What Skills Are Required to Send Messages Effectively?

Effective communication occurs only when noise is avoided, the sender transmits ideas and feelings completely and accurately, and the receiver interprets the message exactly as the sender intended. In this chapter, we are concerned with senders transmitting messages to receivers with the conscious intent of affecting the receivers’ behavior. This includes all sender behaviors, verbal or nonverbal, that are consciously evoked to obtain responses from others. For example, a person sends the message “How are you?” to evoke the response “Fine,” or a teacher shakes her head to get two students to stop talking.

What Skills Are Required to Send Messages Effectively?

Consistently effective communication requires considerable skill in sending and receiving information. Research has determined that better transmission of messages can be achieved by increasing the clarity of messages, developing credibility, and soliciting feedback.4

SKILLS FOR INCREASING CLARITY OF MESSAGES A sender should take the initiative in eliminating communication barriers by making sure a message is clear and understandable to the receiver. A number of things can be done to accomplish this goal.5 1. Use multiple channels. The probability of a message being understood accurately can be increased by transmitting it in several different ways. Examples include matching a verbal message with facial and body gestures or diagramming it on a piece of paper. This kind of multiple-mode communication of the same message ensures that the receiver has the opportunity to receive the message through more than one sense. A manager speaking about the need to increase quality of production, for example, could convey the urgency of the message through the multiple channels of words, voice tones, facial expressions, gestures, pictures, postures, and audiovisual presentations. 2. Be complete and specific. When the subject matter of a message is new or unfamiliar to the receiver, the sender can make the message complete and specific by providing sufficient background information and details. Once receivers understand the sender’s frame of reference, they are more likely to interpret the message accurately. By referring to concrete deadlines and examples, a sender can decrease the probability of misinterpretation. 3. Take responsibility. Senders should take responsibility for the feelings and evaluations in their messages by using personal pronouns such as I and mine. General statements such as “Everyone feels this way” leave room for doubt, since someone might not feel that way. “You” messages, as in “you are so self-centered,” most often make the receiver defensive. But an “I” message, such as “I feel angry when I have to wait because you are late,” is not ambiguous, and it describes the sender’s feelings. 4. Be congruent. Make sure your messages are congruent with your actions. Being incongruent by saying one thing and doing another confuses receivers. If, for example, managers tell subordinates that they are “always available” to help them but then act condescending and preoccupied when those people come to them with problems, they are communicating something quite different from the verbal message. 5. Simplify your language. Complex rhetoric and technical jargon confuse individuals who do not use such language. Most organizations develop a lingo, or language that is distinctly the company’s own, made up of words and phrases for people, situations, events, and things. At Walt Disney, for example, all employees are called cast members. They’re “on stage” when they’re working and “off stage” when at lunch or taking a break. Any positive situation or event is a “good Mickey.” Anything less is a “bad Mickey.”

Jargon and lingo are efficient ways to communicate inside the organization. However, when used with associates outside the company who don’t know the jargon, lingo can hinder communication. Effective communicators avoid jargon, slang, clichés, and colorful metaphors when communicating with people outside the industry or those who do not speak the language fluently. By being empathetic and envisioning themselves in the receiver’s situation, managers can encode messages in terms that are meaningful to the specific receivers.6

SKILLS FOR DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING CREDIBILITY The credibility of a sender is probably the single most important element in effective interpersonal communications.7 Sender credibility is reflected in the receiver’s belief that the sender is trustworthy. Factors that increase the clarity of communication, such as congruence of verbal and nonverbal messages, contribute to the sender’s credibility,8 as do the additional dimensions discussed next.9 1. Know what you are talking about. Receivers will be more attentive when they perceive that senders have expertise in the area about which they are communicating, as when instructions are given by someone authorized to dispense that information. You will lose credibility if people think that you don’t know what you are talking about. If you don’t know an answer, say so and then develop the expertise to provide a correct answer later. 2. Establish mutual trust. Receivers prefer to have a sender’s motives clarified: Are they selfish or altruistic? Owning up to your motives at the beginning of a conversation can eliminate the receiver’s anxiety about your real intentions and do much to establish common trust. The following suggestions about being honest, reliable, and self-disclosing all appropriate information also contribute to establishing a trust bond. 3. Share all relevant information. Interpersonal communications are ethical when they facilitate a person’s freedom of choice by presenting all relevant information accurately. They are unethical when they prevent another person from securing information relevant to a choice or force other people to make a choice they would not normally make or decline to make choices they would normally make.10 4. Be honest. In every national poll, the most important thing people want in a leader, friend, partner, or coworker is honesty.11 Therefore, you want to avoid any form of deception, which is the conscious alteration of information to influence another’s perceptions significantly.12 Deception includes lying—concealing or distorting truthful information— and other behaviors that do not reflect our true feelings or beliefs. 5. Be reliable. A sender’s perceived dependability, predictability, and consistency in providing all relevant information (being consistent in applying performance criteria when evaluating subordinates and treating subordinates fairly and equally, for example) reinforce the sender’s perceived trustworthiness. 6. Be warm and friendly. A warm, friendly, supportive attitude is more conducive to personal credibility than is a posture of hostility, arrogance, or abruptness. People are more trusting of those who are friendly than those who appear to be trying to impress or control them. 7. Be dynamic. If you are dynamic, confident, and positive in your delivery of information, you will be more credible than someone who is passive, withdrawn, and unsure. Receivers tend to be more attentive to messages when the senders are enthusiastic and confident. 8. Appropriate self-disclosure. Self-disclosure is the process of revealing our feelings, reactions, needs, and desires to others. Most of us have encountered “overdisclosures” who talk too much and too intimately about themselves in situations in which that kind of intimacy is

not relevant. Other people are “underdisclosures” who are unwilling to let others know anything about them, even when it is desirable to enhance relationships or productivity. Selfdisclosure can be visualized on a continuum, with appropriate self-disclosure in accordance with the goal. Responsible self-disclosure is essential to the establishment of supportive relationships in which people understand each other’s needs, values, goals, strengths, and weaknesses. This is crucial to personal and team development: People need to know each other’s needs and receive feedback about the impact of their behavior on each other. Finally, appropriate self-disclosure is a component of effective message sending because it facilitates congruency, builds trust and credibility, and helps receivers develop empathy and understanding.13 Self-disclosures that have the most payoffs are ones that relate to the “here and now,” that is, what a person is experiencing right now. Unfortunately, most of us withhold our feelings about other people because we are afraid of hurting their feelings, making them angry, or being rejected; or we do not know how to self-disclose in a constructive way. Regardless of the reason, the result is that other people continue to be totally unaware of our reactions to their behaviors and vice versa. Consequently, many relations that could be productive and enjoyable gradually deteriorate under the accumulated load of tiny annoyances, hurt feelings, and misunderstandings that were never talked about openly.

SKILLS FOR OBTAINING FEEDBACK Feedback is the receiver’s response to your message. You need to obtain feedback to determine exactly what the receiver heard and what the receiver thinks the meaning of the message is. If the receiver’s response indicates a lack of understanding, you can modify the original message to make sure your intentions are understood accurately. Statements that carry a number of potential meanings are highly susceptible to misunderstanding on the part of their receivers. If, for example, someone says “Call me later and we’ll discuss it” while walking out the door, does the person mean 15 minutes from now, 2 hours from now, tomorrow, or next week? Without clarification, such ambiguous directions are unlikely to be followed according to the sender’s intentions, thus the relationship between the parties will be strained.14 By soliciting and listening to feedback, you can transform such highly ambiguous statements into specific, effective communications. Some skills you can practice to obtain honest and reliable feedback include the following: 1. Take the initiative to ask receivers for feedback. This is necessary to help you ascertain whether your message came across the way you intended it. If you are unable to obtain feedback on how your messages are being received, inaccurate perceptions on the part of a receiver might never be corrected. 2. Don’t be defensive. Challenging the validity of feedback, rationalizing your actions, and arguing with receivers’ perceptions will extinguish receivers’ willingness to provide you with the information you need. Seek only to understand how you have come across to the receiver, and then clarify misunderstandings if any exist. 3. Check your understanding by summarizing what you have heard. What you are doing is providing feedback to the receiver to make sure you understand the feedback the receiver gave you. Clarifying feedback typically begins with a statement such as “Let me be sure I understand what you have said,” or “Let me see if I have your understanding correct.” Often it ends with a question: “Did I understand you properly?” or “Were those your major concerns?” 4. Check out underlying assumptions. If the feedback you receive does not seem to be in sync with what you intended to communicate, it might be because of the assumptions the

receiver is making about your intentions, expectations, or motivation. You can check the receiver’s assumptions by asking clarifying questions directly or by summarizing what you perceive the receiver’s assumptions to be and then seeing if you are correct. 5. Be sensitive to the provider’s nonverbal messages. Through the use of their bodies, eyes, faces, postures, and senses, receivers communicate a variety of positive or negative attitudes, feelings, and opinions that serve as feedback about how they are reacting to your message. Examples are eye contact, gestures, facial expressions, and vocal intonations.

Read nonverbal feedback and use it to structure the content and direction of the conversation by changing the pace of your words, the tone of your voice, or your physical position to regain other people’s attention and interest. 6. Ask questions to clarify. Questions should be asked to clarify feedback; check understanding; check assumptions; determine which issues need further discussion; and confirm all uncertain verbal, vocal, and visual cues. When in doubt, check it out with a clarifying question.

CONCEPT QUIZ

Take the following 10-question, true–false quiz. The answers are at the end of the quiz. If you miss any answers, go back and check your understanding of the concepts to determine why you got them wrong. Circle the right answer. True False 1. Effective communication occurs when the sender sends all information. True False 2. Successful communications depend on overcoming sources of noise. True False 3. It is more important to be efficient than effective when communicating. True False 4. You should obtain feedback to check how accurately the receiver decoded your message. True False 5. Human interaction and interpersonal relationships cannot exist without communication. True False 6. Communications are unethical when they prevent another person from securing information relevant to a choice. True False 7. Nonverbal messages can provide effective feedback. True False 8. A warm, friendly, supportive attitude is conducive to personal credibility. True False 9. Senders should use the phrase “everyone feels this way” to avoid personal conflict with receivers. True False 10. When in doubt, check it out with a clarifying question. Answers: (1) False; (2) True; (3) False; (4) True; (5) True; (6) True; (7) True; (8) True; (9) False; (10) True

BEHAVIORAL CHECKLIST

Be aware of these specific behaviors when evaluating your own message-sending skills. Also use them as criteria for providing feedback to others about their message-sending skills. Sending Effective Messages Requires That You: •Provide all relevant information •Are honest

•Use multiple channels •Are complete and specific •Use “I” statements to claim your message as your own. •Are congruent in your verbal and nonverbal messages. •Use language the receiver can understand. •Maintain credibility by knowing what you are talking about and being reliable. •Communicate in a style that is warm, friendly, and dynamic. •Obtain feedback to ensure that you have been understood accurately.

ATTENTION!

Do not read the following until assigned to do so by your instructor.

MODELING EXERCISE

Sending Messages With and Without Feedback15

The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate to senders the importance of obtaining feedback to determine exactly what receivers think the meaning of their message is. If the receiver’s response indicates a lack of understanding, the sender can clarify the message to make sure intentions are understood accurately. Without feedback, the sender must rely on personal judgment that may not be accurate. There are three parts to this exercise: a one-way communication demonstration, a two-way communication demonstration, and a debriefing session. Instructor Note. Make copies and transparencies of the diagrams to be used in this exercise and debriefing from the Instructor’s Manual previous to the class session. Do the same for the summary sheet that can be used for recording and presenting times, confidence, and accuracy data.

Instructions One-Way Communication: No Feedback

Pick a sender who will stand in the front of the room facing away from the class. The sender’s job is to describe a diagram to the class as accurately as possible so that they can make duplicate drawings. The diagram will be provided by the instructor. The rest of the class should not look at the diagram. The class members are to draw what is being described to them as accurately as possible. Class members work alone and make no audible responses. When the sender begins, the instructor times how long it takes for the sender to describe the diagram. When the sender indicates that he or she is finished, the instructor records how long it took to describe the diagram. Then class members write down how many objects in the diagram they think they have drawn correctly. The sender writes down an estimate of the average number of objects the class members have drawn correctly. When finished, move on to the two-way communication exercise.

Two-Way Communication: With Feedback

The sender now faces the group and describes a second diagram to the class. The second diagram is also provided by the instructor. The rest of the class should not look at the diagram. Class members are to draw what is being described to them as accurately as possible from the sender’s descriptions. This time, participants are allowed to ask questions and discuss the objects with the

sender. However, drawings cannot be shown and hand gestures are not allowed. When the sender indicates that the second task is complete, the instructor notes the length of time it took. Then class members write down how many objects they think they have drawn correctly. The sender writes down an estimate of the average number of objects the class members have drawn correctly.

Debriefing

1. Communication confidence. The instructor asks for a show of hands for how many objects the class members believe they drew correctly for the one-way exercise and estimates the average that is written on the board or summary transparency. The sender’s estimate of the average number of correct drawings is placed on the board next to the actual class average. The same is done for the number of correct drawings in the two-way exercise. The class then discusses which estimates are higher and what the implications are for communications with and without feedback. 2. Communication accuracy. The instructor shows the class a transparency of the first diagram. Students compare their drawings in the one-way communication part of the exercise and write down how many squares they drew in the correct positions. Then the instructor asks for a show of hands for how many objects the class members drew correctly in the one-way exercise and writes an estimate of the average on the board or transparency summary sheet. The same is done for the number of correct drawings in the two-way exercise. The class then discusses which communication process resulted in greater accuracy and what the implications are for communications with and without feedback.

Discussion Questions

1. What happened during the drawing of the first object? How did you respond? How did you feel while doing the task? 2. What happened during the drawing of the second object? How did you respond? Did you ask for any clarifications? How did you feel while doing the task? 3. From the class results, what can you conclude from comparing one-way versus two-way communication? Does it take more time to communicate effectively? 4. Referring back to the Behavioral Checklist for sending messages effectively, how well did the sender do in the one-way exercise? Why? 5. Referring back to the Behavioral Checklist for sending messages effectively, how well did the sender do in the two-way exercise? Why?

Total Time. 35 minutes (setup, 5 minutes; one-way exercise, 10 minutes; two-way exercise, 10 minutes; debrief, 10 minutes)

GROUP EXERCISES

There are three different types of exercises in this section. The first exercise is a role-play in which the class provides feedback on the message-sending skills of the student assigned to the supervisor role. The second exercise focuses on stating feelings in appropriate ways. The third exercise compares self-perceptions of message-sending behavior to the perceptions of others.

As an option to any of the group exercises in the skill chapters, students can create their own scenario and scripts for a 5-minute role-play demonstrating the application of relevant chapter skills.

Group Exercise 1: “A Difference of Opinion”16

The entire class should read the following situation. Next, the class should split up into trios and decide who will be actors and who will be an observer. The two people who volunteer to play the roles of Dana and Blair should read only their own role, not the other person’s role, and prepare for the role-play. The observer can read both roles and then study the Observer’s Rating Sheet for evaluating the role-play.

Actors. Dana (head of personnel) and Blair (employee-relations manager)

Situation. Dana, head of personnel, is preparing for a performance appraisal with Blair, the employee-relations manager. A difference of opinion has arisen about Blair’s job performance and promotional timetable.

Dana’s Role. You are head of personnel for a manufacturing firm. You are well thought of in the firm and have an excellent rapport with your boss, the vice president for administration. Blair is your employee-relations manager. You know that Blair is reasonably good at her job. But you also know that Blair believes herself to be “outstanding,” which isn’t true. Blair is scheduled to have a meeting with you in 5 minutes, and you would like to establish clearer communication, as well as convince Blair to adopt a less grandiose self-image. You believe that Blair is on the right track, but it will take her about 2 years to reach the stage at which she can be promoted. As for Blair’s performance, you have received some good reports as well as three letters of complaint. Blair prepared four research reports that you considered to be above average, but to keep her motivated and happy, you exaggerated and said they were “excellent.” Maybe that was a mistake. You are worried about the impact on other employees, whose performance is nearly as good as Blair’s, if Blair is promoted. So, you plan to set meaningful targets for Blair this year, evaluate her performance a year or two from now, and then give her the promotion if you think she deserves it.

Blair’s Role. You are the employee-relations manager in a manufacturing firm. Dana is your boss, and his title is head of personnel. You know that you are one of the best performers in your department, and might even be the best. However, you were not promoted last year, even though you expected to be, so you would like to be promoted this year. You expect your boss to raise some obstacles to your promotion. Dana is bound to mention three letters of complaint against you, for instance. Dana seems to point out only your errors. Up front, you plan to remind Dana that you wrote four research reports that Dana himself said were excellent. If Dana tries to delay your promotion unnecessarily, you plan to confront him and, if necessary, take the issue to Dana’s boss, the vice president for administration. You think there have been many instances in which you were rated better on performance than your colleagues in the department. You have decided that you will press your point of view firmly, but also rationally, in a professional manner.

Total Time. 30 minutes (setup, 5 minutes; role-play, 15 minutes; debrief, 10 minutes)

OBSERVER’S RATING SHEET

Rate your assigned role-player’s message-sending skills on a 1 to 5 scale (5 being the highest). Provide comments for specific feedback in the space under each skill criterion.

Rating Behavioral Skills Role-Player Observed: ________

______ Provided all relevant information

______ Was honest

______ Used multiple channels

______ Was complete and specific

______ Used “I” statements to claim message as own

______ Was congruent in verbal and nonverbal messages

______ Used language the receiver can understand

______ Maintained credibility

______ Communicated in a style that was warm, friendly, and dynamic

______ Obtained feedback to ensure accurate understanding

Group Exercise 2: Communicating Feelings17

One of the most frequent sources of difficulty in relationships is communicating feelings. We all have feelings about the people we interact with, but many times we do not communicate these feelings effectively. Instead we repress, deny, distort, or disguise our feelings, or we communicate them in an ineffective way, which can cause relationship problems.18 This exercise is designed to allow you to become more aware of the problems associated with not stating your feelings clearly and directly and to give you a chance to experiment with better ways of communicating.

Instructions

1. Divide into groups of three. 2. For each of the following situations, write individual descriptions of two different feelings that might have given rise to the expression of feelings in the statement. 3. Compare your answers with the answers of the other members of your trio. Discuss them until you understand each other’s answers. 4. In the class as a whole, discuss the results of ambiguity in expressing feelings in interpersonal relationships. a.What skills are required to send messages containing feelings effectively? b.What happens when people make ambiguous statements of feeling? How do other people respond? How do they feel? c.Why would you state feelings ambiguously? In what circumstances would you prefer to be ambiguous rather than direct and concrete? What would be the probable consequence?

Feeling Statements in Interpersonal Situations

1. One person asks another, “Why can’t you ever be anyplace on time?” What might the first person have said that would have described his or her feelings better? 2. You notice that a person in the group who was talking a lot has suddenly become silent. What might the person have said to describe his or her feelings openly? 3. During a group meeting, you hear John tell Bill, “Bill, you’re talking too much.” What might John have said to describe his feelings more accurately? 4. Sally abruptly changed the subject after Ann made a comment. What might Sally have said to describe her feelings more openly? 5. You hear a passenger say to a taxi driver, “Do we have to drive this fast?” What might the passenger have said to describe his or her feelings openly? 6. Sam says to Jane after she has agreed to substitute for him by giving a presentation to a client, “You’re really wonderful.” What might Sam have said to describe his feelings more accurately?

Total Time. 33 minutes (setup, 3 minutes; individual questions, 10 minutes; trio discussions, 10 minutes; debrief, 10 minutes)

Group Exercise 3: Your Message-Sending Behavior

Instructions. Individually answer the following questions. 1. How would you now describe your message-sending behavior in a problem-solving group?

2. What are your strengths when sending messages? 3. What message-sending skills do you still wish to improve?

After answering these questions, meet with two people who know you well. 1. One person volunteers to be the sender. The sender shares and explains his or her answers. 2. The other two people are receivers. When the sender is finished, they provide feedback about the accuracy of the sender’s perceptions compared to how they perceive the sender in general, and just now when sending this information. If they can, the two receivers provide additional feedback by adding new strengths and suggestions that the sender should work on to improve message sending.

Total Time. 28 minutes (setup, 3 minutes; individual questions, 5 minutes; triad sharing and listening, 10 minutes; debrief, 10 minutes)

Summary Checklist

Take a few minutes to reflect on your performance and look over others’ ratings of your messagesending skills. Now assess yourself on each of the key sending behaviors. Make a check (✓) next to those behaviors on which you need improvement. I provide all relevant information. ________ I am honest. ________ I use multiple channels. ________ I am complete and specific. ________ I use “I” statements to claim your message as my own. ________ I am congruent in my verbal and nonverbal messages. ________ I use language the receiver can understand. ________ I maintain credibility, and I am reliable and know what I’m talking about. ________ I am warm, friendly, and dynamic. ________ I obtain feedback to ensure understanding. ________

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Think of one of the most effective professors you have had. What does the professor do to send messages to the class successfully? 2. Remember a time when you were unable to communicate a message effectively. What was the root of your problem? What can you do to prevent a recurrence? 3. Have you ever held back information that you should have disclosed? What was the result? Have you ever disclosed things you wish you hadn’t? What happened? 4. Pick someone in the class whom you feel is a good speaker and is easy to listen to. What communication behaviors does this person exhibit? Are all of them positive? 5. Have you ever communicated unethically to anyone? Why did this happen? What were the circumstances? What were the consequences?

REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES

1. Watch five television commercials. How do they attempt to send messages to keep the viewers’ attention and effectively convince them of the value of the product or service being advertised? 2. Ask some of your friends if they can think of times when others communicated unethically to them. What were the circumstances? Why did this happen? What were the consequences? 3. The next time you make a formal oral presentation in class or at a meeting, ask someone to observe what you do well when sending messages and what you can improve on. 4. Ask some of your friends if your verbal messages are usually congruent with your body language. Ask them if they can give examples. 5. You have just joined a large firm as a manager. How can you apply your communication skills to increase the probability of succeeding in this job?

ACTION PLAN

1. Which message-sending behavior do I want to improve the most?

2. Why? What will be my payoff?

3. What potential obstacles stand in my way?

4. What specific things will I do to improve? (For examples, see the Reinforcement

Exercises.)

5. When will I do them?

6. How and when will I measure my success?

Endnotes

1.David W. Johnson and Frank P. Johnson, Joining

Together: Group Theory and Group Skills,5th ed. (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1994), pp. 130–131. 2.David W. Johnson, Reaching Out, 5th ed. (Boston,

MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1993), p. 97. 3.D. K. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New

York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960), pp. 30–32. 4.David W. Johnson, “Communication and the

Inducement of Cooperative Behavior in Conflicts,”

Speech Monographs, Vol. 41 (1974), pp. 64–78. 5.L. L. Tobias, “Twenty-Three Ways to Improve

Communication,” Training and Development Journal (1989), pp. 75–77. 6.Michael W. Miller, “At Many Firms, Employees

Speak a Language That’s All Their Own,” Wall

Street Journal (December 29, 1987), p. 15. 7.David W. Johnson, Reaching Out, 5th ed. (Boston,

MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1993), pp. 65–66. 8.Sandra G. Garside, and Brian H. Kleiner,

“Effective One-to-One Communication Skills,”

Industrial & Commercial Training, Vol. 23, No. 7 (1991), pp. 24–28. 9.David W. Johnson, Reaching Out, 5th ed. (Boston,

MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1993). 10.J. A. DeVito, The Interpersonal Communication

Book, 6th ed. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1992), p. 77. 11.Roger C. Mayer, and James H. Davis, “An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust,” Academy of

Management Review (July 1995), pp. 143–157. 12.M. Knapp, and M. Comadena, “Telling It Like It Isn’t:

A Review of Theory and Research on Deceptive

Communication,” Human Communication Research (1979), pp. 270–285. 13.Gerard Egan, Face-to-Face: The Small-Group

Experience and Interpersonal Growth (Monterey,

CA: Brooks/Cole, 1973), pp. 40–41. 14.Phillip L. Hunsaker and Anthony J. Alessandra,

The Art of Managing People (New York: Free

Press, 2008), pp. 155–156. 15.This exercise is adapted from Harold I. Leavitt,

Managerial Psychology (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958), pp. 118–128. 16.Based on Srinivasan Umapathy, “Teaching

Behavioral Aspects of Performance Evaluation: An

Experiential Approach,” Accounting Review (January 1985), pp. 107–108. With permission. 17.Adapted from David W. Johnson, Reaching Out, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1993), pp. 150–151. 18.David W. Johnson, Reaching Out, 5th ed. (Boston,

MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1993), p. 141.