Comparison of European Experience on Reforestation and stabilization of forest volumes with deforestation in tropical forests* Environmental Effects and Conflicts in Long-run Economic Development EHA120, H10
CAGIL KAYAN 2010.10.27
*Compare the European experience of deforestation turning to reforestation or stabilization of forest volumes with the present threat of deforestation in tropical forests. Discuss similarities and differences in natural and socio�political preconditions. Focus on the effects of technology and of property regimes. Discus the impact on: Income and income distribution; Hydrological stability; Biological diversity; CO2 rate in the global atmosphere
Introduction The term “forests� represents two different graphics depending on the countries development level. When we examine forest in terms of using for forest resources, we come across to increasing diagrams and broader use parallel to country’s development level. However the charts representing forest volumes may not show the similarity with the forest-use diagram. In developed countries, forest volumes show a significant increase together with increasing industrialization level, and after a certain level, the graphs show a decline, while use of forests still keep on increasing parallel with demand from industry. When we have a look at forest volumes in Europe (between 1990-2005), there is a 7 percent increase in reported forest areas ,while net global forest areas show a 3 percent decrease (World Resources Institue,1997). Europe is the only major region showing an expansion in volumes. If we consider charts for tropical forests, as South America, although amount of frontier forests are higher comparing to rest, from late twentieth century tropical forests are experiencing highest and fastest loss in the world. Stabilization and increases in extent of forests are results of reforestation which is a result of sustainable forest management and many countries in Europe are contributing with these policies. However the growth in volumes are the extension of planted or naturally growing forests over cleared areas, while the percentage of remaining frontier forests are considerably low in world share. The planted forests do not have the same qualities as frontier/primary forests, new policies are challenging to enrich and restore the biodiversities (FAO, 2007). The European background on deforestation is considerably high, starting from middle ages, if we compare with the recent results. As an early industrialized and early populated continent, Europe represents very low volumes for remaining frontier forest areas together with Asia and Africa(WRI, 1997); losing two thirds of its primary forests. (Figure 1.)
Figure 1. World Forests 1997 Source: World in the Balance
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Industrialization and economic growth consequently raised the population which brought demands for agriculture, land and fuel. Depended on forests and lands, Europe exploited frontier forests widely. From 1950s Europe becoming aware of running out of resources, processed stabilizations with preserving last frontiers, and later with sustainable forest management regulations. Europe turned out to have a successful method on restoring the forests and biodiversity after centuries of deforestation. The risks in tropical forests are recent with the new acceleration of development and industrialization. Clearing forests showed a gradual increase during centuries in Europe while the recent situation in South America, the speed of clearing is accelerating with all means of technology and commercial concern. The process shows similarity with the growth in Europe, however all results cannot be expected to be similar, due to different natural and socio-political conditions. Existing technological innovations for forests resources, and demand for export industry is rising and governmental policies are focused on economic growth and managing population in short time, while environmental effects are not foreseen in long-run. Background: European Expansion on Deforestation Clearing forests in Europe starts from medieval ages; while clearing was mostly related with natural needs of the population. When Europe has run off its forests, they were challenged to find new lands and sources. Emergence of an integrated world economy from the late fifteenth century onward, Europe went on redistribution of people, plants and technologies which led them to colonization of new lands. Trade and imperialism were the new emerges introduced to world economy. New trade routes and shipping replaced small luxury merchandise with mass trade of bulky commodities, such as sugar, coffee, rice. Expansion of trades brought up need for ships, consequently the forests were once again to be exploited to get timber. European expansion on clearing forest lands of the world was emerging by the early 17th century. Aside from clearing lands by European settlers in North America, search for new forests were also going on in Europe. Frontier borders were shifted with deforestation expanding almost until east Urals, even shifting old boundaries of the continent (Williams, 1990). Expansions were not limited with Europe, new trade lines and colonization in South America had a huge impact on tropical forests. The expansion can be zoomed in more largely with case of Brazil having extensive tropical forests. Before European distortion, aboriginal swidden cultivation was widespread but the impact was proportional with inhabitants’ needs. After European colonists arrived these cultivations became excessively intensified, and areas of the forests cleared were three folded. The technological tools for cutting forests were also speeding the clearing. When the fertility in the existing farms decreased, the lands expanded to frontier forests which were rich with nutrients. Clearing of the lands were increasing with growth of export products. In 1690 discovery of gold had another and immense impact. Fuel was needed for the new economy and migration was demanding food, which caused new flow of clearing lands (Williams, 1990).
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Tropical forests: External and Internal Interruptions, Politics Colonial export goods started with sugar and later with coffee, tobacco and cocoa turned the externalities into local environmental impacts in tropical countries. Forests were widely cut off up to 10.000 km2 for cultivation, later continued with clearing for wood industries. When we compare the deforestation in tropics and European forests, the threats show similarity, in terms of logging and agricultural clearing. However, in tropics, in addition to fuel excavation and mining, emergence of export industry turns the harm on forests twofold. During colonization, only industrialized countries were benefiting from flow of raw materials, but from 20th century with globalized trade and technology, the benefits started industrialization process with wider income opportunities in the host countries (Spathelf, 2009). The industrialization and national development in tropics came together with demands for fuel, timber and expansion in transportation systems. Excavation for fossil energy is threatening tropical forests for their huge biomass. Governments in tropical countries had to manage their increasing population, however misleading politics of short sighted solutions brought permanent losses. Moving the poor inhabitants to frontiers to provide them fertile lands and economic opportunities, resulted with over immigrations in the borders and permanent clearing of forests. Brazilian government was processing internal colonization by allowing farmers into the forests and integrating lands with new roads (FAO, 2007). More forests were cleared for highways, railways. The fast and massive amounts of forest destruction resulted with leaving Brazilian Atlantic coast with one tenth of subtropical frontier forests (Williams, 1990). Comparison of Tropical and Boreal forests: Biodiversity and Threats Around half of tropical forests are in Central and South America with Amazonia. South America having vast areas of tropical and temperate forests still has a large portion of frontier forests. Unfortunately, from 1950s, the forests are being removed in excessive rates mainly for logging, energy exploration, and construction of new roads while clearing for agriculture is still threatening the majority of tropical forests.
Figure 2. Individual-based species accumulation curves for primary (unbroken line with shade) and secondary forests (dashed line) Source: Barlow J et al. PNAS 2007
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Tropical forests are hosting large biodiversity of Earth’s ecosystems with providing habitation for more than half of species on the earth. Abundant rains (water) and solar energy (warmness) make the soil nutrient rich by leaching, which makes them attractive for agriculture. Latin America and the Caribbean once leading with richness of species, are now leading in the number of tree species in the danger of extinction (Figure 2). Tropical forests have the major role in carbon cycle due to their large capacity of carbon they store and exchange with atmosphere. This means that depletion will end up with shifting carbon and reducing absorptions of carbon thorough photosynthesis (Mannion, 2006). The current destruction of 13 million hectares of tropical forests per year is responsible for the yearly emission of about 1.5Gt carbon (years 2000–2005, total emission about 9.9 Gt)(Spathelf, 2009), which is a frightening affect for climate change. While deforestation (mainly clear-cut) in South America and Africa is measured with thousands of km2, amount of reforestation and natural regenerations are very low compared to the loss. Asia shows a decline in deforestation but it is because frontier forests were already cleared in the past. The reason why Europe is the only region showing increasing in net forest areas, is due to forest establishment in low agricultural areas compared to tropical countries (Spathelf, 2009). This fact also explains why regain of forest systems are very low where lands are transformed for agriculture. Conversion of landscape and permanent agriculture is irreversible compared to intensification of shifting cultivation(Figure 3.). Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned. It involves clearing a land and farming or logging for a short term of several years until the soil loses fertility. Abandoned land is later expected to be reclaimed by natural vegetation. Although some portions can be too degraded to grow again, and brings deforestation, still it is less harmful if it is considered as limited human disturbance (FAO, 2007).
Figure 3. Changes in forest area into other land-use forms by continent Source: FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000
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Controlling the threats and Sustainable Forest Management The birth-line of stabilization and reforestation process is when Europe got awareness that the sources are finite. Running off the forests brought shifting cultivation earlier, before 20th century, but still it was not a sustainable method, only slowing down the process. Oil crisis in 1970s was the first pulse for awareness, and came with efficiency developments in industry and household consumption. As dependency on forest products were still increasing, and existing forest lands were finite, strategies and legalizations were introduced to retrieve and extend forest volumes. In the beginning of 1990s, one of the concrete actions run by Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) was concluded with contribution of many European countries. The target of sustainable forest management was defined as: Care and use of forests and forest areas in a way and to the extent that their biodiversity, productivity, capacity of regeneration, and vitality are preserved as well as their potential to fulfill the corresponding economic and social functions, at present and in future, on a local, national, and global scale without harming other ecosystems(Spathelf, 2009). Industrial threat of lumber is a recent threat on remaining frontiers of Europe. Although frontier forests were mostly cleared in Europe, northern Europe still preserves large volume of natural boreal forests. They were not suitable for agriculture and not converted for farming like temperate or tropical forest lands, since the long winters and poor soils limit the growing period. Yet with modern technologies and wood demand, they became a resource for lumber industries (Mannion, 2006). Forest exploitation was accelerated with technological innovations. Introducing electric saw, trucks, tractors brought more accessible lands for logging. Although agriculture was not primary use of forest lands as before, forests were increasingly interrupted with need for wood was broader with excessive use of paper and manufacturers in wood construction (Williams, 1990). In Europe, there are more than 11 million private forest companies, and the number is rising with labor productivity, in contrast with decreasing employments in forestry. About 1 percent of European GDP is supplied from wood works, paper and cellulose industry. The ownership of European forests (without the Russia) is 50% private, 50% public (forests of Russia 90% public ownership and only 10% private) (Spathelf, 2009). Still more than half of the forests are private, more than 90 percent is open to public and recreation activities.
Figure 4. Annual net change in forest area by region (2 periods) in million ha per year Source: FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2005
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From 1990 forest legislations were changed in European countries bringing obligations for forest owners concerning reforestation and natural regeneration after wood harvesting; public access to forest areas and use of non-wood products (Bauer et al., 2004). Countries also have individual restrictions to convert forests for other uses and the policies concern both privately and publicly owned forests. An evidence to sustainable management Europe is that, forests show a larger increase compared to increasing use of wood. (Figure 4.) Sustainability is also about quality than quantity. Considering biodiversity, regulations to bring about 3% of forests under protection, proportions in biodiversity and natural elements showed an expansion. The situation in tropical countries appears rather distant and difficult compared to sustainable forest management and silviculture processing in Europe; due to the system of politics. Although protection attempts such as local communities for conservation are being regulated, they conflict with the migration politics. As mentioned earlier (page 4) people being moved to the frontiers (rural populations), often go further where law enforcement is absent and illegal settlement is easier. Bad governance followed by absence of law enforcement bring unsustainable development. Instabilities in politics and lack of planning security do not encourage investors for sustainable planning, whereas in Europe the laws are internationalized and encouraging for reforestation (Spathelf, 2009). Conclusion Tropical forests have a higher importance in worlds ecosystem balance with the biodiversities they are hosting and biomass they preserve. Deforestation of tropics is responsible for around 20% of green house gas emissions which affects climate change (Asner G.). The other consequences of depletions of forests are followed with soil erosion, exhaustion of water resources and lack of timber sources which will turn the economics upside down. The situation in tropics show similarity with European experience but in a very intensified way. Started with European colonization, the use of forest lands and resources turned into developing process of tropical countries. When we compare with deforestation in Europe, and explain with environmental Kuznets curve, if the stock effects of forest resource (biomass) on agricultural production are internalized then economic growth, in a typical developing country, results in less deforestation (Culas,2006). Tropical forests seem to have long way to reach stability, but due to recent problems of climate change, emergency precautions are essential, which can be ensured with political approaches. The policies can be developed with sustainable forest management, or opportunities for off farm jobs, yet gaps in legalizations, governing, income depended on commercial trade and environmental education are boundaries for improvement.
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References: 1.
Bryant, D., Nielsen, D., Tangley, L., World Resource Institute “WRI” 1997, The last frontier forests. Ecosystems and economies on the edge
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations “FAO”,2007, State of the World's Forests. 3. Williams M., 1990, The Earth As Transformed by Human Action. Global and regional Changes in the Biosphere over the Past 300 Years. Cambridge University: Forests 4. Mannion, A. M. , 2006, Springer Dordrecht Carbon and its Domestication. 5. Spathelf, P., 2009, Springer Dordrecht Sustainable Forest Management in a Changing world: A European Perspective (Chapters: 3,4,5 p. 33-82) 6. Culas, R.J., 2006, School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, Australia, Deforestation and Environmental Kuznets Curve: An Institutional Perspective 7. Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary, and plantation forests http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18555.long 8. Bauer, J, M., Schmithuesen, F., 2004. Geneva Timber and Forest Discussion Papers, UN Forest legislation in Europe: how 23 countries approach the obligation to reforest, public access and use of non-wood forest products. 9. Asner G., Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University Measuring Carbon Emissions from Tropical Deforestation http://www.edf.org/documents/10333_Measuring_Carbon_Emissions_from_Tropical_D eforestation--An_Overview.pdf Figures 1. World Forests 1997 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/worldbalance/eart-07.html 2. Individual-based species accumulation curves for primary and secondary forests: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18555/F1.expansion.html 3 and 4. Sustainable Forest Management in a Changing World, Chapter 5. Sustainable Forest Management in the Tropics – Still a Long Way to Go?
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