Jan 2007: ACCN, the Canadian Chemical News by Chemical Institute of Canada

l’actualité chimique canadienne canadian chemical news ACCN

JANUARY | JANVIER • 2007 • Vol. 59, No./no 1

Chemicals in our

Bloo Bl ood d

ACCN

A publication of the CIC | Une publication de l’ICC

JANUARY | JANVIER • 2007 • Vol. 59, No./no 1

Ta bl e o f C o n t e n t s | Ta bl e d e s m a t i è r e s

Ar ticles

Guest Column Chroniqueur invité . . . . . . 2 In Terms of Toxicity Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

Living in a Chemical World

“Yikes—There Are Chemicals In Our Blood!”

Artificial Blood—Patenting an Interdisciplinary Technology

Poisons in Our Midst

News Nouvelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Patent Quest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Daphne C. Lainson, MCIC

Chemfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

Recognition Reconnaissance. . . . . . . . . 22

Events Événements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Employment Wanted Demandes d’emploi . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Has the CEPA been ineffective in protecting children from toxic contamination? Sarah Winterton

Just finding chemicals in the blood, albeit in trace amounts, has triggered some emotionally charged reactions. Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

Elizabeth Hayes

The CIC’s Environment Division broadens chemists’ awareness of the effects of pesticides in the environment. William R. Cullen, FCIC

GUEST COLUMN CHRONIQUEUR INVITÉ

Editor-in-Chief/Rédactrice en chef Michelle Piquette Managing Editor/Directrice de la rédaction Heather Dana Munroe Graphic Designer/Infographiste Krista Leroux

In Terms of Toxicity How much is too much?

CBs, PFOAs, and PBDEs don’t belong in our blood. But they are there. They can no longer hide from the analytical chemists’ powerful tools. Of course, the pertinent question is what does their presence mean? Amounts are key to the discussion, and we constantly hear the anthem of toxicology, namely that only the dose makes the poison. This is clearly the case for acute toxicity, but the issue becomes murky when we deal with chronic toxicity, which may manifest itself in subtle effects. Consider, for example, the fascinating case of the children in the Faroe Islands off the coast of Scotland. Whaling is a big industry there. The traditional diet includes lots of whale blubber and, consequently, a fair amount of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs were widely used in electrical equipment, in dye and plastic manufacture, and in numerous other industrial processes until production was phased out in 1977 due to their acute toxicity and environmental persistence. These compounds are fat soluble and most people still have some in their blood. Particularly if they eat a lot of whale blubber, a classic deposit for PCBs. There has been a long-standing concern that PCBs may interfere with the immune systems of humans and animals who have significant exposure, but the study in the Faroe Islands now suggests that even low levels in the blood may have an impact. Children are known to have different responses to vaccines such as tetanus and diphtheria. Some produce large amounts of antibodies that protect them against disease. Others do not. This is a matter of mystery. But the Faroe study may shed some light on the situation. Children whose mothers had higher

2 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

Editorial Board/Conseil de rédaction Joe Schwarcz, MCIC, chair/président Cathleen Crudden, MCIC John Margeson, MCIC Milena Sejnoha, MCIC Steve Thornton, MCIC Bernard West, MCIC

Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

blood levels of PCBs when pregnant, and who had higher levels themselves, had a reduced antibody response to vaccinations. What does this mean? That the finding of PCBs in the blood of children, even at very low levels, may have some health implications. Furthermore, other chemicals in the blood may have a similar effect. Perhaps exposure to various substances in the environment may explain why immunizations affect children differently. And perhaps mercury from fish in the blood of pregnant women increases the risk of premature birth. And perhaps glycol ethers in the blood of workers in the electronics industry can trigger cancer. The key word here is “perhaps.” Because for virtually every study that shows potential harm, we can find one that argues against any risk from trace amounts. Basically, we are left to make educated guesses until more data become available. And guesses may be educated, but they are still guesses. That’s why there may be a divergence of opinion. Two perspectives are offered in this issue of ACCN. You’ll find that while Environmental Defence’s Sarah Winterton and I have different views on the relevance of finding trace amounts of chemicals in the blood, we both urge more widespread biomonitoring to help demystify the situation. Such issues are not white or black, which makes the subject very appropriate for this first “all colour” production of ACCN. I hope you enjoy both the colourful graphics and the colourful arguments.

Editorial Office/Bureau de la rédaction 130, rue Slater Street, Suite/bureau 550 Ottawa, ON K1P 6E2 613-232-6252 • Fax/Téléc. 613-232-5862 editorial@accn.ca • www.accn.ca Advertising/Publicité advertising@accn.ca Subscription Rates/Tarifs d’abonnement Non CIC members/Non-membres de l’ICC : in/au Canada CAN$55; outside/à l’extérieur du Canada US$50. Single copy/Un exemplaire CAN$8 or US$7. L’Actualité chimique canadienne/Canadian Chemical News (ACCN) is published 10 times a year by The Chemical Institute of Canada / est publié 10 fois par année par l’Institut de chimie du Canada. www.cheminst.ca. Recommended by The Chemical Institute of Canada, the Canadian Society for Chemistry, the Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering, and the Canadian Society for Chemical Technology. Views expressed do not necessarily represent the official position of the Institute, or of the societies that recommend the magazine. Recommandé par l’Institut de chimie du Canada, la Société canadienne de chimie, la Société canadienne de génie chimique et la Société canadienne de technologie chimique. Les opinions exprimées ne reflètent pas nécessairement la position officielle de l’Institut ou des sociétés constituantes qui soutiennent la revue. Change of Address/Changement d’adresse circulation@cheminst.ca Printed in Canada by Gilmore Printing Services Inc. and postage paid in Ottawa, ON./ Imprimé au Canada par Gilmore Printing Services Inc. et port payé à Ottawa, ON. Publications Mail Agreement Number/ No de convention de la Poste-publications : 40021620. (USPS# 0007-718) Indexed in the Canadian Business Index and available on-line in the Canadian Business and Current Affairs database. / Répertorié dans la Canadian Business Index et accessible en ligne dans la banque de données Canadian Business and Current Affairs. ISSN 0823-5228

Joe Schwarcz, MCIC, is chair of the ACCN editorial board and director of McGill University’s Office for Science and Society.

www.accn.ca

NEWS NOUVELLES

Dennis Watt, site manager for BASF Canada’s Windsor facility, displays the IAPA Level I Health and Safety Achievement Award.

BASF Wins IAPA Health and Safety Award The Industrial Accident Prevention Association (IAPA) presented BASF Canada with a Level I Achievement Award for outstanding workplace health and safety performance, in a presentation at the company’s paint production facility in Windsor, ON. BASF is the world’s leading chemical company. Its portfolio ranges from chemicals, plastics, performance products, agricultural products, and fine chemicals to crude oil and natural gas. BASF Canada is a firsttime recipient of an IAPA Health and Safety Achievement Award. For more than five years, BASF Canada has posted annual lost-time injury (LTI) frequencies well below the average of its Workplace Safety and Insurance Board rate group, and for 2005, posted an LTI frequency 78 percent less than that of the rate group average. In addition, comprehensive mentoring, crosstraining, and orientation efforts provide not only wide experience for their employees, but also greater understanding of the health and safety aspects of their workplace. “I applaud BASF Canada’s commitment to developing and maintaining a safe and healthy workplace. The extensive training and orientation programs that have been developed, as well as the implementation

and enforcement of safe work policies and procedures are proof that the employees of this facility are valued and protected,” says Jim Armstrong, director of consulting services, IAPA. “There is no question that this firm is a leader not only in their industry, but also in managing their health and safety system to the highest degree. The IAPA looks forward to having BASF Canada apply for the next level in the IAPA Achievement Awards program and have their efforts further recognized.” “At BASF, we believe that building a safety mindset among all employees will result in a safer workplace and a safer community. Our EHS performance has traditionally been strong; however, our goal is to be the leader in EHS performance and in the processes and procedures that support it. We must foster a zero-incident mindset,” says Mark Thibault, EHS coordinator, Michigan/Canada Hub, BASF Canada. In achieving the Level I Award, BASF Canada’s Windsor facility successfully demonstrated that their prevention methods, legislative compliance, management practices, and lost-time injury frequency met the IAPA’s specific requirements for this award. This includes how hazards are assessed and controlled, as well as a demonstrated commitment to, and knowledge of, health and safety. BASF Canada also met the requirements set out in a self-assessment report and

passed an on-site verification conducted by the IAPA. The IAPA’s three-level Health and Safety Awards program, available to the association’s more than 50,000 member companies, marks significant milestones in an organization’s dedication to health and safety in the workplace. The program provides the tools for companies to take a proactive approach to achieving health and safety excellence, while ensuring their health and safety initiatives address industry standards and the needs of employees. The program also provides guidelines for incorporating effective health and safety processes into an organization’s plan, management practices, and injury prevention programs. The Level I Award recognizes workplaces for ensuring that their health and safety programs meet basic legislative requirements and management practices, and that their lost time injury frequency falls below the average for companies in a similar grouping, for a 12-month period. The next two levels build on the first. Thirty-one companies have received the IAPA’s Level I Award since the launch of the progressive awards program in 2002. BASF

Green Chemical Alternatives Purchasing Wizard The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has launched a Green Chemical Alternatives Purchasing Wizard. The Wizard is a tool to reduce the generation of hazardous wastes and potential workplace exposures in research and academic laboratories. The Wizard allows the user to search from a select list of solvents commonly used in the laboratory, and the associated process. The Wizard identifies less hazardous and more environmentally benign chemicals or processes that may be substituted, and provides journal references as well as URLs to information that is available on-line. Visit http://web.mit.edu/ environment/academic/purchasing.html for further information. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 3

NEWS NOUVELLES

Educating people how to use and understand the information on MSDSs is an important step in keeping workers safe and healthy at work.

CCOHS E-Course A new e-course, “WHMIS: Understanding MSDSs,” from the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) provides guidance on how to understand and use material safety data sheets (MSDSs). Anyone working with paints, cleaning solutions, or any other potentially harmful substances should understand the hazards as well as how to work safely with the material, and what to do in case of an emergency. Under Canada’s Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), employers are legally required to provide chemical safety information to all workers through MSDSs and labels on chemical products, as well as provide appropriate training. An MSDS contains information about the hazards of the product, and on how to safely handle the product. It is an important part of a workplace chemical safety program. “WHMIS: Understanding MSDSs” teaches workers, supervisors, health and safety

4 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

committees, and anyone who uses MSDSs about the 16 different sections of an MSDS. These sections cover product identification, hazard identification and control, emergency preparedness and response, and more. Participants will gain an understanding of the purpose of WHMIS labels and MSDSs as well as the significance of the information in the different sections of an MSDS. The course explains how to identify hazards and precautions from a product label and MSDS. A glossary of chemical terminology and information on where to get additional information is also included. This intermediate level course from CCOHS helps meet the requirements of provincial and federal regulations in Canada for MSDS training. Courses from CCOHS are reviewed by expert representatives from labour, employers, and government to ensure the content and approach are unbiased and credible. Participants can contact CCOHS subject specialists to ask specific questions. There are quizzes throughout and a certificate of completion is issued upon

passing the exam. Pricing and registration details are available on the CCOHS Web site at www.ccohs.ca/products/courses/ understand_msds/. CCOHS

Hot Off the Press The Subsidy Directory 2006 is now available. Newly revised, it is the most complete and affordable reference for anyone looking for financing. It is the perfect tool for new and existing businesses, individuals, foundations, and associations. The publication contains more than 3,000 direct and indirect financial subsidies, grants, and loans offered by government departments and agencies, foundations, associations, and organizations. In this edition, all programs are well described. It is available in print and CD-ROM formats. To obtain a copy, call 1-866-322-3376. Grants Canada

NEWS NOUVELLES

Bell Invests $1 Million in Engineering Entrepreneurship Bell Canada announced a $1 million investment in McMaster University’s Master of Engineering Entrepreneurship and Innovation (MEEI) program over the next five years. The new partnership will focus on systems and technology development initiatives. MEEI students will work collaboratively with Bell employees to research and evaluate business breakthroughs. “This partnership will provide a competitive advantage to Bell Canada by offering insights and perspectives on Information, Communications, and Technology (ICT) developments,” said Eugene Roman, group president, Bell Canada Systems and Technology. “This will allow Bell Canada to access a creative and innovative talent pool that will provide analysis and critical thinking on projects, applications, and technologies.” The MEEI program was established to provide engineers and scientists with the skills necessary to transform technical expertise into commercial success. The program utilizes industry proven business start-up methodology and is taught by business practitioners. McMaster University

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Canada Stakeholders from academia, government, and industry have joined forces to form Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Canada (SOFC Canada). SOFC Canada is a new organization and voluntary collaboration that intends to integrate all major Canadian solid oxide fuel cell and other high temperature fuel cell-related research, development, and demonstration initiatives. SOFC Canada aims to foster the coordination and sustainable funding of R&D and commercialization of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems for the world market. SOFC systems offer the opportunity to meet energy needs by producing electricity cleanly and quietly. They are an alternative to large, point-source power stations. The fuel of choice would include an array of Canada’s less expensive and readily available carbon-based fuels such as natural gas. There is global support for fuel cells, with the U.S. investing $68 million (2006), Europe’s research program for hydrogen and fuel cells over the period 2002–2006 valued at 250 million EUR, and Japan’s program valued at over US$300 million. SOFC Canada brings together key fuel cell stakeholders from across Canada including industry organizations, government laboratories, universities, solid oxide fuel cell companies, related technology companies, fuel suppliers and transporters, and end-user organizations to develop the full platform required to make solid oxide fuel cells a commercial success. SOFC Canada has developed technical targets with the intention of focusing the activity of participants to meet commercialization objectives on an accelerated timeframe. To deliver these objectives, SOFC Canada held its first annual conference in Sherbrooke, QC, on October 15, 2006, in conjunction with the CSChE conference. For more information, e-mail sofc@ucalgary.ca. University of Calgary

Quest

Patent

Lawyer and patent agent, Daphne C. Lainson, MCIC, answers your questions on patenting your discoveries. Send your questions to patentquest@accn.ca.

Q: I made a recent discovery and I want to pitch it to a group of potential investors. Before I do, is there anything I need to do to protect myself? A: Potential investors should be asked to sign a confidentiality agreement before your presentation. In many countries, a non-confidential disclosure of a discovery will prevent you from protecting it. Additional security is obtained by filing a patent application to your discovery in at least one country prior to your meeting. Most countries in the world establish entitlement to an invention by: (a) whether the person identified as an inventor was indeed an inventor; and (b) who was the first to file a patent application describing it. Also, most investors do not want to invest in a technology where there is no patent protection. A word of caution—once you file a first patent application, an international clock begins ticking. While patent rights are country specific, most countries are members of an international treaty that allows a party to file a patent application (“priority application”) in a member country, and then file applications in other member countries within one year, claiming as their effective filing date the filing date of the priority application. Entitlement is then established by the filing date of the priority application. If corresponding foreign applications are not filed within this one-year period, entitlement to the invention may be lost in non-priority application countries. Daphne Lainson, MCIC, is a lawyer and patent agent with the law firm Smart & Biggar in Ottawa, ON. Smart & Biggar is Canada’s largest firm practising exclusively in intellectual property and technology law. Disclaimer: The preceding is intended as informational only, and does not constitute professional advice.

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 5

CHEMFUSION Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

CATALYZE THIS!

hey’re not part of any finished product and they’re not used up in any chemical process. Yet, the chemical industry would be hard pressed to do without them. They can be simple inorganic compounds, complex organic molecules, a variety of metals, or common acids or bases. They’re used to produce the fuel that goes into our cars and to control the exhaust that comes out from them. The plastics, fertilizer, and pharmaceutical industries rely upon them. Food producers use them extensively. So do textile manufacturers. They can even eliminate pet odours and clean our laundry. Fuel cells could not function without them. So what are these amazing substances? We call them catalysts! They speed up chemical reactions without being consumed and can be potentially recovered unchanged for further use. People made use of the power of catalysts long before their mechanism of action was understood. They were certainly unaware that enjoyment of wine or cheese relied on catalytic action. But it does! Production of wine requires the conversion of sugar in grapes into alcohol, a reaction that would proceed extremely slowly were it not for the presence of special protein molecules produced by living yeast cells. These proteins are the enzymes, nature’s catalysts. Enzyme production of course is not

6 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

limited to yeasts. Chymosin, found in the lining of a calf’s stomach, when added to milk, made early cheese production possible. Other examples of unconscious catalysis are sprinkled throughout history. Paracelsus in the 16th century produced ether by adding a small amount of acid catalyst to boiling alcohol. But it was Michael Faraday in 1834 who placed catalysis on a firm scientific footing. In an experiment that has been reproduced by countless students, Faraday passed an electric current through water, decomposing it into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen. The mixture of hydrogen and oxygen was stable, but when he introduced a strip of metallic platinum, the gases recombined to form water! Faraday noted that the metal had undergone no change and surmised that somehow it facilitated the combination of the gases by attracting them to the surface and bringing them into proximity. He went on to show that if carbon monoxide was also added to the mix, the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen was prevented. Again, he correctly deduced that carbon monoxide competed with the other gases at the platinum surface and suppressed their interaction. Not only had Faraday demonstrated the ability of platinum to act as a catalyst, he laid the foundation for the production of modern fuel cells. These devices allow hydrogen and oxygen to react on a platinum surface—a reaction that involves the transfer of electrons from hydrogen to oxygen. This electron flow can be directed through an external circuit producing an electric current. Fuel cells are extensively used in space travel and have potential for automobiles as well. For now, we still rely on gasoline to power our cars. And that means we rely on catalysts. Naturally occurring petroleum is a mixture of hundreds of compounds but can be separated into three main fractions according to their boiling point ranges—namely naptha, kerosene, and heavy oil. Gasoline is made from the lowest boiling fraction, naptha. With the advent of the automobile, the demand for naptha began to greatly exceed that for the higher boiling fractions. Efforts were made to convert the higher boiling heavy oil molecules to smaller naptha molecules by heat in a process called thermal cracking. It worked, but the yields were not great. Then along came French engineer Jules Houdry who showed that heavy oils could be far more efficiently broken down into gasoline by heating in the presence of a silica-alumina catalyst. This

revolutionized the industry in the 1930s by doubling the amount of gasoline that could be produced. The gasoline produced had a higher octane rating and ran more efficiently in an engine. High-octane fuel produced by the Houdry process played an important role in the Allied victory in World War II. Catalysis is important not only in what goes into cars, but also in what comes out from them. Unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and various nitrogen oxides are all pollutants that emerge from the tail pipe and can be dramatically reduced by passing them through a catalytic converter. The device consists of a ceramic honeycomb structure (to maximize surface area) coated with platinum, rhodium, and/or palladium. On the surface of the catalyst, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are converted to carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen. The plastics industry also relies heavily on catalysts. A topical example is the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a polyester that is commonly used to produce synthetic fibres as well as containers for the food and beverage industries. Those plastic water bottles that everyone is running around with are made of PET. Producing it involves joining its small component molecules into long chains. Efficient reaction requires a catalyst, commonly antimony trioxide. The catalyst is recovered and reused, but inevitably traces remain in the finished plastic. This was not an issue until William Shotyk of the University of Heidelberg showed that in those ubiquitous PET water bottles some of the antimony oxide leached from the plastic into the water “Think Before You Drink” (May 2006 ACCN). And since antimony compounds can be toxic, the scare was on! But antimony toxicity has been well investigated and health authorities agree that concentrations in water below six parts per billion pose no risk. The maximum amount found in water was 0.6 ppb in samples stored in PET bottles for six months. Hardly seems like something to worry about. But it does seem that just a mention of “toxic substance” is enough to catalyze the spread of panic.

Popular science writer, Joe Schwarcz, MCIC, is the director of McGill University’s Office for Science and Society. He hosts the Dr. Joe Show every Sunday from 3:00 to 4:00 p.m. on Montréal’s radio station CJAD. The broadcast is available on the Web at www.CJAD.com.

Looking for the right job? www.chemjobs.ca

Living in a

Chemical World

Has the CEPA been ineffective in protecting children from toxic contamination?

oxic chemicals are polluting the bodies of Canadians young and old. How do we know? Environmental Defence has carried out two national studies that measured the blood and urine of volunteers of all ages for the presence of a broad spectrum of chemicals. Two studies confirm that no matter where people live, how old they are, or what they do for a living, they are contaminated with measurable levels of chemicals. Environmental Defence released Toxic Nation: a Report on Pollution in Canadians in November 2005 and Polluted Children, Toxic Nation: a Report on Pollution in Canadian Families in June 2006. Until these studies were completed, information on pollution in Canadians was limited. Similar studies conducted in the U.S. and Europe, however, have also revealed that people from all walks of life are contaminated by a mixture of toxic chemicals. In the first study, Toxic Nation, Environmental Defence tested 11 adults from British Columbia to Newfoundland. We tested blood and urine samples for the presence of 88 individual chemicals that fell into several categories—heavy metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), organochlorine pesticides, organophosphate insecticide metabolites, and volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In the second study, Polluted Children, Toxic Nation, Environmental Defence tested children, parents, and grandparents from five

8 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

Sarah Winterton

Canadian families for 68 individual chemicals in several categories— heavy metals, PBDEs, PCBs, perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs), organochlorine pesticides, organophosphate insecticide metabolites, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). At the outset, Environmental Defence identified some key objectives for these important studies: • Determine whether pollutants are present at measurable levels in Canadians, young and old; • Add to the growing body of knowledge about the type and concentration of chemicals found in the populations of industrialized countries; • Identify chemicals of concern that may affect the health of Canadians, particularly children; • Examine what differences there are between the body burdens of adults and their children; • Create awareness of strategies people can take to reduce their exposure to such chemicals. Looking at the key findings from both studies, it’s clear that we met those defining objectives. Chemicals were detected in the blood and urine of everyone who took part. According to recent scientific studies, many of the chemicals are cause for concern for adult and children’s health. Some chemicals were found at higher levels in children than in their parents.

Key findings included: • For the first study with 11 adult volunteers, laboratory tests detected 60 of the 88 chemicals, including 18 heavy metals, 5 PBDEs, 14 PCBs, 1 perfluorinated chemical, 10 organochlorine pesticides, 5 organophosphate insecticide metabolites, and 7 VOCs (Table 1); • On average, 44 chemicals were detected in each adult volunteer in the first study, including a total of 41 carcinogens, 27 hormone disruptors, 21 respiratory toxins and 53 reproductive/developmental toxins (see Table 2); • For the second study of 13 family members (6 adults and 7 children), laboratory tests detected 46 of the 68 chemicals, including 5 PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers), 13 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 5 PFCs (perfluorinated chemicals), 9 organochlorine pesticides, 4 organophosphate insecticide metabolites, 5 PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and 5 heavy metals (see Table 3); • On average, 32 chemicals were detected in each parent volunteer, and 23 chemicals were detected in each child volunteer in the second study; • There were several cases where the children were more contaminated than their parents by chemicals that are still in use. The median concentrations for 3 perfluorinated chemicals (PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS) were higher in children than in the adults. The children also had higher median concentrations of 2 PBDEs (47 and 153), and a higher median total concentration for the group of PBDEs. The children also had a higher median concentration of DMTP, an organophosphate insecticide metabolite, and they were more polluted by 2 PAHs (3-OH-chrysene and 3-OH-phenanthrene) than the adults.

Choice of chemicals The chemicals included in the analyses for both studies were selected based on several important considerations. Environmental Defence looked at which chemicals have been included in studies conducted by other organizations in the U.S. and Europe to ensure that our studies contribute to the international analysis of pollution in people. We also considered the potential health effects of the chemicals and chose those chemicals that

Table 1. Number of chemicals detected in the Toxic Nation adult study volunteers Chemical group

Total number of chemicals tested for

Total number of chemicals detected

Average number of chemicals detected in a volunteer

Heavy metals

PBDEs

PCBs

PFOS

Organochlorine pesticides

Organophosphate insecticide metabolites

VOCs

Total

Table 2. Number of chemicals detected in the Toxic Nation adult study volunteers that are linked to a listed health effect Chemicals’ effect on health

Number of chemicals detected in study volunteers that are linked to a listed health effect* Number Average Range

Carcinogen

18–36

Hormone disruptor

13–24

Respiratory toxin

12–18

Reproductive/ developmental toxin

28–46

* The average number of chemicals detected has been rounded to the nearest whole number. * Includes both suspected and recognized health effects as identified on Scorecard.org chemical profiles August 2005. could be the most harmful to human health, particularly to children’s development. Such chemicals include carcinogens, hormone disruptors, reproductive/developmental toxins, and respiratory toxins. A few of the most harmful, persistent, and bioaccumulative chemicals in the studies were selected for their potential to be phased out and added to the virtual elimination list under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA). For these chemicals, we considered which actions other jurisdictions have taken to impose regulations or bans. Once the above considerations were taken into account, the final set of chemicals was determined by technical feasibility and the cost of testing. For a complete list of the chemicals tested in the two studies, visit www.ToxicNation.ca. Analyzing blood and urine samples for the presence of toxic chemicals is complex. So Environmental Defence contracted two of the best labs in the country to complete the analysis—the Institut national de santé publique du Québec (INSPQ) in Sainte-Foy, QC, and AXYS Analytical Services (AAS) in Sidney, BC. The toxicology centre at INSPQ is a leader in the Canadian public health sector

and has over 30 years’ experience in clinical, industrial, and environmental toxicology. We selected INSPQ as the primary lab that conducted the analyses for heavy metals, PBDEs, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides, organophosphate insecticide metabolites, and PAHs. AAS is an internationally recognized environmental laboratory specializing in custom and routine trace organic analyses for a broad spectrum of organic compounds in a range of mediums including human tissues, blood, and milk. AAS conducted the analysis for the group of perfluorinated chemicals.

Chemical pollution and human health A large body of scientific research links exposure to toxic chemicals to many diseases and disorders that affect Canadians, including several forms of cancer, reproductive problems and birth defects, respiratory illnesses such as asthma, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Statistics on Canadian health trends show that the occurrence of some of these illnesses has been increasing in

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 9

recent decades. Detailed information on the documented rise of specific ailments is also provided on the Toxic Nation Web site. The findings of our Toxic Nation studies do not prove that chemical production and emissions are solely or directly responsible for declining health trends among Canadians. Scientific studies, however, clearly point to a connection between exposure to toxic chemicals and the occurrence of disease and illness in people. Children are more vulnerable than adults to negative health effects from environmental exposure due to their physiology and behaviour. Because children’s bodies and physiological systems undergo substantial growth and development from conception through adolescence, they are particularly sensitive to chemical interference.

What can government do? Environmental Defence’s two Toxic Nation studies coincide with the mandatory fiveyear review of Canada’s overarching law regulating toxic chemicals, the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA). The findings show that CEPA has been ineffective in protecting children and adults from toxic contamination. To protect people today and safeguard the health of future generations, the Canadian government must set a course to ensure that all citizens, no matter where they live, how old they are or what they do for a living, will not be exposed to toxic substances. Environmental Defence is recommending that CEPA be amended to: • establish timelines for the virtual elimination of specific toxic chemicals; • make industry accountable for its chemicals; • regulate toxic chemicals in consumer products; • reduce pollution in the Great Lakes basin. A comprehensive discussion of our recommendations for the federal government is posted on our Toxic Nation Web site. Visit the “What Government Can Do” section on-line at www.ToxicNation.ca.

What can Canadians do? Environmental Defence also urges Canadians to reduce their personal exposure to toxic chemicals wherever possible. Sources of toxic exposure are varied and numerous, and small changes in lifestyle and buying habits can

10 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

Table 3. Number of chemicals detected in the Polluted Children, Toxic Nation study volunteers Chemical group

Total number of chemicals tested for

Total number of chemicals detected In In adults children (n=6) (n=7)

In all volunteers (n=13)

Average number of chemicals detected In In adults children (n=6) (n=7)

In all volunteers (n=13)

PBDEs

PCBs

PFCs

OCPs

OPIMs

PAHs

Heavy metals

Total

Table 4. Number of chemicals detected in the Polluted Children, Toxic Nation study volunteers that are linked to a listed health effect Chemicals’ effect on health

Number of chemicals detected in study volunteers that are linked to a listed health effect* In all volunteers (n=13) In adults (n=6) In children (n=7) Total Average Range Total Average Range Total Average Range

Carcinogen

14–30

20–30

14–26

Hormone disruptor

10–21

14–21

10–19

Respiratory toxin

5–10

5–8

Reproductive/ developmental toxin

14–31

21–31

14–27

Neurotoxin

7–17

11–17

7–15

No data on health effects

0–2

* The average number of chemicals detected has been rounded to the nearest whole number. * Includes both suspected and recognized health effects as identified on Scorecard.org chemical profiles August 2005. make a difference in the level of pollutants each person carries. As part of our Toxic Nation studies, we are urging Canadians to visit the Toxic Nation Web site at www.ToxicNation.ca/pledge and commit to at least five actions that will reduce their exposure to harmful chemicals. In addition, there are specific actions that parents and childcare providers can take to better protect children from harmful chemicals: • Learn more about chemicals of concern; • Reduce the use of products that contain toxic chemicals; • Control dust in children’s indoor environments; • Get involved in achieving a toxic-free future. The detection of a wide variety of contaminants in the blood and urine of Canadians is cause for concern and action, particularly with respect to chemicals that are persistent and bioaccumulate. Our studies provide only a

glimpse of the chemical body burden that the general public may be carrying—limitations on our funding meant that hundreds of chemicals were not included in the testing protocol. The problem is actually far larger than we know. The findings of our studies combined with the data produced through similar studies in other jurisdictions leaves us with no option but to act quickly and decisively to curb the emissions of toxic chemicals from industry into our environment and to address the exposures that Canadians unwittingly receive through their use of common consumer products.

Sarah Winterton is the program director of Environmental Defence, a national charitable organization that focuses on protecting the environment and human health. For more information, visit www.environmentaldefence.ca.

YZ W

That’s one perspective on the Chemicals in Our Blood. Here’s another. X

What’s YOURS? Send your reactions to editorial@accn.ca.

“Yikes

—There Are

Chemicals In Our Blood!” Joe Schwarcz, MCIC

Just finding chemicals in the blood, albeit in trace amounts, has triggered some emotionally charged reactions.

alicylic acid is a chemical! Perhaps a surprising statement to some. Why? Because the word “chemical” isn’t preceded by a pejorative adjective such as “dangerous,” “poisonous,” or “toxic.” That’s unusual these days. We’re more accustomed to seeing reports, such as the recent ones generated by a nongovernment organization, Environmental Defence, which highlight the “toxic chemicals” that enter our bodies from our polluted environment. Actually, without appropriate context, “toxic chemical” is a meaningless term. Take salicylic acid as an example. It occurs naturally in a variety of fruits and plants, and is also formed in our body when aspirin is metabolized. Indeed, it is responsible for the physiological effects of aspirin, which include reducing the risk of blood clot formation. That’s why aspirin is used to treat a heart attack, and is commonly taken in small doses to prevent one. But in an overdose, salicylic acid can kill. Before childproof packaging was introduced, aspirin poisoning was a common cause of death in children. So how do we react if a test detects salicylic acid in our blood? Panic because of the presence of a “toxic chemical,” or relief because of possible protection against heart disease? Of course, without having some sort of reference value, there can be no appropriate reaction. To decide whether to laugh or cry, we would want to know

12 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

what blood levels of salicylic acid have been linked to risk, and what levels to protection from disease. The mere presence of the chemical says nothing. As Paracelsus insightfully and wisely noted some five hundred years ago, “only the dose makes the poison.” Similar arguments apply to the numerous other chemicals, both artificial and natural, that find their way into our body from the environment. Certainly, these include compounds found in paints, dyes, pesticides, cleaning agents, air fresheners, gasoline vapours, plasticizers, and flame retardants. But consider also that a single apple is composed of over three hundred compounds, the natural building blocks of the fruit. These include the likes of acetone and formaldehyde, both of which in the proper context can be labelled as “toxic chemicals,” but of course the amounts found in apples are way too tiny to present a risk. Yet a blood test would reveal their presence. Consuming celery, mushrooms, roast beef, or beer would taint the blood with furocoumarin, hydrazine, 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline, and ethyl carbamate—all known natural carcinogens. And there would be arsenic as well. This carcinogen occurs naturally in meat, fish, and cereals. But the fact is that our bodies do not distinguish between natural and synthetic carcinogens. What matters is whether a toxic dose has been reached. Numbers matter!

Let’s take flame retardants as an example. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been protecting fabrics, furniture, computers, and various other consumer items from fire since the 1970s. Estimates are that these chemicals save about 300 lives a year. But the question is how many people, if any, are put at risk by their ubiquitous presence? Toxicological studies have shown that these chemicals can impair reflexes and learning abilities in rodents, and can also delay puberty in the animals by interfering with thyroid function. PBDE levels in the environment have been rising and virtually all of us have some of these chemicals in our body. Indeed, as Environmental Defence has shown, there may be as much as 0.5 micrograms/L in an individual’s blood plasma. What does this mean? For one, it means that chemists have developed amazing abilities to determine tiny concentrations. We are talking about finding the proverbial needle in the haystack. It also means that the five litres of blood in our body harbour 2.5 micrograms of flame retardant. That is roughly 1/1,000th the mass of a grain of sand! Pretty impressive technology. What does it say about any health risk? Without any further information—not much. We certainly would be concerned if data showed that patients with some sort of disease were more likely to have higher blood levels of PBDEs than the rest of the population, and we would then want to know at what blood levels risk becomes significant. But we do not have any such data for humans. We can, however, make an educated guess based on rodent experiments. A common way to measure toxicity is to determine the dose below which no adverse effects are seen. For behavioural effects in mice or rats, this is of the order of one mg PBDE per kg of body weight. That’s far more PBDE than is found in humans! These concepts should be kept in mind when we face headlines such as “Canadians’ Blood Holds Chemical Cocktail,” or “At Age Ten, He Tests Positive for 25 Toxic Chemicals,” prompted by the Environmental Defence investigations. In one case, laboratories tested for 88 “toxic chemicals” in blood taken from 11 Canadians, and in a subsequent study, 68 substances were assayed in the blood of five families from across the country. Environmental Defence’s reports of the results, sensationally titled, Toxic Nation

and Polluted Children, Toxic Nation provide a good discussion of the chemicals tested for, their possible sources, and amounts detected. Much was made of the fact that more than half the chemicals tested for were found to be present to some degree. But curiously, the reports do not mention any reference values—not even when the information is available. For example, the median value of mercury detected was well below 30 nmol/L (the level at which we should become concerned according to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the U.S.). There is also the question of using blood levels to estimate risk. In fact, tissue levels are a much better measure of body burden, but Environmental Defence did not measure these. In any case, based on its data, Environmental Defence forecasts a dismal future, clouded by rising cancer rates. But there is selectivity in the way the data is presented. Reference is made to increases in rates of prostate and breast cancer as well as non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma over the last couple of decades, but no mention is made of declines in stomach cancer, Hodgkin’s disease, or leukemia. Cancer is a complex, multifactorial disease and no unambiguous data link it to non-industrial exposure to synthetic chemicals. Researchers estimate that perhaps one percent of premature cancers can be linked to industrial products, with the majority of cases being caused by unbalanced diet (35 percent), tobacco (30 percent), infections (10 percent), sexual behaviour (7 percent), occupational exposure (5 percent), and alcohol (3 percent). Environmental Defence did not connect the presence of “toxic chemicals” in the blood of the volunteers it studied to any disease. Indeed, there is no mention of health problems in any of the subjects. But nevertheless, just the finding of these chemicals in the blood, albeit in trace amounts, has triggered some emotionally charged reactions. One woman whose blood showed the presence of some perfluorinated compounds threw out her single Teflon pan, believing it to be the culprit. Actually, the major chemical in question, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), is used in the manufacture of Teflon™, but is not found in the finished product. There is no doubt that PFOA is an environmentally persistent chemical, and concern about it is valid. That’s why manufacturers will phase it out and find other ways to produce the non-stick coating on cookware. But throwing out a Teflon pan just

means increasing the chance of eating burned food with its cargo of known carcinogens. None of this is meant to suggest that “biomonitoring,” such as carried out by Environmental Defence, or by the highly respected CDC, is not important. It is. Because it does provide information that may eventually be useful. That’s why every two years, the CDC selects a couple of thousand people at random and carries out a comprehensive urine and blood analysis for some 150 different compounds that may enter the body from the environment. The hope is that we may be able to get a handle on why conditions such as autism, asthma, prostate cancer, and low sperm count are increasing. Could phthalates leaching from plastics be

The mere presence of the chemical says nothing. involved? And if so, which phthalate specifically? Although di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and diisononyl phthalate may sound very similar, their toxicological properties are very different. You can’t paint all phthalates with the same broad brush. We also want to keep a close eye on bisphenol A (BPA), a compound that is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics, found in a wide array of products ranging from compact disks to those large water jugs that sit atop coolers. In animal studies, very small doses of BPA have been shown to have estrogenic effects and have caused genetic changes in rat fetuses that can affect the prostate gland. BPA is found in most humans, but no study yet has found an association between blood levels and prostate cancer. And how do BPAs estrogenic effects compare with that of the naturally occurring estrogens dumped into our water systems through human urine? Nobody knows. It should also be remembered that nature produces estrogens that end up in our bloodstream. Lavender and tea tree oil are two examples that have recently come to light. An astute pediatric endocrinologist in Denver, CO, noted that a number of young boys he treated for unusual breast growth had been using shampoos, hair gels, or other topical products that contained lavender or tea tree oil. As soon as they were taken off such

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 13

products, their problem vanished. Laboratory investigation then showed that these oils had both estrogenic and anti-androgenic properties. Obviously, there are all sorts of substances other than synthetic chemicals that can have physiological effects and that may be worthy of biomonitoring. Environmental Defence, however, singles out synthetic substances and urges that manufacturers follow the “precautionary principle.” Make companies prove their products are safe before releasing them to the marketplace. An appealing notion indeed, but scientifically unrealistic. Science cannot prove a negative. It cannot prove that adverse effects are not possible any more than it can prove that unicorns do not exist. All scientists can do is make educated guesses about risk/benefit ratios. Biomonitoring may indeed eventually identify some specific chemical culprits, which when present in our blood in excess of some critical amount, do impair our health. A case in point is 1,4-dichlorobenzene, a

14 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

compound used in many air freshners, toilet bowl deodorizers, and moth repellants. Over 95 percent of the North American population has detectable levels of 1,4-DCB in their blood, and in this case, studies have shown a relationship between amount present and impaired lung function even when other factors such as smoking were taken into account. Similarly, we may find that some specific pesticide, but not all, can cause a problem. Or that we may be better off using one type of plastic over another. Or that our concern should focus on the presence in our blood of ochratoxin, zearalenone, or fumonisin—all of which are established carcinogens. These are not synthetic chemicals. They are mould metabolites that contaminate grains and undoubtedly would be found in our blood to some extent if we bothered to look for them. But for now, let’s not let the mere

presence of chemicals in our blood distract us from the known keys to improving health. Exercise, limiting alcohol intake, eliminating smoking, eating more fruits and vegetables, and perhaps most importantly, cutting back on excess calories, have all been scientifically shown to increase longevity. Let’s also remember that excessive worry, such as about the finding of trace amounts of “toxic chemicals” in our blood, can have a negative impact on health. And finally, we can take some comfort in the fact that despite the dire picture sometimes painted of our society with “toxic chemicals,” our average life expectancy increases every year.

Joe Schwarcz, MCIC, has authored six books and is well known for his entertaining and informative public lectures live and on television in Canada and the U.S. His audiences delight in topics such as “The Chemistry of Love” and “Health, Humour and Magic.”

ARTIFICIAL BLOOD—

PATENTING AN INTERDISCIPLINARY TECHNOLOGY Elizabeth Hayes

16 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

atents are for good business. For many companies exploring commercial and industrial applications of scientific knowledge, patents help promote scientific endeavours and encourage inventors to come forward with their discoveries. While often predicated upon competitive research and innovation, patents secured for a particular technology give the patentee a virtual monopoly position in the marketplace. Patents exclude others from making, using, or selling the claimed invention for a limited period of time. As such, patents can provide an established or emerging company with the potential to recover costs and expenses steadily consumed by research and development through the generation of sales revenue and licensing royalties. For example, Amgen’s anemia drug, Epogen®, is a recombinant human protein that stimulates red blood cell production. Epogen is one of biotech’s biggest success stories in the U.S., which has accounted for nearly $2.6 billion in sales alone in 2004. A patent can also be a formidable weapon in the marketplace when the patentee finds it necessary to act on the offensive to prevent infringers from attempting to encroach on their patented domain. Consider the Polaroid Corp. v. Eastman Kodak Co. decision (16 USPQ2d 1481 (D.C. Mass. 1990)) in which Polaroid was awarded over $873 million in patent infringement damages. Clearly, possession of a patent can have an enormous impact on the success of a company struggling to overcome the manufacturing, regulatory, and financial hurdles of bringing a product to market. Accordingly, it’s not surprising to find the demand for patent protection of inventions increase as innovative technology evolves and moves from the laboratory into commercial and industrial applications. Since the biotechnology revolution, emerging technologies are becoming more highly interdisciplinary and embody a wide spectrum of disciplines and applications in engineering and the natural sciences. While this diversity may foster creative new approaches to the technical challenges and solutions peculiar to a research focus, it also creates some difficulties in patent examination, classification, and analysis. The disparity results from the “fit” of an

interdisciplinary technology within a patent system founded and legislated on traditional technologies (e.g. chemistry, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering) long before interdisciplinary practices began.

Pioneering artificial blood Thomas Ming Swi Chang is director of the Artificial Cells & Organs Research Centre (ACORC) and professor of physiology, medicine, and biomedical engineering at McGill University. While attending McGill University in 1956 as an undergraduate student, Chang had a vision to design the first artificial blood cell. He used only a cheap perfume atomiser, some collodion, and hemoglobin borrowed from a lab. Although his research project was considered by his peers to be far-fetched and fanciful, his work eventually gained

… the interdisciplinary nature of an innovative technology creates problems for a patent office in securing a patent international recognition and spawned a multibillion dollar industry in artificial cells and organs research. Progress in this field was accelerated by the realization that infection was transmissible through blood with such notable examples as the HIV epidemic in the 1980s and the tainted blood tragedy of the 1990s. Needless to say, many biomedical researchers have since embraced Chang’s artificial cellular-based approach to carry hemoglobin through the body, and companies are presently conducting clinical trials with blood substitutes.

The need for artificial blood The concept of developing artificial blood as an acceptable oxygen-carrying alternative has been desirable due to problems associated with blood transfusions, a vital life-saving procedure. Some of these problems include the transmission of viral disease (HIV and hepatitis), fatal hemolytic transfusion reactions, time-consuming blood-type

cross-matching, limited preservation time of donor blood (i.e., 42 days), lack of donors, and others. In addition, possible clinical and therapeutic applications for a viable blood substitute include, for example, massive hemorrhage and hemorrhagic shock caused by accidents and wars. Non-clinical applications proposed for oxygen-carrying solutions include tumour therapy and the preservation of organs for transplants.

What is artificial blood? The two primary functions of human blood are to transport oxygen to tissues and organs and to remove carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin, the protein found within red blood cells, is composed of four heme-containing subunits that bind and release oxygen as blood circulates through the body. Ideally, artificial blood should: • be capable of transporting and releasing oxygen under normal physiological conditions; • lack red blood cell membranes and surface antigens to avoid blood-type cross-matching; • be free of disease either through sterilization methods or through animal-free production methods such as recombinant protein production in E. coli or yeast; • be capable of being stored indefinitely at room temperature so that it can be stockpiled for war and disasters. Three current approaches in the research and development of artificial blood are modified hemoglobin, perfluorinated compounds, and transgenic hemoglobin. 1. Modified hemoglobin Pure hemoglobin cannot be used as artificial blood because it dissociates into a toxic dimer that is quickly filtered out by the kidneys. This can be prevented either through encapsulating or crosslinking the hemoglobin molecule. Encapsulated hemoglobin is an artificial red blood cell composed of a synthetic membrane containing hemoglobin. Since the membrane doesn’t contain blood group antigens, there are no rejection or aggregation problems when introduced into the circulation. Chang first explored the concept of creating artificial red blood cells by encapsulating hemoglobin with membranes formed from synthetic polymers

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 17

(e.g. pyroxylin, cellulose nitrate, polystyrene, nylon, silicone rubber, and polyamide). Membranes have also been prepared using lipids, combinations of lipids with proteins, and cholesterol. Cross-linked hemoglobin can be achieved chemically or genetically. Chemically cross-linked hemoglobin involves the use of cross-linking agents, such as diacids and dialdehydes that bind amine groups on the exterior of the hemoglobin molecule to form polyhemoglobin. Alternatively, hemoglobin may be genetically engineered to produce a functional, membrane-free hemoglobin tetramer that will not dissociate into toxic dimers. 2. Perfluorinated compounds Emulsions of perfluorinated compounds called perfluorochemicals, are synthetic compounds made from carbon. Perfluorocarbons are organic compounds that have hydrogen atoms replaced with fluorine (CF2)n and can dissolve 50 percent or more of their own volume of oxygen. In the mid-1960s, Clark and Gollan (Science, 1966, 152:1755–1756) demonstrated the ability of mice to breathe while immersed in liquid fluorocarbon. Perfluorocarbons can: • transport oxygen and other respiratory gases; • be produced on an industrial scale; • be stored indefinitely; • be easily sterilized to prevent disease transmission. Furthermore, perfluorocarbons are useful as artificial blood for patients whose cultural/religious beliefs do not allow the use of animal blood products. 3. Transgenic hemoglobin The production of human hemoglobin has been accomplished through recombinant technology using microorganisms (e.g. E. coli or yeast), transgenic plants (e.g. tobacco) or animals. For example, recombinant human hemoglobin has been produced in E. coli and S. cerevisiae using an expression vector containing two mutant human hemoglobin genes. Human hemoglobin has also been produced in transgenic mice and pigs using human hemoglobin gene constructs that are injected into fertilized eggs and the embryo developed in a surrogate mother. Another new development has been the extraction of hemoblogin from the

18 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

earthworm and the common marine worm for testing as possible blood substitutes.

Patent system and interdisciplinary technologies Innovative approaches to developing a potential blood substitute involves expertise in any combination of biotechnology, physiology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemical engineering, enzyme engineering, biomedical engineering, genetic engineering, clinical medicine, chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Ironically, however, the interdisciplinary nature of an innovative technology creates problems for a patent office in securing a patent. Not only does a combination of disciplines require a patent office to decide on the best way to classify and examine these patent applications, but it also requires finding examiners capable of understanding such inventions. As such, patent examiners may not have experience in a particular interdisciplinary technology, which requires a person to step outside of the confines of a single scientific discipline.

Novelty One of the basic legal requirements for obtaining a patent is that the invention must be novel over the prior art. As such, the quality of searching by the patent office is extremely important in assessing the novelty of an invention. However, identifying relevant prior art in an interdisciplinary technology can be difficult for an examiner because the technology is new and bridges a range of scientific disciplines and fields of applications. As such, a single examiner or technology group may be insufficient to determine the novelty of the invention.

Non-obviousness A patentable invention must also be nonobvious to “a person of ordinary skill in the art” and therefore, this determination is also heavily reliant on the quality of the prior art search performed by an examiner. In one aspect, an invention may be obvious if the prior art references include a “teaching or motivation” that they be combined, and convey a reasonable expectation of success that the invention would result from the combination. An examiner would therefore require thorough knowledge of the interdisciplinary

technology in order to understand what “a person of ordinary skill in the art” would know in order to combine knowledge or prior art references. Thus, the interdisciplinary nature of an invention not only makes it difficult to determine the scope of the prior art search, but also how to define the level of “ordinary skill” in the field. By way of example, a patent application for artificial blood can encompass polymer chemistry, physiology, and enzyme engineering. If the patent application is assigned to a chemical patent examiner, the examiner may not necessarily do a search in the other disciplines.

Written description/ enablement requirement The quid pro quo of the legal monopoly granted by a patent is the patentee’s disclosure of the invention in the patent document, which must describe the invention and teach those skilled in the art how to make and use the full scope of the claimed invention without undue experimentation. This legal determination relies on the level of predictability in the art, which is the ability of one skilled in the art to extrapolate the disclosed results to the claimed invention. The type of technology plays a key role in determining the “predictability” of the relevant art. The more developed and “predictable” a technology, the less information that needs to be described in the application to make and use the invention. In the mechanical arts, for example, a patentee can rely on the knowledge of one skilled in the art to fill in any gaps missing from an application to satisfy this legal requirement. In contrast, biotechnology or nanotechnology (both interdisciplinary technologies) are likely to be considered “unpredictable” arts. On this basis, broad claims supported by a few examples in the specification will likely be refused at the patent office. Therefore, the degree of disclosure needed to satisfy this legal requirement may be difficult to determine when drafting an application directed to an interdisciplinary technology, since the level of predictability will depend on the fields bridged by the invention.

Conclusion Despite his pioneering research in artificial blood, Chang never profited financially

from his discovery. His work was considered to be too avant garde and so initially, he published his research without applying for patents. Although he has since secured several patents in blood substitutes and artificial cells, separate challenges confront inventors of emerging technologies in interdisciplinary research. Generally, interdisciplinary technologies raise unique legal issues for patent systems and practitioners alike. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, for example, is considering introducing an “opposition” system similar to those in Europe and Japan. Since an examiner may not be aware of potentially relevant prior art from other technical areas, a post-grant opposition procedure would allow interested third parties to oppose a patent following its issuance by bringing prior art to the attention of the patent office. Such prior art may have been overlooked by an examiner and could be relevant to determining the validity of the patent. Meanwhile, inventors need to work closely with their patent practitioner and be aware of new developments and rule changes in a patent system to ensure that their inventions are properly protected.

Readers reach for ACCN for news on who’s who and what’s what in the Canadian chemical community

Elizabeth Hayes is an associate with the intellectual property law firm of Smart & Biggar/Fethertonhaugh and is a qualified U.S. and Canadian patent agent. Hayes obtained her MEng in biomedical engineering at McGill University, where she acquired a knowledge base in blood physiology, colloid/polymer chemistry, and immobilization technology due to the interdisciplinary nature of her research work.

w w w. a c c n . c a

Coming up in 2007 Green Chemistry, Public Understanding of Chemistry, Antioxidants, Natural Materials, Summer Chemistry, Chemical Terror, Industrial Bioprocessing, Safety at Work and Play, Nanotechnology

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 19

William R. Cullen, FCIC

POISONS IN OUR MIDST The CIC’s Environment Division broadens chemists’ awareness of the effects of pesticides in the environment.

he executive of the Environment Division of the CIC has resolved to take a more active role in the annual CSC and CSChE conferences and hopes to encourage discussions that deal with issues of public concern and interest. To that end, the Division sponsored a special symposium at the 89th Canadian Chemistry Conference and Exhibition held in Halifax, NS. The focus of this session was Agent Orange, but talks also dealt with pesticides in general, and pesticide management. Invited speakers from Health Canada, Dow Chemical, the University of Guelph, the University of Texas, Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), and Florida International University were in attendance. Agent Orange is a source of dioxins and several of these speakers presented findings on dioxin contamination, particularly as it relates to human health. It soon became apparent that despite the attention given this topic, much work remains to be done to establish conclusive links between dioxin exposure and various illnesses. While several presenters noted that there seem to be causal links between certain diseases prevalent in the general

20 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

population and dioxin exposure, only one disease—chloracne—can be directly attributed to dioxin, and it occurs rarely. Dow Chemical’s Jim Collins presented findings of a study that spanned more than 50 years and involved more than 2,000 Dow chlorophenol workers. This study was the largest industrial study of dioxin workers at one location. It was found that even among highly exposed workers, cancer rates were consistent with rates throughout the U.S. This study’s findings supported those of other presenters, including Arnold Schecter of the University of Texas, that it was difficult to make specific links between dioxin exposure and illness. Schecter has conducted extensive work in Vietnam and described how approximately 15 percent of South Vietnam, which covers an area roughly the size of Ontario, was sprayed with defoliants including Agent Orange and Agent Purple—both of which were contaminated with dioxin. Although preliminary studies conducted in the 1970s revealed high levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in breast milk among Vietnamese women, Schecter’s work examining soil dioxin levels decades after the Vietnam war suggested that by 1984, most 2,3,7,8-TCDD levels were below detection.

Jake Ryan of Health Canada stressed that bioaccumulation of dioxin up the food chain could pose a threat to humans, since TCDD remains stored in adipose tissue. He added that, while the global body burden of dioxin had decreased in recent decades, a number of isolated incidents of dioxin poisonings have occurred worldwide—including that of Ukrainian president, Viktor Yushchenko. Ryan said that human exposure data are crucial to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, and that it does not appear feasible with existing scientific techniques to resolve the issue of the human exposure effect, particularly as it relates to the use of phenoxy herbicides in New Brunswick in the 1960s. Keith Solomon of the University of Guelph’s department of environmental biology, stressed that accurate estimation of exposure to toxic substances is critical to any meaningful risk assessment. Many times in epidemiological studies, proxy measures of exposure (based on factors such as job titles or years worked at a job) are used instead of actual measures. He added that this makes the interpretation of epidemiological data and assignment of causality very difficult. Yong Cai of Florida International University spoke about the use of arsenical pesticides and added that the same difficulty lies in trying to determine the extent of arsenic mobility and ecotoxicity in an open system. Cai indicated that there is a need to develop a consensus concerning methods to evaluate total arsenic and arsenic speciation within various environmental reservoirs to help understand and predict mobility. Gerry Stephenson, also of the University of Guelph’s department of environmental biology, revealed that public fears of dioxin contamination led the Canadian government to pull products containing 2,4,5-T from the market for a time during the late 1960s. Although it was reinstated a few years later, after having the dioxin-contaminant 2,3,7,8-T removed, it was removed from the market again after a survey was published that suggested a link in Alsea, OR, between dioxin exposure and miscarriages. The threat of a non-confidence motion in Ontario maintained the ban in that province for a time, and finally during the 1980s, manufacturers withdrew 2,4,5-T from the market. After chemists with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada reported that a number of 2,4-D products included

teratogenic 2,3,7,8-TCDD, the synthetic process for 2,4-D was altered and products are now manufactured to meet a standard of <0.1 ppb total dioxin. Today, there are numerous, more significant sources of dioxins, such as forest fires and municipal/residential incineration. As a result of advances within the chemical industry and improved government regulation, current estimates are that dioxins as contaminants in pesticides represent less than 0.001 percent of the dioxins released into the environment by human activities. Several presenters noted that while chemists can provide evidence suggesting links between dioxin contamination and human health effects, ultimately the decision to

… while chemists can provide evidence suggesting links between dioxin contamination and human health effects, ultimately the decision to allow the use of substances containing dioxin lies with policy makers allow the use of substances containing dioxin lies with policy makers. This theme was taken up by Jason Flint from Health Canada (PMRA) who gave a presentation on the regulation of pesticides in Canada. As a result of the public outcry that occurred when the first links between dioxin and health effects were made public in the 1970s, and that are continuing today with each new example of dioxin contamination, the U.S. Department of Defense has chosen to compensate people who claim they are suffering particular long-term ill effects (chronic lymphocytic leukemia, soft tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease and chloracne) from previous dioxin exposure.

Most recently in Canada, it was revealed that nine areas on Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick contained soil dioxin levels that were above average. Former base and civilian workers called for action when the findings of a study by Jacques Whitford Environmental Ltd. were released in June 2006 showing contamination in more areas than initially thought. In response, Dillon Consulting Ltd. and RBR Consulting were commissioned to prepare a present-day health risk assessment to address concerns that those who work, hunt, fish, or play at the base now could be at risk of adverse health effects from exposure to dioxins and other contaminants in the soil, sediment, surface water, groundwater, fish, game, and vegetation at the base. This human health risk assessment (HHRA) does not consider the potential human health risks associated with past exposure to herbicides, test chemicals, or contaminants at the base. The results of the HHRA indicated that there is no present-day risk from dioxin exposure for people using the Gagetown property. However, no studies have yet been completed to determine potential health risks to people who may have used the property in the past. As Ryan noted, this may be difficult to accomplish. More information on the recent findings is available at www.forces.gc.ca/site/reports/defoliant/ task3a2-summary_e.asp. The CIC Environment Division will sponsor more symposia of this kind to encourage chemists to become more aware of and involved in issues involving chemicals in the environment.

William R. Cullen, is professor emeritus of the department of chemistry at The University of British Columbia and vice-chair of the Environment Division of The Chemical Institute of Canada.

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 21

RECOGNITION RECONNAISSANCE

Paul Anastas, director of the ACS Green Chemistry Institute, was one of six people named to receive a Heinz Award. The Heinz Awards recognize outstanding individuals for their contributions in the areas of arts and humanities, the environment, the human condition, public policy and technology, the economy, and employment. Anastas was honoured as a pioneer of green chemistry, which is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. A former Environmental Protection Agency official and founder of the Green Chemistry Institute, Anastas persuaded the Clinton administration in 1996 to sponsor the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards program, which encourages companies and researchers to embrace green technologies.

Guillermo C. Bazan, ACIC, André B. Charette, FCIC, and Leonard R. MacGillvray, ACIC, are three of the nine recipients of the ACS’s 2007 Arthur C. Cope Scholar Awards. The awards were created to recognize and encourage excellence in organic chemistry.

of mechanical and materials engineering. His research encompasses BioMEMS, nanotechnology, Lab-on-a-chip, and biophysics. The award was established in 2003 and recognizes, promotes, and supports outstanding new faculty researchers whose work is particularly innovative, impacts positively on the learning environment in the department in which they study, and has the potential to be of significance to society at large. The program is intended to help attract and retain bright young minds at Canadian universities and institutes and to help young researchers launch their scholarly careers and enable them to carry their research forward.

Alan G. Shaver, MCIC, has been appointed vice-president academic and provost at Dalhousie University. He was also named full professor to the Dalhousie chemistry department. Shaver is a retired professor of chemistry at McGill University and was dean of science at Dalhousie from 1995 to 2005.

A. K. Dalai, MCIC, has been elected a life member of the American Insitute of Chemical Engineers and also selected as a member of two NSERC selection committees. Dalai is a professor of chemical engineering and Canada Research Chair in biofuels and environmentally friendly chemical processing.

22 L’ACTUALITÉ CHIMIQUE CANADIENNE JANVIER 2007

The newly established IUPAC-Richter Prize in medicinal chemistry was awarded to Malcolm F. G. Stevens of Nottingham University, U.K. Stevens received this award in recognition of his leadership and contributions to the discovery of anticancer drugs. His work has resulted in the discovery of six novel small molecule agents that have progressed into clinical trials. The IUPAC-Richter Prize was presented at the XIXth International Symposium of Medicinal Chemistry in Istanbul, Turkey. The plaque was signed by Bryan Henry, FCIC, president of IUPAC, and Erik Bogsch, CEO of Gedeon Richter Limited.

David Wardlaw has recently accepted a position as dean, faculty of science at The University of Western Ontario.

Each of the three CIC societies presented their 2006 Student Chapter Merit Awards. The Canadian Society for Chemistry awarded first place to the Mount Allison University Chemistry Society and honourable mention went to the University of Calgary Chemistry Student Chapter. The Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering awarded first place to the University of Toronto CSChE Student Chapter and honourable mention went to the Queen’s University Chemical Engineering and Engineering Chemistry Clubs. The Canadian Society for Chemical Technology awarded first place to Mohawk College.

After 20-plus years and 187 monthly issues of the CHEM13 News, Lewis Brubacher, FCIC, emeritus professor (chemistry/biochemistry) at the University of Waterloo has passed the editorial torch to new editor, Jean Hein.

The University of Western Ontario (UWO) has announced the selection of two recipients for the Petro-Canada Young Innovator Award for 2006. Nathan Jones, MCIC, is an assistant professor in the department of chemistry at UWO. He is researching an efficient and economical route to a valuable class of polymers called polymides. Jun Yang, MCIC, is an assistant professor in the UWO department

Molly Shoichet, MCIC, of the University of Toronto’s department of chemical engineering and applied chemistry is the recipient of the Rutherford Memorial Medal for chemistry for outstanding research in any branch of chemistry. Shoichet is leading a collaborative project on targeted delivery strategies in cancer, building on the fundamental polymer and drug delivery strategies invented in her research group. She is the scientific founder of two companies that were formed based on technology invented in her laboratory and is actively involved in Matregen Corp., a drug delivery company.

Molly Shoichet, MCIC

Photo by Darryl Augustine

RECOGNITION RECONNAISSANCE

In Memoriam

Student Chapter Prix du mérite des Merit Award chapitres étudiants Terms of Reference

David Anthony Armstrong, FCIC, professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Calgary, passed away suddenly at his home in Calgary on July 24, 2006, in his 76th year. He is survived by his wife, Ruth, three children, and one grandchild. With his passing, the University of Calgary and the scientific community have lost a highly respected member, a kind mentor, a true gentleman, and a good friend. Armstrong was born in Barbados on August 27, 1930, and studied at McGill University, where he completed a PhD degree in physical chemistry in 1955. Following postdoctoral work at the University of Leeds and the University of Saskatchewan, he joined the academic staff of the University of Alberta in 1958. He served as head of the department of chemistry and also as dean of the faculty of science at the University of Calgary. His continuing recent research in radiation chemistry and chemical kinetics focused on the radical reactions that occur during oxidative damage in living cells, and on reactions between electrons and clusters of molecules. More than 160 refereed publications were based on his research and that of his research group. In 1998, the Polish Radiation Research Society awarded him the Marie SklodowskaCurie Medal in recognition of his research in radiation chemistry. In 2000, he was named to the Order of the University of Calgary for his contributions to the development of the University. Peter J. Krueger, FCIC

The Student Chapter Merit Awards are offered as a means of recognizing and encouraging initiative and originality in Student Chapter programming in the areas of chemistry, chemical technology, and chemical engineering.

Deadlines April 2 for Canadian Society for Chemistry April 2 for Canadian Society for Chemical Technology June 1 for Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering

Awards The awards consist of an engraved plaque to be retained by the winning Chapter and lapel pins for executive members of the Chapter. Also, where appropriate, Honourable Mentions may be given to other Student Chapters by the Selection Committees.

Nomination The Chapter should prepare its own nomination and provide an electronic report that includes: • indication of both scientific and social events over the entire 12-month period; • elaborate on what are considered the most important activities; • Chapter statistics, including the total number of active members; • level of participation and interest in each activity; • photos or other material may be included. Submit nominations electronically to the CIC Career Services and Student Affairs Manager at gwilbee@cheminst.ca.

Mandat Les prix du mérite des chapitres étudiants sont offerts pour reconnaître et encourager l’esprit d’initiative et la créativité dans la programmation des activités des chapitres étudiants, que ce soit dans les domaines de la chimie, du génie chimique ou de la technologie chimique.

Dates d’échéance Le 2 avril pour la Société canadienne de chimie Le 2 avril pour la Société canadienne de technologie chimique Le 1er juin pour la Société canadienne de génie chimique

Les prix Les prix seront constitués d’une plaque que le chapitre gagnant conservera et d’épinglettes pour les membres de la direction du chapitre étudiant. De plus, les comités de sélection décerneront, s’il y a lieu, des mentions honorables aux autres chapitres étudiants.

Mise en candidature Le chapitre étudiant devrait présenter sa propre candidature et fournir un rapport électronique comprenant les éléments suivants : • les événements à caractère scientifique et social qui se sont tenus au cours de la période de 12 mois; • présenter de façon détaillée les événements considérés les plus importants; • les données statistiques du chapitre, y compris le nombre de membres actifs; • le niveau d’intérêt et de participation pour chaque activité; • photos ou tout autre matériel jugé utile. Envoyez votre mise en candidature à la directrice des services d’emploi et affaires étudiantes de l’ICC à gwilbee@cheminst.ca.

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 23

MSEP

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M CMASTER SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE

THE FUTURE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION STARTS

Canada Conferences May 26–30, 2007. 90th Canadian Chemistry Conference and Exhibition, Winnipeg, MB, www.csc2007.ca May 29–June 1, 2007. International Chemical Recovery Conference— “Efficiency and Energy Management,” Québec, QC, 514-392-6964 October 28–31, 2007. 57th Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Edmonton, AB, www.chemeng.ca

HERE, TODAY. Expand your professional horizons in a leading-edge MASTER OF ENGINEERING DEGREE program. P USH BEYOND TRADITIONAL ENGINEERING BOUNDARIES Engineering Entrepreneurship and Innovation Engineering and Public Policy Engineering Design* *(subject to OCGS approval)

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May 24–28, 2008. 91st Canadian Chemistry Conference and Exhibition, Edmonton, AB, www.csche2007.ca October 19–22, 2008. 58th Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Ottawa, ON, www.chemeng.ca August 23–27, 2009. 8th World Congress of Chemical Engineering and 59th Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Montréal, QC, www.wcce8.org

Student Conferences March 17, 2007. 35th Southwestern Ontario Undergraduate Student Chemistry Conference (SOUSCC), University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Krisztina.Paal@uoit.ca May 2007. Western Undergraduate Student Chemistry Conference, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, mam598@mail.usask.ca May 2007. 32nd CIC-APICS Undergraduate Chemistry Conference (ChemCon2007), Acadia University, Wolfville, NS October 26, 2007. Colloque annuel des étudiants et étudiantes de 1er cycle en chimie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Pierre.Harvey@usherbrooke.ca

U.S. and Overseas June 21–23, 2007. Chemtech 2007, Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka, info@ichemc.com, www.ichemc.com July 22–26, 2007. 23rd Annual Meeting of the International Society of Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany, www.chemecol.org/meetings/ meetings.htm September 16–21 2007. 6th European Congress of Chemical Engineering (ECCE-6) Copenhagen, Denmark, www.ecce6.kt.dtu.dk EMPLOYMENT WANTED Chemist seeks position. PhD in analytical chemistry. Experience in atomic spectroscopy, AAS, GFAAS, hydride generation, cold vapors, ICP-AES, ICP-AF and chromatography GC, HPLC, EC. Research and development of analytical methods environmental mentoring. Analysis of trace and ultra trace of elements and substances in different kinds of matrixes. Please contact mssalman1953@yahoo.com.

JANUARY 2007 CANADIAN CHEMICAL NEWS 25

ON-LINE SERVICES We want to help simplify your busy schedule with our on-line services, restricted to members only. Ensure your current e-mail address has been entered on your “Profile” page.

• Renew your CIC membership for 2007 on-line • Update your own personal profile • Perform an on-line membership search

To access on-line renewal and member services, go to https://secure.cheminst.ca/default.asp. For the protection of your personal infor mation, the on-line membership services are restricted to CIC members only, and you will be asked to log on your own personal secure account with a username and password. The “username” is composed of the first letter of your first name and the five (or less for short surnames) first letters of your surname. The middle name is not used (e.g. “John A. Dalton” would become: jdalto). The “password” is your CIC membership reference number, which you can find written on all correspondence from the CIC, including your membership card (e.g. 223 or 27890). Once you have logged on the first time, you will be required to change your password to something other than your membership number. If you forget your password, you have the option to request your password to be reset to your membership number. If you experience any difficulty, call CIC Membership Services at our toll-free number 1-888-542-2242, ext. 230, or e-mail membership@cheminst.ca. The CIC values your privacy and encourages membership networking.

Is Environmental Regulation Complex? You bet. That’s why we have Gordon Lloyd and his team. Whether it’s NSN, Nox, Sox or GHG’s, our guy knows environmental legislation and regulation. Advocacy, advice, clarity: some of the beneﬁts of membership in CCPA. For more information about CCPA, contact Brian Wastle 613-237-6215 ext. 232, or bwastle@ccpa.ca

Demande de communications le 15 décembre 2006 – début des soumissions de résumés en ligne le 14 février 2007 – date limite pour remettre les résumés

90 e Congrès et exposition canadiens de chimie

du 26 au 30 mai 2007 Winnipeg Convention Centre, Winnipeg (Manitoba) Canada Société canadienne de chimie • www.csc2007.ca

Call for Papers December 15, 2006 – On-line abstract submissions begin February 14, 2007 – Deadline for abstract submissions

May 26-30, 2007 Winnipeg Convention Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Canadian Society for Chemistry • www.csc2007.ca

PM40021620

90th Canadian Chemistry Conference and Exhibition