THE REAL STORY

Handel’s opera features two of the most famous characters in history: the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, and Roman General, Julius Caesar. The story of their lives have been retold and adapted numerous times in opera, theatre, literature, film, and visual art. Handel and Haym portrayed them in Giulio Cesare as citizens of the 18 th century, when ancient Roman and Egyptian history was critical knowledge for educated young men, and the history of the Roman Empire was often used as a frame of reference for contemporary political debates. Though their anachronistic lens affected how the characters were crafted, Handel and Haym more or less stayed true to history.

The Great Roman Civil War lasted from 49- 45 B.C. Before becoming an empire, Rome was a Republic, the Roman government albeit mismanaged by nobles and political influencers. Three men, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed the First Triumvirate to combat the mismanaged government. However, when Crassus was killed, Pompey retracted his allegiance to this rebellion. Caesar—with armies at his disposal, having just conquered Gaul—crossed the Rubicon River separating his province, Gaul, from Rome. Marching on Rome, the war between Caesar and Pompey began and sparked political struggles across the Roman Empire, which included in modern day Italy, Africa, Greece, and Spain. Prior to the events told in Giulio Cesare, Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and fled to Egypt, unaware that King Ptolmey was in the midst of his own struggle for power with his sister, Queen Cleopatra.

From here the events of the opera unfold: to exert dominance and to avoid Pompey and Caesar

Painting, Caesar and Cleopatra, Jean Leon Gerome, 1866.

continuing the war on his land, King Ptolmey has Pompey killed. The battle of Alexandria and The Battle of the Nile unfold, which secures Caesar and Cleopatra’s infamy as rulers of great ancient civilizations. Caesar apparently was at first a proponent of Cleopatra sharing her rule with her brother, that is until the risk of his life became so great it required him to obtain a foothold in Egypt. And, though Cornelia’s son Sextus gets his revenge in the opera; historically, King Ptolmey dies by drowning in the Nile, not by assassination.

Handel and Haym took liberties while adapting the story to maximize conflict, and thus, the

emotions in their opera. Ancient sources verify the historical record of Caesar and Cleopatra, but many details have be reframed and interpreted over time with scholarly and artistic retelling. The Greek historian Plutarch, offers several clues into the two lovers’ real relationship. Caesar and Cleopatra did have a romance and they even had a child together, but the alliance was primarily political even as Caesar remained in Egypt past the events of Giulio Cesare, leaving Rome ungoverned for a while. Cleopatra had a second famous romance with another Roman, Mark Antony—a separate tale that inspired more great theater and opera from such greats as Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw.

FACT CHECK: Another notable addition in the libretto is Caesar’s famous proclamation: “Veni, vidi, vici!” or “I came, I saw, “I conquered!” Historical accounts state he, in fact, did not make this statement until a few weeks after he left Egypt.

Throughout world history, marriage for monarchs was often strategic, and purposefully political, yet it was rare for a woman to have so much agency in this political posturing. Egyptian women had more rights than Roman women and Cleopatra used this to her advantage, pursuing men for political gain. She was a powerful, unwavering ruler, and Handel gave the character of Cleopatra eight arias to illustrate the many facets of herself.

Cleopatra did what the men were doing—raising armies and killing family for power, and using charm to gain favor with the public. She was cunning in attempting to edge her brother out of power even before Caesar declared her Queen; and like other great rulers, she sought loyalty in foreign ties over her own family. Characterized as intensely charismatic and seductive, she was also highly intelligent. No one knows whether she rolled herself up into a carpet, or whether she really did disguise herself to gain access to

Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra in Cleopatra, 1963.

King Ptolmey’s palace, but her political career was tactful until her end. Like other great rulers, she ended her life by her own hand, poison (many narratives say snake bite), when she lost her love, Mark Antony, and Rome took Egypt. She was very well-liked by her kingdom, which enjoyed great prosperity during her reign, and the city of Alexandria became major center for trade and industry.

Julius Caesar was a charismatic politician, general, and writer. He entered politics through the military, rather than his family, and rose through the ranks. His greatest accomplishment was bringing Gaul into under the Roman control the Roman Empire, which he conquered despite them having a larger army. Caesar wrote about the Gallic Wars and The Roman Civil War in large volumes of work that offer us insight into his person, career, and influences. He was often compared to various Roman gods. Ceasar’s leadership style—popular with the masses and good with the military—has been mimicked by other autocratic leaders such as Benito Mussolini.

Before his assassination, Caesar reformed the Roman calendar, revived ancient cities, and offered more opportunity for Roman citizenry. Like Cleopatra, he was determined to gain political favor, and also used marriage as a way to do so. Interestingly, many artistic treatments of Caesar paint him as a merciful, clement ruler. In Handel and Haym’s libretto, he comforts Cornelia and rejects King Ptolmey’s “gift,” treating him as such, casting in a positive light. Handel and Haym make him a heroic character against an evil, scheming one. Handel’s arias written for Caesar show us his moments of human passion between his political strategizing. Historians note that Caesar’s attraction to Cleopatra was a rare moment of illogical coupling. The pair are clearly equals, and Handel offered a rare glimpse of their passion in an otherwise calculated public and political life.

THE SILVER SCREEN The rise of the film industry brought with it a new medium and fresh audiences to retell these ancient stories on screen. Classic films including Cleopatra, The Sign of the Cross, Caligula, Spartacus, and Gladiator are perhaps some of the most well-loved. America continues to use the great civilization of Rome as a touchpoint for democracy and leadership on the world stage.

Still from Gladiator, 2000.

DISCUSS: What aspects of Ancient Rome are most interesting or relatable to you or our present day society? How so?