced

will immediately change my family’s life

a high need of cash money. One of her children

for worse. I begin thinking about my

studies at school in Bishkek and she also needs

children and work on. I need to provide

money to pay tuition for her elder daughter

for them. My eleven grader requires so

who studies in a university. She says:

much money as he studies in the city. Yes, we make money from apples and

“I also needed money for everyday

apricots. But I need money for everyday

expenses. Now I tell my daughter to

expenses”.

just study and not to work. I am the rural family. Zhipar is a former school teacher

Access to markets

with a university degree in history. She is now a

Issues of accessing markets became evident

two grandchildren who live permanently with

through in-depth interviews. It was apparent

her and her husband. She has a garden with

that households suffer limited access to

apple, apricot and pear trees and a kitchen

marketing their agricultural produce crucial for

garden where she grows vegetables such as

improving their income. Here is a more detailed

cabbage,

retired woman with five grown-up children and

description of experience applicable to a regular

tomatoes, cucumber, carrots,

have a very limited access to larger markets to

beetroots, and potatoes. Zhipar cans many of

sell their products and, in general, face

her vegetables for winter and cook them for

challenges in all sections of value chains. They,

immediate eating. She says

therefore, receive only a small fraction of the

”Our kitchen garden is enough for us.

ultimate value of their outputs. With a lack of

We don’t have to buy anything, but we

access to alternative and larger markets, Zhipar,

don’t’ sell anything either. We eat

along with many other families in the village,

everything from our kitchen garden

use only one marketing channel such as

ourselves, because there are small

intermediary purchasers. The latter arrive into

grandchildren and we also send

the village (in heavy trucks) at specific time of

vegetables to our adult children in

the season and purchase all available products

Bishkek. There is no point in selling

from the villagers. This marketing schema has

potatoes, for example, because it is too

been long established and generally satisfies

cheap. But we used to sell it before”.

the local farmers. However, heavy reliance

Zhipar notes the importance of apricot growing

upon it has a high propensity to lack reliability.

to her family income. She says: “In the

This is what happened in this part of the village

summertime we grow apricots. What we earn

during the current year. Zhipar tells her story as

from selling apricots is enough for us to survive

follows:

in the winter. I can say that we live by apricots.

“This year we had a big problem. The

For the last ten-fifteen years apricots were the

trucks arrived to our village too late

main source of income”.

when apricots became overripe. We

Zhipar and her husband do everything to

could not sell all of our apricots. So we

ensure productivity of their apricot trees. They

had to buy glass jars, make juice and

use organic fertilizers (manure) and mineral

can it for us to drink in the winter. We

fertilizers (saltpeter) and insecticides. They

made forty jars (hundred and twenty

whitewash every tree to prevent ants and other

liters). Of course, this juice is good for

insects, prune branches and prey. “We pray and

the small children, much better than

ask for good weather, no hail, no storms”, she

Coca-Cola or Fanta. But we lost half of

says with a smile.

our income. We will have to sell our sheep in the winter time this year.”

It became evident that households like Zhipar’s

Access to information In the sample, the main types of This chapter of the study provides an

information that respondents chose as the

identification of the level of awareness and

most needed are about the following:

the level of access of women and men to

selection of varieties of seeds – 20 percent,

information

fertilizer application

agricultural

activities.

– 14 percent, pest

Moreover, this chapter is aimed to identify

control – 14 percent, and animal husbandry

the main sources of information for men

– 11 percent of all surveyed people (Figure

and women in two villages of Issyk-Kul and

28).

Naryn oblasts. Figure 28. Type of information needed to improve farming activities

Which type of information do you feel you need the most to improve your farming activities?

water management soil conservation 5% 3% land ownership 1% food processing 4%

farm mechanization 1%

agricultural inputs 7% marketing 3%

selection of varieties of seeds 20%

animal husbandry 11%

harvesting techniques 4% cultivation technique 6%

high yield crops 7%

fertilizer application 14%

compare

the

pest control 14%

answers

ownership, soil conservation, harvesting

respondents according to gender, we can

and cultivation techniques.

see that the women more than men need

time, women need less information about

information

about

animal

food processing, fertilizer application, high

agricultural

inputs,

pest

husbandry, control,

At the same

yield crops, and selection of varieties of

land

seeds comparing to men (Figure 29).

Figure 29. Type of information needed, by gender

Which type of information you need the most to improve your farming activities? (by gender) farm mechanization water management land ownership soil conservation food processing animal husbandry harvesting techniques cultivation technique fertilizer application pest control high yield crops selection of varieties of seeds marketing agricultural inputs 0%

5% female

10%

15%

20%

25%

Male

Comparing respondents in Issyk- Kul and Naryn

the same time, greater share of people in

oblasts, we can say the following. Greater

Naryn said that they need to know about

share of people in Issyk-Kul said that they need

marketing, high yield crops, food processing,

information about selection of varieties of

and soil conservation.

seeds, pest control, and animal husbandry. At

Figure 30. Type of information needed, by region

Which type of information do you feel you need the most in order to improve your farming activities? (by region) 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

Naryn

Issyk-Kul

Figure 31. Type of information needed for males, by region

Type of information males feel they need the most in order to improve their farming activities farm mechanization water management land ownership soil conservation food processing animal husbandry harvesting techniques cultivation technique fertilizer application pest control high yield crops selection of varieties of seeds marketing agricultural inputs 0%

10% Issyk-Kul

Naryn

Figure 32. Type of information needed for females, by region

15%

20%

25%

Type of information females feel they need the most in order to improve their farming activities farm mechanization water management land ownership soil conservation food processing animal husbandry harvesting techniques cultivation technique fertilizer application pest control high yield crops selection of varieties of seeds marketing agricultural inputs 0%

10%

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

15%

20%

25%

other sources like internet and newspapers (5 percent). The least popular sources of information are community leaders (4 percent of the cases), aiyl okmotu (4 percent), listening and talking (4 percent), and library (only 1% of the cases).

Most of people in the surveyed villages get their information from television (29 percent), friends and neighbors (18 percent), and other people that have information (13 percent) (Figure 33). Less often people get information from extension officers (8 percent), radio (8 percent), mobile phones (6 percent), and Figure 33. Sources of information

How do you find information? other consulting extension library 5% 1% officers 8%

asking people such as friends, neighbors 18%

use of mobile phones 6%

community leaders 4% aiyl okmotu 4% listening and talking 4%

watching TV 29%

discussions with those who have informat listening to radio 13% 8%

(friends,

neighbors,

extension

officers,

community leaders) is lower than that of men. However, they use more of mobile The

proportion

women

phones and aiyl okmotu while getting

receiving

information (Figure 34).

information through asking specific people Figure 34. Sources of information, by gender

How do you find information you need? (by gender) asking people such as friends, neighbors library consulting extension officers use of mobile phones watching TV listening to radio discussions with those who have informat listening and talking aiyl okmotu community leaders other 0%

10%

female

male

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Comparing male and female respondents in

in Issyk-Kul it is true only for 25 percent of

two oblasts (Figures 35 and 36) we can say

women.

that in Naryn much greater share of people

collected data, men and women in Naryn

(both male and female) get information from

trust more to the information given by

television. If in Naryn 40 percent of women

community leaders and aiyl okmotu.

addition,

according

get the information they need from television, Figure 35. Sources of information for males, by region

How males find information they need, by region asking people such as friends, neighbors library consulting extension officers use of mobile phones watching TV listening to radio discussions with those who have informat listening and talking aiyl okmotu community leaders other 0%

5% Issyk-Kul

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

Naryn

as friends, neighbors, extension officers, and anyone who have information is much higher than in Naryn.

At the same time, in Issyk-Kul the proportion of people (both male and female) getting information by asking people such

Figure 36. Sources of information for females, by region

How females find information they need, by region asking people such as friends, neighbors library consulting extension officers use of mobile phones watching TV listening to radio discussions with those who have informat listening and talking aiyl okmotu community leaders other 0%

5% Issyk-Kul

10%

15%

Naryn

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

Large number of respondents, 36 percent,

newspapers) are the most important for

consider television as the most important

getting information on agricultural issues

source of information. 23 percent of people

(Figure 37).

think that other sources (internet

and

Figure 37. The most important sources of information

What sources of information do you consider the most important? asking people such as friends, neighbors 8%

library 2%

other 23%

consulting extension officers 9%

community leaders 2% aiyl okmotu 2% listening and talking 1% discussions with those who have information 11%

use of mobile phones 2%

watching TV 36% listening to radio 4%

Figure 38. Other important sources of information

Other sources of information that are considered as important 1

163

597

internet/newspapers

newspaper

internet

seminars

Women more than men consider television,

source of information. Men more than women

mobile phones, radio, aiyl okmotu, and

think that asking people such as friends,

community leaders as the most important

neighbors, extension officers, or looking at

internet and newspapers is important for

issues and activities.

getting the information about agricultural

Figure 39. The most important sources of information, by gender

What source of information do you consider the most important? (by gender) asking people such as friends, neighbors consulting extension officers watching TV discussions with those who have information aiyl okmotu other (internet & newspapers) 0%

10%

Female

15%

20%

25%

Male

Figure 40. The most important sources of information for males, by region

What sources of information males consider the most important? (by region) asking people such as friends, neighbors consulting extension officers watching TV discussions with those who have informat aiyl okmotu other (internet & newspapers) 0% Issyk-Kul

10%

20%

Naryn

30%

40%

50%

30%

35%

40%

Figure 41. The most important sources of information for females, by region

What sources of information females consider the most important? (by region) asking people such as friends, neighbors library consulting extension officers use of mobile phones watching TV listening to radio discussions with those who have informat listening and talking aiyl okmotu community leaders other (internet & newspapers) 0%

10%

Issyk-Kul

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Naryn

Figures 40-41 show that both male and female

participants speak for themselves:

respondents in Issyk-Kul consider talking to

Zhamilya, Issyk-Kul oblast:

people (friends, neighbors, extension officers, aiyl okmotu, and other people that have

“We do everything manually. We don’t have

information)

technologies. I must use hoe to cultivate

personally

and

with

mobile

phones is the most important source of

potatoes, dig myself with a spade. I use

information about agriculture. In Naryn men

combine to collect potatoes, but we only have

and women prefer more relying on television,

one combine in the entire village. There are

internet and newspapers.

only few tractors to cultivate the land. Even so, I don’t have enough income to afford paying for

Large share of surveyed people said that they

the services of a tractor”.

have no sufficient information (27 percent of

Meerim, Naryn oblast:

the sample) and lack time to look for information (18 percent). Moreover, ignorance

“I have no equipment; the private service is very

of information source (11 percent), distance to

expensive. You can’t find a tractor in the

information source (10 percent), and non-

spring. If you find one you must chase him and

availability and affordability (10%) also create

pursuage him to take your order earlier. You

challenges for people while seeking for

have to be good to him, buy him cigarettes, etc.

information (Figure 42).

All this in addition to the fees he charges. Also, you must find, buy and bring him the diesel,

In-depth interviews show a profound lack of

too”.

access to technologies and information on agricultural technology. Responses from female

Nazima, Naryn oblast:

serviced first. I you need to lure the tractorâ&#x20AC;&#x153;I must pay 1200 som and buy 25 litres of fuel

driver with cigarettes, cook food for him, cajole

per hectare. For the tractor I must also pay

him with beer, etc.â&#x20AC;?

1400 som. Even if I have the money, I must fight in too many conflicts over who gets to be

Figure 42. Challenges while seeking for information

Challenges while seeking for information language barrier in accessing information 2%

people conceal information 5%

time to look for information 18%

ignorance of information source 11% inadequate information 6%

non-availability and affordability 10%

outdated information 2%

distance to information sources 10% no sufficient information 27%

shy to access information 4% negative attitudes 5%

Higher proportion of women than men said

for information on agricultural issues. Men talk

that they face ignorance of information source,

more about insufficient information and its

conceal of the information, negative attitudes,

non-availability and affordability (Figure 43).

language barriers, and shyness while looking

Figure 43. Challenges while seeking for information, by gender

Challenges while seeking for information, by gender people conceal information language barrier in accessing information ignorance of information source inadequate information outdated information no sufficient information negative attitudes shy to access information distance to information sources non-availability and affordability time to look for information 0%

10%

Female

15%

20%

25%

30%

Male

In Naryn, more women said that they are shy to

often than men problems with distance to

access information or face ignorance of

information sources and time to look for

information source. Moreover, they have more

information (Figure 44).

Figure 44. Challenges while seeking information, Naryn

Challenges while seeking for information, Naryn people conceal information language barrier in accessing information ignorance of information source inadequate information outdated information no sufficient information negative attitudes shy to access information distance to information sources

non-availability and affordability time to look for information 0%

5% Female

10% Male

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Figure 45. Challenges while seeking for information, Issyk-Kul

Challenges while seeking for information, Issyk-Kul people conceal information language barrier in accessing information ignorance of information source inadequate information outdated information no sufficient information negative attitudes shy to access information distance to information sources non-availability and affordability time to look for information 0%

5% Female

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Male

In Issyk-Kul, women more often than men talk

attitudes, distance to information sources,

about ignorance of information source,

and language barrier in accessing information.

people

concealing

information,

negative

Main findings about access to information are

extension officers, community leaders)

the following:

is lower than that of men.

Women

than

men

need

number

consider

agricultural inputs, pest control, land

important source of information. Also,

ownership,

people

soil

conservation,

television

respondents

information about animal husbandry,

think

that

the

internet

most

and

harvesting and cultivation techniques.

newspapers are also very important for

At the same time, women need less

getting information on agricultural

information about food processing,

issues. -

fertilizer application, high yield crops,

Largest

Higher proportion of women than men

and selection of varieties of seeds

said that they face ignorance of

comparing to men.

information source, conceal of the

Most of people in the surveyed villages

information,

get their information from, friends and

language barriers, and shyness while

neighbors, and other people that have

looking for information on agricultural

information. The proportion of women

issues.

receiving information through asking

insufficient information and its non-

specific people (friends, neighbors,

availability and affordability

Men

negative

talk

attitudes,

about

More men than women have been

Gender and biodiversity This chapter provides information on

noticing negative changes in the variety of

changes in the variety of crops, plants, herbs,

crops available. Slightly less than 40 percent of

animal and poultry breeds available. It also

women did not notice any changes, and around

explores the surveyed people’s awareness of

8 percent said that they “don’t know” (Figure

the term “biodiversity” and how informed they

46.)

feel about biodiversity loss.

Figure 46. Changes in the variety of crops

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of crops available?

Female

Male

20% No

40%

Yes, decreasing

60% Yes, increasing

80%

100%

don't know

Comparing Issyk-Kul and Naryn, the following

Kul. In Issyk-Kul more people have been

can be said: more people (both men and

noticing increasing variety of crops than in

women) in Naryn notice no or negative changes

Naryn (Figure 47).

in the variety of crops available than in Issyk-

Figure 47

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of crops available? By region, female

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of crops available? By region, male don't know

don't know

Yes, increasing

Yes, decreasing

No 0%

10%

20%

Issyk-Kul

30%

40%

50%

Naryn

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

Large part of respondents havenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been

increased. More men than women noticed

noticing any changes in the variety of plants, 39

negative changes in the variety of plants, and

percent of women and 42 percent of men. One

more women donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know about these changes

third of people think that variety of plants

(Figure 48).

Figure 48. Changes in the variety of plants, by gender

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of plants? don't know Yes, increasing Yes, decreasing No 0%

10%

15%

20%

Female

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

Male

In Issyk-Kul people notice increased variety of

no changes, in Naryn this was the answer of

plants more often than in Naryn (Figure 49).

most men and women (58 percent).

While in Issyk-Kul one third of respondents see

Figure 49. Changes in the variety of plants, by region

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of plants? By region

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

20% No

40%

Yes, decreasing

60% Yes, increasing

80%

100%

don't know

Unlike crops and plants, herbs did not change

percent of female respondents did not notice

in their variety, according to the most of

any changes in the variety of herbs (Figure 50).

respondents. 56 percent of male and 59 Figure 50. Changes in the variety of herbs, by region

Have you been noticing changes in variety of herbs? don't know Yes, increasing Yes, decreasing No 0%

10%

20%

30%

Female

40%

50%

60%

70%

Male

The share of respondents in two regions that

Kul more people donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know about any

think that the variety of herbs did not change

changes, and less people noticed increase in

or been decreasing is very similar. But in Issyk-

variety of herbs than in Naryn (Figure 51).

Figure 51. Changes in variety of herbs, by region

Have you been noticing changes in variety of herbs? By region

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

20% No

40%

Yes, decreasing

60% Yes, increasing

Almost half of respondents did not seen any changes in variety of animal breeds. Again, more women than men donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know about such

80%

100%

don't know

changes (19 percent versus 8 percent), and more men think that the variety has been increasing or decreasing (Figure 52).

Figure 52. Change in variety of animal breeds

Have you been noticing changes in variety of animal breeds? don't know Yes, increasing Yes, decreasing No 0%

10%

20% Female

30%

40%

Male

50%

60%

Figure 53. Changes in variety of animal breeds

Have you been noticing changes in the variety of animal breeds? By region don't know Yes, increasing Yes, decreasing No 0%

10%

20%

30%

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

40%

According to collected data, most of both men and women haven’t been noticing any changes

50%

60%

in variety of poultry breeds – around 60 percent of respondents.

Figure 54. Changes in variety of poultry breeds Have you been noticing changes in variety of poultry breeds? 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% No

Yes, decreasing Male

Yes, increasing

don't know

Female

Respondents were asked whether they are familiar with the term “biodiversity”. In surveyed villages, slightly more than half of population have heard of the term “biodiversity” but don’t know what it means.

Three in ten have never heard of it and just slightly less than 20 percent have heard of the term and know what it means. There are no significant differences between men and women about familiarity with the term.

Figure 55. Knowledge of biodiversity

What do you know about bio-diversity? I've heard of it and I know what it means I've heard of it but I do not know what it means I have never heard of it 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Male

Female

In Issyk-Kul respondents are more likely to say that they have heard of the term “biodiversity” but don’t know what it means (58 percent) or have heard of it and know what it means (21

percent). In Naryn greater share of surveyed people have never heard of the term “biodiversity” (39.5 percent).

Figure 56. What do you know about bio-diversity?

What do you know about bio-diversity? By region 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% I've heard of it and I know I've heard of it but I do not what it mean know what Naryn

I have never heard of it

Issyk-Kul

Respondents were asked what the phrase “loss of biodiversity” means. Largest proportion of respondents say that it means that certain animals and plants are in danger (21 percent), certain animals and plants are disappearing (18

percent), there are climate changes (16 percent) and decline in natural habitats (15 percent), or they don’t know the meaning of the phrase (18 percent) (Figure 57).

Figure 57. Understanding of term «loss of biodiversity”

What does the phrase "loss of biodiversity" mean? don't know 18%

change the climate 16%

don't care 4% loss of natural heritage 1%

certain animals and plants are disappearing 18%

problems with clean air, water 4% forests will disappear 3% decline in natural habitats 15%

certain animals and plants are in danger 21%

When people are asked how informed they feel about the loss of biodiversity, they are fairly evenly split: around 40 percent of them don’t know and the same number feel that that they are not informed. Less than 5 percent feel that

they are well informed, and more than 16 percent feel that they are not informed at all. Significantly more men than women feel that they are not well informed, while more women don’t know how they feel about it.

Figure 58. Information about the loss of biodiversity

How informed do you feel about the loss of biodiversity? don't know well informed not well informed not informed at all 0%

10%

20% Female

30%

40%

50%

Male

The patterns in the proportion of those who feel informed about biodiversity loss varies across regions. Respondents in Issyk-Kul are more likely to say that they are not well

informed (55 percent). Respondents in Naryn are more likely to say that they don’t know or are not informed at all about biodiversity loss.

Figure 59. Information about the loss of biodiverisy, by region

How informed you feel about the loss of biodiversity? By region don't know well informed not well informed not informed at all 0%

10%

20% Issyk-Kul

30%

40%

50%

60%

Naryn

Using biodiversity mushrooms and squirrels. She and her father In-depth interviews demonstrate a wide range

bring their sacks full of mushrooms to their

of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use of biodiversity resources.

tents where they clean, boil and pickle them.

Income generation is one of them. Energy is

After that they pack them up in sacks. The

another one (brushwood is collected for fire) as

family then would transport some mushrooms

well as medicinal purposes. Recreational and

to a market in the nearest city of Cholpon Ata

esthetic value of biodiversity is also an

where relatives help them with selling. This

important aspect of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationships to

would typically be a middleman who pays 200

natural resources. Below cases illustrate

som per one kilo. Kalima knows that

specific activities.

middlemen take mushrooms further to Kazakhstan and sell them there. Sometimes, they hold some of mushrooms for later

Case study of Kalima, collector of wild-growing

because the prices grow towards the winter.

mushroom for income.

For Kalima, gathering mushrooms is difficult.

Kalima became a mushroom collector when she

One must wake up at 5 am, stock up on snacks

was still in her eight grade of school. Every

and climb up and down the entire day. The

summer she and her father make long trips

income they would receive ranged from 10 000

high in the mountains and stay there for about

to 15 000 som per season, but Kalima never

one month living in tents and collecting

participated in deciding how to spend those.

mushrooms. Mostly this would be milk

Mostly, the money was spent on food.

Another case is a n example of biodiversity

believes that they are totally different from

being used for medicinal purposes. We present

those grown elsewhere. Their effect is also

a case of Malika, a traditional healer who uses

much stronger. She tried to plant her favorite

herbs for her work.

herbs in her own garden but “it was useless because the plants’ qualities were different,

Malika has been a school teacher in a local

they were not effective as those which grow in

village in Issyk-Kul oblast for twenty five years.

the mountains. The climate, the soil, the air is

Since her husband died ten years ago she has

different there”.

been questioning modern medicine and gradually became a local traditional healer. For

Today Malika enjoys social respect and

the last four years Malika has been collecting

people’s gratitude to her. She is now known for

wild growing herbs for medicinal purposes. For

having successfully treated such diseases as

her this is also generational knowledge and

ulcer, cyst, myoma, helminthes, prostatitis,

skills which she learnt from her mother and her

cyctitis, infertility, etc. Her knowledge of

mother learnt from her own mother. For the

medicinal herbs also helps to raise some

last six years, Malika makes long trips to a place

income although she does not generally charge

high in the mountains. She travels eight hours

money for her services.

by car to reach a small village and takes a horse

Another case study focuses on the

to go further into the wild. She spends a week

experience of Saida, a woman who uses local

at a specific spot and picks the herbs she needs.

resources to improve her livelihood.

Among her favorite plants are Rhodiola or

many of the villagers she collects and usessea

golden root, Staghorn ferns or platycerium, and

buckthorn for income and food. Shoreline of

others that Malika does not know the names

Issyk-Kul is known for its richness of wild sea

of. She knows their qualities from her mother

buckthorn shrubs. The shrubs grow naturally in

and grandmother and knows how to use them.

cold areas and have a high resistance to frost. It

There are five types of most important varieties

is also highly resistant to insect damage, and

she collects and she is happy with their

most animals avoid eating it. In Issyk-Kul, sea

effectiveness. “These five are enough to help a

buckthorn shrubs play an important role in

person with an illness. One must be aware that

ecosystem protection because they prevent soil

herbs can also be harmful for you. And I must

erosion and also build the capacity of the lake

say that herbs do not always help”, she says. It

to clean itself. Sea buckthorn is now included

is imperative for Malika to know that her herbs

into the Red Book and is protected by the

come from a specific place because she

legislation against felling. The plant also serves

as an economic resource for food and medicine

products. The berries are

rich in vitamins E, B1, B2, anti-oxidants and

over 100 healthful constituents making them

one of the most nutritious berries on earth.

one hundred kilograms of sea buckthorn

The leaves are also being used for beverages

berries over a period from mid-summer till

due to essential fatty acids they contain. The

November. This brings Saida cash income of

fruit pulps are used for subsistence in jams,

more than ten thousand som per year. “This is

jellies, sauces, etc. The oils of seeds are used

my personal money”, she says. However, later

for medicinal purposes. The oil from the seeds

mentions that she spends this money on

is used to treat a variety of skin diseases and

children and house needs. “I buy warm clothes

injuries. Cosmonauts use it for radiation burns.

for my children, and also coal and firewood to

Saida is a middle-aged woman who

heat our house in the winter time.”

raises three children with her husband in their

Saida and her family, and many other

small house. Saida works as a seller in a local

families in her village, undoubtedly receive

hardware store. Her salary is the main and only

economic and subsistence benefits from what

regular source of income of the entire family.

the nature offers them. However, she has been

Her husband is responsible for any work related

observing changes in the availability and quality

to their garden where they grow apples, pears

of the berries over the years. “The quantity of

and apricots for sale. At home they have some

berries has been changing every year, there are

hens, ducks, sheep and cows. Eggs, milk and

less and less bushes. The berries themselves are

poultry they use for their own subsistence only.

now smaller”.

Having arrived to the village fifteen years ago

For Aizhan, a local woman, nature is

for permanent living with her husband, Saida

part of her cultural heritage. With a university

found herself with no job and a sufficient cash

degree from a university in Bishkek, she worked

income to support her family. At this time the

as an engineer for two years and the rest of her

idea of using buckthorn came. Since 2005 she

life served in police in criminal investigation

has been regularly organizing her family’s trip

department. Currently, Aizhan works in Russia,

to mountains where they collect sea buckthorn

where she serves as a security in a medical

berries.

college. She comes to the village every summer “Together with my husband and

for recreation. She enjoys her gardens, clean

children with go far up to the

air, the shore of the lake to give herself a rest.

mountains. We walk by foot if nobody

Her house in the village is used as a holiday

gives us a ride. We cut branches and

house where she can relax and engage in her

with ripe berries and bring them down

own hobbies such as crafts making. She

here. I then strip the branches of berries

produces crafts for exhibitions and has become

by hand at home or at work when I

a recognizable crafts woman already. Aizhan

don’t have customers”

also values the goods of the nearby forest,

On average Saida and her family collects about

where she goes to collect berries to make jams

and teas.

Contribution to biodiversity conservation put them under the hens. An odd Qualitative data provides for a deeper

number is better. You need 1 rooster

understanding of how women contribute to

per 10 hens. I personally pick the

biodiversity conservation. Globally women

roosters, the largest ones and the most

farmers have been largely responsible for the

beautiful ones, they are the most

improvement and adaptation of many varieties

slightly, the most combative. You must

of plants, animals and poultryxxxiv. Around the

know when to slaughter. For example,

world, women usually oversee small household

it is better to slaughter them in

livestock . They choose and breed for preferred

Januaryâ&#x20AC;?.

traits based. In south-east Mexico, women

More data show other specific ways women in

keep as many as nine breeds of local hens, as

Kyrgyzstan do it.

well as local breeds of turkey, ducks and

Case of Aida. Aida is a 56-year-old former

broilers in. In selecting the best breeds, they

teacher of Biology and Chemistry in a village

consider 11 separate characteristics and can

located in Dzhumgal Aiyl Okmotu xxxvi. In mid-

easily distinguish the breeds and species based

summer 2015 Aida started on her own home-

on each of thesexxxv. Current research identified

based business. Using traditional recipes, her

similar activities in rural Kyrgyzstan where

local knowledge and innovative thinking she

nearly every household has some poultry. Burul

produces Kyrgyz national food and snacks.

is a member of one of such households and she

Especially striking is the variety of kurut xxxvii1

agreed to share some of her knowledge in this

that Aida makes. More than twenty different

research:

types of kurut combine classic traditional recipe

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Women in the village know how to treat

and original flavors and natural additives. To

poultry, how to receive better breeds and how

illustrate, among Aidaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new flavors are kurut

to feed them. In the spring, for example, one

with sea berries, with beetroots, with black

must feed them one type of food in order to

currant, with raspberries, with

increase egg production. You must feed them something different to make sure that hens begin to incubate. In the

spring I feed them with yeastcontaining food to make them start incubating. I select the best eggs and 1

strawberries, with horsemeat, with butter, with

Leningrad Technical Institute and worked in

dill, with dried plums, etc. Aida calls her

Bishkek for most of her life. After the collapse

innovative kuruts “vitaminized kuruts” and

of the Soviet Union in 1991 she and her

keeps records (which she calls “referats”) to

husband returned to the village to become

collects the receipts. She describes each type of

farmers. Today the family owns ten hectares of

kurut in terms of their content (calcium, types

agricultural land where they cultivate wheat,

of vitamins, etc). In innovating and searching

potatoes, and oats. Gulyaim’s responsibly is to

for even more recipes she often makes use of

ensure high quality of seeds.

the book called “Medical herbs of Kyrgyzstan” by Altymyshbaeva.

I always work with my own seeds. I select,

Besides kurut Aida makes “chobogo”,

collect and save them. I can see it which seeds

“gulazyk”, “ui kymyz”, “koshkon mai”, “talkan”

are the best. You just see them. All the seeds I

and other national food which are slowly losing

test before sowing. I put seeds into humate.

their popularity. Again, combining traditional

Humate is an organic fertilizer. It is harmless.

recipes and new ideas is something that

So, I soak the seeds in this humate for 2-3 days

characterizes Aida. For instance, she adds

and then plant about twenty seeds on a piece

honey, dried grapes and nuts to ghee (‘sary

of cloth and put them on my windowsill on a

mai’) to produce a new type of desert.

sunny side. I see how many of them germinate.

“Milk is very cheap today. I saw that many

If seventeen seeds out of 20 grow, I view it as a

people throw away lots of milk and dairies. I did

good result. After that I can distribute seeds to

not like it. I know how to use it and I also teach

the people. Then my conscientiousness is clean,

other young women how to put milk to a good

that I give good seeds to the people. The quality

use. Milk is very cheap to sell, but kurut keeps

of seeds is the priority. Yes, people come to me

good price”.

to get seeds for wheat, oats, sainfoin.

Aida’s neighbors regularly buy kurut from her

Indeed, through traditional process of seed

when they go for visits outside of the village.

selection, women all over the world engage in

Her daughters help her market her kurut in

choosing certain desirable plant characteristics

Bishkek. She also started on-line sale of her

and decide on the quantity and variety to be

products with the help of her younger

saved as well as the method of preservation.

daughter. Recently, she managed to sell six

The moment that the crops begin to flower,

kilos of kurut to Muchnen, Germany.

women begin observing the plants, and later

Case of Gulchekhra. Gulchekhra is a 66-year-old

harvest seeds based on their size, grain

retired woman living in a village in Issyk-Kul

formation and resistance to pests and

oblast2. She has a university degree from

insectsxxxviii.

One of the seven provinces of the Kyrgyz Republic

Gender and climate change

adaptation strategies (Adger et al. 2009).

Today global climate change is one of the most

Climate change is evident in the Kyrgyz

pressing issues of the humankind. The findings

Republic and the major challenges have been

of the IPCC suggest that the policymakers

identified

around the world facing new unprecedented

Government 2009). The immediate affected

challenges (IPCC 2013). The climate change

sectors include agriculture, water, healthcare

causes the natural world disruptions that have

and natural disasters.

social and economic costs. Annual cost of the

patterns and increased frequency of national

climate

disasters are the most visible consequences of

change may reach $1.9 trillion

Kyrgyz

government

(KR

Changing weather

(Ackerman & Stanton 2008). The research

natural environmental change.

shows that developing countries will be most

The Kyrgyz Republic is one of the most climate

vulnerable and will bear larger share of the cost

change vulnerable country in the region (Fay et

(IPCC 2007).

al. 2010). Kyrgyz government actively works on

Therefore,

many

developing

own

countries

been

the national adaption strategies and uses top-

national climate change

down approach. The adaptation strategy

adaptation strategies. Typically, the adaptation

proposes to fight frequent droughts, stronger

strategies rely on impact analysis approach or

winds, mudflows, river runoffs and other

other similar macroeconomic tools (Adger et al.

natural disasters.

2003; Aaheim & Aasen 2008). The adaptation

The main

strategies became an important part of modern

adaptation activities is the lack of local

development

leadership

agenda.

This

have

top-down

disadvantage of

(Sabyrbekov

the national

2014).

Top-down

approach that has low transaction costs and

approach lead to the formal rigid framework

not complex in terms of monitoring and

and ignores to the contextual development

evaluation.

challenges such as gender, social, cultural and

Climate change in KR and adaptation

economic issues on household level. Low climate change awareness is among the main challenges for the implementation of the

However, this general top-down approach have

national adaptation plans.

been criticized for the lack of consideration of

Importance of this research

local context (Eriksen et al. 2011). Indeed, the

This research is one of very rare Central Asian

local and household adaption strategies may

examples that study household level climate

yield more effective results and certainly

change related issues. Specifically, it reveals the

adapted to the socioeconomic and cultural

climate change awareness and household

realities of a place. Empirical studies confirm

adaptation

this and even may contradict to the state-level

strategies.

Gender

clearly

identified and analyzed in the context on use of

natural resources and environmental change.

climate change and how they are affected by it.

The research findings are important both for

The chapter is also aimed to analyze the impact

academic

policymakers

of climate change on the daily lives of people in

because the study results will help to design

Naryn and Issyk-Kul regions, with special

more effective climate changes response

attention to the impact on livelihoods and

strategies.

economic activities.

Today there is no doubt that the climate

Most of surveyed population has heard about

change is the main threat to the livelihoods

the term â&#x20AC;&#x153;climate changeâ&#x20AC;? (50 percent of men

around the globe.

and 50 percent of women). 32 percent of male

This chapter indicates peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions

and 30 percent of female respondents say that

about causes and impacts of climate change.

they know well about climate change, 16 and

The climate change discourse has been

17 percent never heard about it, and just 2-3

evolving globally, still there is a knowledge gap

percent of respondents are very well-informed

on what people in the region know about

about climate change.

community

and

Figure 60. Information about climate change, by gender

What do you know about climate change? By gender 2% 16% 3%

32%

17%

30%

Never heard Heard something Know well

Male Female

Very well-informed

50% 50%

Most of respondents said that they are

likely to be very concerned about the climate

somewhat concerned about the possible

change impacts, while women are more likely

impact of climate change on their village (more

to be somewhat concerned about it.

than 60 percent) (Figure 61). Men are more

100

Figure 61. Concerns about possible impact of climate change

How much are you concerned about possible impacts of climate change on your village?

Female

Male

20%

Not concerned at all

40% somewhat concerned

60%

80% neutral

100%

very concerned

temperatures (11 percent), and danger to public health (11 percent), damage to natural environment and wildlife (10 percent), and increased energy costs (9 percent) (Figure 62).

The main concerns about climate change are the following: impact on agricultural production (12 percent), instability of seasonal Figure 62.

Five main concerns about climate change higher insurance increased food costs a more polluted premiums atmosphere 4% 2% 7% economic instability 7%

increase in number of severe weather eve 5%

increase in potential future costs of cl 4%

instability of seasonal temperatures 11%

reduced water availability 9%

rise in sea level 4%

danger to public health 11%

damage to natural environment and wildli 10%

increased flooding 5%

impacts on agricultural production 12% increased energy costs 9%

Most surveyed people noticed decrease in water availability in past years (55 percent of

men and 50 percent of women) (Figure 63).

101

Figure 63. Changes in water availability

Have you noticed any changes in water availability in past years?

Female

Male

20% no

yes, increasing

40%

60%

yes, decreasing

80%

100%

yes, decreasing a lot

Half of male respondents did not notice any

respondents are slightly different: 43 percent

changes in water quality, more than one third

of them did not see any changes in water

of them feel that water quality has been

quality, while 38 percent noticed negative

decreasing, and 15 percent claim that the

changes in the quality of water in past years.

quality of water has been increasing. Patterns of water quality perception among female Figure 64. Changes in water quality

Have you noticed any changes in water quality in past years?

Female

Male

20% no

yes, increasing

40%

60%

yes, decreasing

80%

100%

yes, decreasing a lot

These data is supported by in-depth interviews

can only irrigate once a month only. The trees

with many of the rural women. Here are

[apricots and apple] need to be watered at

excerpts from some of interviews with them:

least three times per month. The water is too far from us, it takes time for it to come down

Zhumagul, Issyk-Kul oblast:

from the mountains. The queue is too long of us

We have problems with irrigation water. We

to wait. The water from the well cannot be used

102

for irrigation because it contains chlorine.

because there is no water… Aina, Naryn oblast:

Zhipar, Issyk-Kul oblast:

Every year I receive 17 tons of potatoes from 70

We depend upon mountains on irrigation

sotkas [0.7 ha]every year. I used to grow barley

water. I event used to steal water from my

and hey in this field. What we grow is enough,

neighbours. Sometimes it does not come at all.

but the problem is water. There is no water at

This year I missed my turn to water my wheat

all.

field … So, instead of 70 bags I only received 40. Men are less likely to notice no changes and Asel, Naryn oblast:

are more likely to see positive or very negative

There is no use for us even to try to plant fruits

changes in soil quality in past years than

because we don’t have water for irrigating the

women (Figure 65).

fields. I can’t cultivate many vegetables Figure 65. Changes in soil quality

Have you noticed any changes in soil quality in past years? 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Male no

yes, increasing

Female yes, decreasing

yes, decreasing a lot

Women are less likely to notice increasing air

than male respondents (Figure 66).

humidity and are more likely to see no changes

103

Figure 66. Changes in air humidity

Have you noticed any changes in air humidity in past years?

Female

Male

20% no

40%

yes, increasing

60%

yes, decreasing

80%

100%

yes, decreasing a lot

Unlike women, men have more negative

male respondents claim that the quality of

perceptions about the quality of grazing land

grazing land has been deteriorating and

and changes in it in past years. 42 percent of

deteriorating a lot in past years (Figure 67).

Figure 67. Changes in quality of grazing land

Have you noticed any changes in quality of grazing land in past years? 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Male no

yes, increasing

Female yes, deteriorated

yes, deteriorated a lot

In the sample, the share of men and women

livestock production has been deteriorating in

noticing no changes in livestock production is

past years, while male respondents are more

almost

likely to say that it has been increasing (Figure

the

same.

However,

female

respondents are more likely to say that the

68).

104

Figure 68. Changes in livestock production

Have you noticed any changes in livestock production in past years?

Female

Male

20% no

yes, increasing

40%

60%

yes, deteriorated

80%

100%

yes, deteriorated a lot

Not only the livestock production, but also the

deteriorated or deteriorated a lot (Figure 69).

frequency and complexity of livestock diseases

At the same time men more often than women

have been changing. More than 60 percent of

say that diseases have been increasing (18

all respondents noticed positive changes in

percent and 5 percent, respectively).

livestock diseases: they said that diseases Figure 69. Changes in livestock diseases

Have you noticed any changes in frequency or complexity of livestock diseases? 100% 80%

60% 40% 20% 0% Male no

yes, increasing

Female yes, deteriorated

yes, deteriorated a lot

Many respondents, 41 percent of men and 48

people say that forest resources deteriorated

percent of women, noticed no changes in

(Figure 70).

forest resources. 35 percent of surveyed

105

Figure 70. Changes in forest resources

Have you noticed any changes in forest resources in past years? N/A yes, deteriorated a lot yes, deteriorated yes, increasing no 0

40 Female

100

Male

Vast majority of people in the dataset said that

to climate changes, or that changes are

they did not make any changes in their usual

happening in a gradual manner and are not

activities. This might mean either that the

very noticeable.

population in surveyed villages does not adapt Figure 71. Changes in usual activities

Have you made any changes in activities that you usually did in your place? 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Male

Female No

Yes

Most respondents confirm that they made no

Moreover, there is no significant variation in

changes in livestock and crops (Figure 72).

male and female responses.

106

Figure 72. Change in agricultural activities

Have you made any changes in your activities? Yes, changes in livestock No changes in livestock Yes, changes in crops No changes in crops 0

Female

100

120

140

160

180

Male

According to obtained data, people do not have

lifestyle and usual activities. More than 95

any specific strategy to cope with future

percent of respondents do not have any

environment changes that could threat their

strategy.

Figure 73.

Do you have a strategy to cope with future environment changes that could threat?

Female

Male

20%

40% No

60%

80%

100%

Yes

Use of manure (45 percent) and use of crop

agriculture activities. 9 percent of respondents

rotation (42 percent) are two most popular

increase diversity of grown crops, and 4

strategies used by respondents in their

percent use synthetic fertilizers.

107

Figure 74

In last two years have done any of the following? increase diversity of grown crops 9%

use of manure 45%

use crop rotation 42%

use synthetic fertilizers 4%

Only a small share of population, according to data, use seeds/crops which resist against insects and diseases, and tolerate extreme cold

or extreme heat. Some larger number of respondents uses seeds/crops that demand less water, but still the number is very low.

Figure 75.

Do you use the following in agricultural activities? Seeds/crops which resist against insects and diseases Seeds/crops which demand less water Seeds/crops which tolerate extreme cold Seeds/crops which tolerate extreme heat 0

Yes

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

80 percent of men and more than 82 percent of

sample participates in the local community

women have not heard of community seed

seed bank. Only nine people out of 420

banks (Figure 76). Moreover, no one in the

participate in group farming.

108

Figure 76

Have you heard of community seed banks? No

Yes

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Male

Female

Biogas and solar energy are still not popular

sample use solar energy. Less than one third of

types

one

respondents (28 percent) collect berries and

respondent in the sample said that he uses

herbs for medicinal purposes. Most of people

biogas, other 419 people do not use this type of

raise poultry: 81 percent of men and women in

energy. Less than 5 percent of people in the

the sample.

alternative

energy.

Only

Figure 77.

Do you do the following activities? use biogas use solar energy raise poultry collect berries/herbs for medicinal purposes 0 Yes

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 No

Summary findings:

respondents are well informed about climate

Half of population in the sample stated that

change. Five main concerns about climate

they have heard about the term â&#x20AC;&#x153;climate

change are the following: impact on agricultural

changeâ&#x20AC;?. Relatively large share of respondents

production,

(16 percent of men and 17 percent of women)

temperatures, and danger to public health,

never heard about it, and just 2-3 percent of

damage to natural environment and wildlife,

109

instability

seasonal

and increased energy costs. According to

livelihoods. For the last fifteen years she has

obtained data, people do not have any specific

been a small farmer doing a variety of activities

strategy to cope with future environment

to generate income. She is, like most of the

changes that could threat their lifestyle and

women in the village, a very accurate planner

usual activities. Use of manure and use of crop

of expenditures with a high degree of reliance

rotation are two most popular strategies used

on consistency of the productivity of her assets.

by respondents in their agriculture activities.

One plot of Aikokul’s land is a 0.15 ha garden

Population has not heard about community

with twenty apple trees and twenty apricot

seed banks or group farming. It raises poultry,

trees of different varieties. A large portion of

but does not use biogas and solar energy as

cash income comes from selling of apricot

alternative to electricity, natural gas, or coal.

harvest. This money has a direct function in Aikokul’s family: “In the summer we sell our

Vulnerability to climate change and biodiversity loss

apricots. This money we use to pay the

Vulnerability to climate change and biodiversity

(the distant pasture lands) and to buy the

loss is often tangible upon people’s

fodder”. Petty cash generated from selling milk

dependence on natural resources. Qualitative

from her cows Aikokul uses for everyday

data from current research shows that rural

expenses like food and other necessities for her

people’s livelihoods in Kyrgyzstan are heavily

children. Aside from that she complement

reliant on cropped agriculture. What they grow

family meals with what she grows in her

in the fields, in their kitchen gardens and other

kitchen garden, i.e., cucumbers, tomatoes,

plots of land, the animals and poultry they

cabbage, carrots, radishes, onions, garlic, etc.

breed provide these people with income and

The income the family receives from selling

subsistence. We selected three stories which

their apples in the fall is used for purchasing

illustrate both similarities and variability in the

warm clothes for their children.

rural communities reliance upon agricultural

Aikokul’s set of responsibilities extends to

land.

potatoes’ growing. It is her sole job in the

Case study 1.

family. She complains that the price for

Aikokul is a married woman in her mid-thirties

potatoes is too low, nevertheless, actively

raising six children. She begins her story with

continues its cultivation on a field of 0.20 ha.

the phrase “we don’t work and receive state

She is the one in the family who opens the

benefits for all of five children”, but what

ground, plants potatoes, and weeds it. If the

follows in her description of life clearly

family has money they use services of a

demonstrates how hard, in fact, this woman

machine to harvest it, they do. Otherwise, she

works to sustain her and her family’s

does it manually. It is her responsibility to make

shepherds who herd our animals in ‘dzhailoos’

110

sure that the land is fertilized. She uses organic

together with her husband who is also officially

fertilizers like manure although, her preference

jobless. The family owns some sheep, cattle

is to use mineral fertilizers which she simply

and poultry and Tazagul takes full responsibility

cannot afford. There is an apparent well-set

for cows and poultry, all the products are used

mechanism of supply of the insecticides mostly

for family consumption only. Tazagul uses her

against the so-called ‘Colorado beetle’

small kitchen garden and also rents a larger

(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) as suppliers arrive

plot of land further away from her house to

into the village and barter their insecticides for

grow potatoes for her family and also for sale.

potatoes. Aikokul has been using this

Once she cleans her land of potatoes she plants

mechanism for years already. This year her

garlic there which she later sells.

hard work was generously rewarded and she

Cash income in Tazagul’s family comes from

collected three tons of select potatoes.

her husband’s work as a middle man. He

However, her job does not stop after her

purchases apples within the village and

harvest is collected. She then must separate

transports them for sale elsewhere. This

her harvest into three categories, i.e., for sale,

income is used for a small construction that the

for seeds and for consumption:

family recently started to enlarge they home in

“I pick the biggest potatoes and take them

order to accommodate all six children. The

aside for sale. The smallest ones I keep for next

family also receives income from trading

year’s sowing. All ‘defective’ ones I leave at

apricots in midsummer. However, this money is

home. We will eat them ourselves”.

typically used for purchasing feed for the sheet

Aikokul than packs her crops into net bags and

and cattle and also a. The cattle is important

stores them in her cellar.

for the family because they provide milk and

“I know how to do this all from childhood. As a

dairy, an important component of local diet.

little girl I was doing it with my family. My

Sheep they use for their own consumption as

family grew potatoes, and also garlic. And now

well. “We eat out sheep. Only in exceptional

I am doing it myself for my children”, she says.

cases we turn to selling the sheep. The price is too low nowadays”, she says. The family

Case study 2.

receives no state benefits for their children

Tazagul’s account speaks about a typical family

because they are not considered eligible due to

living in a village located in the southern shore

their ownership of sheep and a car. So,

of Issyk-Kul lake. Although this family does not

together with her mother-in-law who receives

use any wild growing plants their dependence

a pension they do their best to educate and

upon natural resources is more than evident.

provide for their children. “If you don’t do all of

Tazagul is in her late twenties. She is

this, you can’t really rear children”, she says.

unemployed and raises her six small children

111

Interview with Aziza, another local woman living Issyk-kul oblast whose experience

The family wanted to compensate for the

shows risks her household suffered due to

losses by planting more potatoes, but they did

climate change.

not have enough land for that. However, next year Aziza and her husband will rent a larger

Aziza works as a school teacher in a village

piece of land to grow more potatoes in order to

known as a ‘capital of apricots’. Her family’s

balance off potential loss of income from

main source of income comes from selling of

trading their apricots. This is a rational solution

apricots they grow in their garden. The money

for the family, however, it carries a risk of

they receive is sufficient to provide for the

increasing the workload for Aziza due to the

entire family. However, there has been a

fact that traditionally, potatoes-related work

noticeable decrease in the amount of fruits

has been her responsibility. “I am responsible

they were able to collect this year, which Aziza

for planting and harvesting [of potatoes], and,

attributes to the consequences of climate

of course, weeding”, she says. At the moment

change.

Aziza uses 0.5 ha to cultivate potatoes. If the family increases the size of the plot, the

“This year we had a poor harvest [of apricots].

amount of additional work will fall heavily on

This year we had problems, either late frosts (in

her already busy life.

May 2015) or a poor cross-pollination. I have

“All of this I do after I finish teaching because

lost income. Earlier, we used to earn from 150

you, as a teacher, cannot miss classes”, Aziza

to 200 thousand som per season. This year we

tells in an interview. It must be taken into

only earned eighty thousand som. We also

account that Aziza has a kitchen garden where

collected fewer apples this year. Last years it

she grows vegetables and also take care of two

was much better. But we can’t control the

parents-in-law one of whom has been

weather. We can’t stop hail or late frosts”.

paralyzed for the last four years and Aziza was a primary caregiver for her.

The failure of receiving the expected income forced the family to use their reserve capital

“Life of a village woman is difficult. From early

and livestock.

morning we have to work to put our lives together”, she says. Given the fact that the

“Because we made less money on apricots, we

climate change will accelerate, there is a

had to sell part of our sheep herd. We sold

concern that losses to its consequences will be

some sheep, because we had to pay the

paid by women’s increased labour, time and

‘contract’ (university tuition fee for their three

health.

children)”.

112

information through asking specific people

Conclusions

(friends, neighbors, extension officers, Access to finance: -

community leaders) is lower than that of

Larger share of male respondents have

men.

their own money to use, comparing with

female respondents -

said

Large number of households had to

from

relatives/friends.

favorable

crops available, variety of plants, and variety of animal breeds.

Most people, both male and female, do

not have bank accounts and are not with

gender

specific

loan

While men say that they are not well informed, women donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know how they

Access to information:

feel about it.

Women more than men need information about

animal

husbandry,

Gender and climate change:

agricultural

Majority of respondents said that they are

inputs, pest control, land ownership, soil

somewhat concerned about the possible

conservation, harvesting and cultivation

impact of climate change on their village.

techniques. At the same time, women need

less

information

about

Men are more likely to be very concerned

food

about the climate change impacts, while

processing, fertilizer application, high yield

women are more likely to be somewhat

crops, and selection of varieties of seeds. -

The proportion

women

concerned about it.

receiving

information through asking specific people

negative changes in soil quality, quality of

community leaders) is lower than that of

grazing land or air humidity in past years

men. The proportion

Men are less likely to notice no changes and are more likely to see positive or very

(friends, neighbors, extension officers,

Respondents do not know or feel that they are not informed about biodiversity issues.

programs.

More men than women have been noticing negative changes in the variety of

conditions.

familiar

the

Gender and biodiversity:

from micro-credit companies, which offer

and its non-availability and affordability

financing, while women take more loans

less

conceal

talk more about insufficient information

from a bank when they need extra

and

source,

ignorance

information on agricultural issues. Men

Men more often than women take loan

interest

face

barriers, and shyness while looking for

financing slightly more often than men.

higher

they

information, negative attitudes, language

Women experienced need for additional

that

information

borrow money either from financial institutions

Higher proportion of women than men

than women. of

women

receiving

113

Vast majority of people in the dataset,

climate changes, or that changes are

both men and women said that they did

happening in a gradual manner and are

not make any changes in their usual

not very noticeable.

activities to cope with climate change. This might mean that either the population in surveyed villages does not adapt to

114

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23http://www.sida.se/contentassets/bd474c21 0163 447c9a7963d77c64148a/the-sustainablelivelihood-approach-to-povertyreduction_2656.pdf xx This section is based upon Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxi

http://www.sida.se/contentassets/bd474c21 0163 447c9a7963d77c64148a/thesustainable- livelihood-approach-to-povertyreduction_2656.pdf

Resolution of the Government of the KR ÂŤOn approval of the list of rare and endangered species of flora and fauna to include into the Red book of the Kyrgyz

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http://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterThr ee.pdf xxxvi Village administration. Also, an administrative and territorial unit

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Ball-shaped hard cheese

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http://www.sida.se/contentassets/bd474c2 10163 447c9a7963d77c64148a/thesustainable- livelihood-approach-topoverty- reduction_2656.pdf xxv

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/aj288e/aj2 88e.p df xxvi

28 Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxvii

Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxviii Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxix Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxx Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxxi Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxxii Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxxiii Gender and Agriculture Source Book, World Bank, FAO, IFAD xxxiv

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