ARCHINOMICS Culture, Craft, and Capital for Igbo Regional Development
Lent 2022
Chidozie Ezeh
ARCHINOMICS Culture, Craft, and Capital for Igbo Regional Development
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CONTENTS Introduction Chapter I: Igbo History, Crafts, and Legacy The Igbo of South-East Nigeria The Igbo House Igbo Political Economy
iii 2 3 5 7
Chapter II: Organising For The Future Craft & Making in post-Colonial Nigeria Toward Modernism Self-Organising in a Market
8 9 11 13
Chapter III: Building For A Global Commons Mapping a Global Commons Rethinking Value: Learning from Culture Rights of Nature
18 19 23 27
Chapter IV: Cultural Reintegration Tactical Aspiration Agenda 2063
29 30 30
Conclusion
33
Appendix
35
Notes
51
Illustrations
58
Bibliography
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INTRODUCTION In its 1987 report, the United Nations Brundtland Commission Report, defined sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission , 1987). The UN’s Sustainable development goals (SDGs) are lauded as commitments to making the world a better place for all, but taken as a holistic strategy, the scheme contains performative contradictions fatal to its viability. Following the 2015 global adoption of the SDGs, critics began to raise concerns about the practical implications of the SDGs in their current form (Hickel, 2015): the sustenance and reproduction of inequalities, problematic assumptions of poverty and development, the globalization of politics and its role in perpetuating exploitation, and commercialization of life systems through WTO obligations and trade agreements; implied by the reliance on SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) as the vehicle for realizing other SDGs. But developing nations are not devoid of systems capable of spurring development from within. Amongst the Igbos of SouthEastern Nigeria, crafts played key historical roles in cultural, social, and economic development. Such craft-based traditions can be understood as systems of regional industrialization producing not for markets and commerce but for culture and collective memory. With this attitude now threatened by the Globalized industrial system, can a development strategy emerge from the cultural and craft traditions of the Igbos? A system which, through self-organizing, can be integrated into modern industrial systems that incentivise sustainable practices from the level of the individual to the level of the institution. iii
This essay will introduce and describe the relationship between crafts-based Igbo culture and political economy before and after colonisation, and propose a way of thinking about a critically regional modern Igbo development, within the developmental, economic, and environmental framework of the emerging globalisation of environment.
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1
CHAPTER I: IGBO HISTORY, CRAFTS, & LEGACY
2
The Igbo of South-East Nigeria
Fig 1: Map of Nigeria Showing Igboland, SE Zone
3
I seized the moment, and, by our interpreter, told Tshukuma, that we had come to make his acquaintance and his friendship, and to ascertain if the people were willing to trade with us. After our salutations, I spoke of friendship, of trade, and of education, and particularly enlarged upon the evils of war, and the benefits of peace, all of which was well received. W. B. Baikie, On trading with the Obi, Chukwuma of Aboh, Now Delta State. Excerpt, 1854.
Igbo crafts date back to 6000 BC (See dating of Okigwe Pottery, 1978). In addition to the Okigwe pottery, discoveries have been made which claim to prove the existence of Igbo material cultures of metal and stone dating back to between 3000 BC to 4500 BC (Anyabolu, 2000). 1939 discoveries in Igbo-Ukwu unearthed a network of 9th century metalworks. This discovery attracted the attention of Dr. Thurstan Shaw who, between 1959 and 1964, led Archaeological digs in the region (Ed Keazor et al, 2015). Traditionally, Igbo crafts were of great spiritual, cultural, and economic importance. In fulfilment of his spiritual role, the craftsman produced the sacred objects used in rituals and ceremonies to appease the Alusi (the local deity), Ala (the earth goddess), the Chi (the personal guiding spirit of the individual), and utilitarian items produced for domestic use and trade. For the Igbo, the making of the object was as important as the product. Trade was and remains a key attribute of the Igbos. The Igbo calendar consists of four sequential market days – Eke (East), Orie (West), Afor (North), and Nkwo (South) – representing the four cardinal points maintaining the social order (Allo Isichei, 1997). The market days were a form of social governance for trade and culture. 4
The Igbo House
C
SEMI-PRIVATE
C
B
B
Crafts Spaces Teaching Spaces
B C
C
B B
A
Fig 2: A Study of A Traditional Igbo House
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A
C
PRIVATE
C
Living Spaces Cooking Spaces C
C
Worship Spaces
C
C
A
A
PUBLIC
A
Meeting Spaces Communal Spaces
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The traditional Igbo house embodied the complex and dynamic relationship between domestic life, cultural responsibility, and social standing. It was a home, a place of worship, a living archive, a meeting place, a retreat, a school, and a factory. These diverse range of uses was often articulated internally and externally through visual linguistic illustrations on the walls of buildings. Igbo settlements were typically sparsely populated. Although private property rights were observed, community forests, along with the local stream or river, were considered a natural store of resources for the community and not subject to private ownership (Anyanwu et al., 2019). Personal success and distinction were highly regarded amongst the Igbos, but greed was seen as a vice primarily for its propensity to sow discord amongst the Umunna (clansmen from the father’s side) or within the nuclear family.
A Political Economy In addition to his domestic responsibilities, a man was also expected to contribute to the social welfare of the clan through direct participation or resources. For the craftsman or artisan there were two key methods for passing on knowledge: To one’s own child (Preferred), or through Imu-Oru (Apprenticeships). Despite the rich Igbo craft traditions, there remain concerted efforts to adopt Western models of industrialization in South-East Nigeria. Ethnographic studies have demonstrated that following a brief peak in the production of Igbo pottery during the decolonisation period, production declined immediately after due to the introduction of Western methods and ideologies of mass production (Egwu, 2014). 7
CHAPTER II: ORGANIZING FOR THE FUTURE
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Craft & Making in post-Colonial Nigeria Nigeria’s manufacturing industry began in the 1950s with the production of light consumer goods (Muhammad, 2019). The process was driven by international capital keen on the leveraging cheap labour and easier access to primary goods in a market which, under colonial rule, could be protected. In 1955, British textile company David Whitehead & Sons reached an agreement with the Northern Nigerian officials to build a large textile mill in Kaduna; Kaduna Textiles Ltd. Production began in 1957 and by the 1970s the factory was supplying several regional companies (Salihu et al., 2013). However, operations had slowed by 1997 and by 2007 all factories associated with the project had closed. The failure of the project and others like it was due in large part to conflict riddled regime changes which made it impossible to effect stable policies, and the currency deregulation and structural adjustment IMF/World Bank program of 1986 (Salihu et al., 2013).
Fig 3: Kaduna Textile Ltd Project Proposal, 1955
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In 2005, the Millennium Development Villages project was launched and promised to be a blueprint for poverty alleviation and better living in Africa (Sachs, 2019). Why did it fail? African voices like Kenyan Lawyer Patrick Lumumba posit that the project failed because it failed to integrate with local cultures and therefore was not bought into by people it was intended for. When, under colonial rule, large scale manufacturing was introduced to Nigeria, it was assumed that with the technology available, industrialisation would rapidly take root with the alteration of customs, traditions, and local institutions not aligned with the colonial project (Falola, 2008). The crafts encouraged were those which, like metalsmithing, produced utilitarian goods which were used locally by colonial officers or exported back to England (Neaher, 1979).
Fig 4: British empire exhibition metalwork display at the Nigerian Pavilion, 1925
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Toward Modernism After Nigeria regained independence in 1960, it became clear that the cultural incompatibility of the amalgamated regions of the Northern and Southern Protectorates had become a source of intertribal conflicts, and ultimately to the Biafra war of 1966 (Uzokwe, 2003). The post-war rebuilding was characterised by a zeal for modernism in the architecture of the growing metropolis of Lagos after its official recognition as a state in 1967. Apapa Quays port was established by the British in 1913 (Nigerian Ports Authority) and served as the loci of international trade and commerce. The cosmopolitan aspirations of then Lagos Governor Mobolaji Johnson, were attuned to Nigeria’s new status as an oil rich nation that could now afford the modernist dreams imported by Slavic and Scandinavian Architects (Seculic, 2012).
Fig 5: Map of Northern and Southern Colonial Protectorates
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…we have released Northern Nigeria from the leading strings of the Treasury. The promising and well-conducted youth is now on an allowance on his own and is about to effect an alliance with a Southern Lady of means. I have issued the special license and Sir Frederick Lugard will perform the ceremony. May the union be fruitful and the couple constant! The Nigerians are not designed to be a great Trust but a great Federation. On the 1914 Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria. (Kirk-Greene, 1968, p.30)
As Lagos became the commercial hub, a new form of apprenticeship emerged. Iga Boi (to serve) became the practiced mode of apprenticeship for Igbos. During the apprenticeship, an Oga (Boss) trained the apprentice in a particular trade for a specified period. Upon completion, the Oga settled the apprentice with resources sufficient for the establishing of a similar business. The Nwa Boi (apprentice) now an Oga was then to repeat the process with an apprentice of his own (Ejo-Orusa et al., 2019, p. 9). The Nwa Boi system had two key consequences: 1.) The culture of making amongst the Igbo was rapidly replaced by a new culture of trade entirely alien to the culture; that of buying and reselling with a markup. 2.) Igbo culture is typically patriarchal and therefore the Nwa Boi was restricted to males. Women, who within the protection of the culture had freedom to practice crafts, were suddenly limited to working as maids, Seamstresses, or Hairdressers in Lagos. As South-Eastern states established capital cities in the 1980s and 90s, the practice spread to home. 12
Note: Barring the very few crafts which were gendered for spiritual reasons, practice was open to men and women alike. Though priority was always given to men because upon marriage, the women were to be integrated into a new Umunna. The colonial program of condemnation and disassemblage was designed to be followed concurrently by the process of reassemblage. Invariably, in the unified structure of forced acculturation, the process of reassemblage was nothing but the reconstitution of the Igbo cultural world in accordance with the colonial vision and design. (Ejo-Orusa et al., 2019, p. 41-42)
Paradigms of Belonging The life of the modern Igbo individual is a tale of two parts: the city-dweller and the villager. The city-dweller spends most of the year living and working in a modern paradigm. The villager emerges during holidays, festive seasons, or key family engagements. Despite the relatively short amount of time the city-dweller spends in the village, there remains a tendency towards the visual display of wealth and success while in the village. It is common for individuals to rent houses in the city but build lavish homes in the village. This is not due to economic reasons but to the mentality that one’s city life is constantly in flux, but the village is the anchor. While in city mode, he joins culturally rooted social clubs through which he maintains a constant connection to his village self. 13
At such gatherings, traditionally symbolic objects are preferred to modern equivalents. For example, the choice of clay bowls and plates over ceramics for the storage and sharing of Oji (Kola nuts), traditionally patterned or tailored clothing, and Nkwu (palm wine) over beers or spirits. Therefore, amongst the Igbo, market opportunities for culturally recognised materials engineered to modern product standards and able to satisfy nostalgic and utilitarian demands exist. This is most salient to the middle and upper classes who have leisure enough to attempt a balancing of modern life with the Igbo worldview. The worldview provides a mechanism for understanding how people evaluate life, and how this evaluation offers a charter of action and justice for behaviour. The way in which people view reality as context dependent (Ohia, 2006, p. 475).
Amongst the Igbo, the relationship between culture and place is often communicated proverbially Ihe di woro ogori azuala na ahia. What was secret is revealed in the marketplace. Onye a kporo apari, o na-ehi n’amanna ya, abughi apari. A presumed fool who sleeps in his father’s house is no fool. Ha na e si na uno a mara nma we na puta na nma. The beauty one displays in public was with them right from their home.
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The process of realigning worldviews might begin with an examination of how the loci of crafts have been spatially transformed relative to modern life. In the tradition Igbo context, crafts were at the centre of life from material sourcing to product display. For example, a poorly cut piece of wood would limit the craftsman’s productivity, and so will insufficiently clay. These were of greater consequence prior to the advent of motorized tools. Markets today are understood as a space or gathering for the purpose of commerce. But for the Igbo it was a space for skill sharing, intracultural exchange, leisure, camaraderie, and display. To understand this in a modern context, picture an art gallery inside a market inside a school inside a theatre with a public forum attached to it- all open-air (The forum in Igbo context is known as the market square and is the Igbo equivalent of the Greek Agora). This model too was erased with colonisation.
Fig 6: Masquerade performances were/are often held at market squares
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Fig 7: A pre-Colonial Pottery Making Family
Fig 8: Crafts as cultural exports. Abuja Arts & Crafts Village
Fig 9: Projects in the remnant spaces of the city. Apo Mechanic Village, Abuja
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As Nigerian cities grew in the 1990s, the loci of crafts were forced to the periphery of modern life. The craftsman, having lost the respect accorded by culture and the financial stability hitherto relied on, was reinterpreted as an agent of informality. The apprentices not engaged in trade were classified as Ndi Oru Aka (Hand workers). Mechanics, Welders, Electricians, and other modern trade skills grew in clustered cooperatives at the periphery of cities, creating slum industrial parks. In Igboland however, the new system of cooperatives was not adopted. Artisans unable to find an Oga in the city were relegated to backyard makers of small wares, and farm hands for hire. They had lost ground. In 2020, Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari marked the Independence Day celebrations with the launch of the Artisan Scheme under the federal government’s Survival Fund. 330,000 artisans and transport operators were awarded grants of N30,000 (the equivalent of the monthly minimum wage). Amongst these were Ndi Oru Aka. Unfortunately, it failed to address the inability of these sectors to scale into viable industries prior to and after the lockdowns. What is required is a rethinking of the incentives for which development goals can be acculturated in the Igbo milieu. By aligning aspirations with collective choice agreements still practiced by Igbos, common pool resourcing could be effective in addressing growth capital deficiencies. Thus, the invisible hand of the commons embedded in Igbo culture, could inspire a necessary cooperative, catalysing the transformation of thing-making into placemaking.
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CHAPTER III: BUILDING FOR A GLOBAL COMMONS
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A global commons The medieval European concept of the commons emerged from the way in which communities managed collectively owned land and resources (IASC). Nowadays, the set of commons has expanded to include domains of ideas and intellectual property. In 1968, Garrett Hardin argued that resources shared in common will be mismanaged due to the self-interest of individuals (Hardin, 1968). “Since the early 80s, scholars … like Elinor Ostrom have disagreed with Hardin’s analysis and documented evidence of sustainably managed commons outside private property rights or governmental interventions” (IASC). Today, the environment is treated as a de facto common. Intergovernmental schemes and agreements like the UN’s SDGs, the Kyoto protocol, the Paris Agreement, and other tariff and non-tariff barriers have been defended as pursuant to the goal of environmental and ecological sustainability. The Carbon Credit System was created and formalized in the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 (Effected in 2005) as a coalition of nations committed to reducing greenhouse emissions. It was an extension of Article 2 of the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Human institutions and ways of organizing activities affect the resilience of the environment. Ideal conditions for governance are increasingly rare. Critical problems, such as transboundary pollution, tropical deforestation, and climate change, are at larger scales and involve nonlocal influences. Promising strategies for addressing these problems include dialogue among interested parties, officials, and scientists; complex, redundant, and layered institutions; a mix of institutional types; and designs that facilitate experimentation, learning, and change. Deitz, Ostrom, and Stern; 2003. Struggle to govern the commons
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Policies that provide a real or implicit price of carbon could create incentives for producers and consumers to significantly invest in low-GHG products, technologies and processes. Such policies could include economic instruments, government funding and regulation. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007
Following the agreement, the Marrakech Accords stipulated how market mechanisms were to be used to achieve the Kyoto framework. This consolidated the Marrakech Declarations previously signed in 1994 in Morocco (UNFCCC, V. 10-11-01; 5:29), as a prelude to the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) conducted within the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) framework- an institution which became the World Trade Organisation (WTO, The Uruguay round). The Kyoto Agreement created a system in which carbon credits can be bought and sold. In Europe, the system has been adopted by all EU nations and the UK, under the supervision of the European Commission’s European Trading Scheme (European Commission, 2016). By 2008, the United States and Australia had ratified the agreement and adopted it in principle. Proponents of the system argue that by treating emissions as a commodity, businesses can better manage their activities using data driven predictive models. To wit, tools have been developed for the production, management, and trading of carbon credits in forest conservation, waste, and water management using tools like REDD+ (Maalouf et al., 2020). The scheme emphasized the concept of Additionality in the creation of carbon credits. Additionality is the 20
net financial benefit a project accrues as a result of its revenue from carbon credits or regulatory incentives (The Gold Standard). Critics of the system insist that while the carbon credit system can be effective in regulating emissions in developed nations, it is largely exclusionary to developing nations because these nations are forced to prioritize economic growth over environmental concerns. False. When Shell, in collaboration with the British government, began operating in Nigeria’s Ogoni region of Rivers State in 1958, 96 wells were drilled and operated. The project was heavily resisted by the Ogoni people because the Oil spills polluted the river, the main source of food and livelihood of the Ogoni who were forcefully evicted from large swathes of the land and river. Between 1976 and 1991, 2,976 oil spills had reportedly dumped about 2.1 million barrels of crude oil unto Ogoni lands and rivers. This accounted for about 40% of Royal Dutch Shell’s worldwide oil spills (Crayford, 1996).
Fig 10: Oil from a leaking pipeline burns and pollutes environment of Goi-Bodo, a swamp area of the Niger delta Ogoniland, in 2004.
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Fig 11: Greenpeace protested Shell’s exploitation and environmental degradation of Nigeria during the 1960s
The Nigerian government’s reliance on Oil and Gas revenues has meant that such crises, primarily those in the rural areas, go ignored. While Nigeria is under enormous pressure to follow the herd of climate warrior nations, it finds itself in a predicament. The country sits on enormous gas reserves but must adopt stringent austerity measures and contradictory policies in order to satisfy IMF credit recovery schemes before being able to access Rapid Financing Instruments (IMF News, 2020).
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Rethinking Value: Learning from Culture The traditional Igbo production cycle offers a rethinking of how we value environment in relation to our domestic, economic, and cultural lives. Resources were well known to the community, protected, and used in accordance with tacit and explicit laws and mores, and the benefit of future availability. Essentially, they were a series of accessible and renewable vaults. A vault-based culture-industry integration and its value system could provide the economic, social, and cultural incentives necessary for the adoption of a new kind of industrial system. To this end, a cognitive shift in which culturally, economically, and materially sustainable practices are qualitatively and quantitively valued as assets, is necessary. By capitalising on global valuation and financing of sustainable practices, the Igbos and other cultural groups have an opportunity to escape the debt trap via a system of production of commodities by means of commodities.
Note: The idea of the production of commodities by means of commodities was inspired by economist Pierro Sraffa’s 1960 book of the same title, in which he attempted to create a physical numeraire predicated on the physical identity and direct commensurability of inputs and outputs, with which to measure the price of commodities. 23
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VAULT: Commodities
Corn, Vegetables, Fuel (Dry Husks)
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SEMI-PRIVATE
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B
B
Crafts Spaces Teaching Spaces
B C
C
C
B C
B
A
A
VAULT: Commodities
Fruits, Palm oil, Kernel oil
Fig 12: Traditional Igbo House Vaults, and their place in the Home-Market political economy
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VAULT: Household Use Potable Water
C
PRIVATE
C
Living Spaces Cooking Spaces Worship Spaces
C
A
PUBLIC
A
Meeting Spaces Communal Spaces
VAULT: Commodity
Food (Cassava), Starch (Many uses), Replantable Stems
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The Rights of Nature Nature is not an object to be exploited and to be mistreated, but it is a subject that is cared for and respected. So it is a radical change to think of nature as a subject, not an object. Natalia Greene, Pachamama Foundation, Ecuador (Rights of Nature documentary, 2020)
The Igbo are not the only group to express an intrinsic value for nature. In 1949 conservationist Aldo Leopold echoed the idea of a healthier, balanced, and harmonious relationship with nature (Leopold, 1968). In 1972, American Law Professor Christopher Stone published Should Trees Have Standing?, in which he proposed giving justiciable rights to nature (Stone, 1972). In the same year, US Supreme court Justice William Douglas issued a dissenting opinion based on Stone’s article in the 1972 Sierra Club vs Morton case, stating that “environmental objects should be able to sue for their own protection” (Sierra club v. Morton, 1972). The idea came to the fore when in 2008 at the Ecuador Constitutional Debate in Montecristi, advocates argued that nature be given the same rights as individuals and corporations (Akchurin, 2015). The motion passed and Pachamama was written into Ecuador’s constitution as a legal entity (Rapid Transition Alliance, 2018). The Maori of New Zealand also regard nature as a crucial part of their national identity. A medium connecting them to their ancestors and anchoring them in place. When Polynesian explorers established settlements in New Zealand about 700 years ago, a culture of unity with nature was established. 27
I am the river, and the river is me.
The Whanganui River was to be a source of sustenance for the Iwi people and in turn they were obligated to protect and conserve it. When the Maori Chiefs signed the treaty of Waitangi with the British government in 1840, they wrongly assumed that the British shared their reverence for land, nature, and the common use of resources. Consequently, the Iwi and the Tuhoe have fought for over 140 years, to return resources to common ownership and rights to the river. They succeeded when the Te Urewera act (2014) granted the legal rights of a person to Te Urewera. Under the agreement, the Tuhoe will share management of the lands with the department of conservation but neither will own the land. The goal is to draw from Maori traditions, what is best for the land rather than a set of regulations.
How can a bunch of humans represent the voice of nature? It’s a board that does not represent humans. We have this delightful conversation about things like that stakeholder wants this and that person,…ahh. We don’t see humans. No. I am Nature. Nature is connected to everything. I have a memory that is timeless. I can’t see things in annual plans. For us what applies here is the 1,000 years of history. We don’t live in legislation. Kirsty Luke, Chief Executive, Tuhoe Te Uru Taumatua On the protection of nature by legislation
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CHAPTER IV: CULTURAL REINTEGRATION
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Tactical Aspiration Other governments have taken a different approach. Iceland, in its 1971 nature conservation act, specified that humans and nature should engage in such a way that life or land be not needlessly wasted, nor sea, freshwater or air polluted (The Nature Conservation Act No. 44, Government of Iceland, 1999). Iceland’s pragmatic approach, while closely resembling the Igbo material doctrine in principle, offers a utilitarian argument for the proper management of natural resources more suited to the needs of the present. For the Igbo, this would mean building with nature using traditional values and modern tools, and financed with innovative sustainability-based value propositions, could result in a tactical aspiration capable of feeding the flame of the regional development agenda.
Agenda 2063 An integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens, representing a dynamic force in the international arena and Agenda 2063 is the concrete manifestation of how the continent intends to achieve this vision within a 50-year period from 2013 to 2063. African Union Agenda 2063, The Africa We Want.
Crucially, tactical aspiration is not limited to the Igbos. When the African Union introduced Agenda 2063 under the aegis of the Africa Continental Free Trade Area Agreement in May 2013, a commitment was made by African leaders to the development of inclusive social and economic development, regional and continental integration, democratic governance, and security (AfCFTA Secretariat). It was 30
fundamentally understood as the regionalisation of sustainable development under a pan-African socio-cultural umbrella. At the heart of the strategic vision of Agenda 2063 lie key flagship programs and a roadmap which, monitored through qualitative and quantitative outcomes, will guide the process through a 10-year implementation phase. The key selling point of the project is rests in the ability of African nations to speak with one voice, particularly in relation to the global policy space and trade negotiations. By 2021, 36 African nations had ratified the agreement. Notwithstanding, many within and beyond the continent doubt the ability of such top-heavy agreements to reconcile the multiplicity of cultures and peoples within Africa and address their varying needs in ways that would not trigger further conflicts. As governments signed declarations in Addis Ababa and Accra, violence raged across the Sahel and the voices calling for session amongst cultural groups within Nigerian screamed louder than ever. There is however a place for such projects. The flagship scheme of Agenda 2063 outlined key initiatives crucial to accelerating Africa’s economic growth and cultural enrichment. Included on the list are initiatives which might better be tackled on a smaller regional scale of interconnected systems operating through self-governance. For example, the formulation of commodities strategy, establishment of an African economic forum, establishment of African financial institutions, and a museum of African legacy and heritage (AfCFTA Secretariat). Such initiatives can, at regional scales, be integrated into embedded cultural and economic development goals. 31
Fig 13: The African Continental Free Trade Agreement
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CONCLUSION Having explored the deep cultural embeddedness of trade and production amongst the Igbo, the idea of new industrial systems capable of leveraging the unique aspects of Igbo cultural life seem less farfetched. A modern eye might cast aspersions at the idiosyncrasies of Igbo cultural practices like the reverence for Ala and her vaults, but these practices have within themselves a performativity through which the Igbo have continually developed systems of survival and economic stewardship. As the traditional Igbo house was, prior to colonisation, a place of shelter, manufacture, and stewardship of nature, the post-colonial context of global economic and environmental integration presents an opportunity for the reimagining of Igbo craft using modern tools and techniques. An opportunity as significant for the city-man as it is for the village-man. As critical for the survival of the struggling artisan as for the anchoring of the leisure classes. And as true within the Umunna as it is at the AU Secretariat or the UN General assembly. As far as the building of culturally embedded economic systems with a care for nature is concerned, within the global commons in which we find ourselves, what holds true for one holds true for the others. The Igbo of the precolonial era understood this, and perhaps in a little while, we will.
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APPENDIX
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36
BENUE
KOGI UZO-UWANI
OHAUKWU
ENUGU
NSUDE
OBIOMA
ANAMBRA
OKUZUUKWAWU AWKA
OJI
EBONYI
ORIUZOR
EZZAMA
NIMO
AMUZU
ABAOMEGE
AWKA ETITI IGBOUKWU
UGWUEKE
CROSS RIVER
OVIM
UZUAKOLI OHAFIA
IMO
UBAKALA
ABIA
IKENEGBU MBARI
AROCHUKWU
RIVERS
AKWA IBOM
R
0
Shown above are the precolonial villages of Igbo Nigeria. They were also the loci of traditional crafts. There, the craftsmen sourced their raw materials within walking distance from their homes. However, in modern development, the Igbo have opportunities of using those same materials in the establishing of indigenous developement. They can also benefit fit from modern logistical mechanisms capable of speeding up the process without compromising cultural values. 0
10
37
20
30
40
50km
10
MAKURDI FIELDS
DEKINA FIELDS JAKURA QUARRY
GITTO COMPANY QUARRY
AWULEMA GRANITE QUARRY
ANKPA FIELDS
ANMUDA GRANITE QUARRY
KOGI
BEAUTIFUL ROCK QUARRY
EKINRIN -ADDE QUARRY
OJU FIELDS
YANDEV QUARRY
BENUE
KPAYONGO GRANITE QUARRY
ADIGA QUARRY
GBOKO QUARRY
BULLETINE COMPANY QUARRY
AJAOKUTA FIELDS
IGUMALE QUARRY
YAGBA FIELDS
BORINI PRONO QUARRY
ISI-UZO FIELDS
ITOBE QUARRY
ENUGU
UZO-UWANI FIELDS
NKALAGU FIELD UGBODO FIELDS
ROCK BRIDGE QUARRY
MAKURDI FIELDS
WULEMA RANITE UARRY
U LDS
UKPO FIELDS
BENUE
KPAYONGO GRANITE QUARRY
ADIGA QUARRY
EZEAGU FIELDS
ANAMBRA
ANMUDA GRANITE QUARRY
YANDEV QUARRY
NKANU FIELD
NNKANU -WEST FIELDS
OJI PITWOOD PLANTATION
MAMU RIVER FOREST RESERVE
NTEZI FIELD
EZILLO FIELDS
NGWO PINE FOREST
EBONYI IKWO FIELD
NNKANU -EAST FIELDS
GBOKO QUARRY
EZZA NORTH & SOUTH FIELDS
AJALI FIELD NNEWI FIELDS UMU-NNEOCHI FIELDS
ISHIAGU FIELDS
OSSOMALA FOREST RESERVE
OHAOZARA QUARRY
OHAFIA QUARRY
OBUDI FIELDS
IMO
INFRASTRUCTURE
ARO CHUKWU FIELDS IKWUANO FIELDS
EBONYI
Heavy Vehicle Routes
OZIZA FIELDS
RIVERS
OBUBRA QUARRY
New Additions to Heavy Vehicle Routes
OBI NGWA FIELDS
AKWA IBOM UGWENEGBO FIELDS
CALABAR FIELDS
Proposed Pipeline Extensions
MFAMOSING QUARRY
Existing Transmission Lines OBEAKU FOREST RESERVE
RIVER SIDE FIELDS
OHAFIA QUARRY
INFRASTRUCTURE
IBAMI FIELD
OBIEZE ISU FOREST RESERVE
Airports IKOT ANA FIELD
CALABAR FIELDS
BOM MFAMOSING QUARRY
Proposed Transmission Line Extensions Opportunity Adjacencies
CROSS RIVER
UGEP QUARRY
OSS RIVER
Existing Gas Pipelines Power Stations
AFIKPO FIELDS
RO CHUKWU ELDS
Train Stations Proposed Additions to Rail Lines
ONUEKE FIELDS
GBOKO EZZA QUARRY NORTH & SOUTH FIELDS
AMOSO FIELDS
ANA AirportsIKOT FIELD
Existing Rail Lines
NGOROKPALA FORESTS
IBOKO FIELDS
IBAMI FIELD
OBIEZE ISU FOREST RESERVE
ABIA UMUAHIA SOUTH FIELDS
IKWO FIELD
CROSS RIVER
UGEP QUARRY
OBOWO FIELDS
NTEZI FIELD
RIVER SIDE FIELDS
AMOSO FIELDS
UMU OBOM FIELDS
OGUTA FIELDS
UGBODO FIELDS
YANDEV QUARRY
AFIKPO FIELDS
ISIKWUATO FIELDS
OKIGWE FIELDS
ORLU FIELDS
EZILLO FIELDS
OBUBRA QUARRY
OZIZA FIELDS
IGUMALE QUARRY
KALAGU ELD
IBOKO FIELDS
ONUEKE FIELDS
MATERIALS Forests and Timber Plantations
Train Stations
Granite
Existing Rail Lines
Limestone / Travertine
Proposed Additions to Rail Lines
Sandstone
Heavy Vehicle Routes
Marble
New Additions to Heavy Vehicle Routes
Laterite
Existing Gas Pipelines
Builder’s sand
Proposed Pipeline Extensions
Stonedust
Power Stations
Grit Sand
Existing Transmission Lines
Gravel
Proposed Transmission Line Extensions
Coal
Opportunity Adjacencies
Kaolin Barite Sharp Sand
MATERIALS Forests and Timber Plantations Granite Limestone / Travertine Sandstone
38
COAL
NAT URA LG AS
HY DR O-E LEC TR IC
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
?
GE OT
AL RM HE
?
?
WATER 6 CLEAN AND SANITATION
7
AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY
15 LIFE ON LAND
ALIGNMENT
CITIES INNOVATION 12 RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION 11 SUSTAINABLE AND COMMUNITIES 9 INDUSTRY, AND INFRASTRUCTURE AND PRODUCTION
< 2 º C?
2025
2028
2030
2050
2023
In a global commons development framework, it is advantageous and necessary for the Igbo to align their development aspirations with REGIONAL global sustainability goals. This is important for attracting institutional DEVELOPMENT GOALS financing, modelling value changes and economic consequenes, and monitoring global trends which can be leveraged. At the same time, the Igbo must resist globalist agendas that seek to interpret sustainable development goals as markets operating on the principle of comparative advantage.
39
7
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
6
EXPY
ALIGNMENT
ITSHA
U - ON
ENUG
INDUSTRIAL CORE
OLD
U-
ENUG
AD A RO
ITSH
ON
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS
40
Igbo Eze North
Igbo Eze North
Igbo Eze South
Igbo Eze South Udenu
Udenu
Nsukka NORTHERN CLUSTER
Nsukka NORTHERN CLUSTER Isi Uzo
ani
Isi Uzo
Uzo-Uwani
Igbo Etiti
Igbo Etiti
Enugu East Udi CENTRAL CLUSTER
Ezeagu
Enugu East Udi CENTRAL CLUSTER
STATE CAPITAL Enugu North Ezeagu
Enugu South Nkanu West
Nkanu East
SOUTHERN Oji RiverCLUSTER Awgu
STATE CAPITAL Enugu North Enugu South Nkanu West
Nkanu East
SOUTHERN Oji RiverCLUSTER Awgu
Aninri
Aninri
DEVELOPMENT CLUSTERS ACCORDING TO EXISTING SENATORIAL ZONES
Attempting regional development will necessarily involve the collaboration of the post-colonial government and constitution with embedded and culturally rooted systems of governance. The alignment must begin here. Within these zoned governance structures, the nwaboi system can then be aligned with modern apprenticeship programs geared towards development agendas which are represented and agreed at all levels of the political economy.
41
Igbo Eze North Igbo Eze South Udenu Nsukka
Isi Uzo
Uzo-Uwani Igbo Etiti
Enugu East Udi
Enugu North Ezeagu
Enugu South Nkanu West
nu
Nkanu East
Isi Uzo
Oji River
Awgu
NODES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL State Capital CityAninri
East
Local Government Areas Airport
u North
Manufacturing Industries
uth
LGA Boundaries
Nkanu East
Aninri
NODES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL State Capital City Local Government Areas Airport Manufacturing Industries LGA Boundaries LGA Loci of Urbanism Institutes of Higher Education Trades Training Institutions Local Apprenticeships
LGA Loci of Urbanism Institutes of Higher Education Trades Training Institutions Local Apprenticeships Untapped Potential; Energy Backed Probable margin of Influence Opportunity Corridors Urban Linkages
42
Federal State Local NGO De facto Community Leaders
STRATEGIES OF CONSENT
PARASTATALS Security Commerce Welfare Population Management
STRATEGIES OF CONSENT
Resource Management Judicial
43
ederal tate ocal GO e facto eaders
Lobby Corridors
PARASTATALS
Ohaneze Ndigbo is an Igbo socio-cultural organization which was founded to represent the interests of all Igbo communities within and beyond Nigeria. By recognising the institutional legitimacy of Ohaneze Ndigbo across parastatal levels, the Igbo may begin to feel the sense of place undergirding a culturally embedded development.
44
45 STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Executive Exclusive List
Price Controls
Resource Exhaustion
Environmental Regulations
Rapid Population Growth
Water Sharing
Social Unrest
Global Commons Financing
Vocational Training
Tropical Modernism
Underserved Middle Class
Leveraging Equity
Cultural Craft Aesthetic
Material Innovations
Technological Development
Labour Suitability
Commons Barriers
Land Contestetion
Distribution Networks
Regional Water Security
Insufficient Technology
Insecurity in Transit
State of Freight
Labour Availability
State Support
Land Rights
Market Size
Geography
Access to Resources
Logistics (National)
Logistics (Regional)
VALUE CONSIDERATIONS
Taking the traditional Igbo house as a facilitator of natural and renewable vaults, a vault-based culture-industry integration and its system of valuations could provide the economic, social, and cultural incentives necessary for the adoption of a new kind of industrial system. To this end, a cognitive shift in which culturally, economically, and materially sustainable practices are qualitatively and quantitively valued as fungible assets.
ves for mental on
Sector Employment
Health Impact Awareness
GLOBAL COMMONS? : VALUING GOALS
1. No Poverty -Agricultural concentration + -Local manufacturing + -Timber for sustenance -Logistical networks +
3. Good Health And Well-being
6. Clean Water And Sanitation
7. Affordable And Clean Energy
-Water security + -Agricultural support + -Land-use concentration -Child care support +
-Biodegradable products + -Pollution aversion -Water reuse + -Potable water support +
-Viable energy sources + -Efficient energy use + -Local grid support + -Externalities -
8. Decent Work And Econonmic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, And Infrastructure
11. Sustainable Cities And Communities
12. Responsible Consumption And Production
-Manufacturing + -Education and Training + -Gender inclusivity + -Labour rights +
-Resource conservation + -Lean infastructures + -Controlled extraction + -Systems’s integration +
-Access to services + -Green public realm + -Adequate Housing + -Densification +
-Material waste management + -Waste streams + -Rights of materials + -Efficient consumption +
16. Peace, Justice, And Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships For The Goals
sive ative
Climate ments
13. Climate Action
15. Life On Land
-Emission control + -Effluence control + -Ecosystem management + -Pollution impacts +
-Ecosystem contributions + -Integrative habitats + -Nature rights + -Building with nature +
-Security + -Conflict resolution + -Protection of rights +
-Duties of care; PPP + -Contract enforcement + -Duties of environments + -Trade constitutions +
By capitalising on global valuation and financing of sustainable practices, the Igbos and other cultural groups have an opportunity to escape the debt trap via a system of production of commodities by means of commodities.
46
11. Sustainable Communities
INSTITUTION:
Global Climate Agreements
GLOBAL COMMONS ORGANIZATION (GCO), SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA CHAPTER
12. Responsible Production & Consumption
Local Integration
Market Volatility
17. Partnerships
9. Industry
Green Cover
6. Clean Water & Sanitation
47
56%
Resilient Mining
13. Climate Action
15. Life on Land
Commons Legislation
THE ARCHINOMIC BLUEPRINT
16. Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions
Regenerative Forestry
Local PPP Projects
8. Work & Economy
Craft Revival & Resilience
Cultural Integration
1. No Poverty
For this new system to be effective, a constitution must be established in which the invisible hand of the commons is aquainted and accepted by the visible hand of Igbo culture.
48
Environmental Vaults
>ÌÕÀ> E * > Ì>Ì ÀiÃÌÃ TIMBER PLANTATIONS AND FORESTS -Contribution: Improved air quality, Soil preservation, Wildlife support, Water conservation, Maintainable supply of lumber -Valuation of CO2 sequestration and net contribution of forests
Materials TIMBER PLANTATIONS AND FORESTS -Contribution: Improved quality, Soil Trav, preservation, Wildlife support, -Stones: Sand,air Lime, Marb, Granite Water conservation, Maintainable supply of lumber -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone dust, -Valuation of CO2 sequestration and net contribution of forestsLaterite, Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Timber: Hard and soft
Bamboo Reserves
ATIONS AND FORESTS
ity, Soil preservation, Wildlife support, e supply of lumber
and net contribution of forests
Materials BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU -Stones: Sand, Lime, Trav, Marb, Granite IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone Laterite, -Valuation of local material security, and earth materials dust, conservation Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Timber: Hard and soft
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-Valuation of local material security, and earth materials conservation
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Natural materials Innovation BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS -Natural fibre Textiles -Terracotta -Valuation of local material security, and earth materials conservation -CNC machining: Wood, metal, stone &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV
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Environment Natural materials Innovation -Air & Particulates pollution -Natural fibrepollution Textiles -Water -Terracotta -Material contamination:Toxins -CNC-Composting? machining: Wood, metal, stone
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Biodiversity Nature systems Aesthetics -Apiculture; Butterfliies, Dragonfly -Visual linguistics -Endangered trees arboreta -Form & Purpose -Biodiversity strategy -Cultural memory
Social Construction -Jobs Technologies -Speed: Important for local material climate use -Logistics dependent -Robustness -Proliferations into society -Material efficiency -Inclusivity Nature systems Natural materials Innovation -Apiculture; -Natural fibre TextilesButterfliies, Dragonfly -Endangered trees arboreta -Terracotta -Biodiversity strategy -CNC machining: Wood, metal, stone
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EducationTechnologies Construction -Trade skill advancement -Speed: Important for local climate -Skills & sector fit (Train for needs) -Robustness -Child care and -Material efficiency support
Igbo Aesthetic Traditions Nature systems Aesthetics -Apiculture; Butterfliies, Dragonfly -Visual linguistics -Endangered trees arboreta -Form & Purpose -Biodiversity strategy -Cultural memory
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/ i i` i emerged fr managed c Cultural Technolog Ü>`>ÞÃ] - include do - Today, the *How have Igbos b V ° SDGs, the and other t defended a and ecolog System wa *À Ì V v of nations c i Ãà ð 1 Ìi` >Ì > }i 1 a system in à `° ÕÀ 1 >Ì Ã ÕÀ «i> Materials & Resources -Resource -Resource protected, Cultural Technolog - iÝ« V Ì >Ü availability. -
*How have Igbos b
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i> vÀ>ÃÌÀÕVÌÕÀià E } ÃÌ Và Education -Trade skill Materials advancement & methods -Skills & sector fit (Train for needs) -Resource extraction -Child care and supportreplacing -Resource
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50
Materials & -Resource -Resource
NOTES 1. Brundtland Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland, 1987. Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p. 16 2. Blog Editor, 2015. Five reasons to think twice about the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. Online 3. William Balfour Baikie, 1856. Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the rivers of Kwora and Binue (commonly known as Niger and Tsádda) in 1854 with a map and appendices. ia600303.us.archive. org. John Mueray, Albemarle Street (published with a sanction of Her Majesty’s Government). Retrieved April 24, 2016. 4. Based on the dating of pottery found in 1978 at Okigwe (present day Awka), Anambra state by a team led by English Archaeologist Dr. Thursten Shaw, alongside a research team form the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN). The team also discovered a mine for tool and pottery making for the stone civilization of Ibagwa (North of Nsukka, Enugu State). 5. Oliver Ifeanyi Anyabolu, 2000. Nigeria, past to the present: from 500 B.C. to the present (USA: Classic Publication Company) p. 12. 6. Emeka Ed Keazor, Pamela Smith-Shaw, 2015. Onunaekwuluora: The Legacy of Thurstan Shaw. http://asirimagazine.com/en/documentary-film-onunaekwuluora-thelegacy-of-thurstan-shaw/ 7. This significance did not extend to everyday utilitarian items such as cooking pots.
51
8. Elizabeth Allo Isichei, 1997. A History of African Societies to 1870. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 247 9. Ogechi E. Anyanwu (Editor), Apollos Okwuchi Nwauwa (Editor), George Ogbonna Mbarah (Chapter Author), 2019. Culture, Precepts, and Social Change in Southeastern Nigeria: Understanding the Igbo. (Kentucky: Lexington books) p. 52 10. The resources could be agricultural produce, livestock, or knowledge. Such contributions were of utmost importance during marriage ceremonies, funerals, coronations, and disputes. 11. Vincent Egwu, 2014. A Critical Survey of the Growth, Decline, and Sustainability of Traditional Pottery Practice among the Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria. The Journal of Modern Craft. 7 (2), p. 123–139 12. Murtala Muhammad, 2019. The Emergence of Manufacturing Industry in Nigeria (1955-1978). Journal of Advances in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 6, p. 807–823 13. Here the author refers to protection from competition and the securing of market share. 14. - 15. Maiwada Salihu, Elisha Renne, 2013. The Kaduna Textile Industry and the Decline of Textile Manufacturing in Northern Nigeria, 1955-2010. Populations Studies Centre, Institute for Social Research, 44(2), p. 171-196 16. Jeffrey Sachs, 2019. UN Millennium Development Library: Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Routledge; 1st ed. 52
17. Toyin Falola, Matthew Heaton, 2008. A History of Nigeria. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 110 - 135 18. Nancy Neaher, 1979. Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. (Africa: Journal of the International African Institute). Vol. 49, No. 4, p. 352-366 19. Alfred Uzokwe, 2003. Surviving in Biafra: The Story of the Nigerian Civil War. (Nebraska: iUniverse) p. 1-7 20. Nigerian Ports Authority. Lagos Ports. https://nigerianports.gov. ng/lagos-port/ 21. Dubravka Seculic, 2012. Constructing Non-aligned Modernity: The Case of Energoprojekt. Association for Slavic, East European, & Eurasian Studies 44th Annual Convention. https://www.academia.edu/2542020/Constructing_Non-aligned_ Modernity_the_Case_of_Energoprojekt 22. A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, 1968. Lugard and the Amalgamation of Nigeria: A Documentary Record. (Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.) p. 30. Evidence in the report confirmed that Lagos was indeed the Southern Lady of Means spoken of by Lugard. 23. Henry Ejo-Orusa, Destiny Lloyd, 2019. Reinventing The ‘Nwaboi’ Apprenticeship System: A Platform For Entrepreneurship Promotion In Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. 8, p. 9 24. Ibid, p. 41 - 42
53
25. Barring the very few crafts which were gendered for spiritual reasons, practice was open to men and women alike. Though priority was always given to men because upon marriage, the women were to be integrated into a new Umunna. 26. Chinaeke Ohia, 2006. Eke-na-egwurugwu: The Causal Principles of Unity, Individuation, Multiplicity, and Differentiation in Igbo Metaphysics. (Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd) p. 475 & 478 27. A poorly cut piece of wood would limit the craftsman’s productivity, and so will insufficiently clay. These were of greater consequence prior to the advent of motorized tools. 28. The forum in Igbo context is known as the market square and is the Igbo equivalent of the Greek Agora. 29. Premium Times Nigeria, 2020. Artisans in 11 states, FCT receive N30,000 one-time grant – Presidency. Premium Times. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/423913artisans-in-11-states-fct-receive-n30000-one-time-grant-presidency 30. International Association For The Study of The Commons. Retrieved March 2022. What Are Commons? iasc-commons.org/about-commons/ 31. Garrett Hardin, 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution. Science, Vol 162, Issue 3859, p. 1243-1248 32. International Association For The Study of The Commons https://iasc-commons.org/ 54
33. Thomas Dietz, Elinor Ostrom, and Paul C. Stern, 2003. The struggle to govern the commons. Science 302 (5652): 1907-12 34. IPCC Working Group III, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Working Group III, IPCC. p 29 - 31 35. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Marrakesh Accords & The Marrakesh Declaration. Version: 10-11-01; 5:29 http://unfccc.int/cop7/documents/accords_draft.pdf 36. World Trade Organization. Understanding The WTO: Basics, The Uruguay Round. https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact5_e. 37. European Commission, 2016. EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). Climate Action https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/eu-emissions-trading-systemeu-ets_en 38. Armani Maalouf, Mutasem El-Fadel, 2020. A novel software for optimizing emissions and carbon credit from solid waste and wastewater management. Science of Total Environment. p. 714 39. The Gold Standard. Offsetting And The Low-Carbon Transition. https://www.goldstandard.org/resources/faqs#faqs_displaypage_1-21 40. Steven Crayford, 1996. The Ogoni Uprising: Oil, Human Rights, and a Democratic Alternative in Nigeria. Indiana University Press. 55
Africa Today, Vol. 43, No. 2, Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa. p. 183-197 41. International Monetary Fund, IMF News, 2020. Nigeria’s IMF Financial Assistance to Support Health Care Sector, Protect Jobs and Businesses https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/04/29/na042920nigerias-imf-financial-assistance-to-support-health-care-sectorprotect 42. The idea of the production of commodities by means of commodities was inspired by economist Pierro Sraffa’s 1960 book of the same title, in which he attempted to create a physical numeraire predicated on the physical identity and direct commensurability of inputs and outputs, with which to measure the price of commodities. 43. Issac Goeckeritz (Producer), Hal Crimmel (Producer), María Valeria Berros (Writer), Shawn Murdock (Editor), 2020. The Rights of Nature: A Global Movement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuFNmH7lVTA 44. Leopold, A. (1968). A sand county almanac, and sketches here and there. London: Oxford University Press. 45. Christopher Stone, 1972. Should Trees have Standing? (USA: Oxford University Press) 46. Sierra Club v. Morton, 1972. 405 U.S. 727, 745–747 (S. Ct. 1972) 47. Maria Akchurin, 2015. Constructing the Rights of Nature: Constitutional Reform, Mobilization, and Environmental Protection 56
in Ecuador. Journal of Law and Social Enquiry. Volume 40, Issue 4, Fall 2015, p. 937 - 968 48. Rapid transition Alliance, 2018. Buen Vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-boliviaand-ecuador/ 49. Issac Goeckeritz (Producer), Hal Crimmel (Producer), María Valeria Berros (Writer), Shawn Murdock (Editor), 2020. The Rights of Nature: A Global Movement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuFNmH7lVTA 50. New Zealand History. The Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty in Brief. https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/the-treaty-in-brief 51. New Zealand Legislation. Te Urewera Act 2014 https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0051/latest/whole. html 52. Government of Iceland, 1999. The Nature Conservation Act No. 44. p. 1 – 20 53. African Union. Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/overview 54. AfCFTA Secretariat, African Union. About the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) https://afcfta.au.int/en/about 55. African Union. Flagship Projects of Agenda 2063. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/flagship-projects 57
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ILLUSTRATIONS Abuja arts and crafts village https://africancityguide.com/places/abuja-arts-and-craft-village/ Akwete cloth https://craftatlas.co/crafts/akwete-cloth Apo mechanic village https://www.sunnewsonline.com/mechanic-village-where-crimeprostitution-hold-sway/ British empire exhibition metalwork display at the Nigerian Pavilion, 1925 https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20speople-a-vast-windowdisplay-the-british-empire-exhibition-of-1924-5/ Kaduna textiles mill https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Artists-depiction-of-themill-to-be-constructed-at-Kaduna-1955-Courtesy-of-the-David_ fig8_276987570 Naraguta leather village https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/02/tayo-aina-promoting-africaseries/ Ogoni protests against shell https://i2.wp.com/www.todaysecho.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ shell-protest.jpg?ssl=1
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Oil from a leaking pipeline burns in Goi-Bodo, a swamp area of the Niger delta, in 2004. Photograph: Reuters https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/feb/12/ ogoni-widows-testify-the-hague-shell-alleged-complicity-killings The African Continental Free Trade Agreement https://www.yumpu. com/en/document/view/63547736/the-african-continental-free-tradeagreement
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