How to make cake by Cao Mật Nhân

CAKE MAKING

Cake Making Edmund B. I M.Sc.Tech.(Vict.), F.R.I Chief Examiner in Breadma! Director of Studies, Greater Late Head of Food Trades 1 Southampton College of Tech Late Head of the National 1 Borough Polytechnic, London

James Stewar and

G. S. T. Barr F.lnst. B.B., A.I.F.S.T. Head of Department of Bald Borough PolYtechnic, London

'LEONARD HILL BOOKS, LONDON !966

First Edition 1930 Second Edition 1943 Reprinted 1945 Reprinted 1946 Reprinted 1947 Reprinted 1949 Reprinted 1952 Third Edition 1958 Fourth Edition 1966

ÂŠ E. B. Bennion, J. Stewart

& G. S. T. Bamford 1966

A Leonard Hill Book This new edition first published in Great Britain 1966 by: The Book Division Grampian Press Ltd., 8-10 King Street, Hammersmith, London, W.6.

Book designed by Keogh, Warren, Gill Set in loon I I pt Baskerville and printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press), Ltd., Bungay, SI{/folk on paper supplied by Frank Grunfeld (Sales) Ltd. Bound by Mansell (Bookbinders) Ltd., London

Contents

Preface

Page vii

Preface to Second Edition Preface to Third Edition Preface to Fourth Edition List of Illustrations List of Tables Chapter

x Xl

xiii xv

Introductory and Bakery Hygiene

2/Flour Used in Confectionery

Moistening-Milk Products

Eggs an'dl'-nEgg Products

5JBaking Fats,

tV'Sugars

-:/ Chemical Aeration

viii

a~d Essential Oils

./ 8

Essences

v 9

Spices and Flavourings

108

Colouring Matter

112

./11

Nuts in Confectionery

./r2

Fruits Used in Confectionery

\/4 ~15

101

Jams and Jellies Gums and Jellying Agents Chocolate

1_....16

Icings, Fillings, and Glazes

\ 17

Fermented Goods

197

',.18

Chemically Aerated Goods

20 7

/19 20 21 22 23 24 25 /26 ____ 27 28

21 5

Pastes

Cake Making Processes Sponge Goods

226

Almond Goods

244 25 6

Gateaux and Fancies

265

Baking of Confectionery Goods Refrigeration in the Bakery

275 284

Bakehouse Machinery and Plant

29 1

Nutritional Value of Flour Confectionery

Testing of Raw Materials

Index

31 3 323

337

Preface to the First Edition

SEVERAL excellent books have appeared dealing with confectionery raw materials; likewise, there are recipe books sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the trade. In presenting this book, it has been the aim of the authors to give such data as will enable the reader to obtain a good working knowledge of the materials and processes they are employing in everyday practice. Emphasis is laid upon the necessity for the production of articles of the highest degree of uniformity and quality; consequently, special attention is devoted to the methods used for evaluating raw materials and for the technical control of processes, and, also, it is shown how the various methods of preparation of the raw materials may influence the finished product. It has not been the intention of the authors to prepare a recipe book, but rather to deal with fundamentals, so that with this knowledge recipes can be built up as occasion demands. However, summaries of standard recipes have been introduced, and these will act as a guide to th~ student. The book will be found to cover the range of work required for students qualifying for the National Diploma Examination and the City and Guilds of London Examination in Confectionery, Final Grade. The authors' thanks are due to the following firms who have so kindly provided data and illustrations, rendering it possible to produce some entirely new features: Messrs. Artofex and Co., Ltd., London; Baker Perkins, Ltd., Peterborough; Wm. Gardner and Sons (Gloucester), Ltd.; J. Harrison Carter, Ltd., Dunstable; The Morton Machine Company, Wishaw; The Peerless Electrical Manufacturing Company, Ltd.; C. O. Ericson Engineering Company. In conclusion, the authors wish to express their gratitude to those who have generously given their assistance, advice and criticism, and especially to Mr. J. T. Parker of the National Bakery Schobl, and to Mr. H. P. Buttrick, A.I.C., for his valuable collaboration in the preparation of the chapter on aeration. E.B.B. WOODFORD

AUGUST 1930

vii

Preface to the Second Edition 1;,'

IN this new edition the authors have included much new matter which has been proved to be of great importance of recent years, and which will prove to be of still greater importance when normal trading conditions can once again be resumed. As a publication being produced in war-time, it would be incomplete without some reference to war-time commodities and alteration of procedure. A war-time recipe book would, no doubt, appeal to many, but as the supplies of commodities and their availability are changing month by month no fixed recipes can be used. Changes in formula must constantly be made to meet the changing conditions, and it is hoped that from this book guidance will be obtained, particularly if it is read in conjunction with trade journals. New chapters on Chocolate,Jam, and Jellies, the development of High-ratio Cakes and War-time Confectionery Problems have been included. All other sections have been revised and enlarged. Much original research work carried out by the authors and other workers has been included in the text. The authors' thanks are due to the following, who have given so freely of their advice and help in the revision of the script: Mr. A. Hawley; Mr H. P. Buttrick, A.I.C.; Mr. A. S. Houghton, M.Sc.; Mr. J. W. Sawtell; Mr. John Pelkman; Dr. Drake-Law and Messrs. Bush & Co., Ltd. In addition, thanks are due to Messrs. Hedley Co., Ltd., and Messrs. Hobart Manufacturing Co., Ltd.; Pelkman Bros., Ltd.; Messrs. Bellamy & Co., Ltd.; General Electric Co., Ltd., for illustrations for this work. .E. B. B. J. S. WOODFORD APRIL

viii

1943

This edition has been produced for the benefit of the Services and is substantially a reprint of the second edition. There is, however, one important addition, viz.: a section on the use of the new Sugar Dried Egg which has been produced as a result of collaborative research between the Low Temperature Research Station, Cambridge, with whom the authors have worked in close contact on the practical usage of the product and the Ministry of Food. Those in the Industry who have had an opportunity of using the product have classed it as one of the outstanding advances in food processing for the Bakery Industry of the war. This is the most up-ta-date information available on eggs far use in the bakery and should prove of interest and value to all readers. E. B. BENNION

J. STEWART

WOODFORD SEPTEMBER

1945

Preface to the Third Edition 1l

IN this edition not only has most of the text been completely rewritten but several new chapters have been added. Gums, which now play an important part in so many raw materials, pastes of various types, refrigeration in flour confectionery work, and the nutritional value of flour have all been included. The author's thanks are due to the following, who have been so helpful by allowing them to use certain material published by them in technical journals and papers, as well as to the many firms who have supplied illustrations, particularly Mr. P. MacNab, editor of Baker; Messrs. Oddy, Ltd.; Baker Perkins, Ltd. i Peerless Ericson, Ltd.; Collins and Co.; Morton Machine Co., Ltd.; Henry Simons, Ltd.; Mr. R. Rock; Messrs. P. Kurt; Southall Smith and Co.; Buckwell Munroe & Rogers, Ltd.; Domex Engineering Co.; Messrs. J. Crollie, Ltd.; and Phillips Electrical Co. All these contributions have helped to increase the comprehensiveness of the work. Finally, the author's thanks are due to Mr. S. W. Butterworth, B.Sc., F.R.I.C., Mr. C. H. F. Fuller, B.Sc., F.R.I.C., for their help on the classification and nutritional value of flour confectionery; Mr. H. P. Buttrick, A.R.I.C., for his continued assistance in keeping the information on chemical aeration up to date; to Mr. Mason, M.Sc., F.R.I.C., for the information on gums; to Mr. G. R. Short for his advice and assistance on essences and colours. Finally, thanks are due to Mr. L. J. Morse and Mr. D.James for their assistance in proofreading and to his wife and daughter Joan for their assistance in indexing, and to all members of the publishing staff for their care and patience in the production of this volume. EDMUND SOUTHAMPTON,

1957

BENNION

Preface to the Fourth Edition

IN preparing this edition a new partnership has been entered into. Much new material has been included and the whole of the book recast so that the latest aspects of modern cake production are fully considered. The material in the text covers the syllabus for the National Diploma in Baking Examinations as well as the Advanced Craft Certificate Theory and the Technician's Certificate of the City and Guilds of London Institute in Flour Confectionery. It further provides a reference work for those already established in the industry. The Authors are indebted to many people and offer their thanks to the following for their help and advice in the production of this new edition: Mr.J. Robb and Dr. Parkinson of the British Baking Industries Research Association "- on Eggs; Messrs. R. G. Sanderson and G. R. Short of W. J. Bush Ltd. for the chapters on Spices and Essences; ..,., Mr. R. P. Winston for redrafting the chapter on Food Colours; Messrs. Renshaws Ltd., Mitcham, for the chapter on Almonds; Mr. H. Sweeney of Peerless Refining Co. for the one on Fats; Messrs. Tate and Lyle on Sugars; Mr. A. T. Whybrow of British Bakeries Ltd.; Messrs. A. S. West and K. R. Christopher of the Borough Polytechnic for the chapter on Gateaux and Fancies and other members of the staff of the Borough Polytechnic for their helpful comments and advice. Finally, to Mr. J. Price of Craigmiller for permission to use their standard test procedure used for fats in the chapter on Testing of Raw Materials. The authors' thanks are also due to the following firms .~ who have submitted information about their plant and supplied photographs for reproduction: Messrs. Oakes Ltd., Macclesfield; Baker Perkins Ltd., Peterborough; Tweedy Ltd., Burnley, Lanes.; Atlas Equipment Ltd., London; Hoadley and Sons, Birmingham; and to their wives for their assistance in proof reading and indexing. SOUTHAMPTON,

1966.

E. B. BENNION G. S. T. BAMFORD Xl

List of Illustrations

Page

Figures I Sugar refining 2 Calorific values 3 Fat-protein-carbohydrate-water content 4 Calcium-phosphorus content 5 Iron content 6 Thiamine-riboflavin-nicotinic acid content 7 Frame for measuring puff pastry

60 317 31 7 3 IB 3 IB 3I 9 33 0

Plates A new style wedding cake Frontispiece I a The effect of varying amounts of sugar Between pages I2B-g b The effect of varying amounts of baking powder c The effect of varying amounts of milk 2a Varying the liquor/sugar ratio using normal fats and patent flour b The same liquor/sugar ratios using high emulsifying fat and special cake flour 3 Two examples of flat type cakes using soft icing 4 Four examples of simple designs suitable for fondant gateaux 5 Three examples of simple designs suitable for buttercream gateaux 6 Three typical finishes for Torten 7a Babas au rhum b A range of othellos Ba Frangipane fancies b Fondant dipped fancies-hot fondant method ga Frangipane and Jap slices b Orange slices xiii

loa Rear stator Oakes mixer b'The Oakes continuous mixer head I I a Morton Gridlap mixer b Control panel for metering flour c Baker cake machine 12a A.M.F. continuous cake mixer b Gas-fired Band oven 13a Electro-Dahlen infra-red shelf ovens b Reel oven 14a Baker' Perkins Swiss roll plant b The Oakes continuous mixer Isa Oakes depositor b Baker Copeland depositor 16a Atlas tart and pie plant b Controlled cake oven 17a Florida puff paste plant b Baked roll coming from oven c Forgrove 84H cake wrapping machine

xiv

List of Tables

Tables I United Kingdom permitted food colours II Other colours III Composition and food value of various nuts IV Minimum fruit content V Recipes for bun goods VI Basic formulae for short pastes VII Common faults and causes in cakes VIII Baking times and temperatures IX Analysis of nutritional value of confectionery products X Specific volume chart

Page 114

1I5~16

12 3 141 202

218 241

282 321

327

Introductory

/THE mass production of flour confectionery has developed

with such rapidity that it has become increasingly necessary for all those engaged in the industry, in whatever branch, to have a good working knowledge not only of the materials they are using and of all the processes they are employing but of all those details so necessary for the production of a regular article of the highest quality. ~ Science has been a most important factor in bringing about this change, making it possible for large-scale production of most of the ordinary types of confectionery to be carried out by mechanical means. Further, with the great progress which has been made in the preparation of the raw materials, and especially of the wide range of products which in many cases have replaced the older staple products, it is very necessary that those who are called upon to use them should know exactly what they are using, how these products function when used in different ways, and the results which can be obtained. -./ Alongside this development, the craftsman confectioner finds an increasing demand for his hand-made product, but here also a sound knowledge of the raw materials is essential. i For those who are purchasing the raw materials, it is important that they should know first of all of what the real product consists, in order that the value of a substance as a substitute can be truly assessed. / )I There are many substances sold as 'substitutes' which cannot really be given such a name; they are to be considered rather as products of an alternative nature, and by their use more regular effects can be obtained. There are others, the number of which tends to increase, which are really substitutes: some of these are very poor ones indeed. I' When raw materials have to be purchased it is found that there are so many brands of the same type of product and so many varieties with a wide range of prices that too much

CAKE MAKING

knowledge cannot be gained by those who are going to use them to advantage in their manufacture. '1/ .->" To all those who are entering the mass-production confectionery industry the best advice that can be given is to gain a knowledge of chemistry and physics, for the fundamental princip~es _of both have a very wide application to all matters connected with production, since the use of machinery controls the whole working of a bakery. The training of a first-class craftsman confectioner, however, in addition depends on gaining this general knowledge and a sound knowledge of design and modelling, for however gifted a man may be in craftsmanship, that gift will be developed and amplified by proper guidance and study such as a course in these ancillary subjects will provide. /' The generic term 'flour confectionery' is used to include biscuits, cakes, and pastries...Qf all kinds, as well.as several baked proaucts, -difficult" to classify precisely, which hover doubtfully in the ill-defined region between 'bread' and 'cake'. I ~~onfectionery' is a word now usually employed as a collective term for sweetmeats of various kinds. These are usually divided, for ease of reference, into two main groups: 'sugar confections', such as sweets, candies, and chocolates; and 'flour confections'. Modern usage has confined the term 'flour confectionery' almost entirely to baked products (a few of which, like meringues, contain no flour), but it is convenient to observe that many types of cakes and boiled or steamed puddings contain similar ingredients in almost identical proportions. >l During the years of Government control in the baking industry the definition of such terms as 'bread', 'cakes', 'pastries', and 'biscuits' assumed a new importance because it was difficult to regulate the- production and/or sale of a product without first more or less clearly defining it. Thus in the Flour Confectionery (Control and Maximum Prices) Order, 1944, 'flour confectionery' was defined as 'cake, ready-made puddings, trifles, pastry (whether cooked or uncooked), fruit loaves, bun loaves, and any other description of flour confectionery other than (a) bread, (b) biscuits, (c) any product containing a filling which had as an ingredient meat or fish of any description, (d) Christmas puddings or uncooked pudding mixtures'. Biscuits were specifically excluded by the Ministry of Food Regulation, and puddings were included. ,J The same order related prices to the chemical composition of the baked products concerned and also made it an offence

INTRODUCTORY

to make additions to flour confectionery after baking. Confectionery containing less than 14 per cent of fat and sugar together was placed in a different price category from richer kinds of cakes and pastries. Maximum permitted fat and sugar levels were also fixed at 20 per cent and go per cent respectively (or combined total of 45 per cent fat and sugar if either figure was exceeded) . ., These regulations took into account the fat and sugar contents of all the ingredients used in the manufacture of flour confectionery, and aroused new interest on the part of confectioners in the chemical composition of their raw materials and their products. (The arithmetic involved was not made simpler by the fact that the evaporation losses during baking and cooling (affecting the composition of the baked product) vary from a1;lout 10 to 20 per cent or more with different kinds of good~ v In S.R.O. No. 2422, 1947, the Ministry of Food, in regulating the sale of Christmas cakes, required that the combined fat, sugar, and dry-egg solids in such cakes should be not less than 40 per cent; that the cakes should be wholly or partly covered with sugar icing, almond marzipan, or chocolate; and that they should be 'substantially decorated'. It is perhaps fortunate, in more ways than one, that Ministerial definitions of the kind previously referred to were not often the basis of legal proceedings, because they leave many difficulties of interpretation. In order to appreciate more readily the nutritional significance of flour confectionery, an understanding of the wide variations in the composition of the many different varieties is desirable. The following classification was worked out by S. W. Butterworth in collaboration with the late J. J. Devlin. Nearly all flour confections may be conveniently regarded as being derived from one or another of three basic flour and water mixtures; (I) the fluid batters that result from mixing flour and water in about equal weights; (2) the plastic-elastic doughs that result from kneading flour with half its own weight of water; (g) the stiff plastic pastes formed when flour particles are held together with a minimum of water (in most of the items in this group a considerable proportion of fat is usually incorporated).

From these three basic intermediates (which may conveniently be referred to as 'batters', 'doughs', and 'pastes' respectively) it is possible to develop in a logical sequence ~

CAKE MAKING

II> ~

gp~-----------------'

r 4

INTRODUCTORY

nearly all the main varieties of products created by the art and craft of the flour confectioner. The table on page 4 shows in a simplified form the relationships of the three main streams of products. It also indicates the main ingredient variations which bring about the changing character of the confection concerned. The table does not show how processing alterations can give rise to new varieties, nor does it illustrate adequately the very important effects capable of being produced by apparently minor changes of highly active ingredients, such as chemical aerating agents. A table of this kind can be elaborated very considerably to show minor ingredient and processing changes. It can also be enlarged to show the importance of composite confections in which several basic intermediates are used: cakes with a pastry base and a batter filling, for example. Some confections can be fitted into thJ scheme linking the main streams. Danish pastry made from a fermented dough (stream 2), and yet resembling puff and three-quarter pastry (stream 3) in fat content and processing, is an example of this kind. Many confections are 'decorated' after baking with such materials as cream, chocolate, fondant, fruit or nuts, and the like; and these additions substantially affect the composition of the finished cakes. In this instance the object of the table is not to display fine technical differences (however fascinating these may be to the confectioner), but to reveal a pattern in flour confectionery that may help in the subsequent discussion of its food value. PERCENTAGE PROPORTIONS OF THE MAJOR RAW MATERIALS IN THE PRINCIPAL BASIC FLOUR-CONFECTIONERY FORMULAE

FerRicher Secondmented Scones powder quality small cakes goods goods

Flour Fat Sugar Eggs Liquor Baking powder Yeast Totals

47·0 g·O g·O 2·5 30·0

2·5

100·0

47·0 g·O g·O 2·5 30·0

2·5

100·0

42·0 17·0 17·0 7·5 14·0

2·5

100·0

32·0 15·0 20·0 12·0 20·0

1·0

100·0

Firstquality cakes

25·0 25·0 25·0 25·0

100·0

Sponge cakes

33·0

33·0 34·0

100·0

Puff paste

Short paste

Sweet paste

38·0 38·0

57·0 23·2

46·0 31·0 15·5 7·5

24·0

100·0

The above table shows the raw-materials composition of the main confectionery varieties. 5

18·0

1·8

100·0

CAKE MAKING

Leaner Confections

Much flour confectionery was made without egg because supplies were so limited. Also, some confecti~~s of the best quality do not require egg, e.g., short pastry. In the leaner varieties of goods less than 9 per cent of fat and 9 per cent of sugar are often used. During the 1939-45 War the confectioner was faced_ with a greatly increased demand for his products, and his major raw-material allocations were 50 per cent or less of his 1939 supply. This meant an inevitable trend towards the fIour-and-water end of the scale in many of his products," which, of course, affected nutritive value. It should be remembered, however, that many of the leaner kinds of confections, such as scones and fermented small goods, are not 'rich' in eggs, sugar, and fat, and are none the less very pleasant to eat when properly made and baked. Indeed, simple varieties are often more attractive than rich, highly decorated types of cakes. In considering the limits indicated above, three main factors affecting them should be borne in mind:

(I) The baking and cooling processes 'concentrate' the baked products because there is an evaporation loss of 10-20 per cent of the batter, dough, or paste weight, according to the type of confection baked. (2) The addition of dried fruits to any of the simplified recipes concerned substantially alters their percentage ingredient composition. For example, a lightly fruited cake has a dried-fruit proportion of about one-third of its batter weight. (3) As previously mentioned, decoration after baking substantially affects composition and nutritive value. Hygiene in the Bakery

Personal Hygiene

Under the Food Hygiene (General) Regulations 1960, the necessary provisions that must be made in all places handling food are specified. Not only do these provisions apply to equipment and premises but also to those engaged in the handling of food. Every person handling food must: (a) keep as clean as reasonably practicable all parts of his person liable to come into contact with food; (b) keep as clean as possible all parts of his clothing, overclothing, or overalls likely to come into contact with the food; (c) keep any open cut or abrasion on any exposed part of his person covered with a suitable waterproof dressing; (d) refrain from spitting; (e) refrain from smoking or using snuff. It is important that all persons, before starting work in a bakery, should change into suitable overalls or protective clothing with appropriate cover for the head, and wash

INTRODUCTORY

their hands. Ideally, hot and cold showers and towels should be available so that all production staff can take a shower before changing into their working clothing. Provision should also be made for a drying-room in which outdoor clothes can be placed during working hours and working garments can be left after work. In the bakeries themselves hand driers or towels must be provided by each sink at which workers are likely to wash their hands. Foot baths should also be provided, and the care of the feet stressed as being a matter of primary importance. Many firms today have either full-time or visiting chiropodists to deal with this side of welfare work. All wall surfaces should be as simple as possible, free from unnecessary projections, and finished with nonabsorbent materials such as tiles or hard-gloss paint. They should preferably be light in colour to give the maximum light reflection. Plant and equipment with which the food is likely to come into contact should be constructed of such materials and designed in such a way that they can be easily cleaned. Further, they should be constructed whenever practicable of material of a non-absorbent nature. This particularly applies to tables, containers, and trays. Stainless steel, aluminium alloys, or plastics are now widely used for these. If wooden tables are used, then a hard wood such as beech is best, but such tables must be kept in a sound state of repair to prevent any risk of contamination of the food while being processed. Before work is commenced, tables and machines should be brushed or wiped down, since dust will always settle on them in between working periods. Further, on occasion, scraps of dough are sometimes left by a previous shift, and these will cause trouble if worked into newly made dough. Each person should be responsible for seeing that the table on which he is working and the utensils he is using are kept in a clean and tidy condition as soon as each job is completed. Clean working not only makes for better production but eliminates waste, which means financial loss. Working tables should be kept cleaned down between the production of various items. All waste collected should be removed from the food room and not allowed to accumulate. Floors should also be kept swept during working hours, and in larger bakeries a special staff should be employed for this purpose. Attention to this is essential if clean working conditions are to be maintained. Vacuum installations are necessary to remove dust from less-accessible places. Unless

Bakery Hygiene

CAKE MAKING

Storage

of Food

these precautions are taken, spoilage of food, trouble with flies and wasps, and outbreaks offood pois66ing can occur. The food hygiene regulations dealing with the storage of food apply to those foods consisting of meat, fish, gravy, or imitation cream or products prepared from or containing any of those substances or any egg or milk. They do not apply to bread: bIscuits, or pastry by reason of the use of egg or milk as an ingredient thereof introduced prior to baking or to butter, margarine, shortening cooking fats, or beef suet. Food coming under the above category must be kept either at a temperature of 145 F. or above or below 0

500

Common Causes

of Food Poisoning

Ingredients should not be stored in the bakery, but should be drawn from stores as required, and should be placed, weighed down for each mixing, in suitable clean containers. Perishable ingredients, such as yeast, cream, eggs, and milk, should not be left unduly long in the bakery, yeast should be drawn from the store as required and any surplus returned before it has had a chance to dry out. An organized rotation of stocks is essential; routine checks should be made at least weekly. The commonest cause of food poisoning is by bacteria of the Salmonella group. These may be transmitted from the droppings of domestic animals, mice, hens, and ducks and through flies which have been in contact with such excreta; also by the human hands if unwashed after using the toilet, or through the use of certain raw materials, such as unpasteurized egg products and coconut. The other cause is by Staphylococci, which are carried in the nose and throat, infected cuts or scratches, pimples, or boils. They can be transferred to food by coughing and sneezing or from unprotected wounds. Both of these groups of bacteria are destroyed by heating, so that baked goods are normally rendered safe from such infection, but unbaked products and additions after baking, such as filling creams, are liable to contamination, and can become a means of infection of finished products. Keeping cooked products warm in hot chambers can cause the rapid multiplication of these organisms, which can so easily gain access to prepared foods. It is for this reason that all meat products must be stored at temperatures above 145 0 F. or below 500 F. Occasional outbreaks of paratyphoid have been traced to workers who are typhoid carriers being employed in foodproducing establishments, particularly in the handling of goods containing imitation cream or cream fillings.

INTRODUCTORY

No person should be allowed to operate any machine Care if Machines until he understands the working of it and is declared to be proficient in handling it by some responsible authority. Where maintenance staff is employed, greasing and care of the plant will be carried out by them. In many bakeries, however, these jobs are done either by the bakery staff or on contract and so may frequently be overlooked. If this occurs depreciation of the machine will take place prematurely. Operators should be trained to know the 'sound' of the machine when it is working correctly, so that should any fault develop they can report it at once before any major trouble occurs. A routine cleaning and maintenance chart for the whole bakery, machinery, utensils, and equipment should be worked out and regular inspection carried out to see that it is being adhered to. With the stringent regulations today concerning the Avoidance of purity of food products, every effort has to be made to see Contamination of that no contamination occurs during manufacture or after Bakery Products baking to the point of sale; further, it is essential to see that all products have a reasonable shelf life. To ensure these conditions, constant supervision of ingredients and working conditions is essential. Contamination may take the form of foreign matter, such as fragments of wood, hairs and \ fibres, particles of glass, stones, pieces of metallic substances, nails, screws, nuts and bolts, grease pellets, rodent pellets, cigarette ends and ash, fragments of nail varnish, medical dressings, pencils, and foreign taints such as creosote, paint, linseed, mustiness. Wood fragments may come from boxes in which raw materials have been packed. Because of this source of trouble, wooden boxes are not now being used today to any extent; some firms will not accept any wooden containers on their premises. Wooden trays which begin to wear and which soften after washing can also be a source of troublehence the use of metal trays for safety. Likewise, wooden tables and equipment can be a source of trouble unless kept in a state of good repair. Hairs and fibres gain access from jute sacks, and so these are being replaced by paper sacks for flour and sugar and polythene liners for many materials. Human hairs still present a problem, but the use of suitable headgear should reduce this to a minimum. Stones in dried fruit always present a problem despite the most efficient system of cleaning and preparation. Rigid standards are now prescribed in some exporting countries 9

CAKE MAKING

to reduce the risk from this source. The use of electromagnetic tables reduces the incidence ctf trouble from metallic particles, particularly if this is followed by a 'Cintel' detector unit. In the past nails frequently gained access from boxes used for fats and dried fruits, but with the introduction of hardboard seale'd with adhesives this source of trouble has been largely eliminated. Metallic stapling is not allowed by many firms to be used with packages, since these fine wires can easily get into the finished product and are not easily detected until the food enters the mouth. Particles of glass are always a source of trouble, and it is always difficult to ascertain how they gain access. Today in many bakeries the use of glass utensils is forbidden, all colours and essences being packed in plastic bottles, and plastic vessels being used for measures. Cracked windows should always be replaced before any pieces of glass can fall out, and no drinking glasses should be carried into the bakery. Nuts and bolts are sometimes found in goods after the engineers have been carrying out repairs on plant, so one should always check up after any alterations or adjustments have been carried out. Grease pellets from chains in provers or conveyors sometimes gain access to goods and may be mistaken for rodent droppings. Ultra-violet light will always show whether these contain mineral oil, for a fluorescent effect will be obtained. Microscopic examination will show the presence of hairs if rodent pellets are suspected. Under the hygiene regulations the use of water-proof adhesive dressings is required to eliminate the risk of medical dressings dropping into batters or mixings. Despite all normal precautions, accidents do occur, and workers should be instructed to inform the foreman should any dressing get lost during working time so that a complete check can be carried out before the goods leave the bakery. The use of nail varnish by female workers should be forbidden, since under normal working conditions it can flake off, and particles can gain access to batters. Smoking is forbidden by law, but despite this, cigarette ends are found in baked products from time to time, and often have dropped from a jacket pocket where they have been placed after a 'break' period. To overcome this possibility, no outside pockets should be allowed in jackets or overalls worn by workers in the production section of the bakery. Buttons from overalls are sometimes found in baked pro10

INTRODUCTORY

ducts, and some firms do not allow the use of buttons, but instead have tapes fitted which must be tied to effect a fastening. Pencils, small weights, and scrapers all get lost in a bakery, and care should be taken to see that these are not placed where they are likely to get into mixings. If a st:raper gets misplaced every effort must be made to find it before production proceeds. Foreign taints which have been picked up during transit are sometimes found in raw materials. The storekeeper should be trained to examine all goods for stains and foreign odours before issuing them from stock, since this may eliminate much trouble later. Flour may be musty, and this may not show up until it is sieved for use or even u~il the goods are baked; fats and ingredients containing a considerable quantity of natural oils may become rancid; eggs may be musty, and this may not show up until they are whisked, when only an odd egg in a large mixing is responsible for the taint. Moths and maggots are alw!'lYs a potential source of trouble with nuts and dried fruits, and the only way to deal with this is really at the source, by insisting on hygienic methods of preparation and gas treatment with methyl bromide, followed by packing in suitable containers and storing under controlled temperature conditions. In the case of walnuts and other nuts, pieces of broken shell can cause trouble, and so a proper inspection of the nuts before use is essential. All staff should be trained to use and develop their sense of smell and powers of observation, so that unconsciously they are carrying out a critical examination of their raw materials, mixings in the course of preparation, and finished products as they come from the oven and finishing room.

Flour Used in Confectionery

C..,FECTIONERS do not always give sufficient attention to the question of choosing the types .of flour best adapted to the various goods to be made; consequently, poor results are frequently obtained by using the wrong type of flour. Flour is the final product of milling a mixture of wheats, or sii\gle wheats, cleaned, conditioned, and mixed to form a grist which will yield flours suitable for the various requirements of the confectioner. The quality of the flour depends on the quality of the wheat used in the grist, and also on the methods of milling and the length of extraction. There hre usually two grades of flour from each grist, known as patents and bakers' flour. For confectionery purposes four distinct types of flour should be available: first, a strong flour milled from a mixture of wheats in which spring wheats predom~nate, such as is employed for the making of bread; second, a medium flour milled from a mixture of winter wheats, such as American winters and Argentine wheats; third, a soft flour milled from English, French or German, and weak Australian wheats; fourth, a chlorinated type of flour suitable for high-ratio types of cakes. In addition, there are high-protein flours specially preparfd for making fruit cakes. Flour is a mixture of protein, starch, sugar, fat, and mineral salts, but it is the protein which is significant for its use in confectionery work. It is the quality and quantity of gluten-forming protein which will determine the suitability of any flour fOI; any particular process. The protein content may range from 8Âˇ0 to I3Âˇ0 per cent and the quality from strong to soft.

Properties of Flour

The various properties of flour of importance to the confectioner are as follows: I It should possess a good creamy colour, and not a grey shade. The best grades of flour have I2

FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

the best colours, and the poorer grades the inferior colours. A flour of good colour is essential for confectionery work. The ~_PJl_orbing_I1Qwer of the fl?~r d!:pends-,. in J:>~r:.t, on the q!!ality oft~ glutenjn the flour, and the amount of moisture already present in the flour., but.!!.lso on the -fine: ness ot milling and degree Qf_c;heinlc~l treatm-ent which "is carried out '~n mals,ing. the modern ..£.ake flo~. Thestr~.!!g!:h of flour Is dependent on the quality and quantity of the gluten-forming protein present in it. This, to a great extent, is a measure of its ability to produce volume in goods.l The ~pucity of flour is its freedom from foreign starches and any other substance which is not a natural constituent of the wheat from which it is milled. In the making of(ermglteg 1;>u.ns a stroIl:g fl<;>!!!' will produce Flour to Use .. the bulkiest buns. Texture and flaYQur should be the first for Various consideration in making· ferme~ted goods; therefore, a Goods flour that is suitable for making good bread is generally suitable for buns. With brioche, however, and otherl rich fermented articles, owing to their richness, bulk is not the first consideration, and since they are not fermented to so great an extent, they would be tough if made with a very strong flour. The medium grade would be better for them. In making puff pastry, the character of the flour is of great importance. A top-grade American flour would be of no use for this purpose by itself, nor would a soft English wheat flour for normal working. With the 'Florida' puff pastry machine, softer flours can be used with very good results.Unless the gluten of the flour is of a suitable extensibility, it will break when the paste is given its various turns. On the other hand, if the gluten is too strong the paste will be tough to handle and the pastries made will have a drawn and contracted appearance when baked. A flour which produces an extensible gluten will give the best results. A medium type ofBour is ·best for all ·kinds of scones and aerated buns, since the resulting appearance and texture of the finished products are better than would be obtained by using a strong flour. Small chemically aerated cakes, such as lunch, madeira, and queen cakes·, also ~reqtiire the uSe:'of a/medium. type of flour in order to obtain satisfactory texture and appearance. A stronger flour would yield products of a tough and drawn nature~ In making slab cakes and pound cakes of the best quality, soft flours should be used in order to get the best texture and flavour.)fthe flour is too strong the appearance is spoiled by toughening and the texture is irregular; the

CAKE MAKING

cakes eat dry and harsh and more eggsâ&#x20AC;˘.are required to moisten the batter, thus resulting in a mot~ expensive cake of poorer eating quality. In making cherry and heavy fruit slab a m__effium:.__flour can be used in order to hold the cherries in position and prevent crumbliness in the cake. The cherries will sink to the bottom if the flour is too soft or the mixture too light. \ In the cheaper class of slab cakes a medium strong flour is used, to counterbalance weakness due to the low egg content. For all rich cakes,..such as wedding, Christmas, birthday, Simnel, or tennis cakes, a mixtu.r.e. ofsoft ,!~d medium flour should always be used to get the best results. "WIth stronger types of flour the cakes are toughened and come out with a rounded top instead ofa flat top. If the flour is too soft there is a tendency to crumbliness. When making s49rt-paste goo~_sQft flouLshould be employed, because a~eadily toughens when it is handled. It must be remembered that a short paste is to be made, not a tpugh paste. In some recipes a proportion of cornflour is added in order that the paste may eat shorter by decreasing the proportion of gluten in the flour. This is unnecessary if the correct flour is chosen. For sponge goods a soft flour should be used, and here again, in some types of goods a proportion of cornflour is sometimes added to make the flour softer and produce articles of a better texture. This is unnecessary if the correct type of flour is selected. Where 'all-in' methods are used, special-purpose and high-ratio cake flours are generally used. Sufficient has been said to indicate the necessity for selecting the correct type 'of flour. It should always be remembered that texture and_flavour are mor~ _desirable than bulk_in~confectionery_:er_qd}1.cts. The various types of flour available should be carefully studied, and then the particular one chosen should be use_d to the best advantage. It should be Âˇremembered on all occasions that flour should be sifted before adding to the batch, whether there are any chemicals in it or not, because it is easier to mix the flour with the other ingn!aients when it has been sifted, thus eliminating the danger of spoiling the batters. Sifting also aerates the flour. Summarizing:

(I) Strong Flours-patents, bakers' grades from wheats with strong gluten-forming proteins, high-protein flours.

FJ OUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

(2) Medium Flours+mixtures of strong flours with weaker flours, \ English, Australian, American and Canadian winter wheat flours. (3) Soft Flours-English wheat flours, weak Australian and certain winter wheat flours, French and German flours, special cake flours. Attention to the production o£ special cake flours was first directed in America when the milling industry investigated the various factors in flour quality which contributed to the special qualities required and obtained in flours used for producing the general types of American cakes, notably angel cakes. Winter wheats are used which possess a low gluten content of good quality, since good gas retention is most important if good volume is to be obtained. The quantity of protein should be about 8·2 per cent. The acidity of the flour must be raised to a pH 5"2, and this is accomplished by the use of bleaching beyond that normally carried out with bread-making flours. Further, the ash content should be low, since this indicates a short extraction flour which is of vital importance. This should be 0·3 per cent or even less. The granularity of the flour is also of importance, since ·,t has been found for cake work that a flour with all its granules of the same size will make far better cakes than one with granules of different sizes.1 Another factor which is considered to play an important part in determining the baking quality of a cake flour is the nature of the soil in which the wheat is grown. This has been shown to be the case in America. The viscosity figure obtained with a flour suspension is also used as a factor in determining the standard of cake flour. Such flours are most essential in high-ratio cakes, since they alone can carry the high sugar and moisture content used in such formulae. In this country many millers are producing flours for cake-making, using chlorination as the method of treatment for a general-purpose and a high-ratio flour.

Special Cake Flours

More recently a new milling technique has been evolved, by means of which the protein content of a flour can be raised or lowered using a standard grist. During the normal milling process the endosperm of the wheat grain breaks up into a number of fractions or particles. These may be classified as follows: (I) Large particles (above 40 microns in diameter) which consist of 'chunks' of original endosperm

High-protein Flours

CAKE MAKING

Cornflour

contammg starch granules embedded in protein and of roughly the same composition as the o"figinal endosperm; (2) Medium sized particles (15-40 microns in diameter) which, being about the same size as the starch granules will consist largely of those granules with some adhering protein; am! (3) Small particles (below 15 microns in diameter) which are made up of broken starch granules and protein matrix. It can be seen that if these fractions can be separated, then flours can be produced of varying composition, both low and high protein, from the same grist. Briefly, the system used is to break up the large endosperm particles and prevent the small particles from adhering to them by passing the flour (or semolina) through arr impact mill. This breaks up and separates the particles by subjecting them to an intense centrifugal force. In this manner the starch granules are broken out of the protein matrix without being shattered. The result is that the smaller particles contain less broken starch and more protein. It is not possible to separate particles of these sizes by normal sieving procedures. Separation is achieved by Air Classification. The stock from the impact mill is carried in a fast moving air stream into a moving wall Volute Chamber, so that the large particles are subjected to a centrifugal force which pulls them out of the air stream, the smaller, lighter, high protein fraction being carried op.. The size at which separation (cuts) takes place is governed by the air velocity, speed and constriction of the classifier. If cuts are made at 15P. and 40p. on a flour from a grist giving normally 10 per cent protein, the smaller particles may contain 20 per cent protein, the medium size particles only 5 per cent protein. Since the particle size of this high protein flour is very small, it is not entirely satisfactory for bread-making. Nevertheless, it is most suitable for the production of 'high ratio' type fruit and cherry cakes as the binding effect of the protein supports the fruit during the critical stages of baking before the batter sets. Cornflour and maize starch are prepared from the cereal Zea Mais, maize or Indian corn. The field maize and the sweet or sugar corn are the two chief species of this plant that are cultivated. There are many varieties of these species grown, but the two chief varieties are known respectively as Flint Maize and Dent Maize. When the corn is ripe the colour of the grain "is a reddish-yellow. Cornflour is virtually 100 per cent starch. The corn-'lssubJecteo to a wet milling: process wllicll first separates the endosperm from the bran and

FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

germ. The starch is then extracted by washing, and dried. Confectioners are familiar with the use of cornflour in making custard fillings... When the cornfumrTs mixed with water or milk and heated to over 1670 F. it swells and becomes gelatinized, and if sufficient .comflour has been used it will set as a thick gelatinous mass. If boiled with water a fairly clear jelly results, which canbe coloured and flavoured to imitate the natural jellies. Cornflour is also used to mix with-wheaLflour in the maki~f_gooaswlii~lU:_~q~a v'ery soft flour and fine texturJ!..--Rice -flour, ~ rice, and rice starch are prepared from the cereal Oryza sativa, or ordinary cultivated rice plant, which grows in tropical regions. When the rice grains or berries are ripe they are harvested and allowed to mature. They are washed, dressed, and ground in the same way as maize. Rice floUl:_i~ useful to the confectioner for dusting purposes because of its gran?~r_n~t~~L a_n.d ~eca:!:!_s~ _C?C its sp~~i~l}faVour: it is emplgye_d. in, making, c.er:_tain kinds. of confectionery, such as rice cakes and b1!_n~ The rice flour gelatinizes at 1766 F. 'It is also used for macaroon goods, as it helps to produce the requisite open texture. Oat flour has been produced for use in flour confectionery, but it is not extensively employed. It was used mainly during the 1939-45 War, as a means of conserving wheaten flour and using home-grown oats when there was no selection of flours for confectionery purposes. There are numerous varieties of potato flour, from the high-grade varieties which will reconstitute to give a satisfactory mashed potato, to the cheaper varieties, which are suitable only for use as admixtures in food products. Potato flour can be used to advantage in short pastry goods and sponge goods, where it helps to improve the shortness of the products and to maintain moistness in the sponges. In the manufacture of slab cakes and sponge goods on ., mass production lines it is very necessary to have a blend of flours, so that a uniform strength can be maintained from month to month. Similarly, in biscuit factories flour blending plays an important part, and it is quite common to find six different varieties of flour being used. In order to bring about a thorough blending, suitable plant is required. These machines can easily be kept clean and are efficient in their working. Similar plants are also invaluable in the preparation of self-raising flour, but in these, modifications must be introduced. B

Rice Flour

Oat Flour

Potato Flour

Flour Blending

CAKE MAKING

Scone Flour or Patent Flour

Self-Raising Flour

Other Flours

In some bakeries it is the practice to make up bulk quantities of flour with the added cR~micals correctly blended in them at the rate of! oz. of powder to each lb. of flour. This procedure not only saves much time when weighing down ,each mixing for scones or powder goods, but it also mcaI!s that there is a flour available containing the 'mixed powder in the correct proportions, which can be used in mixings when only fractional amounts of powder. are required. Thus in a mixing where only i oz. of baking powder are required it will be easier and much more accurate to weigh t lb. of scone flour and use it in the mixing than try to weigh that amount of powder accurately with the bakery scales, and make up the remainder of the flour with ordinary cake flour. This is the product which is sold to the housewife and possesses approximately half the raising power of scone flour. In the Food Standards (Self-Raising Flour) Order S.R. & O. 1946, No. 44, are prescribed the standards to which self-raising flour must conform in so far as its raising power is concerned, i.e., the amount of CO 2 it will produce during baking. Bakers who purchase their self-raising flour, either in bulk or prepacked, should be covered by the terms of sale from the blender or supplier. It is only those bakers who are making their own blend of flour and chemicals who will need to adjust their formula to ensure that the quantities of acid and soda used satisfy the requirements of the Order. , The main provisions in this order govern the amount of carbon dioxide gas which must be liberated during baking. The minimum amount of carbon dioxide which should be released during baking is 0.40 per cent. This minimum figure assures a standard of aeration in the finished product which under normal home baking conditions should be quite satisfactory. While 'white' flours of various types and grades are those most commonly used in the manufacture of flour confectionery products, it is possible to produce most goods using 'brown' flours in direct replacement, except for some adjustment in liquor-content. For the most part, these types of flour are used in rather specialized or proprietary products, although some; as for example wheatmeal scones, are standard lines. These flours can be divided into three categories:

(I) Wheatmeals. These are 'built up' flours obtained from 18

FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

I various streams in the roller milling process. They are produced by an admixture of wheat bran to lower-grade white flour in such proportions as to comply with the legal requirement of 0Âˇ6 per cent fibre based on the dry weight. For flour confectionery purposes the bran should be finely ground to produce a fine wheatmeal. Coarse wheatmeals, except for a few specialized products, are not suitable. (2) Wholemeal. As the name implies, these are flours obtained by grinding the whole of the wheat grain to a fine powder. This, in fact, is the statutory requirement. Much wholemeal flour is roller milled, but there is a specialized market for stoneground flour and cakes made with it . . Again, as is the case with wheatmeal, a finely ground flour is best for use in flour confectionery. (3) Germ Meals. Germ meals are 'built-up' flours containing an admixture of wheat germ to 'white' flour such as to comply with the legal requirement in wheat germ bread of not less than 10 per cent added processed wheat germ (calculated by weight on the dry matter of the bread). These flours are sold under proprietary names, and a whole range of attractive flour confectionery products can be made using them.

Moistening Agents '.<1-!

Water

WATER used for all confectionery purposes must be free from suspended matter, colourless, organically pure, and not too hard. Water is used in the manufacture of flour confectionery, for the making of pastes, such as short pastes, puff pastes, bun goods, and in the reconstitution of milk powder and dried-egg products. Water, a natural constituent of all foods used in manufacturing operations, acts simply as a moistening agent, and adds nothing to the food value of the goods.

Milk \ Milk is probably the most important moistening agent (employed in every bakery, both in bread .and confectionery. A knowledge of its composition, food value, and standard of purity should be of value to those who handle this commodity regularly in baking processes. It is an; emt!lillmj_ designed by nature for the complete sustenance of young animals during the first stages of life, when they are unable to obtain food for themselves. Therefore, milk must of necessity contain all the elements necessary for the nutrition of the body. It consists of fats, carbohydrates, nitrogenous matter of proteins, and mineral salts, all either in solution o~ emulsion with the water. When milk is used in the manufacture of bread or confectionery something is added which must influence the ultimate food value of the goods made with it. Fresh cows' milk, or the products thereof, is the milk used in the bakery. Composition There are considerable variations in the composition of milk fresh from the cow. These variations are due to several causes, such as the time the cow is milked, the food available (for this affects the fat and protein content especially), the breed of t.he cows, period of gestation, and the place where they are reared. All these affect the quality and quantity of milk from each cow. A quart of milk contains about If pints of water. The following analysis of a sample of milk 20

MOISTENING AGENTS

will give an idea of the amounts of the other constituents present: % \Vater Butter fat Proteins {caseinogen albumen Carbohydrates (milk sugar) Mineral salts (ash) Food value in calories

87·34

~:651

0·45 4·54

Solids (not fats) 8·71

O·72J

400 per pint

If the solids (not fats) fall below 8'5 per cent and fats below 3 per cent it is considered that the milk has been adulterated or is sub-standard. Milk is also rich in all the known vitamins (particularly A and B), which are essentials in every food. The proteins of milk are casein and album~ Casein is in the milk as very minute partIcles in the form of a colloidal suspension. When treated with rennet, a ferment secreted by the lining membrane of the cow's stomach, it clots or turns into curds, and becomes more digestible. Milk fat, the most important constituent of butter, is present as minute globules emulsified with the other constituents. On standing, some of the fat settles out, and, as cream, can be skimmed off. Milk Stlgll,f,..orlactose, has the same chemical composition as ordinary cane sugar (C 12H 220 n ), but is not nearly so sweet, nor is it fermentable by yeast; only yeasts conta_ining the enzyme lactase or certain torula can ferment it to produce CO 2 and alcohol. The lactic-acid. bageria.present i'n milk feed on this sugar of the milk, converting the lactose into lactic ac;id. When the concentration of the lactic acid reaches a certain point the casein is precipitated as a curd. Other bacteria are also present in the milk, which help to turn it sour, although their effect is very small as compared with lactic acid bacteria. As a result, when milk is soured, acetic, ~utyris _<tnE_2!:lc_cinic acids are also produced in sI!!~ll quantities. These bacteria are not active at a low temperature. Below 500 F. they do not multiply rapidly. At ordinary temperatures they double themselves every twenty minutes. The mineral salts in milk are needed by the body for bone formation. They consist of phosphates of lime and potash. The human body requires nitrogenous matters (proteins), fats or oils, carbohydrates (sugars), mineral matters, water, and vitamins to carryon the functions oflife. tMilk, when used in cak~s 2:.n~ _~~!.<t.!t:d_[?o_ds, gives excellent results-,- Thefut 91 millLc;Q_I1fers .ric1m~ss ?Il<l bl09.m. The sl,lgar LI1 milk is nQt nearly SQ sweet as cane sugar,., yet 21

CAKE MAKING

it imparts a certain amount of_sweeJn~and .bloolI!_l~~ lectlonerY. The protein has some effect 'l:{n keteping~bals~sl goods IDmsf and meU()w~-l'Ee_mi~eral s~l~.gi'ye 1_ldded food value-an important asset. Milk is used_in many_batter mixi_i!-gsrll1hC1fut.ce_Qf_:eggs. In cheap slabs, when used in conjunction 'Jit!J. nut oils and glycerine, it gives an even texture and assists in keeping the slabs moist. I It is also employed in egg and cornflour custards, and in the preparation of man.yotlierToodstuffs:- . In the bakery separated or skimmed milk is used and gives satisfactory results, less the richness and bloom produced by the butter fat. When the fat is separated from liquid milk the composition is affected as follows. Water Fats Protein Sugar Mineral salts Food value in calories

Milk Powders

Separated, or Skim, Milk Powder

Full-Cream Milk Powder

90·7 0·3 3.7} 4·6 9% solids not fats 0·7 200 per pint

There' are two processes used for reducing milk to the dry state, but the same principle is adopted in each-viz., the evaporation of the moisture at a temperature below the coagulating point of the protein. Spray-dried powders are always to be recommended, since they reconstitute perfectly, whereas roller-dried powders do not always reconstitute perfectly, but give a residue. In spray driers the milk is sprayed under pressure into a drying plant, with a temperature of about 115°-120° F. For roller-dried powders hot rollers are used, when the water evaporates off, leaving milk in the form ofa film, which is later milled into powder. This is generally used in flour confectionery. In producing this type of milk powder, the skim milk left after the cream has been separated for butter manufacture, is used. The separated milk powder so produced is reconstituted by mixing 1 lb. of powder with I gallon of warm water. A paste is made with some of the water, and then the remainder is added and whisked well to mix. It should always be available, since it will keep for quite a considerable period, and in practice gives excellent results. It should be reconstituted some hours before required for use, in order to obtain the best results. This, upon reconstitution with warm water in the proportion of 1 lb. of powder to 8 lb. of water, should yield a fluid with nearly the same composition as fresh milk. It gives practically the same results in use. Full-cream milk powder should only be bought in small quantities and kept 22

MOISTENING AGENTS

in a cool store, since it has a tendency to go rancid because of its high fat content. Full-cream and separated milk powders should have the following approximate composition: Full cream

(%) Moisture Fat Proteins Lactose Mineral salts Total

Separated

(%)

2·5 27·3 26·6 37-6 6·0

3·0 0·8 35·5 52·8 7·9

100·0

100·00

Fresh buttermilk is still used in the manufacture of aerated Buttermilk goods in place of reconstituted milk. It is the by-product obtained in churning the butter from ripened cream. Cream is ripened by means of special bacterial cultures, and when a suitable acidity has been developed it is transferred to a churn. The butter separates out, and what is left is known as buttermilk. It contains approximately go per cent water and 10 per cent milk solids-i.e. traces offat, proteins, milk sugar, mineral salts, and lactic acid. The longer it is kept, the more lactic acid it will contain, usually about 0,8-1 per cent. Owing to the presence of the lactic acid in the milk, it is not necessary to use the same proportion ofcream of tartar in baking, powder as is the case when making aerated goods with fresh or reconstituted milk. The lactic <:Lcid of the bu~termilk has a neutralizing effect on bicarbonate of soda\ The usual proportions when using buttermilk are three parts of cream of tartar to two parts of bicarbonate of soda, instead of four parts of cream of tartar to two parts of bicarbonate of soda, which are the quantities generally used with fresh or reconstituted milk. ~e lactic acid of the buttermilk_ also has an important physic'!l _Cl,C;tlQU _on the gluten of the flour, a!l-9 ~o ma_tur.es_ it.; The protein also plays an important part in the production of good voiume .and keeping qualities. Thus_ ~hen guttermilk is used, scones and 'aerated goods are obtained with a grc5,l,ter volume and are softer and moister tb~n,_those_.rrUl.de with ordinary milkl With a sample of buttermilk possessing an acidity of 0·8- 1 per cent, sufficient aeration, in soda breads, can be obtained by using buttermilk and soda, the latter at the rate of 2t oz. per stone (14 lb.) of flour. Such soda bread will have excellent keeping qualities.

CAKE MAKING

Dried powdered buttermilk is now being produced. The following analyses indicate the compositio\{ ofliquid buttermilk and of dried buttermilk powder. BUTTERMILK

Water Fat Sugar

Protein Ash Acidi9'

Whey Powder

Dried (%)

Liquid (%)

6·0 4·7 39·4 36·7 6·6

90·0 0·5 4·2 3·9 0·7

6·6

0·7

Whey can be dried to produce a powder which can be used in confectionery, and the product obtained from reconstituting is a water-looking fluid. A modified milk powder derived from whey skim milk and vegetable fats is made today. It reconstitutes easily to produce a liquid resembling milk in appearance. It possesses the property of increasing the volume of goods in which it is used, and preventing rapid staling. In slab cakes it gives increased volume and good cutting qualities. It has no binding action when used either in fermented goods or cakes. It can also be used in bread and rolls, being particularly useful in sliced bread and toast bread.

Eggs and Egg Products

(_ EGGS are one of the ~ost important of the raw ingredients used in the manufacture of confectionery, because they are used in the majority of products; in fact, many of the goods could not be made without them. Eggs in themselves are an easily digested foodstuff. ) All varieties of birds' eggs can be used for cooking, as Sources oj Supply their chemical composition is nearly always alike, although they differ in flavour, but the chief sources of our supplies are hens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and various water fowls. English new-laid hen eggs are most commonly used in confectionery work, but supplies of shell eggs are also imported from Ireland, Denmark, Poland, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. Frozen eggs are produced in Great Britain today, but some supplies are still obtained from Poland, Australia and the United States. Dried egg is produced in this country both by spray drying and the newer A.F.D. process. (.Eggs when used in confectionery perform many im- Functions oj Eggs portant functions. Firstly, because of the amount of moisture they contain, they act as'.!llOistening agents. Secondly, by reason of the property they possess of film formation, whereby they can take up large quantities of air when they are whisked, they act as aerating agents.. Thirdly, their chemical composition is such that they act as enriching agents in the goods made. Fourthly, they are valuable as emulsifying agglts and fifthly they are an important structuraLi.ng!e_dient. Thus t~_!!ot only i!lcrease .the food value of I. fl.()u.rsonfectionery but they <!-.lยงq .impart a better. .s.tr.lli;lllre, fljlvour,. colqUI:" and a eara:qce, a!.V~f l;Yhich qu~lities are of the greatesLimportance. Shell eggs vary in weight from Ii to 21 oz. each, but the average weight of a full-sized hen's egg is 2 oz., or 8 eggs weigh I lb. There are three different parts of the egg to consider: (I) the shell; (2) white or jelly-like albumen;

CAKE MAKING

(3) yellow-coloured yolk. These parts bear about the ~"i following proportion to each other: Shell and membrane Albumen or whites Yolks

gm. 7 32 17

100

56 (or 2 oz. approx.)

12 or in weight 58" " 30

These are only approximate weights, and may differ slightly according to the size of the eggs. When the eggs are . smaller than this they are dearer to use, owing to the extra weight of the shell compared with the useable ingredients. It may be convenient here also to give the approximate measure of the various portions of the average-sized eggs: eggs equal 1 pint eggs egg whites equal 1 pint whites 32-36 egg yolks equal 1 pint yolks 12

Shell eggs are purchased by the weight of a 'long hundred' which is 120 eggs, or by the case, which consists of three 'long hundreds'. The weights may be from 15 to 18 lb. according to size. Sometimes lower weights are marketed, but by these standards competitive buying can be carried out. The following is an average chemical composition of the edible portion of hens' eggs, which shows how the constituents are distributed:

CONSTITUENTS Moisture Proteins Fats Mineral salts Organic (non-nitrogenous) Food value in calories per lb.

Whole egg minus shell

Albumen or whites

(%)

(%) 86·55 12·65 0·25 0·55

73-6S

12·55 12·15

0·55 100·00 720

100·00 250

Yolks

(%)

50·44 16·05 32·14 0·82 0·55 100·00 1,700

The following points can be seen from this table: I.

The high moisture content of the whites and whole

egg. 2. The relatively high fat content of the yolks. ' 3. The high food value of the yolks compared with that of the whites.

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

The egg shells consist largely of phosphate and calcium Egg Shells carbonate deposited upon a thin membrane which encloses the liquid portion. It is about I I per cent of the whole egg. The egg white, or albumen, consists chiefly of a complex Whites rif Eggs mixture of proteins, such as albumen, globulins, etc., and about t per cent of mineral salts. This liquid portion is enclosed in firm fibrous material, which forms membranous cells throughout the mass. The membrane is insoluble in water and in dilute acid and alkali solutions. The albumen . is miscible in water. The firmer or more jelly-like the whites are, the better they are for confectioners' purposes. It is the presence in the whites of this membranous matter which makes them so useful to confectioners. When egg whites are I whisked they give rise to an assemblage of small air cells . . This is because the membranous matter provides a structure on which the protein solution can form thin cells in which air is entangled. Anything that tends to destroy this fibrous structure will render the pr?duction of a stiff foam impossible. (Traces of egg yolk~, oily substances, or flour, or dilution of any kind break the filmy cells as fast as they are formed when whites are whisked. 'Whites which have been separated from yolks and kept for a few days in a cool place will whisk up more rapidly than whites which have been newly separated. The improvement in whipping power is probably due to a change in pH value, possibly brought about by enzyme action. Such whites may have ~~ of 6. Eresh ~white is alk~line (pH 8Âˇ6-gÂˇ0), but after standing for a day or two it will 'Change in pH, according to temperature of storage. A little sugar added during whisking will aid foam formation. This may, in part, be due to the formation of syrup, but it may also more likely be due to the effect of the sugar granules assisting in the subdivision of the air cells before they are dissolved. The stability of sugar-egg-white foam is largely influenced by the pH of the whites. J:he lower the pH, the more stable the foam. Weak and watery whites are deficient in membranous matter, and are difficult to whisk up. They may be toughened slightly during whisking by the addition of a weak acid solution, but care must be taken not to add too much, since whites are coagulated by a slight excess of acid. Acids, such as acetic, lactic, and tartaric, possess the power of coagulating egg whites, so acids should be used sparingly. They are also coagulated under the influence of heat, coagulation commencing at about 1460 F., and being completed at 160 F. When coagulated the albumen is no 0

CAKE MAKING

Egg Yolks

longer miscible in water, and so loses its power of holding air and being whisked up to a stiff foam. ~"i I Egg whites are chiefly used as aerating and moisteningJ agents by the confectioner. T~ds made with whites are cold and boiled meringues, macaroons and desert biscuits> rpyal icing, and certain types of cakes. Whites used alone must be whisked, entangling air bubbles until a stiff foam is formed. In the oven the air expands until the sides of the cell walls have been coagulated by the heat. Thus the goods are aerated. This coagulation under heat is a peculiar characteristic of egg albuIIJen. No other foamproducing body possesses this characteristic to the same degree; some foams produced from milk products tend to collapse as the enmeshed gases (air, CO 2, etc.) expand and distend the cells beyond the breaking point when heated in the oven, although there is one well-known product which is very satisfactory. ' Egg whites from duck, geese, and water-fowl eggs are more difficult to whisk up than whites from hens' eggs. Egg whites with the shells are also used for clarifying or making clear syrups, soups, and jellies, because of their coagulating properties, whereby the heat of the boiling syrup causes formation of a tough scum in which impurities are satisfactorily entangled. The chemical composition of the y.olks is more complex than that of the whites. The yolk is the substance provided by nature to feed the chick during its period of development, and so there are more solids present than in whites. It contains the proteins nuclein and vitellin, and certain phosphorized fatty substances, the main one being lecithin, which is an important eIl,lulsifying agent. There is a white solid alcohol, cholesterol; and. a non-nitrogenous body, cerebrin. These are important food substances for the building up of the nervous tissues of the body. The yolks contain fully 30 per cent of fats, which are identical with those occurring in animal bodies-namely, olein and stearin, with small quantities of palmitin and other fatty glycerides. There is about I per cent of mineral salts in the yolks and another important substance, lutein, a yellow colouring' matter which contains iron in organic combination which is easily assimilated, and thus adds to the food value of the yolks. It is present to the extent of about! per cent, and the distinctive colour of eggs or goods made with eggs is due to this. The coagulation of yolks takes place at a higher temperature than that of the whites. They commence to co-

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

agulate at about 160° F., and are completely coagulated at 178°F. " The yolk of an egg is more valuable as a foodstuff than the white, not only from an energy standpoint but also in that it contains certain vitamins, but commercially it has not the same value. The latter cOIl}mands a higher value on account of its aerating properties./ Yolks cannot be beaten stiff like the whites, owing to the presence of so much fatty matter. They can, however, be whisked to retain a certain amount of air, because of the presence of small quantities of albumen'! r Xolks colousJIavour,__ enrich, ..and_ shor.ten. th~.g~mds in whli;h .they -are -used, .and bec:;au_se of their emulsifying properties help to keep cakes moist and mellow. \ Whole eggs are capable of aeratin their own wei ht of ~an on t IS IS ase t e correct aeration of cakes. If a greater weight of flour than eggs is used in a cake batter, then some other form of aeration must be employed to aerate the extra flour.! When breaking shell eggs it is necessary to take care that musty eggs do not gain access. Each egg, when broken, should be smelt, since one musty egg would spoil a whole mixing of cake, and there is no means of hiding or evading the consequences of using such an egg. These eggs must be used within 24 hours of breaking, during which time the liquid egg must be held at a temperature below 50° F. In the making of sponge goods, eggs are, whisked up with sugar until a light foam is obtained. The whisking of the eggs is accomplished easily if no grease or flour is present with the sugar, especially when heated to 75° ·F. over a bainmarie. When warming the eggs, care must be taken to prevent them becoming too hot. They should be heated only until lukewarm. 'In cake making by the suga!"-batter method the eggs should not be added too quickly or in too large quantities after the fat and sugar have been creamed. Every addition of eggs should be thoroughly creamed in, or the cakes will have a closS texture and will be he~vy~Ifthey are added in large quantities the batter will curdle. Two at a time to each pound of fat are quite sufficient. The eggs should be heated to the same temperature as the batter, 75° F., otherwise curdling may occur. The shell of an egg is porous, and consequently permits of a passage of air and putrifying organisms. In course of time this brings about evaporation of the moisture in the

Use of Eggs

Preservation of Eggs

CAKE MAKING

egg and permits bacterial decomposition of the protein compounds present. The various methods of preserving eggs in their shells have for their object the closing of the pores, and the prevention of decomposition. There are two methods of detecting whether an egg is stale or not. One is to hold the egg up to '!- b_right light. The egg is fresh if it appears perfectly clear and transparent, with only a faint indication of an air chamber at the end. An egg that is beginning to go bad will show a cloudy appearance, and a dark opaque mass is shown in an extremely bad egg. Another method of testing whether an egg is fresh or not is to place it in a 10 per cent salt solution-that is, 4 oz. of salt in a quart of water at 75 F. A fresh egg will sink in this solution. The older it is, the lighter it becomes, and consequently it will float. Decomposition is attended by gas production, and this makes a bad egg lighter than one that is good. This is about the best test for fresh eggs. Another test sometimes employed is the old one of holding the larger end of the egg against the tongue, when a good egg will feel warm. Quite a number of processes have been devised for preserving eggs either in the shells or without shells. Some imported eggs are chilled, the eggs being held at a low temperature, just above freezing point. This will keep them fresh for quite a long time; however, owing to the porous nature of the shells, they lose weight as evaporation takes place. This difficulty is overcome by covering them with a protective film, which closes the pores of the shells and keeps the eggs free from the action of air for a time. This process, known as 'oiling', is carried out extensively nowadays. A 10 per cent solution of silicate of soda, commonly known as water glass, is widely used domestically for this purpose. Storage in lime water is nearly as good. The fresh eggs are packed in stonewarejars, and the solution poured over them so as to cover them completely. If water glass is used the eggs will keep satisfactorily for about twelve months. One method of preserving eggs by freezing is to remove them from their shells, mix them well together, and preserve them in sealed containers of various sizes by freezing and keeping them frozen until required for use. Such eggs are as good to use when they are thawed out as fresh eggs, provided they were good when originally frozen and that they are defrosted properly. All whole egg used in the food industry is required by law to be pasteurized at not less than 1480 F. for at least 2t minutes. Sodium citrate is added to the pulp in some 0

Frozen Eggs

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

countries but not in the U.K., to lower the viscosity and so prevent damage to 'the egg during pasteurization. In tests where commercially citrated pasteurized frozen egg and uncitrated pasteurized egg were compared with untreated frozen egg, the sponges produced from the untreated egg were of slightly less volume than the citrated and pasteurized egg sponges, and the texture was slightly less fine. Commercially pasteurized samples of eggs, while giving sponges of a fine even texture, were not quite so tender in the crumb as commercially pasteurized and citrated egg sponges, or as untreated egg sponges. From the experience gained with such eggs, it appears that pasteurization alters slightly the baking quality of the egg, but this small change is considered to be more than compensated for by the increased safety in use due to the lower bacterial content and the complete destruction of any Salmonella bacteria which may be present. To defrost these eggs, the containers should be placed under running water, and the cold water should be allowed to circulate around the container until all the frost has been removed. The container should then be opened and the contents placed in a bowl and well stirred together. The eggs should be allowed to stand until they gradually acquire the same temperature as the bakehouse. They are then ready for use, and must be utilized as quickly as is convenient. These eggs will not keep very long after they are defrosted. Some confectioners who use frozen eggs obtain them on the day previous to that on which they will be required for use and leave them in the bakery until the frost has all gone. This method of defrosting is quite satisfactory, provided no artificial heat is used to take out the frost. Some people make the mistake of applying heat to the containers, and then condemn the eggs, whereas it is their own bad practice that is at fault. If it is not possible to use all the eggs on one day, then the quantity which is left over should be placed in the refrigerator until the following day, or they can be mixed with a definite quantity of sugar, but they should not be kept longer than 2-3 days. At least 4 oz. of sugar should be added to each pound of eggs to keep them sound until the following day. The sugar thus added must be allowed for in the mixings in which they are ultimately used. The whites and yolks are often separated, placed in containers, and frozen separately. The whites command a higher price than the yolks. When defrosted they are handy for use, and will whisk up just as readily as whites freshly

Difrosting Eggs

CAKE MAKING

Sugar-preserved Eggs

Dried or Desiccated Eggs

separated. The yolks are used largely by biscuit manufacturers and in large slab-cake factories. ~..,{ Liquid egg which has been pasteurized is nowadays supplied in bulk, in insulated containers which hold it at a low temperature. From these it is pumped into holding vessels in the bakery. Sugar-preserved eggs when obtainable can be used for almost all kinds of goods. These eggs have usually 25 per cent of their moisture evaporated off and 25 per cent of sugar added to take its place. When using these eggs allowances must be made for the sugar contained in them, and a proportion of water must be added to reconstitute them ready for use as ordinary eggs. Thus, if it is desired to use 4 lb. of these eggs 1 lb. of water must be added to the 4 lb., resulting in 4 lb. of eggs and I lb. of sugar. Another modern method of preserving eggs is to evaporate the egg yolks to a thick syrup, adding a proportion of glycerine before concentration. The function of the glycerine is to assist uniform drying and to provide mechanical support to the oil globules as their surrounding fluid shrinks under the evaporation process. Thus, no overdesiccated fragments of egg are formed, and the whole mass is uniformly smooth, while the oil globules are not disrupted. Without glycerine, shrinkage of the surrounding fluid causes collapse of the oil globules. Certain colloid substances will act in the same manner, and these can certainly not be regarded as 'preservatives' (in the usual sense of the word). To reconstitute such a concentrated yolk, use 2 parts water to every 7 parts of the concentrated yolk. However, the commercial practice is for certain large manufacturers to buy all the concentrated yolk imported and to mix with appropriate quantities of water and of crystal albumen to produce a 'double-strength' egg. Such a double egg requires its own weight of water for reconstitution, and if properly manufactured will be quite as satisfactory as other forms of eggs for making sponge cakes. The double-strength egg, as described above, will keep in a cool place for several weeks, and does not require actual cold storage. The pH of such egg is usually ~orrected to normal. Desiccated whole eggs, whites, or yolks are also largely in use in the manufacture of confectionery. These are prepared by evaporating the water from the liquid eggs at a temperature below their coagulation point, temperatures below 1240 F. usually being employed. Various methods are used to reduce the eggs to a dry state; one method, the spray process, is to force them under pressure in the form

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

of a spray into a chamber, the temperature of which is kept below 125° F. This procedure dries the egg quickly, which then falls to the floor as a powder. Another method formerly used, the roller method, is to spread the eggs as a film on a roller, at a temperature of 125°. This gave a rich yellow solid which readily powdered, but which did not reconstitute as well as the spray-dried eggs. Whole egg powder is reconstituted by taking 1 part by weight of the powder and 3 parts of tepid water, and mixing well together with a whisk and stirring occasionally for one to three hours. These eggs are ready for use after about one hour's soaking. Some of these dried-egg powders are satisfactory in the making of cakes, but will not whisk up sufficiently light to make normal sponge cakes. Other varieties possess little aerating power and can be used only when a modified baking technique is employed. This is a product prepared by evaporating water at very low pressures from pasteurized whole egg which has previously been frozen in thin layers on trays at -35° F. Since the water is removed from the solid phase (ice) at low temperatures, the harmful effects normally associated with dehydration are largely avoided, and by careful control of the process and the use of small quantities of permitted additives it is claimed that the final product when reconstituted is comparable in performance to liquid whole egg. It is a granular free-flowing powder with an odour less strong than spray-dried egg, which reconstitutes easily with water at about 100° F. A recent development in the production of dried whole egg and A.F.D. egg is the removal of glucose by the addition of glucose oxidase, catalase, and hydrogen. This extends the shelf life of the product. This is prepared in two ways, one by the so-called fermentation process, the other by the straight drying process at reduced pressure or under vacuum. In the fermentation process the whites are placed in large vessels having a capacity of 4,000 lb. and left for 3-4 days. During this time a scum forms dn the top, which is removed at the end of this period. After the requisite time the whites are placed on trays and dried at a temperature below 125° F., when the product known as crystal albumen is obtained. During the fermentation process certain chemical changes occur, including a shift of the pH from the alkaline to the acid region. In natural egg whites some of the protein ions 33

Accelerated Freeze-dried egg (A.P.D.)

Dried Albumen

CAKE MAKING

are negatively charged at the normal pH of the white and form albuminates of the various bases (Ca,:iNa, etc.). When fermentation has proceeded to below their iso-electric points these proteins become positively charged, and act as basic radicals. This materially affects the baking qualities of the finished product, yielding an albumen of much greater strengtli. In the straight process a dried albumen is produced which can only be kept satisfactorily in cold storage. This does not form such a good foam when reconstituted and whipped, and so possesses inferior baking qualities. J. R. Hawthorn worked out a procedure for preparing straight dried albumen by fermenting the naturally occurring glucose in egg white by means of bakers' compressed yeast and subsequently separating the yeast by centrifuging. From tests carried out, it was shown that the samples of albumen obtained were equal in quality to the best samples obtained by natural bacterial fermentation. The quantity of yeast employed was at the rate of I per cent of the egg white, at g8Â° F. for Il hours followed by drying at 122 F. for 5-7 hours and a further 12-15 hours at 86Â° F. Today dried albumen must be pasteurized before it can be used in products in which it is not subjected to any heat treatment or cooking, i.e. icings and some meringue goods. All dried albumen today is subject to the closest bacteriological control before it can be sold for use in any type of confection, even when subsequently baked. The whites, when dried separately from the yolks, are reconstituted by adding 7 parts of water to I part of dried albumen, i.e. 3 oz. to the pint of water, mixing well, then stirring occasionally for 3 or 4 hours before use. This gives a product similar to ordinary egg whites, and can be used in the same manner, but requires more whisking to make a light meringue. It may be left overnight with good results, and is very good for making royal icing and macaroons. A spray-dried yolk powder can be produced having a moisture content of slightly less than 5 per cent. Like the whole egg powders, such sprayed yolks do not disperse freely in water, and are not suitable for making sponge cakes. They are reconstituted by adding an equal weight of water to them. Dried eggs are not of the same value to the confectioner as frozen or shell eggs. 0

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

The following table gives the average chemical composition of dried eggs products: CONSTITUENTS Moisture Proteins Fats Mineral salts Undetermined

Whole

Whites (%)

6·45 47·85 40-45 4·15 1-10

14-17 78·84 Traces 4·65 0·14

I egg (%) I

100·00

Yolks (%) 5·05 33·95 54·26 3-65 3·09

100·00

For the reconstitution of dried yolks and albumen to replace frozen or dried egg in cake making, to 13 lb. of water add I! lb. of crystal albumen and allow to stand overnight. Then whisk in by hand 3 lb. of sifted egg yolks and the mixture is ready for use. This mixture is unsuitable for sponge or choux paste manufacture, using conventional methods. When no type of egg other than dried egg is available for sponge making various methods can be tried to produce satisfactory foams to give light sponge products. To overcome the lack of foaming qualities, the addition of boiling syrups with increased acidity has been used, but these methods, while giving fairly good results, are not practicable for large-scale commercial production, since they require more labour. For cake making, however, most grades of dried egg produce satisfactory results, for it has been shown that solubility is of greater importance than foaming power, since aeration of cakes does not solely depend on the egg.

This was one of the most outstanding developments of the J 939-45 War. I. This is a product containing approximately 33-34 per cent of sugar incorporated with the egg. It is produced by mixing in the appropriate quantity of sugar with the liquid egg and spray-drying the mixture. It must be stored in airtight containers, as it is hygroscopic. When such egg is reconstituted it can be treated like frozen or fresh shell egg. It whips well and possesses good oven spring. To reconstitute, use 33 oz. of water per pound of dried egg. In the use of this egg, better results may be obtained with some formulae using 28-30 oz. of water per pound egg for reconstitution, but this should be determined by individual experience.

Sugar-dried Egg

CAKE MAKING

2. Use cold or tepid water, since the egg is very soluble. Sprinkle and stir the egg in the water, wheri" it will readily dissolve. 3. The temperature employed for whisking should not exceed 70Â° F., as the sugar-egg mixture aerates readily and will become oveI-~eaten if higher temperatures are used. Whisking on top speed may produce the maximum volume in 6-7 minutes, with a second speed 15-20 minutes. 4. In general, all sponge batters with sugar-dried egg should be slightly underbeaten. Overbeating produces a very light foam, which shows a tendency to run back when the flour is added, while shrinkage will also occur in the oven. 5. Sponge cakes of standard quality can be produced without the use of baking powder. With machine working, normal formulae and practice will produce very satisfactory results. Baking powder should be used only in recipes in which it is a usual constituent. 6. Sugar-dried egg can be used with success with the 'all-in' method, but adjustment of baking powder is essential, a reduction of 33 per cent being possible. Beating time also can be reduced to about half. 7. In cake increased volume is obtained and adjustment of baking powder is necessary. EGG RECONSTITUTION TABLE FOR SUGAR-DRIED EGG

(I lb. sugar-dried egg-2 lb. water) Liquid egg required

Egg powder sugar-dried

lb. oz.

I 2 3 5

10 4 8

12 0

Pints

2 3 4

lb. oz.

1 1 1

7t 15 6t 14

Sugar in egg mix to be deducted from recipe

I Water

2 3

"15 14 13

Pints

i 1

oz.

It 2t

The usual method of obtaining the aeration in sponge goods consists in whisking the eggs and sugar together. The temperature of the mixture should be about 75Â° F. It should be whisked until the batter is light-that is, when the impressions made by the whisk take a few seconds to flow level. Time taken should be about 7 minutes. The flour should be carefully sifted. When baking powder is used it is sifted with the flour. The flour is carefully mixed in by hand when the batter is light, until it is cleared. Where butter or oil are added, they are added in a warm liquid state before

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

adding the flour; care must be taken when mixing in the flour, otherwise the batter will become heavy owing to the breakage of air cells, and the cakes will bake out leathery. Where milk or water is used, it is mixed in after beating up the eggs and sugar; then the flour is mixed through until clear. Flavours and colours may be added to the batter before adding the flour, in order to produce any desired variety of flavoured and coloured cake. When large-machine whisking is carried out the method of procedure is the same. The Morton Pressure Whisk and Oakes Continuous Mixer have revolutionized the manufacture of sponges and cakes and have made modifications of method and recipes essential. Fruit juices and jams may also be added to sponges during whisking to obtain very light well-flavoured sponge goods owing to the extra acidity of these products, but allowance must be made for the sugar in these products, as well as acidity, which will speed up the foam formation. There are many powders on the market sold as substitutes Egg for eggs. These so-called egg powders, or extenders, bear no Substitutes relation whatever to eggs except in colour. They are composed mainly of soya flour and cornflour, or other starches, with an addition of baking powder, colouring matter, and milk powder or some milk product or some other type of albuminous matter. They provide aeration, but do not perform the same functions as eggs. It is interesting, however, to trace the development of these products. Prior to 1939 most of the substitutes were liquid, some consisting of hydrolized starch with the addition of colour and bicarbonate of soda to render them alkaline. Later, soya flour was introduced in some of the liquid mixtures, but with the use of soya flour, dry mixes began to appear. With the outbreak of war and the cessation of supplies of frozen egg, substitutes of all types appeared, and so numerous were they, that eventually in 1942 the Ministry of Food had to control them by a system of licensing. These products contained the following range of substances: soya flour, wheaten flour, starch, gum karaya, gum arabic, dextrin, casein, oat flour, rye flour, sodium bicarbonate, semolina, whey concentrates, dried yeast, gelatine, albumen, etc. Altogether, over forty different products were used in the compounding of the whole range of products which were marketed, many of them completely

CAKE MAKING

valueless. Following on the action of the Ministry of Food, these products were licensed as 'egg extei'rClers', as they could not in any way be regarded as substitutes for egg. Some of them did successfully extend the use of the small quantities of egg available at the time. From 1942 onwards dried egg suppli\;s !Jecame available in greater quantities, and while some egg extenders found a ready sale, the numbers licensed steadily decreased, and only the better types survived. By 1946 the demand for a better product was manifested, and lactalbumen mixed with mineral salts, together with lactic acid and lactose, appeared in some of the products. The following year, Locust Kernel Gum (carob), mixed with sodium alginate and wheaten flour and colour, was introduced, and later, additions of milk powder, blood plasma, and fish albumen were made to various products. When egg substitutes were analysed for what should be their main constituents, water, protein, and fat, they were rarely found to contain any significant quantity of protein or fat, but generally more than their anticipated water content when reconstituted as recommended. When baking tests were carried out using many substitutes in a 50 per cent replacement of whole egg the results obtained were rarely better than those which could be obtained by a rebalancing of the recipe by a straight replacement of the normal ingredients. When eggs are available there is little justification for use of the so-called egg extender in confectionery production.

Egg-white Substitute

Prior to the war, there were no egg white substitutes of any real merit, but gelatine was sometimes used. In 1941 lowgrade albumen mixtures with soya, or wheaten flour were introduced, while later, mixtures of gums, soya, dextrins, and wheaten flour were marketed which were, in the main, useless. In 1947 milk products, skim milk and whey powders, and lactalbumen appeared on the market, and while satisfactory foams and meringues could be produced, some of the products would not stand up to baking temperature. Blood plasma has also been used. In 1949 cellulose ether and derivatives of various kinds were introduced, and while these possess no nutritional value, they produce exct;).lent foams from which good meringues and other confectionery products can be obtained. There are today numerous albuminous powders obtainable as substitutes for whites of eggs. These contain various

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

proportions of protein matter, such as gelatine, blood albumen, casein, and gums. They are greyish-looking powders sold under various trade names. When dissolved in water and whisked they hold a certain amount of air, but not always to the same extent as egg whites. Some fail to aerate the goods to the same lightness as egg whites, because the cells tend to burst when heated. The result is, the products either fail to rise sufficiently, or if they rise lightly they may collapse again before cooking is finished. Owing to the absence of membranous matter, some of these substitutes are very suitable for the making of royal, or very white, icing. The membranous matter in egg whites tends to make the icing greyish.

Baking Fats

FATS are the primary enriching agents used in flour confectionery, and those which are used must be of a digestible __---!lature. For this reason orily the vegetable and animal fats ----are suitable, since hydrocarbon oils and fats cannot be digested in the human system. If any such fats were used violent indigestion would be caused. Oils and fats embrace a very wide range of substances, and because of the important part they play in bakery operations, it is essential to know not only their relative digestive properties but also something of their chemical and physical properties. If a substance of this class is liquid at the ordinary temperature (15 0 C.) it is termed an oil, while if it is solid under the same conditions it is termed a fat. Bakers' oils and fats are generally colourless or pale yellow, and possess one property which is familiar to all, and that is their greasiness, which is somewhat different from the greasiness of other oils in a way which cannot be defined easily. To the majority of people an oil or fat is a substance which, when smeared on paper or any surface, makes a greasy mark difficult to remove. This idea of greasiness does not help at all in differentiating between the different types of oils and fats: In order to do this, it is necessary to turn to the chemical viewpoint, which states that all animal fats and vegetable oils and fats are mixtures of glycerides, a glyceride being a substance which breaks down under certain conditions to produce glycerine and a fatty acid. In this the animal and vegetable oils and fats differ from mineral and essential oils. Another difference from mineral oils is saponification on treatment with caustic soda. Glyceride ~ Glycerine

+ Fatty acid

This change can be brought about in other ways. Chemically, fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

BAKING FATS

In order to understand the varying physical properties of fats, especially concerning their solidity or hardness, it is important to know something of the glycerides which are present in fats. Fats are complex mixtures of glycerides, some of which are liquid and some solid at room temperature. To illustrate the properties of glycerides it is interesting to compare the characteristics of the five simple triglycerides.

Olein Lauricin Liquid at ordinary temperatures. Myristin Palmitin}. . Stearin Sohd at ordmary temperatures. The first three are liquids, while the fifth is a waxy substance and the fourth is of an intermediate consistency. From this it will be clear that the firmness of a fat depends on the proportion of stearin present; the greater the amount present, the firmer the fat. This has been taken advantage of in the production of the wide range of hydrogenated fats and cake margarines now produced for the convenience of handling by the confectioner. These five are known as 'fixed fats', because they do not evaporate or lose weight when distilled with water. Animal fats are generally solid; mutton fat contains a high percentage of stearin, so is very firm; beef fat contains considerable quantities of olein and myristin, and so is much less firm and approximates more to the consistency of butter. Butter, margarine, and neutral fats are a mixture of these five glycerides in varying proportion. In butter an important glyceride is butyrin. Most of the fats which are obtained from vegetables are fluid and oily at ordinary temperatures, while at lower temperatures they attain a solid consistency. For example, in cold weather cotton-seed oil will solidify, as also will olive oil and many other vegetable oils. Vegetable oils can be classified on their capacity for drying-that is, their capability of producing a hard film when exposed to the air as a thin layer. (1) Non-drying oils. (2) Semi-drying oils. (3) Drying oils.

The best-known non-drying oil is olive oil, while others which are almost completely in this category, but are generally classed as semi-drying, are cotton-seed oil, sesame

CAKE MAKING

oil, arachis oil, soya-bean oil, all of which are good cooking oils and are used in margarine manufacture--: Drying oils are required by the painter, and linseed oil is the best, this being an oil which dries very rapidly. Such an oil would not be satisfactory as a food. It is obvious th~t for foodstuffs a non-drying oil is the ideal, and only those which approximate to this are suitable, especially from the view-point of digestibility. There are some vegetable fats which find use in confectionery either for direct incorporation in products or for manufacturing fats. Such fats are palm-kernel oil, coconut oil, cocoa butter, and shea-nut butter. Now turning to the animal world, it is found that the fats available can be divided into four classes, but here the source of the fat is the consideration, not some physical property. \

(I) Solid body fats. (2) Animal oils. (3) Milk fats. '. (4) Fish and marineianimal oils.

The most important of the first class is lard, while suet or beef fat is equally important for 'certain products. Of the second class there is one oil, lard oil, which is well known. This is the more liquid portion of lard, and is prepared by expressing it out of the lard, when lard stearine is left behind. Of the third class, butter is the most important, and it differs from all other fats because of the presence of certain volatile fatty acids to which the flavour is due-a fact of great importance when its identification is in question. In the fourth class there are many fish oils used today in margarine manufacture-salmon oil, herring oil, whale oil, and others which are deodorized. When margarine is made with such oils there is always a danger of a fishy odour being imparted to the finished products unless great care is taken in hydrogenation and refining.

Practical Application of Oils and Fats

The generally accepted view of the influence of fats and oils in bread and confectionery is that the fat effects a mechanical hindrance on the flour particles, and so prevents their cohesion, and if sufficiently large quantities are used it eventually produces a dough possessing no cohesion. In cake-making it is their emulsifying properties which are all-important as well as their capacity to occlude air during the creaming process. It is not considered that any chemical change takes place, since the fat, being insoluble in water, is

BAKING FATS

not absorbed by the flour, but is merely mixed among it in such a way that it causes a separation of the flour particles and an emulsion. As a result, the elasticity of the dough produced from the flour in which fat or oil has been mixed is different from that of a dough containing no added fat, and the quality known as shortness is conferred on the products. When used in small quantities oils and fats actually seem to cause a modification in the nature of the gluten of the flour through some possible protective colloidal action. When larger quantities are used there results a more complete dispersion of the fats and oils in the mixings and the formation of emulsions. :Most fats and oils are either colourless or possess a pale yellow tint. They are insoluble in and immiscible with water, but are readily soluble in ea~h other, and so can be mixed in varying proportions, and should be without taste or odour. Any flavour or odour they possess points to imperfect refining, or partial decomposition due to rancidity setting in. If any flavour is present it is generally an indication of the source of the fat, and today is a sign of inferior quality. Fats are soluble in certain solvents, such as ether and benzene, some of which are used for their extractio.n from the raw materials in their manufacture. All fats have a definite slip point, which differs with each fat, this representing the amount of solid fat in the mixture. The specific gravity of most fats is from O'gI to 0Âˇ97. There are many constants which have to be observed by the manufacturer if he desires to produce a regular product. Rancidity has also to be guarded against, and in order to do this the oils and fats must be properly refined and stored afterwards. Rancidity develops in the presence of air, light, and moisture, so that the best place to store fats is a dark room which, however, must be kept scrupulously clean. With rancidity an unpleasant flavour develops, due to decomposition of the glycerides. The cause of rancidity is gradually being solved. There are two main causes, one being that the process is one of oxidation, the other.that it is caused by bacterial action. A. There are two stages of decomposition when the oxidation theory is considered.

(I) Hydrolysis of glycerides to form free fatty acids and glycerol. (2) Oxidation of acids and glycerol; this is formed on interaction of the oxidation products, the resulting com43

Properties of Oils and Fats

CAKE MAKING

pounds being responsible for the unpleasant taste and odour of rancid fat. ~..,'

Functions and Uses of Fats

B. Rancidity is also considered to be produced by the action of zymogen, which in the presence of warmth and moisture produ~es Jipases, thus forming fatty acids. Fats used for cooking purposes, such as frying doughnuts, should stand heating to a temperature of at least 4000 F. without undergoing decomposition. Inferior fats will decompose below this temperature and cause noxious smells.

in Confectionery

(I) Nutritional Value to Provide Energy (2) To Provide Flavour

(3) Influence on Keeping Qualities (4) Emulsifying Properties

Fats are used in confectionery for a variety of reasons: As the fat is broken dowIl by metabolic processes within the body during the process of digestion calories are released which are transferred to the body as heat, or as energy. If a fat possesses flavour, such as butter or margarine, it will impart that flavour to any articles in which it is incorporated. A flavourless shortening, however, can affect the flavour of a cake. Any off flavours will be imparted to the cake. Fat, by its emulsifying action, holds the aqueous portion of a cake batter and so prevents the cake from drying out to a certain degree. A cake batter is an emulsion consisting of a fatty phase and a phase composed of the remaining ingredients. The emulsifying power of a fat determines how much liquid can be incorporated in a batter without curdling taking place. The more liquid which can be added to a cake batter, the more sugarÂˇwill the batter be able to hold dissolved in the liquid. This is the principle of high-ratio shortenings, which have a high emulsifying power. From the practical point of view, the advantage of emulsifying shortenings is the ease with which the ingredients are incorporated in the mix to give a fine, silky batter, typical of a thoroughly.emulsified mIX.

(5) Shortening Power

(6) Influence Volume

Oil

If a cake is examined under the microscope it is seen that the solid materials in the cake do not form a homogeneous mass. It would appear that the gluten from the flour is split up by films of fat. These films of fat weaken the structure sufficiently to make it tender and easily disintegrated by bringing about a mechanical breakdown of the gluten structure. The specific action of fat in raising baked goods has been investigated by microscopic examination of cake batters. 44

BAKING FATS

I t may be regarded as peculiar because the amount of 'lift' in the oven is out of all proportion to the expansion of air entrapped in the fat when no chemicals are used in the batter; and yet if no air were incorporated there would be no 'lift' in the oven at all. Microscopic examination of a cake batter shows that the fat is dispersed throughout the batter in the form of small, irregularly shaped particles. Within each particle of fat there will be enclosed several small bubbles of air which have been incorporated during the mixing operation. There is no air trapped in the aqueous phase. The exact mechanics of the rising process are not properly understood, and it is largely a matter of conjecture what really happens when a cake 'rises' in the oven. It is apparent, however, that most of the 'rise' in the oven is due to the expansion of water vapour and of carbon dioxide; but the water vapour on its own, that is, without any air present, cannot assist in the rising process. Also, the extent to which it does assist is more or less proportional to the amount of air present. Another important feature about the rising due to water vapour when air is present is that this rising is controlledthe expansion takes place at points which are predetermined by the position of fat-entrapped air bubbles .. Hence, if the mixing is carried out in such a way that the fat entraps a lot of air and the air is well dispersed through the batter, rising takes place uniformly throughout the mixture, giving a fine, uniform grain and texture. When chemical agents are used to assist expansion the gas from them is also controlled by the air entrapped by the fat; if too little air is incorporated in a batter and chemicals are used to make up the aeration the cake will be coarsetextured, with large holes due to the action of the gas from the chemicals being uncontrolled by air. Thus, t~e creaming ability of a fat, or its ability to entrap air, is a very important factor when good-quality cakes are desired. It must also be capable of being evenly dispersed through the batter. The fats used for any special types of goods should be chosen by their quality, freedom from moisture, and according to the purpose for which they are to be used. Butter is the fat that fulfils most of the requirements of the confectioner; there is no other fat which can impart the same flavour and quality to products but its other properties tend to be somewhat variable. 1

CAKE MAKING

It is for this reason that margarines and fats manufactured for specific purposes are so popular today. Hydrocarbon fats and oils should never be used, although in the past fats ofa tallowy nature were used in pastry margarines, while hydrocarbon oils were used in cake making during the war before action was taken to pr:_oh!bit their use. There are many fats sold for the production of puff pastry; the main virtue of such fats is to provide an even lift in the pastry by being able to produce thin films in it. Some fats contain a high stearin content, with the result, that instead of an easily digested product being produced, one very difficult to digest is obtained, because of the layers of fat in the paste. The use of these products is to be deprecated, since, as in so many other branches, the appearance and ease of production by semi-skilled operatives are being considered, to the detriment of the eating qualities. Emulsified preparations are now marketed which produce good results in a puff paste and are easy to manipulate. Butter

Butter consists chiefly of the fat of milk, and necessarily must also contain curd, milk sugar, and mineral salts. It is obtained through churning the ripened cream of cows' milk. The churning process causes the fatty globules to coalesce and form granules. When the butter has formed it is well worked together to remove the surplus buttermilk and make it into a homogeneous mass. A little salt and colouring matter may be added to the butter during working in order to preserve it and impart a better appearance. Butters can be classified into various grades. When grading, most points are given to flavour; then come body, texture, and moisture content. Colour is also considered, the percentage of salt, and lastly the general appearance. If the grade of butter is known one can be well assured as to the quality. TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF BUTTER

COMPOSITION

English (%)

Danish Siberian Austra- New lian Zealand (%) (%) (%) (%)

Fats Moisture Curd or casein Salt

82·15 14·25 1·55 2·05

83·45 13040 1·25 1·90

86·25 10·85 1·25 1-65

84·50 12·85 1·25 1-40

85·80 10·80 1·20 2·20

The glycerides in butter are the five already mentioned, and are present in varying proportions, along with nearly

BAKING FATS

6 per cent volatile fat, such as butyrin and its allied substances. Some butters are defined as weak and others as strong. When using them it is easy to tell the difference. Siberian butter is a tough waxy butter of good flavour, and is excellent for making puff pastry. The strong waxy character confers plastic properties on it and so forms better layering and makes the paste lighter, and both lightness and flavour are retained after baking. With a softer butter this would not be the case; the paste would not rise so well and oil might run out when the pastries are baked. In making cakes butter is generally creamed-that is to say, the butter is usually beaten until it is of the consistency of cream. This act of creaming consists in breaking down the butter into an emulsion of water in oil. I!_creaI_!ls easily owing to the absence of granules,_ and it will retain the air thereby incorporated. The reason why putter is superior in flavour to any other fat is due to the presence of volatile fats which it contains. This has its drawbacks, -however, because when butter is kept under unfavourable conditions it becomes rancid due to a decomposition of the glycerides. If too much salt is present in the butter it is usual to Uses of Butter wash it out first in cold water, and then beat the butter well to get rid of excess water. Buttergives to the gpoE_s. ~ better flavour, a~ ~v~ textm:_e,_a _better _bloom, and. produce_La lignl: ca:ke of gO_Qd_~ppearance. It should be employed in the making 01 all high-class cakes where the above qualities are essential. It is also employed in the making of lemon cheese curds, butter creams, and in toffee making. Whereever quality and good flavour are required as the first consideration in any type of confectionery, butter should be used. Butter is clarified by melting. It may then be sieved or Clarified Butter skimmed to remove curd or impurities; salt and water can also be removed, and in this unsalted state the butter is used for making artificial creams. Clarified butter is also used to enrich butter sponges and Savarins. In these goods the clarified form only is incorporated. Butter powder containing 80 per cent butter-fat which is most suitable for cake making, is now being produced in Australia, producing cakes of equal quality compared with those made from fresh butter, with, however, a tendency towards a closer grain and slightly greater volume.

Powdered Butter

CAKE MAKING

Lard

Classification

Lard is also a very important fat used in confectionery. It may be defined as the fat separated for usli/as food from the fatty tissues of pigs. The lard is rendered by first mincing the tissues or crushing between rollers, and then subjecting to a dry heat until the fat runs out of the cells (in the case of home-rend~rt:d lard). The temperature used is just sufficient to melt the fat (about 110Â° F.). If too high a temperature is used the colour of the fat is spoiled, and a bad flavour is imparted which cannot be remedied by refining. The low temperature at which it is rendered may have a certain enzymic activity, which may acCOunt for the fact that neutral lard will go rancid more readily than lard rendered by steam. The other method of rendering fat is to subject the mass to high-pressure steam to expel the fat from the ruptured fat cells. The great bulk of the lard used in commerce is imported from America, and, according to the Chicago Board of Trade, is classified into the following grades:

(I) Neutral Lard No. I, which consists of leaf fat rendered below I laÂ° F. (2) Neutral Lard No.2, which consists of fat derived from the back of the pig. (3) Leaf Lard, obtained by subjecting the residue of No. I to high-pressure steam. (4) Choice Kettle-rendered Lard, obtained by rendering the residue of No.2 in high-pressure steam kettles, hence the name. (5) Prime Steam Lard is the portion rendered by steam from the trimmings and other fatty parts of the animals.

Composition and Properties

Greases and inferior fats are obtained from entrails, feet, and scraps. American lard is usually of a softer nature than European lard. This is due to the differences in the animal and to the different type of food consumed. Pure lard has a firm consistency and granular texture, white in colour and should have an agreeable flavour. The lower qualities have a somewhat insipid flavour. Lard is composed chiefly of the three glycerides-olein, palmitin, and stearin, olein being the predominant glyceride. There are also certain unsaturated compounds resembling those of linseed oil, together with nitrogenous compounds, mineral salts, and moisture. It contains 99 per cent fatty glycerides. Fresh lard, especially if it has been rendered from the pigs while stilI warm, should be practically neutral (not more

BAKING FATS

than 0Âˇ5 per cent free fatty acids), but upon exposure to the air it gradually becomes acid in reaction. When lard has been rendered out it should be run into sterile containers, not touched by hand or exposed to the air, and should be kept in a cold place until ready for use. Lard is a fat possessing a high food value. It is easily absorbed and digested by the human body, and so is an important heat-producing food. It is used in confectionery as a shortening agent in the making of short pastes for pies, etc., because of its excellent flavour and shortening properties and relatively high melting point. When used in conjunction with butter in the proportion of 75 per cent butter to 25 per cent lard it gives a crispness and shortness to pastries which is not obtainable by using butter alone. It is also employed as a cooking fat for both boiling and frying purposes. It is useful for greasing utensils for cakes which must have an even surface and good appearance. Pure lard will not cream up well by itself because of its crystalline nature; it forms long, coarse crystals with a chisel-shaped edge. These pack together like felt, and so cannot be creamed satisfactorily. Lard can now be processed so as to produce a product with creaming properties. This is a catalytic process which results in the re-arrangement of the fatty acid components of the glyceride molecules so that there is a greater variety of different types of molecules. When lard is slightly heated and then subjected to hydraulic pressure it is possible to separate out what is known as lard stearine, which is used in the manufacture of margarine. The oil, forming about 60 per cent of the whole and consisting mostly of olein, has a soft, pleasant taste, and is a good edible oil; it is sometimes used in place of olive oil. Beef fats are rendered in the same manner as hogs' fat. The first rendering gives hard fat known as premier jus, which was used largely in making margarine. When the premier jus is placed in bags, heated, and subjected to hydraulic pressure the softer fat, or oleo oil, runs out and what is known as stearine remains. The former is a soft fat with a low melting point; the latter is a-hard firm; white fat with a high melting point. Both were used in the manufacture of various types of margarine. The fatty glycerides in beef fat are mostly stearin, palmi tin, and olein. Therefore, in the separation of oleo oil and stearine from the

Food Value and Uses

Processed Lard

Lard Oil and Beef Fats

Lard Oil

Beef Fats

CAKE MAKING

premier jus, the oleo oil is largely composed of olein and palmitin, whereas the stearine is largely.."icomposed of the glyceride stearin.

Compound Fats

Lard and lard compounds have been largely displaced in modern times by compound fats made from refined coconut oil, palm-keniel" oil, cotton-seed oil, and other vegetable oils. There are many good cooking fats sold under a variety of names. It is only during the present century that the problem of converting fluid oils into solid fats has been solved. This has been accomplished by the catalytic hydrogenation process, which consists of treating oils with hydrogen in the presence of finely powdered nickel or platinum as the catalyst at a suitable temperature. The catalyst does not take any part in the chemical reaction of the hydrogen and oil, but it causes the two to unite, so that it is now possible to obtain fats of any desired consistency. For instance, in the case of oleic acid the absorption of hydrogen may be represented as follows:

+ H2 = C17H as COOH + hydrogen = stearic acid

C 17 H aaCOOH Oleic acid

Other fatty glycerides can be changed in the same way, the degree of hardening depending on the duration of the hydrogenation process. By this process any liquid can be changed at will to the consistency of butter or lard, or tallow beef fat. Consequently, oils which formerly had not a wide application in foods are easily converted into fats, and so their use is extended very considerably. Following the hardening operation, the oils which are required to make up the fat are blended in the correct proportions by weighing each one into a tank. The blend of oils is then transferred to a deodorizer, where the odoriferous substances are removed by steam distillation under a vacuum. The deodorizer is a large cylindrical tank completely enclosed, and after the air is evacuated the oils are dropped into it and are heated to between 3000 and 4000 F. and steam is blown in at the bottom of the tank. As the steam passes through the oils it picks up the odoriferous substances and retains them when it leaves the top of the vessel. Complete deodorization takes anything up to 4 hours. To render the product smooth and firm, the fat is chilled rapidly, and it is thoroughly beaten to ensure an intimate mix of the liquid glycerides. A certain amount of air is added to the fat at this stage, which improves the appear-

BAKING FATS

ance, making it whiter and opaque, instead of greasy and translucent. In this country few manufacturers still use the older method of chilling the fat. This consists of passing it over a slowly revolving steel cylinder, which is refrigerated internally with very cold brine. After the fat has been in contact with the chilling roll long enough to cool it-slightly less than one complete revolution-it is scraped off by scraper blades bearing on the roll surface, and it drops into a trough fitted with a screw conveyor and blades which beat the air into the fat. The fat coming from this trough is then forced at high pressure through a constricted line which makes it more homogeneous still, and it is then packed. A more modern method of rapid chilling pioneered in America and now used in this country is by pumping the fat through one or more cylinders which are refrigerated externally. This enables greater control to be maintained over the chilling, as the fat is not exposed to the atmosphere, continuous, all-enclosed units being used. Shortening is normally received by the baker in the solid form in 28-lb. cartons or in large drums, but it is nowadays possible to have it in bulk in road tankers in quantities of 4 tons or more. The advantages of bulk shortening are:

(I) Economic saving of the cost of the cartons and the handling of the cartons in the bakery. (2) The bulk system assists in the automation of bakery mixing operations. (3) It ensures the shortening is of standard consistency throughout the year and does not need the special tempering during cold weather which is often necessary with shortening in cartons. Pumpable shortening is prepared in the same basic manner as standard shortening, but with special texturizing treatment to maintain its plasticity. The shortening is conveyed to the bakery in specially designed road tankers, temperature-controlled, to prevent solidification of the shortening during transit and to effect complete discharge of the load at the bakery. Here the shortening is stored in jacketed tanks or silos at constant temperature and is fed by a pump and metering device to the point of usage. The holding temperature is generally about 26 0 C. (79 0 F.), and the fat can be held for up to one month. Although a recent innovation, pumpable shortening is .developing fast in bakeries large enough to take a bulk

Pumpable Shortening

CAKE MAKING

Vegetable Oils Expression

installation and capable of standardizing their mixing 1/ procedure. Vegetable oils are obtained by extraction in hydraulic presses, or by extraction with volatile solvents. When pressure is used there are four distinct operations: ( I) The seed is crushed or ground in special rollerreduction mills, so as to break the oil cells. (2) The ground seed is heated to facilitate the flow of oil and to coagulate the albumen. This is done in what is called a heating kettle. (3) The product is now gently pressed in a moulding machine to prepare it for the hydraulic press. (4) The seed is conveyed to hydraulic presses and the oil is expressed.

Cotton Seed

Arachis, or Ground-nut Oil

Sesame Oils Cocoa Butter Coconut and Palm-kernel Oils

A further development is the use of continuous expellers in place of hydraulic presses. The different vegetable seeds used for the production of oil require rather different treatments, but only those used in the trade are dealt with here. For edible purposes this is generally prepared by decorticating the cotton seed. The kernel of the seed is surrounded by husks, which contain strong, deep brown colouring matter and little or no oil. Thus the following advantages are derived: (I) the oil is of a better colour; (2) the press cake is of a better quality; (3) the material treated being richer in oil than the whole seed, a greater amount of oil can be obtained in a given time. The oil is refined by various processes and marketed in various forms, generally as a colourless oil. Steam is used to deodorize the oils and to coagulate the protein matter, and treatment with fuller's earth, decolorizing carbon, etc., improves the appearance. This is produced in a similar way to cotton-seed oil, and is marketed as high-class vegetable oil. It has a pale yellow colour, and will solidify at temperatures below 40Â° F. The second grade is largely used in margarine manufacture, the first grade being used as a cheap substitute for olive oil. A colourless variety of the oil is obtainable. This is used for foodstuffs and in margarine manufacture. This is the fat obtained from the cocoa bean, and is used in the manufacture of chocolate. It melts at about goO F. These are also used in the manufacture of edible oils. Coconut oil solidifies at 69Â° F. It is a soft, white, butterlike mass at ordinary temperatures, with an agreeable odour and flavour. The chemical constants of this oil are

BAKING FATS

closer in relation to butter than any other fat, and it is very difficult to detect when used to adulterate butter. It is much used in the manufacture of margarine. This is extensively used in the manufacture of baking Shea Butter and pastry fats because of its emulsive and plasticizing properties. This is also used in making margarine and vegetable Palm-kernel Oil butters, and sometimes as a cocoa-butter substitute. Coconut oil and palm-kernel oil can be subjected to hydraulic pressure to separate the stearin from the olein. The longer the fats remain under pressure, the higher will be the melting point of the residue. There are many other oils which can be obtained from vegetable sources, and after refining and hardening are suitable for cake making. These hydrogenated fats are 100 per cent fats. They possess excellent creaming qualities, being easier to cream up than butter. If compound fat is used to replace part, or all, of the butter in a mixing, then it must be remembered that compound is 100 per cent fat, whereas butter is only 84 per cent fat; therefore, in order to maintain the balance in the mixture, only 14 oz. of compound should be used to replace I lb. butter. Compound fat cannot be expected to give the flavour of butter. When that is wanted it is advisable to use a proportion of butter in the cakes. Compound fat, when used in small proportions along with butter in cakes, helps to impart an excellent texture and better keeping qualities. Margarine has taken the place of butter in most bakeries today. The oils or fats used in the making of margarine are obtained from either animal, vegetable, or marine sources. The various fats that may be used are neutral lard, premier jus, oleo oil, ground-nut oils, coconut oil, palm-kernel oil, fish, hydrogenated whale, and other oils. The fats must first be thoroughly refined; if not, the margarine would soon become rancid and would not be good to eat. Fish oils, in addition to being deodorized, must be hydrogenated to make them suitable for the manufacture of margarine. After refining, the oils are blended so that the finished margarine will have a definite melting point and creaming quality. When cake margarine is being made, the melting point will approximate to that of good butter; if pastry margarine, the melting point will be considerably higher, and fats containing more stearin with a higher melting point will be used. Many of the pastry margarines are far

Margarine

CAKE MAKING

too tough. This has resulted from a desire on the manu-./ in t he oven, facturer's part to guarantee an even 'fift' irrespective of the craftsmanship of the operative. The oils are blended at a suitable temperature with separated milk-generally 1 ton to 30 gallons of milkwhich has been ripened, and the mixture is transferred to a churn, where an intimate admixture or emulsification of fats and milk takes place. Lecithin or some other stabilizer is used to complete the emulsion and colour is added. Water emulsions are used today, and special stabilizers are used for the production of stable emulsions. When churning is completed the mixture is ice-cooled, and with the continuous machines is plasticized and packed at once. Where butter is mixed in the margarine, no more than 10 per cent butter fat must be added. The finished margarine has a satisfactory taste and odour, and a texture like fresh butter, and is practically free from fatty acids. It shows little tendency to become rancid unless kept under unsuitable conditions. It is now possible (using any types of oils) to get the proper consistency of the fat by hydrogenating the oil to the desired extent. The composition of margarine, when packed, approximates to that of butter. Fats Moisture Curd Salt, etc.

Glycerol M onostearates

82·0-84·0 13·5-12·0 1·5- 1·7 1·5- 2·5

It can be readily seen that there is practically no difference in the chemical composition of margarine and butter, but it should be remembered that margarine lacks the flavour of butter, and contains no vitamins. There is usually no more than 0'3 per cent of volatile acids present in margarine. ~arin_«-cil_I!. be. used in confectionery to replace butter. It creams up well and .g!y~_t1.l_e .cak~a good appearance and texture, :but the: .fla~our.._flnd keeping qualities are absent. Vitamins A and D are only added to those varieties of margarine sold for domestic consumption . . There are many varieties of this product with varying percentages of monoglyceride. The higher the monoglyceride content, however, the better the improving effect, but the difference in the results obtained from the various products are slight, and as long as the monoglyceride content does not fall below 25 per cent it will be satisfactory. Self-emulsifying G.M.S. containing a small amount of soap has a greater improving effect than non-emulsifying G.M.S. While G.M.S. can be used alone to improve the crumb

BAKING FATS

softness of bread, it is considered advisable to use it in conjunction with fat. Commercial glycerol monostearates contain from 25"7 to 50 per cent of the monostearate; the other constituents being mainly glyceryl distearate, unchanged fat (tristearate) glycerol, stearic acid and glyceryl esters, and other fatty acids, depending on the method of manufacture employed and quality of the stearic acid used. The normal method of preparation is by the interaction of glycerol and stearic acid for G.M.S. preparations, but in the case of the super-glycerinated fats, the fats are reacted with glycerol. For commercial use, the monostearate is added to hot water and well beaten in, using I lb. to 5 lb. water. This emulsion sets to a jelly and is easily handled for use in doughs, generally at the rate of I lb. per sack, preferably in conjunction with I t lb. fat. Emulsions of the water-in-oil type are now marketed both for use in cake bread, fermented goods, and for tin-greasing purposes. The proportion of oil to water varies, and the quality of oil largely determines the suitability for any specific purpose. Emulsions may contain from 34 to 60 per cent oil, the average containing about 40 per cent. Stabilizers are used in some emulsions, but not in all types; yet, even without stabilizers emulsions can be remarkably stable. For bread-making purposes, weight for weight, compared with oils and some fats, a greater improvement is obtained with emulsion than with the vegetable oils as marketed today, even though the fat content is much less. Lecithin has been known for nearly a hundred years as a major constituent of egg yolk. An egg weighing 60 gm. contains approximately 20 gm. of yolk of which about 4 gm. is neutral fat (triglyceride) and 2 gm. lecithin and allied substances. Lecithin has been found associated with glycerides in all plants and animals and in micro-organisms, and appears to play an important part in the structure of living cells as well as in their physico-chemical and biochemical activities. The triglycerides are soluble in acetone, in contrast to the phosphorus-containing fats, which are insoluble in this solvent, and which can therefore be prepared in the laboratory by treatment of the ethereal extract of a tissue with excess of acetone. Lecithin may be regarded as a complex triglyceride in which one of the fatty acids has been replaced by a phos-

CAKE MAKING

phoric acid and choline compound. The relationship may be summarized as follows: ;..f /Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid "'Fatty l\cid Triglyceride

/Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid ,,"Phosphoric Acid Phosphatidic Acid

/Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid "'OR group Diglyceride

/Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid ,,"Phosphoric Acid -Choline Lecithin or Phosphati4Jl Choline

The Phosphatides

Chemical Properties

Associated with lecithin in soya bean, egg yolk, and plant and animal tissues are many allied substances (grouped with lecithin under the general term phosphatides) in which the choline is replaced by other nitrogenous bases or by amino acids. There may be present also other complex fats of somewhat different structures but all containing nitrogen and phosphorus. These, with the phosphatides, may be described as lipins (or phospho-lipids). The properties of the individual lipins are by no means identical with those of lecithin, thus the properties of a commercial lecithin will vary somewhat on its source and on the percentage of true lecithin present. The chemical properties of lecithin are to some extent a reflection of the properties of the components of the molecule. Thus hydrolytic agents (acids, alkalis, and enzymes) attack lecithin, and after varying periods of time yield either a mixture of glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric acid, choline, or alternatively, intermediate products such as glycero-phosphoric acid or phosphoryl-choline. The fatty acids present in lecithin from different sources have been examined in detail, and a range of higher fatty acids, saturated and unsaturated, containing 16 or more carbon atoms have been isolated. Because of the presence of unsaturated acids, the lecithins can take part in addition reactions: (i) they can be hydrogenated by standard methods to give hydro-lecithins of various degrees of unsaturation; (ii) they readily absorb iodine and the iodine value can be determined in the usual way and used as an index of unsaturation; and (iii) they absorb oxygen. Purified lecithins change rapidly when exposed to air, no doubt by a combination of oxidative and hydrolytic processes comparable to, but probably even more compli-

BAKING FATS

cated than, those responsible for the onset of rancidity in ordinary fats. Iron salts and other reagents catalyse the oxidation processes. These changes do not occur so rapidly with crude lecithin preparations, especially those from vegetable sources, because of the presence of natural antioxidants, which are associated with the phosphatides, and which plan an important protective role in stabilizing both the lecithins and the triglycerides. Thus we have the paradoxical situation that in spite of the instability of pure lecithin, commercial lecithin can often be recommended for its antioxidant properties. Lecithin does not give a true melting point but is decomposed by heat from 1I0 o C. onwards; crude mixtures containing triglycerides may be more stable. Lecithin, when freshly prepared, is an almost colourless Colloidal and waxy solid, but on exposure to air it rapidly becomes dark Physical ProperticJ brown in colour, following the absorption of oxygen. To obtain pure samples oflecithin, many precautions have to be taken at all stages and, in particular, low temperatures must be used and air and light excluded. The behaviour of lecithin with water has been extensively studied, especially in relation to its surface-active properties. Different stages can be distinguished, depending on the relative quantities of phosphatide and water present. Lecithin is hygroscopic and rapidly absorbs water vapour from the air. When a small amount of water is placed in contact with lecithin the solid appears to bud, giving irregular outgrowths-the socalled myelin forms. In the presence of more water the imbibition process continues and the mass swells, until (if sufficient fluid is available) a colloidal solution results. These, and related phenomena, have been studied by the usual technique of colloid chemistry, and it has been , shown, for example, that lecithin, like fatty acids, will form molecular films on water. Lecithin will lower the surface tension of water and aqueous solutions, and will lower the interfacial tension between water and insoluble substances such as fats or benzene. Lecithin may form loose combinations with sodium chloride, the resulting product being soluble in ether and other fat solvents. Complexes of lecithin with sugars and proteins have also been examined and these-like the salt combinations-may be of importance in physiology, and may help to explain certain results obtained in connection with the food uses of lecithin. Emulsifying Lecithin is a hydrophilic colloid and, because of its effect Powers

CAKE MAKlr:{.G

Physiological Properties

in lowering the interfacial tension between water and other substances, serves as a wetting agent atffi will promote emulsions of the"bil-in-water type. Lecithin will not only stabilize oil-water emulsions but will also act as a protective colloid in delaying or preventing the precipitation _by salts of hydrophobic colloids (e.g., metallic particles) dispersed in water. This observation forms the basis of some of the non-food uses oflecithin. It would appear that lecithin may have one of three distinct but allied functions in the animal body; it may be part of the actual structure of the living cell; it may playa part in cell membrane structure and permeability, or in other physico-chemical processes; it may be actively concerned in the metabolism of fats. There is considerable evidence in favour of all these hypotheses, but whatever the exact function may be, it is clear that lecithin is a naturally occurring substance of great importance, and that its use as a food adjunct can in no way be harmful. Considered from the nutritional viewpoint, it can contribute to the body the same components as the triglycerides, namely glycerol and fatty acids; it contributes also phosphoric acid (important in mineral metabolism) and the base choline, which has certain properties which entitle it to a place among the water-soluble vitamins. The nutritional role of lecithin can well be illustrated by reference to the egg of the hen or any other bird. The egg contains all the nutrients necessary for the initial growth of the embryo, and during the incubation process the lecithin of the yolk is utilized partly to supply energy for growth and partly to supply materials required for the formation of body tissues. Thus phosphorus originally in the lecithin becomes part of the bone structure of the chicken. Considered in terms of calories, the fatty acids of lecithin will, on combustion, make the same energy contribution to the body as will the fatty acids from triglycerides or any other source. The total energy contribution of lecithin will be high, but somewhat lower than that of the triglycerides because of the presence of the phosphoric acid and choline. In Germany lecithin from rape-seed oil has been extensively used, and in Britain lecithin is being produced both from groundnut and soya oil. The amounts available at any time will be roughly proportional to the total quantities of oil extracted, and will therefore fluctuate with the supplies of edible oil from these sources.

Sugars

A NUMBER of sweetening agents are used in the manufacture of confectionery. Most of them are natural substances belonging to a group of chemical compounds known as carbohydrates. The name carbohydrate is given to a large number of neutral bodies that are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter two being in the same proportion as in the molecule of water. There are two groups of these carbohydrates used as sweetening agents: (I) The sucroses or disaccharides, the formula for which is written C12H220n' The principal members of this group are cane sugar, beet sugar, maple sugar, and palm sugar. (2) The simple sugars or monosaccharides, the formula for which is written C 6 H l20 6 â&#x20AC;˘ The chief members of this group are dextrose or grape sugar, laevulose or fruit sugar, and invert sugar, which is a mixture of dextrose and laevulose. They are found naturally in honey. Commercial dextrose is known as glucose. These two groups of sugars are intimately related, because by a chemical reaction a molecule of water can join up with the sucrose, Cl2.HzzOn, with the breaking down of the molecule to produce one molecule each of dextrose and laevulose as shown in the following equation: C12H220n Cane sugar

+ H 20 =

CSH120S Dextrose

+ C SH120 S Laevulose

Invert sugar

This reaction is brought about either by pr.o_longed boiling of the sugar with water or quickly by means of a very dilute acid, such as in fondant making. It is produced naturally by certain enzymes or ferments. Thus by enzymic action the invertase of the yeast breaks up sugar into invert sugar before the zymase of the yeast can produce carbon dioxide gas. Sugars are found naturally in nearly every plant structure-fruits, stems, leaves, and trunks of trees. These sugars are contained in the juices of the plants, and are usually mixed with invert sugars, dextrines, proteins, and 59

CAKE MAKING SUGAR REFINING

r - - - 'RECOVERY' I

1 I

I I I

I I

RECOVERY PROCESS: RAW SYRUP is boiled in a VACUUM PAN, and the resultant l\{ASSE spun in:

Centrifugal Machines to recover maximum Sugar: Final exÂ· hausted SYRUP is MOLASSES, used for cattle food and for distilling.

This consists of filtration through - - - - - - - -

{

ANIMAL COLOUR

CHARCOAL to remove DISSOLVED IMPURITIES.

and

VACUUM}

Liquor is boiled in a PAN: the resultant MASSE is cast into SLABS and the Syrup 'spun' out in CEl'."TRIFUGAL 1vIAcHINEs: the final wet slabs are DRIED and then CUT into

CUBES.

Delivery by barge, road, or rail

By courtesy of Tate & Lyle Ltd.

FIG. I.-Sugar Refining

SUGARS

other sap constituents, all in aqueous solution. Some of these substances make extraction of the sugars difficult, because they prevent their crystallization. Ripe fruits contain sucrose, but when the fruit has become over-ripe, dextrose is found in great quantities, due to the inversion of the sucrose by the enzymes of the fruit. Only a few of the sugar-bearing plants are of commercial importance. The sugar of commerce is obtained mainly from two sources, the sugar cane and the sugar beet. It must be understood that, when properly refined, all commercial sugars are exactly alike in chemical composition. It is only possible to tell their source when impurities are left in them. Cane sugar gets its name from the fact that it is obtained from the sugar canes. This plant contains approximately 18 per cent sugar. Beet sugar is extracted from the sugar beet, which contains approximately 15 per cent sugar. Cane sugar is extracted by crushing the canes between powerful sets of rolls after they have been stripped of leaves and cut into suitable lengths. By this means most of the juices are extracted. The remainder of the sugar is extracted by soaking the residual canes in hot water. The juice that is extracted from the plant contains about 75 per cent water, 20 per cent sucrose, 4 per cent organic matter, and I per cent mineral matter. This crude juice is collected and freed from organic and nitrogenous matter by heating and treatment with lime, which precipitates phosphoric acid as flocculent calcium phosphate; this adsorbs the colloidal organic matter. Another method is by treatment with sulphur dioxide, which precipitates calcium sulphite. The clarified juice is concentrated by evaporation at reduced pressure and then allowed to crystallize. By means of centrifugals about 90 per cent raw brown or muscovado sugar is obtained. The syrups or molasses separated out are further treated to obtain more sugar of a lower grade. The residue is fermented to produce Jamaica rum. The composition of raw cane sugar may vary considerably, but on the average it may contain about 94 per cent sugar, 2Âˇ5 per cent invert sugars, I per cent proteins, 0Âˇ5 per cent mineral salts, and 2 per cent moisture. Beet sugar is extracted from sugar beet by diffusion. The beet is cut into slices, mixed with water, and the juices obtained are clarified, evaporated in a vacuum pan, and the raw sugar crystallized out from the molasses. The average composition of the raw beet sugar is somewhat similar to that of the raw cane sugar.

CAKE MAKING

Sugar Refining

The raw sugars, whether derived from sugar cane or sugar beet, are generally refined in sugar refineFfes devoted entirely to this work. A solution of the sugar is boiled with quicklime, when the impurities float to the top and can be skimmed off. Some of the lime is dissolve~ in the juice, and this is precipitated by passing carbon dioxide gas through the juice. This converts the lime into calcium carbonate, which, being insoluble, falls to the bottom and is removed. The juice is then passed through layers of animal charcoal, or a patented substance known as norite, in order to decolorize it. When the syrup has been clarified it is concentrated by boiling in vacuum pans at a low temperature. When sufficiently concentrated it is passed into centrifugal pans to separate the crystals from the syrups. This centrifugal pan makes the sugar grow into hard sugar loaves, and the syrups run out through perforations in the well of the pans. The syrups are either treated again by boiling and taking out more impurities and concentrating to get lower grades of sugar or they are mixed with fresh batches of raw sugar juices and the same process repeated. There are many modifications of the process which can give different grades of sugars. Thus, in some cases the syrups are passed through successive batches, and each successive batch must necessarily have more impurities than the previous, or the syrups can all be kept back and used to produce inferior sugar, and lastly syrups and treacles. The time and temperature of boiling also affect the sugars to a certain extent. Thus when making granulated sugar the solution is boiled to what is known as the 'massecuite' stage, so that it has a sharp grain when crystallized out. After sugar has been refined it is impossible to tell whether it has been derived from the sugar cane or the sugar beet. It should be at least 99 per cent pure sucrose. The operation of making the crystals of different sizes is done in the vacuum pan. If large crystals are wanted, then large and heavy charges of syrups are placed in the pans at long intervals, so that the crystals can grow during boiling. On the other hand, if fine crystals are wanted the charges of syrup are light and frequent. The colour of genuine Demerara sugar is due to saccharetin (present in the canes), which is colourless in acids and bright yellow in alkalis. The fact that it is bleached by sulphur dioxide indicates that the colour is not due to caramelization. Occasionally inferior grades of Demerara are coloured by caramelization.

SUGARS

Thus, in the refining of sugars, three or four grades are obtained. The top grades are at least 99 per cent pure sucrose. The second grades are slightly inferior. The third and fourth grades contain a Jew impurities, have generally a yellow or dark colour, and are sent out to the market as partially refined sugars, known as third or fourths or pieces.

When sugar has been refined it is ready for milling into the various sizes required in commerce. This is done usually in sugar mills which specialize in this type of work. Cubes, splits, and nib sugars are prepared from the sugar loaves by cutting the loaves by machinery and dressing into the sizes wanted. Granulated sugars are made by passing the syrups, after boiling to a hard grain, into special" centrifugals and afterwards washing to clean the crystals. The wet crystals are passed into a revolving cylinder known as a 'granulator', in which the material is both dried and granulated. The sugar is then dressed and sieved to give three types of sugarcoffee crystals, granulated sugar, or castor sugar, according to size, the coffee crystals being the largest, and the castor the smallest size. Milled sugars of various sizes are obtained by grinding the cubes or rough sugar crystals of various sizes in fixed drums fitted with mechanical beaters that revolve quickly, causing the crystals to become broken down into smaller pieces. These are all dressed through sieves, or dressing reels, of diverse sizes to get the different grades separated out. Thus, fine castor sugar, pulverized sugar, and icing sugar, which pass through silks as a fine powder, are obtained. The dry sugar crystals are fed into the elevator. The crystals are then lifted and delivered into the disintegrator; the ground sugar crystals are then elevated and delivered into the dressing machine. This machine is clothed with silk, and can be so arranged as to produce all icing, or icing and other grades, castor, pulverized, and sherbert. Good, clear, bright-looking sugar crystals rarely contain any impurities. Dull greyish crystals often contain glucose or invert sugar, and ultramarine ('blue') may have been employed to give a whiter effect. If blue is suspected it can be detected by dissolving some sugar in water contained in a glass cylinder. Place this on a white surface and allow to settle for a few hours, then look down through the glass.

Milling of Sugars

The Evaluation of Sugars

CAKE MAKING

Any blue in the sugar will have settled out to the bottom. The evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen on a'ddition of acid is a confirmatory test. Sugars containing glucose, when moistened and heated for a few minutes, become more or less sticky. Hold some sugar in the han? f?r a few minutes; if it contains glucose it will feel sticky. The ash content of sugar has been shown to influence the volume of cake. A sugar containing 0Âˇ45 per cent ash produced a cake with 20 per cent less volume than one containing 0Âˇ05 per cent ash. Good cane sugar should be perfect!y solu_ble in half its own weight of cold water. Such-a solution snould be free from did andÂˇ otherimpurities. If it shows a deposit on standing, then the sugar is not pure. ,If ~ .~ugar solution is boiled at ordinary atmospheric pressure water is given off; and, as in some solutions, the temperature does not remain constant. The temperature rises slowly as the moisture is driven off. The solution becomes slightly acid_and invert sugar is gradually formed, so that the power of crystallizigg again on cooling is entirely lost. If some sugar is dissolved in half its weight of cold water it forms a syrup or a saturated solution, and if more sugar is added this will remain undissolved and can be readily seen as a deposit on the bottom of the vessel. The quantity of sugar required to form a saturated solution is always the same, at the same temperature, and the syrup thus obtained will always have the same density. When a saturated sugar solution is heated it becomes unsaturated, because sugar is more soluble in hot water than it is in cold water; I lb. of sugar will then dissolve in a gill of water. Now if a hot syrup is saturated, then allowed to cool again, it must be evident thaC either the excess of added sugar will tend to crystallize out or a syrup will be obtained which contains more sugar than an ordinary saturated solution. With a little care it is quite possible to obtain a hot saturated solution which, when cold, will not recrystallize. It is then said to be supersaturated. It is natural for excess of sugar in a supersaturated solution to tend to recrystallize out, and the greater the proportion of sugar in the solution, the more likely it is to recrystallize. To prevent it doing so, one must make sure that there are no crystals left undissolved, especially while boiling syrup. Copper vessels are used to boil sugar solutions, owing to their great conductivity of heat; also, their smooth surfaces can be readily kept clean and free from crystals. The sides of

SUGARS

the vessels are washed down to remove crystals, so that all the sugar is dissolved. All the sugar should be dissolved before boiling commences, to prevent graining. During boiling do not stir, as this may make sugar grain, and finally..!_o prevent graining, a proportion of non-crystallizable sugar, such as> glucose, should be" added . .b weak acid, such ~ cream of tartar, or lemonjllig;, will have the same effect. The effect of heat on a super-saturated syrup is to make It become runny and less saturated until it boils at 2150 F. The longer it is boiled as the water is driven off, the higher the temperature rises, and products of a different nature are obtained at different stages of the boiling. There are about ten stages known to the sugar boiler for his various products between 220 0 and 3500 F. Sugar melts at 3200 F., without the addition of water, and on cooling sets to a goldencoloured mass, known as barley rock. Above 3500 F. the sugar begins to decompose, and further heating would leave a mass of carbon only. When a supersaturated sugar solution boils, the temperature rises, due to evaporation of the moisture. It commences to boil at 2150 F. The temperature of 225 0 F. is known as the Thread degree, because, when it has reached this and cooled, the sugar will be dense enough to form threads if a fork is inserted and pulled out again. This degree is tested by placing the first finger of the hand in the boiling syrup and immediately withdrawing and touching the thumb with it; it should form a thread when cool enough. The syrup itself will set firm when cooled. 2300 F. is known as the Pearl degree, because, when tested by the fingers at this degree, the sugar forms small globules, resembling small pearls, on both the thumb and finger. 235 F. is known as the Blow degree, because, if a fork is dipped into the syrup at this stage, then withdrawn and allowed to cool, a film of sugar will form which, when blown gently, will stretch. Later on, if the fork is dipped into the sugar at 2400 F., the sugar will blow off in featherlike pieces; thus we have what is known as the Feather degree. When the temperature rises above 2400 F. the sugar is too dense to allow the use of the fork for testing purposes, and it is usual then to cool the sugar in water by dipping wet fingers quickly into the boiling sugar and immediately immersing in cold water. If the sugar on the fingers forms a soft ball or mass it is at 245 F., or the Soft Ball degree. Ifit forms a hard ball it is at 2500 F., of the Hard Ball degree. 0

Degrees of Boiling Sugar Solutions

CAKE MAKING

The temperature rises quickly through the succeeding stages, and 280 F. is known as the Soft~'Crack degree, because the sugar is more or less brittle on the outside, but still soft in the centre. When it sets firm and brittle throughout it will have reached the Hard Crack, or 3150 F. Sugar boiled carefully to this temperature should set firm as a clear, transparent, 'colourless mass. The sugar changes to an amber colour above 3200 F., and the more it is boiled, the darker it will become, until it is decomposed as a char. 3500 F. is known as the Caramel degree. 0

Uses

or Sugars

'Sugar is used to tweeten confectionery products, various types of the latter requIring special types of sugar. ( \ In flour confectionery it is used as a means of producing a ~t.>dfi()is.t~ating tendeu:r.umb in the finished product-1 artificial sweetening agents will not perform this function, as they have nQ ~h.Qrtening ~ction on the gluten of the flour. While saccharine has been used as an artificial sweetener in many manufactured products, sodium cyclamate is now taking its place, particularly in the production oflow-calorie fruit drinks. Loaf and cube sugars should be used generally for boiling purposes, such as in the making of fondant, jams, purees, and boiled meringues, because they are usually freer from dirt than other sugars. Sugar nibs are employed to sprinkle on tops of Bath buns and other types of small goods, and are used in the dough, as they do not dissolve easily, and so act as sweetening agents, not being attacked by the inversive enzymes and changed into invert sugar. Granulated sugar is used in the making of macaroon goods, because of the hard grain and the openness of texture imparted. It is also useful in cheap slabs, where it can be dissolved in the milk. In other products, where eggs are the only moistening agents, it should not be used, because some of it remains undissolved, and, on cooking, shows as dark . specks on the outside. Fine castor sugar is used for nearly all purposes, such as whisking with eggs or creaming with butter or fats, as it is free in the grain and has no dust. It should also be used in the making of meringue products. Icing sugar is used to make water icings for buns and cakes, also for preparing royal icings for cake decorations. It is also used to make butter creams, gum pastes, many types of dessert biscuits, and for dusting biscuit doughs and marzipan. Partially refined sugar, such as a light yellow sugar, like

SUGARS

fourths, can be used in fermented goods, and is often used in Parkin and gingerbread goods. ) Dark-coloured sugars, such as Barbados or Demerara, are generally used in dark-coloured cakes and puddings, because they help to colour them and give also .that special flavour desired in such cakes.1 The formula for these simple sugars is CaH120s. The chief Simple Sugars members of this group are dextrose or grape sugar, laevulose or fruit sugar, and invert sugar, which is a mixture of the two. These.lsugars are all soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol. They are readily fermentable by yeast. Commercial glucose consists largely of dextrose; honey is mainly invert sugar. It should be clearly understood that the term 'glucose' refers to the coml1lercial article, of which dextrose is the main constituent. This is the chief member of the simple sugars used in Dextrose or Grape confectiOriery. At one time it was obtained from honey, Sugar raisins, sweet cherries, and the! expressed juice of grape~. It occurs naturally in these substances, also in various sweet fruits, flowers, and plants, and is often accompanied by an equal amount of laevulose or fruit sugar. It can be prepared in the pure state by the action of dilute acids and enzymes on the glucosides. It is also prepared by the prolonged action of dilute acids on starches. The liquid obtained from any of these sources is treated with chalk to neutralize the acid. It is then filtered and evaporated to a syrup or else concentrated, so that it will solidify on cooling. Alternatively, fine powdered glucose is produced by spray drying. It crystallizes in fine, hard, needle-shaped crystals with one molecule of water, C 6H 120 6H 20. It melts at 295 0 F., and at 3380 F. it loses the water and is converted into glucosan, C 6H 100 5 , and if further heated will be converted into caramel. Q~tro~e is not so sw~el.to. taste.as..cane..sugar._ It is only about two"thirds as sweet. This is principally made from starchy material-that is Glucose to say, such starches as maize or potato starch. It can be bought in two forms, liquid or solid. It contains a great deal more than the chemical substance dextrose, owing to its method of production. The starchy materials, which are washed with water, are hydrolysed by means of dilute acid or enzymic action, which breaks down the starch in a series of steps, ultimately resulting in dextrine, maltose, dextrose, and other sugars. The composition of the glucose, therefore,

CAKE MAKING

varies with the length of time of the reaction and the type of starch and method of manufacture, Hut the action is never completed according to the reaction;

Starch

Glucose

The composition of glucose, according to H. E. Cox, The Chemical Anarysis of Foods, is as follows; Water

Ash

Dextrose Maltose Dextrin Protein

Use

of Glucose

Laevulose or Fructose

Honey

10--20 1-1Âˇ5 20--60 10--40 5-20 Trace up to 0Âˇ15

The colourless variety, used by confectioners, is obtained by bleaching a glucose syrup with a hydrosulphite solution or sulphurous acid. High-grade glucose is a very useful product for use in confectionery and jam manufacturing. Lt..is..n~ as cane sugar, and so can be used in fairly large quantities in producing confectionery without making sickly articles. When boiliI1g s1}gars to make fondants, a prQpm:tiQn of gl~cose added when.sugar boils will. hasten .inversjon of the sl"igar. When used in small quantities in cheap cakes and sponge goods it assists in keeping them moist. In jam making, a small proportion of glucose will prevent sugars from crystallizing out when stored. It is also used to adulterate honey and golden syrup. Good glucose should be perfectly clear and soluble. It should show no sediment when dissolved in water, contain no acids or iron salts, have a pleasant taste, and contain a large amount of dextrose. This is the sugar which occurs in flowers and in some fruits. When sucrose is inverted by acids or enzymes, laevulose occurs in the invert sugar in approximately equal quantities with dextrose. It crystallizes with difficulty, and so is usually produced in the form of brown syrup, which is fully sweeter than sucrose. Honey has for its chiefsweetening constituents dextrose and laevulose. It is a pleasant, sli h agd, sweet-tasting syrup collected chiefly y ees from the nectaries of various flowers. Sucrose is the sugar abstracted from the flowers, and this becomes inverted into the simpler sugars by enzymic action. The flavour of the honey varies according to the source from which it has been abstracted by the bees. It varies

SUGARS

considerably in its composition, as the following analysis of pure honey will indicate:

Sucrose Invert sugar Proteins Mineral salts Moisture

0·5 - 7·6 64·5 -78·5 0·18- 2·00 0·05- 1·2 12·0 -31·5

Honey substitutes are usually mixtures of honey and glucose or cane-sugar syrups. These products may have the same food value as pure honey, but they have not the same distinctive flavour. . Honey is used in confectionery mostly as a flavouring agent in the making of honey cakes, gateaux, nougat, and chocolate centres. If it was cheap enough it could be used in place of golden syrup and light-coloured sugars as the sweetening agent in cakes. • This is a mixture of the simple sugars dextrose and laevulose. It occurs in ripe sweet fruits, but is prepared commercially either by enzymic action or by use of a dilute acid on a sugar solution. It is sometimes mixed with glucose, and is used in flour confectionery as a sweetening and moistureretaining agent. Sweetness is a quality detected by taste, but there is no exact test for it. It depends mostly on the person testing it. Sucrose is generally rated at 100. Sugars rated higher are sweeter tban sucrose, and those rated lower are less sweet. The following is a table of sugar sweetness as given by Sale and Skinner of the Bureau of Chemistry: Sucrose Dextrose Laevu10se Maltose Invert sugar

Invert Sugar

Relative Sweetness of the Sugars

'100 50 150 50 85

This is a mixture of sugars prepared by boiling sugar and water to 2400 or 245 0 F. and adding glucose, or a weak acid, to aid the inversion of the sugar or 'cut the grain'. The quantities usually used are in the following proportions: 12 lb sugar 3 pints water

Uses of Honey

lb. glucose, or

:! oz. cream of tartar

Glucose is used to prevent too rapid crystallization of the syg~:r:,_hut.because,glucose !S p,radiCcilI,y non~crystaIiizjble, too much should not be used. The ct:eam of tartar also has the same effect of preventing sugar from graIningduring boiling-and iIi dlanging some of the sugar into invert sugar.

Fondant

CAKE MAKING

Here again, too much should not be used, as this would form too much invert sugar and the fondant could not be recrystallized. Glucose added to fondant cheapens the fondant and toughens it, so that more syrup is required to thin it down when used to cover cakes. Cream of tartar produces a firmer fondant, but one which is not so tough, and which is more suitable for chocolate creams. An average composition offondant is:* Sugar Glucose Moisture

80·0 11·0

g·o

while one company insists upon: Sugar Glucose Moisture

82·0 11·0 7 ·0

Theoretically, fondant is su ar dissolved in water which is recrys a lzed, after boilin hY. mechanical agitation. ~ ese crysta s in carefully prepared fondant should be so fine as to be scarcely perceptible by the naked eye. It is the fineness__Qf these crystals that gives the gloss to fonda~ea cakes. If the crystals are large the fonda-niSets with adull appearance. The size of the crystals is much smaller (about 5 microns) than in the average icing sugar (25 microns), and it is for this reason that fondant produces a much better gloss than water icing. On a small scale, the fondant is made by placing sugar with water in a copper pan on a gas ring and dissolving the sugar slowly, so that all the sugar will be dissolved before it comes to the boil. As soon as it boils, stop stirring and boil quickly to 2400 or 245 0 F., removing any scum that rises to the top. The sides of the pan must be washed down occasionally with water to prevent crystals forming. If crystals did form, or if all the sugar were not dissolved before boiling commences, it might well happen that the whole would suddenly set to a hard mass. W~~ _temp~ature of the boiling sysup hfls reached 23_5 0 F. the glucose;0rJlie--=cr<:~m-of tartar dissolve9._ in a little water, is added. On reaching the desired temperature, the-syrup is poured on to a moist marble slab between four steel bars (30 in. long and ! in. thick) forming a square. The syrup is also splashed with cold water and allowed to cool for about I hour. When at about 100 0 F. it is creamed together by turning it backwards and forwards until it sets as a hard, firm mass. If this is done before the sugar is cold it will be much easier to crystallize, but the fondant will not

See also Chapter 16, p. 182.

SUGARS

be so good, as the crystals will be too large to give a nice gloss on the fondant when it is used. The fondant is then covered over with a damp cloth for half an hour to mature, when it is rubbed down to take out the hard lumps, and stored away in containers until required for use. Special automatic units, comprising a sugar boiling pan and a warm agitator are used for making fondant on a commercial scale, in which the fondant is produced by mechanical working of the boiled sugar. The process is continuous, and is mainly used today. This is a dehydrated fondant which consists of go per cent sucrose, 5 per cent dextrose, and 5 per cent laevulose. It is made by a process which mixes sucrose particles with a highly saturated cooked liquor containing sucrose, dextrose, and laevulose. During this process the ingredients are intimately mixed so that a dry product is finally attained which reconstitutes to a creamy fo~dant. This can be produced either by using water or a simple syrup. A simple syrup is obtained from 6 lb. granulated sugar and 5 lb. water. With water use 5 quarts to I cwt. of Drifon and mix in a machine bowl for J 5 minutes at low speed. Then remove from bowl and heat it to the temperature required for dipping or enrobing. With syrup use 16 quarts to I cwt. of Drifon and mix in the same way as with water. Drifon can be used in place of ordinary fondant for normal coating work, but in addition is very good when used in the production of buttercream, fudge, and other types of cake toppings. The consistency offondant received by the baker can vary considerably, and the simplest method of ensuring a supply of fondant requiring the minimum manipulation is to soften the bulk supply by a mixing machine, adding small pieces at a time, and softening this with a small proportion of simple syrup or water. Simple syrup may be prepared by bringing to the boil 2 pints water and 3 lb. sugar. 8 oz. glucose syrup may be added to this if there is a tendency for the fondant to harden excessively. The fondant is then in a condition which is relatively easy to stir during heating to approximately 1000 F. This should be done in specially designed fondant-tempering equipment. Additions of water or simple syrup will reduce the viscosity at this point, but it has been found that additions of glucose syrup alone increase the viscosity, although they will reduce the proportion of sugar crystals present.

Drifon

How Fondant Should be Handled

CAKE MAKING

The most common faults which occur when handling fondant are excessive localized graining, :lOss of gloss, excessive hardness, and stickiness. When fondant is heated a proportion of the solid crystals Graining dissolve. When fondant cools the excess sucrose in the syrup portion is recrystallized, but larger crystals can form, thus causing an inferior gloss due to loss of light reflection. When local graining occurs in patches on the surface of fondant it is usually due to the sucrose crystals being larger at that point than at other points, and the cause of this is usually seeding of the crystals. This can occur where fondant which has been heated and cooled and allowed to harden on the surface is mixed with fresh fondant or where there has been localized over-heating during tempering. Loss of Gloss and Loss of gloss and excessive hardness of fondant may be Excessive due to an increase in the size of the sugar crystals caused by Hardness a general overheating when tempering; to a change in the balance of solid to liquid fractions, possibly due to the fondant being exposed to a dry atmosphere; or to a reduction in the glucose content of the fondant to below approximately 12 per cent. If the glucose content of the fondant is relatively low, and a permeable wrapping material is used, then there may be a tendency for graining of the sugar crystals to increase, causing hardness and loss of gloss. Fondants should not be heated above 110 F. during tempering, but there is a method for improving gloss by subjecting the fondant-covered goods to a high temperature in an oven at about 4000 F. for a few minutes. This actually melts the surface fondant, but owing to the fact that it is not thereafter subjected to any agitation, the sugar crystallization is slow and the fondant will retain a gloss for some time. This can be reduced by the addition of non-crystallizing Hardness of sugar such as commercial glucose syrup, but the amount Fondant used is limited owing to its hygroscopic effect in producing stickiness. The addition of 10 per cent by weight of marshmallow or 6 per cent by weight of shortening also reduces the hardness of fondant. Stickiness of fondant, which can give rise to packaging Stickiness difficulties, may be due to a number of reasons:

Faults in Handling

Using too Iowa temperature for tempering. The presence of too much glucose syrup. 3. The use of an insufficiently permeable wrapping material in relation to the glucose syrup content of the fondant. The higher the glucose content, the higher the degree of permeability required. I.

72 '

SUGARS

There will normally be a tendency for moisture to migrate from cake to fondant during storage. Therefore, unless the wrapping material is sufficiently permeable to allow moisture to be lost from the fondant, the fondant will become sticky. The transfer of moisture from cake to fondant can be reduced by pre-coating the cake with a material which will act as a moisture barrier. Boiled apricot puree has been used for this purpose for many years, and is perfectly satisfactory. A layer of almond paste is often placed on the cake surface before enrobing, for not only does this give a smooth surface for further decoration but it acts in a similar manner to boiled apricot puree as a barrier between cake and fondant. Stickiness can also be caused by variations in storage temperature in relation to atmospheric humidity, causing condensation on the surface of the fondant. This is very noticeable at seaside resorts and where fondant-coated goods have been refrigerated and then brought into a relatively warm atmosphere having a higher humidity. This is a general term that includes all liquids prepared from sugars, fruit juices, golden syrups, and treacles. Simple syrups are used for a number of purposes, but the most common uses are for thinning down fondant and for crystallizing fruits. It is prepared by boiling 3 lb. sugar, 2 pints water, and t lb. glucose; 2 gm. of cream of tartar may be used in place of the glucose in order to prevent the recrystallization of the sugars. All froth is taken off during boiling, and care is taken to prevent crystals forming on the sides of the pan. The syrup is strained when cold, and put in bottles ready for use as required. These arG_. th~_refined ()r paIj:i'!Uy refined b'y"~products from the manufacture of sugar. Tht:Y .consist of the unc-rystallized Sugars and water with varying small qllantities ofSliCrOse, proteins, dextrines, and minq~J s.alts. These...are uยงt;;d_ m~s.tlY :In gIngerbread goods. This is used by the confectioner. It is neither a sugar nor a carbohydrate but is in reality .an ~lC_Q_hQL Qf the_fa~~y hydrocaI"bon-class. It is found naturally in all fats in a combined state wlth various fatty acids. Pure glycerine is prepared from fats by hydrolysing them with steam under pressure, and as a by-product in soap manufacture. It is a colourless, thick syrup very much like glucose in appearance. It~ dis~~<::! s~e..eLtaste, but gives a dry feeling to the. mouth. It has important hygroscopic prop'er_ti~~.t._abstracting mQU;tUl,:e from2irsuite readily. For this reason it.is. :used in confectiont;ry in. the.making.of-cakes in order to assist in .keeping them moist. The proportion

Syrup

Golden Syrup and Treacle

Glycerine, C 3H{j(OH)a

CAKE MAKING

used varies, but it is seldom more than I oz. glycerine to each lb. of fat employed. However, its Wilue in confectionery is much overrated.

Standards for Sugar

Standards for sugar at the present time are essentially based on chemical purity and degree of polarization. There are no accepted standards for grain size, which is important from the viewpoint of practical usage. It has been suggested that trade requirements might be met by agreed Mesh Size for various grades such as: Coarse Granulated Medium Fine " Castor Medium Fine Pulverized Icing No.1 Icing No.2

through

" "

Mesh sizes 6--over 8 815 1530 30BO 4080 60" 80120 or 200 120- "" 200 200-

Chemical Aeration

""-

[rIlE

earliest application of chemicals to baking with the Historical object of liberating carbon dioxide for aeration of the outline dough is uncertain, and it is somewhat difficult to trace the gradual development of chemical aeration. Carbonates of soda and potash have been known from the very earliest times. The former was obtained from the ashes of sea plants, as well as from those growing near seashores, and the latter from the ashes oHand plants, and went under the name of potashes, from which a purer form, known as 'pearl ashes', was made. Both of these alkalis were used for aerating before bicarbonate of soda, probably in conjunction with sour milk or buttermilk. One special case may be cited, that of real old-fashioned gingerbread, when 'pearl ash' dissolved in water was mixed into a firm dough with treacle and flour, then set aside to ripen. This ripening was often allowed to continue for some months. When the dough was eventually baked off the acid* present in the treacle and flour, and a quantity probably developed during the ripening process, reacted with the carbonate, releasing carbon dioxide gas, which aerated the goods. There seems little doubt that bicarbonate of soda has been used for 200 years or more, when domestic baking was general, often alone, but probably more frequently in conjunction with buttermilk or sour milk. Lactic acid is present in these liquids, and would react with~~ assisting in the liberation of carbon dioxide. As the amount-ofacid is not ~on! -tnan ~e~t,Âˇ the a~~stance in aeration cannot have been great, but no doubt reduced the discoloration and alkaline taste. Just as the domestic baking of bread gradually decreased when this important food was procurable from shops, so, to a large extent, did the making of small goods. When the production of these latter by bakers became more general, it was necessary to find readier means of generating carbon dioxide gas for aeration.

-rper

* National Association Review, 1929, p.

1598.

CAKE MAKING

According to Kirkland,! no chemicals except pearl ash and alum were used by the baker as aeratIng agents in or about the year 1830. Alum, although not an acid, reacts with bicarbonate of soda in the heat of the oven, with the evolution of carbon dioxide. Carbonates of magnesia and lime were also employed. Probably the next chemical to be brought into use was the carbonate of ammonia,_com_lIlonly' known as 'vol'. It was to some extent used in domestic baking, as wen as on a larger scale by bakers. In a work published in Glasgow in 1832,2 written by a baker, reference is made to sodium and magnesium carbonates, as well as to the u,se of bicarbonate of soda, and hydrochloric acid; yet in 1836 a patent 3 was granted for the use of hydrochloric acid and bicarbonate of soda together as an aerator, and the method adopted is detailed. In sequence, tartaric acid and cream of tartar followed on the heels of hydrochloric acid, for a well-known, readymixed baking powder made from these acid substances was first placed on the market about this time (1830-40). In the United States ready-mixed baking powder, made from similar ingredients to the one mentioned above, was first extensively advertised for sale and generally introduced about 1845-50. Flaming posters appeared in all the towns calling it 'German yeast', or baking powder. As time went on, the prices of these two materials, tartaric acid and cream of tartar, tended to encourage the search for other suitable acid substances as substitutes, particularly for cream of tartar. Grant4 states that 'aeration by chemicals was first tried towards the end of the eighteenth century by means of a mixture of superphosphate of lime and ordinary washing soda that had been dried (dehYdrated),. This appears to set the introduction of superphosphate a little too early. Liebig5 (1803-73) originally recommended the treatment of bone with sulphuric acid, and Lawes only obtained his patent for the treatment of mineral phosphates with sulphuric acid in 1842. Manufacture on a large scale was actually commenced in 1845. In 1856 a patent6 was granted for the use of pasty acid calcium phosphate, mixed with farinaceous material and dried, as the acid ingredient of baking powder. Professor E. N. Horsford,7 of Cambridge, Mass., was the first to advocate the use of acid calcium phosphate for aeration, in 1861, and he obtained a patentS for its application in 1864.

CHEMICAL AERATION

Although, as already noted, alum had been used in this country, its general introduction in the Unites States seems to have taken place about 1880, and in 1892 sodium aluminium sulphate, generally known as 'S.A.S.', and which is really a modification of the alum proposition, appeared. 9 This substance, alone and admixed with acid calcium phosphate, has a large sale in that country, both as a cream powder and also as a ready-mixed baking powder. It was only natural that other acid salts of phosphoric acid should be tried as the source of acid, and in 1888, a patent lO was granted for the manufacture of mono-potassium phosphate as a cream of tartar substitute. The mono-sodium and mono-ammonium phosphates have also been tried. Th~ examination of two cream powders is recorded about 1895.11 They consisted of mixtures of the mono-ammonium and mono-calcium phosphates, along with some starch. The next acid substance to be introduced was acid sodium pyrophosphate. A patent 12 was granted for its manufacture in America in 1901. This material, reduced to cream of tartar strength with starch, was introduced into this country about 191 I, and most of the present-day 'cream powders' are based on this. This material has a certain distinct disadvantage, which is discussed later, and which militates against its general adoption. In 1927 a patent 13 was granted for a process of manufacture of acid materials, and it is claimed that by this method mono-sodium phosphate can be made so that it will act with all the advantages of the acid sodium pyrophosphate, but free from the serious drawback of its after-taste in the finished goods. From time to time, numerous other acid materials have been tried, and in many cases patents have been taken out. In particular, there have been many patents in recent years endeavouring to prevent the too rapid reaction of acid calcium phosphate (A.C.P.), mainly in connection with its use in self-raising flour, cake flours, and baking powders. Among ,the inorganic acid materials tried were the alkali acid sulphates. The organic acids suggested include glycollic, lactic, citric, mucic, and adipic. Of these, perhaps adipic is the most promising, but, so far, none has attained any importance. Durip.g the 1914-18 War potato starch impregnated with sufficient hydrochloric acid to yield a powder which could be used in the usual proportions with soda was offered. When fresh, it gave moderate satisfaction, but, on keeping, the starch was hydrolysed to glucose, which caused deterioration.

CAKE MAKING

Other organic acids have been suggested to replace cream of tartar, but at the moment they are of n1;I importance. With the exception of bicarbonate and carhona.te_of ammoma,_alLaei:ating-chemicals . .leave-a..residue .in-the_ bak~oods! Some of these are considered by certain authorities more or less harmful or, at least, undesirable, which has led to some controversy. Hence it has been the aim of the experimenters and patentees to introduce materials which leave no chemical residue. One such product is acetone dicarboxylic acid which, under the action of heat, breaks down into carbon dioxide and acetone: CH 2ÂˇCOOH CO / "'CH2 'COOH (146)

(88) Acetone

Acetone dicarboxylic acid

There is a likelihood of the acetone not being completely expelled from the baked goods, and they may thereby be tainted. Also, the cost of the material is relatively high. Further, its stability under bakehouse conditions is as yet uncertain. Hydrogen peroxide-30 per cent solution (100 vols) has also been suggested, since the residue left after decomposition is water only:

2H 2 0 2 = 2H 20

SOdiUDl Bicarbonate, NaHCOa (SodiUDl Hydrogen Carbonate, Bicarbonate of Soda, 'Salveratus')

A number of patents have been taken out both in the. United States and in this country for its use in bread and cake manufacture. However, it would appear that a considerable amount of experimental work would be required to be carried out before its adoption could be advocated. The latest addition to aerating agents is Glucono-deltalactone, which_is used .as .the-acid Âˇcomponent Dr- baking powders. Now let us consider the products in general use for chemical aeration. This is the alkaline constituent from which the carbon dioxide is released by the acid component under suitable conditions during baking. Na 2C0 3 (106)

+ CO + H 2

(44)

20 = (18)

NaHC0 3 (168)

The sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate in suspension is

CHEMICAL AERATION

removed, filtered, washed, and dried at 70Â° C. It appears commercially as a white crystalline powder of about 99'9 per cent purity. The solid salt decomposes on gentle ignition to form the normal carbonate; at the same time carbon dioxide IS liberated: 2NaHCO s ~ Na 2CO S (168) (106)

+ CO + H 2

(44)

(18)

When a solution of sodium bicarbonate is heated, a portion only of its carbon dioxide is given off, and if the solution be allowed to cool crystals of Na 2CO a,2NaHCO a,2H 20 are deposited. The action is represented by: 4NaHCOa (33 6)

Na 2CO a'2NaHCO s (274)

+ CO 2 + Hp (44)

(18)

This is really the reaction that takes place in baking when so~_ .bicarbonate is use9.__!llone, and it is seentliatQr~ly

25 per cent of the_!_otal c_ar:1?_o_!l_ dioxii_e_ is )ibe_r;ated. It is only on prolonged boiling of a solution of the salt that it is completely converted into the normal carbonate. The alkaline nature of the residue has a marked, disagreea_bletliSt"e;anci also causes discoloration of the goods, accompanied by a somewhat unpleasant s~eU. -When sufficient of any acid is used to decompose it completely, I gm. sodium bicarbonate will yield 265 c.c. carbon dioxide at 0Â° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 362 c.c. at 100Â° C. and 760 mm. pressure. Argol, a hard crystalline deposit formed in vats in which wine is fermented, and in bottles of wine, where it is termed 'crust', is impure bitartrate of potassium. The salt is present in grape juice, and being insoluble in alcohol, and sparingly so in water, is precipitated as fermentation proceeds. After crystallizing, it is called 'tartar', and when further purified by the removal of colouring matter and recrystallized, it becomes 'cream of tartar'. Argol contains approximately 75 per cent potassium bitartrate. Cream of tartar has one of the hydrogen atoms of tartaric acid replaced by potassium, and has approximately twofifths th~_ acidity of tartaric acid, weight for w~ight. Seeing tnat half the hydrogen IS replaced it might be imagined that cream of tartar would have half the acidity of tartaric acid, whereas it has only two-fifths, since allowance must be made for the difference in atomic weights of potassium (39) and hydrogen (I).

Cream. of Tartar (Potassium. Bitartrate, KHC4H 4 0 6, Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate)

CAKE MAKING

Potassium bitartrate is only slightly soluble in cold water, but readily so in hot, and on this differenq¢ in solubility its value to the baker depends, for when in contact with sodium bicarbonate and water in the cold, comparatively little action takes place, whereas in the hot oven carbon dioxide gas is rapidly e.vo~ved. KHC 4H 4 0 6 NaHC0 3 = KNaC 4H 40 6 H 20 CO 2 (188) (84) (210) (18) (44) The residual salt is potassium sodium tartrate, and has an aperient action on the human system. Rochelle salt* is the commercial name for the crystalline salt. On comparing the equation above with that given for tartaric acid, it will be-seen that cream of tartar yields more than double the amount of residual salt for the same amount of carbon dioxide gas evolved. Generally cream of tartar and sodium bicarbonate are ~sed in the p:.o_portio~s_9{ 2-·:}.;_ but 1111_s1~a~~-an_ ~xces~ _?f alIGili"iii1negoods. From the above equation, it will readily -be seen that 22'4 parts cream of tartar require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization. I gm. potassium bitartrate with sufficient sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization will yield 118'4 c.c. carbon dioxide at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 161·8 c.c. at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure. It can now be obtained commercially of 99 per cent purity. It is evident that since the raw material for this salt, as well as tartaric acid, is really a by-product of the wine industry, the supply will vary from year to year with the grape harvest. A long and acrimonious controversy has been waged, chiefly in America, between tJ:le advocates of tartrates and those of other types of aerators, particularly alum. Scientific opinions have been given in favour of both sides, and appear to be about evenly divided, except that in this country and Australia the presence of alum is looked upon as an adulteration in foodstuffs. Tartrates appear to have no value as a food, since they do not occur naturally in the human system in any form, and hence are not required to supply any deficiency or to replace wastage.

Tartaric Acid H 2C 4H 40

Argol, or crude tartar, was known to the Greeks and Romans. It was not, however, till 1769 that Scheele isolated

* Seignette of Rochelle named this so that it is sometimes referred to as 'Seignette's salt'. 80

CHEMICAL AERATION

free tartaric acid from argol, and soon afterwards it was manufactured on the large scale in a similar manner to that employed today. The acid is obtained from either 'wine lees' or 'argol'. Wine lees, consisting largely of grape skins, yeast cells, stalks, etc., is dried to kill bacteria and spores. After milling, it is leached with hot water, filtered, and lime added to neutralize the acid and precipitate calcium tartrate, from which the acid is set free by sulphuric acid, then finally purified by recrystallization. The lees contain up to 20 per cent tartaric acid in combination as potassium bitartrate. The acid is also prepared by dissolving 'tartar', obtained from the first crystallization of argol (see under Cream of Tartar) in hot water, treating with lime, and proceeding as described above. Xartaric acid is dibasic, and forms both an acid and also a normal series of salts, called tartrates. It is readily soluble iii. hot and cold wa~V~acting-im~iliteTyin-the cold with sodium bicarbonate, liberating carbon dIOxide, according -- - - to-Uiefollowi"ng eqwi.tlon: H 2C 4H 40 (150)

+ 2NaHCOs = (168)

Na 2C 4 H 4 0 (194)

+ 2H 0 + 2C0 2

(36)

(88)

The residual salt, normal sodium tartrate, has a decidedly aperient action, and on this account exception has been taken in certain quarters to the use of tartrates in baking. As the amount present is so small, it is extremely doubtful whether they can really exercise much effect. Owing to the ready solubility of this acid, it is not of great interest to bakers today. It finds considerable use, however, in certain classes of biscuit manufacture and in effervescing drinks. It is now obtainable commercially of 99 per cent purity, and practically free from metallic impurities, although in the early days it was often rather heavily contaminated with arsenic and lead. The former was introduced in the sulphuric acid and the latter dissolved from the lead vessels used in concentration and crystallization. 8'9 parts tartaric acid require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization. Calculating from the equation given above, it is found that I gm. tartaric acid yields 296.8 c.c. carbon dioxide at 0Â° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 405'5 c.c. at 100Â° C. and 760 mm. pressure. This is prepared by mixing solutions of pure normal potassium sulphate and pure sulphuric acid in molecular proportions and evaporating to dryness. It has been used to some D

Acid Potassiun Sulphate, KHSO, (Potassium. Bisulphate)

CAKE MAKING

extent as an aerating agent to replace tartaric acid, which it resembles in speed of reaction, owing to ip; ready solubility in cold water. Its reaction with sodium bicarbonate is represented by the following equation: KHS0 4 (13 6)

+ :NaHCOa = (84)

KNaS0 4 (15 8)

+ H 0 + CO 2

(18)

(44)

The residual salt is practically tasteless, but has a marked purgative action. For complete neutralization, 16·2 parts potassium bisulphate require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate. This salt is now really only of historical interest.

Acid Sodium Sulphate, NaHS0 4 (Sodium Bisulphate)

This is prepared similarly to the potassium saIt, the solution being evaporated to dryness and then the mass heated to render it anhydrous. The salt is deliquescent, but less soluble in water than the corresponding pota:;sium bisulphate. The reaction with sodium bicarbonate is: NaHSO" (120)

+ NaHCO a = Na2S0 4 + Hp + CO 2 (84)

(142)

(18)

(44)

The residual salt, normal sodium sulphate, when crystallized with 10 molecules of water, is the well-known Glauber's salt, which is used as a purgative. 14·3 parts sodium bisulphate (anhydrous) require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization. The acid salt, when allowed to crystallize, does so with I molecule of water.

Hydrochloric Acid, HCI (Hydrogen Chloride, Spirits of Salt, Muriatic Acid)

This is one of the earliest acids used, in conjunction with sodium bicarbonate, to liberate carbon dioxide for aerating purposes. It is obtained on the large scale as a by-product in the manufacture. of sodium carbonate (Naj!CO s) from salt (NaCI). In the first stage of the process salt is treated with sulphuric acid and then heated. The reaction is: NaCI + H 2S0 4 (58· 5) (9 8)

NaHS0 4 (120)

+ HCI (36 .5)

The hydrochloric acid gas which is evolved. is made to pass up stone towers packed with lumps of coke or brick, down which trickles a stream of water. The gas is dissolved and the acid solution is collected at the bottom. Only after thorough purification is it ready for bakers' use. The pure acid is on the market as a colourless liquid

CHEMICAL AERATION

having a density of 1'15 to 1'16, containing 30-31 per cent hydrogen chloride. It forms white fumes in contact with moist air, and is highly corrosive in action, requiring great care in handling to avoid spilling any on the person or clothes. The following equation represents its reaction with sodium bicarbonate:

HCI NaHC0 3 = NaCl (3 6 '5) (84) (58 '5)

20 (18)

+ CO

(44)

From which it is seen that, taking 30 as the percentage of hydrogen chloride, 14'5 parts acid (S.G. 1'15) require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization. The residue left in the goods is sodium chloride-i.e., common salt, which is a necessary constituent of food. At one time hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate were used in the making of wholemeal bread because, owing to the type of yeast then available, and the long fermentation methods used, it was considered difficult to make satisfactory wholemeal bread by yeast fermentation alone. Molecular weight 178'14' Melting point 153 0 C. Solubility 59 gm. 100 m!. in water at 20 0 C.

Glucono-deltalactone

0=Li---------,

I I OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-~-{)H

H-C___j

CH 20H

Glucono-delta-Iactone is prepared by an oxi2izing f~rmentation of dextrose under aerobic c,onditions usin a bacterh!!ll..whic oXIdizes theAugar...to_gluconic acid without any si~ificant formati()n_ qf .other acids~ The resulting gluconic acid liquor is concentrated under reduced pressure, cooled and seeded with glucono-delta-Iactone crystals, and evaporation is continued until a substantial crop of gluconodelta-lactone has crystallized out. The crystal crop is separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation, washed with cold water, and dried by steam heat. It is an inner ester of gluconic acid. It is a white crystal-

Manufacture

CAKE MAKING

line powder with aQ~al sweet taste and a slight acidic ~. aftertaste. - -AItIi.Ough glucono-delta-lactone is noj: _an_a~id.-l in water solJition it slowly _hydrolyses- to an eq~ilibrium mixture of gluconic_a~id anQ its delta-_anQ_gamma-lactones._At rooni temperature (25 0 C.) complete hydrolysis occurs in approximately 2 hours and produces a solution containing 55-60 per cent gluconic acid and 40-45 per cent lactones, based on the amount of added glucono-delta-lactone. The hydrolysis rate is increased with an increase in temperature. To improve the stability of glucono-delta-lactone during the shelf life of products when the moisture pick-up of the other ingredients may present a problem, glucono-deltalactone was coated with 5 and 10 per cent calcium stearate, by weight. The slow hydrolysis rate of glucono-delta-Iactone in cold water>3:!!-cGiiLaccderaclon-with-an increasej~p~e, make it ~.!l. ~~c_ell_enLacidulant.JOl: );gker:y-products_whiCh use a chemicalraising.action. ~e_thereisJittle_acid formed during_batter_ p.r_epari:ltiQu,_ther-0s little loss of ~t time; the_main release of CO a occurs dux:ing-the-baking cyQe.-:the. ideal ti~. One part glucono-delta-Iactone will completely neutralize~2 par..!.... s~dium]jica:-r~alcuTations for using glucono-delta-lactone in a new formula or as a replacement for all or part of the acidulant at present used in a formula should be made on this basis. The best results are obtained when glucono-delta-lactone is used with another chemical acidulant. Generally, use of this as 50-70 per cent of the total acid source produces optimum results, cream of tartar being used to make up the balance. For maximum volume_and best flavour in Angel cake, the acidity must be developed late in the baking cycle. Glucono-delta-lactone will produce goods of _volume eq\li\.l_ to- those in w~~ch_aE:Y o~f!~F ~<:id' agent is__!!Se_d~th the advantage that there is no objectiona5teaffertaste in tIie -'-.. ~ goo~, a_ ver.y .Important. pomt.

Ammonium Carbonate ('Volatile' or 'Vol')

The commercial salt consists of a mixture of ammonium hydrogen carbonate and ammonium carbamate, having the composition (NH4 )HCO a NH4 ·COa·NHa• It was obtained by first subliming a mixture of 2 parts calcium carbonate (chalk) with I part ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), or with ammonium sulphate. The product, with the addition of some water, is then resublimed, when it

CHEMICAL AERATION

is obtained in white, semi-transparent ~asses, having a strongly ammoniacal smell and a pungen~ustic taste. It is noW usually manufactured by the direct combination of ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases in the correct proportions are passed into water maintained at the correct temperature when the above compound separates out. If synthetic ammonia is used, the product is of good quality. It may, however, be further purified by sublimation: 3NHa

+ 2C0 2 + H 2o ---7 NH4HCOs'NH4'C02'NH2

~~posure

to the air results if! slow volatili~.<!-_tio_n. W~n aqueous solution is heated the salt is completely decomposed into ammonia gas, carbon dioxid_e,_and_ water: (NH 4)HCO a

+ NH4'C0 2'NH 2 =

3NHs 2C0 2 H 20 '(5 I) (88) (18) This is also the reaction taking place in the oven when 'vol' is used as an aerating agent. All the prOdOCts~e gaseous and volatile, hence its common _!l~me, and no residual saltiSleffDeliind in the oods. When freshly baked the goo s smell and taste of ammonia_). P_ut. this_smelLand taste aisaRP-ear Qn_cooling._The_chieLuse_ ot: 'vol' js_fQ.Lthe making of small porous articles, such as biscuits, which pe!:!lli.L2f the..escape-of .die .gCis_es. )Tisa white crystalline solid, and tends to give the good~ic::l~_w - ~r :The grade normally used for foodstuff purposes is described as Ammonium Carbonate Powder ground from B.P. Lump Carbonate. This grade contains 30 to 31' 5 per cent ammonia (NHa) and 53'5-54'5 per cent carbon dioxide (C0 2), Ammonium carbonate is very volatile and smells strongly of ammonia. In order to prevent loss of ammonia, it must be stored in airtight containers in a cool place. I gm. of ammonium carbonate when decomposed, as shown by the equation above, yields the following amounts of gas: ( I 57)

Ammonia (NHa) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

420·2 c.c. at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure 283-6

Total Ammonia (NHa) Carbon dioxide (CO 2)

703·8 574·1 387·5

Total

961-6

" "" " "

" 100°"C. " "

" " " "

" "

" " " "

Ammonium bicarbonate, which is represented by the formula NH 4HCO a, is a white crystalline solid. The grade supplied for food-stuff purposes is a fine crystalline powder which satisfies the requirements of the British Pharma-

AJnJnoniuJn Bicarbonate

CAKE MAKING

The Alums

copoeia. It contains 21'4-21'6 per cent ammonia (NHa) and 54'25-55"85 per cent carbon dioxid~'(C02)' It therefore contains considerably less angp.onia. ~I).d slig._htJ.¥--more carbon dioxide than the ammonium-ear-bonate. , Since_!be_raising_actionofthe·two-compounds.is.mainly dependenLQn~the carbon_ dioxide liberated_ hy-heat,_the bicarhoJlat~ can tepLa&e. an.. equal ..weight, of~the_c:a.rbQIlate, and it has been shown to rt:s.!llLin ,an imRrovement in the quality of the 'lJak-ed ',go,ods, and in the .r.etention...cl:::less ammonia. The bicat:honate_di~soci~t!'!s much less readily than the carbonate at ordinary temperatures, and it therefore.has a much less pronounce(:f ammoniacal smell. It should be stored in its original containers in a cool place. Ammonium bicarbonate, like the carbonate, yields, on volatilization, only a small amount of non-volatile residue, which is normally less than 0'004 per cent. Its use in baking therefore does not give rise to any appreciable quantity of non-volatile substance in the baked products. The term 'alum' is a generic one applied primarily to a group of double salts of aluminium sulphate, together with the sulphates of the alkali metals, which crystallize with 24 molecules of water. This name is now also used for double salts, other than the above, which crystallize in a similar form with 24 molecules of water. The alums that have been used for baking are: Potash alum (or simply alum) Soda alum Ammonia alum

K.SO•. AI.(SO.) •. 24H.O Na zSO•. Al.(SO.) •. 24H.O (NH,).SO •. Al.(SO')3.24HzO

Under this head sodium aluminium sulphate .(S.A.S.) should be included, as it is really soda alum deprived of its water of crystallisation-i.e., -dehydrated-although it is contended by the manufacturers that it is something very' different. The alums.do.not---react-with·sodiurn bicarbonate in the cold:b~t1iithe heat of the o~en, alt~ugh they are not, aCids in the ordinaryacceptation of that term. The following is the action taking place: KzS04.Alz(S04)a.24HP (948)

+ 6NaHC0 = (5°4) 2AI(OH)a + gNa zS0 + 3

(156)

K 2S04

(174) 86

(426) 6COl! 24H 20

(264)

(432)

CHEMICAL AERATION

The insoluble aluminium hydroxide is highly undesirable in food, although, here again, widely divergent views have been expressed by authorities. In this country, however, the presence of aluminium in foods, other than that present naturally, is regarded in the nature of adulteration, although in the United States such an aerator is permitted. Sometimes it is used alone, as well as in combination with acid calcium phosphate. It is of interest historically as being one of the first materials used to liberate carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate. Phosphorus is widely distributed throughout Nature, chiefly in combination with calcium and oxygen, as tricalcium phosphate, Ca3 (P04)2, which is the raw material from which the acids and their s~lts are produced. This element in combination also forms an essential constituent of all animal and vegetable life. There are three of these-viz. : Orthophosphoric Pyrophosphoric Metaphosphoric

Orthophosphoric acid is tribasic-i.e., it forms series of salts containing one, two, and three equivalents of a base per equivalent of acid. In the case of sodium, these salts are: Monosodium orthophosphate Disodium orthophosphate Trisodium orthophosphate

NaH.POâ&#x20AC;˘. H.O Na.HPO,.12H.O NasPOâ&#x20AC;˘. 12H.O

The acid is manufactured from phosphate rock or bone ash, both of which consist principally of tricalcium phosphate Caa(P0 4h, by intimately mixing the finely ground material with sufficient moderately dilute sulphuric acid to convert all the calcium into sulphate, as shown in the equation: Ca3 (P0 4h (310)

+ 3H2S0" + 6H20 (294)

(ro8) = 3[CaS04'2H20a)

(516)

+ 2HaP04 (196)

The mass, after standing some time, is taken up with water, the insoluble matter removed by filtration, and the clear filtrate concentrated to a syrupy liquid, in which form it appears on the market. Today, phosphoric acid is manufactured by: (i) the blastfurnace process, or (ii) the electric-furnace process.

The Phosphoric Acids and Phosphates

The Phosphoric Acids

CAKE MAKING

In both, phosphate rock, sand (Si0 2), and coke are the raw materials. The essential reaction can be e~pressed by the equation: Ca3 (P0 4)2 Si0 2 sC = gCaSi0 3 2P SCO (310) (180) (60) (345) (62) (140) In the blast-furnace method, ground rock phosphate and coke are briquetted, mixed with sand, then dropped into the furnace. Slag (CaSi0 3) is drawn off at intervals, the phosphoric vapour cleaned, then burned to P 20 5 , which is led into hydrating chambers and finally condensed to phosphoric acid. The reactions are shown by the equations:

4P (124)

502 (160)

2P 20 5 (184)

P 20 5 + 3H20 = 2H 3P0 4 (142) (54) (19 6 ) To be economic, these units have to be oflarge size, which is something of a disadvantage. The electric furnace method also uses ground rock phosphate and sand mixed with coke. This mixture is charged into the furnace working at a temperature of 2,4000 F., from which the slag is periodically tapped. To the gases from the furnace, air can be admitted and the phosphorus vapour burned directly to P 205' which can be hydrated as before. The other process is to condense the phosphorus under water, and the carbon monoxide can be used as a fuel. The phosphorus is then burnt separately to yield a pure phosphoric acid. The advantage of this process is that units of varying sizes can be worked economically, and the lower grades of phosphate rock can be used as well. Orthophosphoric acid is usually called simply phosphoric acid, but in the other two cases the prefixes are always used to denote the differences. Pyrophosphoric acid is tetrabasic and yields a series of four salts, although only two need be mentioned-viz. : Disodium pyrophosphate Tetrasodium pyrophosphate

N a,H.P 00 7.HoO Na,P o0 7.10H oO

The acid is prepared by heating orthophosphoric acid to 2500 C., when 2 molecules of acid lose 1 molecule of water, as shown in the following equation: 2H 3P0 4 - H 20 = H 4P 20 7 (19 6 ) (18) (178) J.\1etaphosphoric acid is monobasic, having only one replaceable hydrogen atom in the molecule. It is obtained by heat88

CHEMICAL AERATION

ing either ortho- or pyrophosphoric acid to a red heat, whereby water of combination is driven off, as shown below:

= H 4P 20

2H 3P0 4 - H 20 (Ig6) (18)

7 -

(178)

H 20 (18)

= 2HP0 3 (160)

The acids themselves are not employed as aerating agents, although orthophosphoric acid admixed with starch as an absorbent has been suggested. The use of acid phosphate as the source of acid for this purpose is of comparatively recent date. They have undoubtedly grown in favour, partly on account of their relatively low cost and partly because compounds of phosphorus are an important constituent of the human diet, being necessary for the building up of bone and tissue. There is, however, considerable divergence of opinion as to whether the phosphorus should be in organic or inorganic combination for easy assimilation; but probably both forms are equally essential, and by the use of suitable phosphatic cream powders a necessary food, and one that is natural, is supplied to the human system. The three calcium ortho salts are: Monocalcium phosphate Dicalcium phosphate Tricalcium phosphate

Ca(H.PO.) â&#x20AC;˘. H.O CaHPO. Ca 3 (PO.).

The two latter are insoluble in water. This salt in its impure form, admixed with calcium sulphate, is the 'superphosphate' of commerce, which finds extensive use in agriculture as a fertilizer. It is manufactured by the same method as phosphoric acid, except that less sulphuric acid is employed. The reaction is: Ca 3 (P0 4)2 (310)

+ 2H 2S0 + 5H P 4

(lg6)

(go)

= Ca(H2P04)2.Hp

+ 2 2[CaS0 4Âˇ2HP]

(25 2 )

(344)

~--------r--------~

'Superphosphate.'

The pure salt for food purposes is now made from pure phosphoric acid. High-grade hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2' or pure dicalcium phosphate and phosphoric acid are vigorously mixed in sufficient quantities to convert all the lime into monocalcium phosphate. Free phosphoric acid is to be avoided, since it increases the difficulty of handling in the final stages of manufacture, as well as detracting from its keeping properties. The mass, after standing some time, sets

Calcium Phosphates or Ortho-phosphates Monocalcium Phosphate, Ca(H 2P0 4)2' H 20 (Calcium Biphosphate, Acid Calcium Phosphate [A.C.P.])

CAKE MAKING

solid, is broken up, then spread out to complete the reaction and dry. After being coarsely ground the}8rying is completed under vacuum before being finely milled. Acid calcium phosphate is now generally offered as being of 80 per cent strength, being reduced to this value by the addition of the necessary amount of pure dicalcium phosphate. Widely differing-views are held as to the reactions taking place between acid calcium phosphate and sodium bicarbonate during baking. Hart 14 writes the reaction as: 8NaHC0 3 3Ca(H2P04)2 (702) (672) = Ca3 (P04)2 4Na2HP04 8C02 + 8H zO* (3 10) (5 68 ) (352) (144) Monocalcium phosphate crystallizes with I molecule of water, although it is not shown in the above equation; but after making allowance for this, it is found that 100 parts pure monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H2P04)2.HZO, react completely with 88Âˇ89 parts sodium bicarbonate, and it is on the basis of this equation that the value of 80 per cent is adjusted by the addition of dicalcium phosphate as a diluent. This salt also aids stability. J ago 15 and Leach 16 consider that the reaction does not proceed so far, and give the equation as: Ca(H 2P0 4h + 2NaHCO a (234) (168) = CaHP04 Na.fiP04 2C02 + 2H20 (136) (142) (88) (36) Actually Jago 17 gives the two following equations: CaH4(P0 4)Z NaHCO a = CO 2 CaNaHa(P0 4)2 H 20 CaH4(P0 4h + 2NaHC0 3 = 2C0 2 CaNa zH z(P0 4)z 2H20 but goes on to remark that the proportions of the latter are correct for aeration, which corresponds with 13'9 parts of the pure acid salt to 10 parts sodium bicarbonate. Kent~JoneslS states that acid calcium phosphate reacts with sodium bicarbonate in the way shown by the two equations below: CaH4P Ps 2NaHC0 3 = 2CO z + CaNa 2HzPzOs 2H 20 CaH 4PPs + NaHC0 3 = CO 2 CaNaHaP Ps H 20

+ +

... Students are advised to regard this as the equation which represents the reaction of A.C.P.

CHEMICAL AERATION

Presumably, from this writer's point of view, both reactions proceed simultaneously. There do not seem to be any grounds for showing the products of the reactions as compounds salts of calcium and sodium; in fact, it seems entirely wrong, since in chemical reactions, whenever it is possible for a body to be formed which is insoluble, and hence precipitated, or is gaseous, and therefore volatile, such a body is produced, and so removed from the sphere of action. Patten 19 considers that one or both of the following reactions take place depending upon the proportion of sodium bicarbonate used:

3Ca(H2P04)2 (7 02 )

+ 4NaHC03 (33 6)

= Ca3(P04)2 + 4NaH2P04 + 400 2 + 4 H 20 (3IO)

(480}

(17 6)

(72)

+ 8NaHOOa = Ca3(P04)2 + 4NazHP04 + 800 2 + 8HzO

30a(H2P04h

(3IO) (5 68 ) (35 2 ) (I44) 20 Other investigators have concluded, as the result of painstaking researches, that if a considerable excess of sodium bicarbonate is present tricalcium and disodium phosphates are formed; otherwise some dicalcium phosphate is produced at the expense of an equivalent amount of tricalcium phosphate. It seems probable that the reaction between acid calcium phosphate and sodium bicarbonate which takes place under actual baking conditions is represented by some combination of the equation as favoured by Hart,_ and that favoured by Jago and Leach, but just what that combination may be is difficult to define, since no really satisfactory method for the determination of the neutralizing value of acid calcium phosphate to correspond with its baking value has, as yet, been found. Each method so far advocated is empirical, and certain very definite details have to be closely adhered to in order to obtain duplicate concordant results, which are on the high side, requiring correspondingly large amounts of sodium bicarbonate and leaving an excess of alkalinity in the finished goods. In the case of a powder containing monosodium phosphate or acid sodium pyrophosphate, or both, together with acid calcium phosphate, the reactions are complex and cannot be expressed in equations. For some time after acid calcium phosphate came on to the market varying strengths and qualities were offered, and

CAKE MAKING

some were far from satisfactory. Calcium sulphate was used as a diluent until a maximum of 10 per cent was fixed. The present-day quality is generally excellent, a high-grade acid calcium phosphate having a composition within the following limits: % Free phosplroric acid Monocalcium phosphate Dicalcium phosphate Calcium phosphate Iron and aluminium phosphates Moisture and insoluble matter Arsenic and lead Fluorine and chlorine

Coated Anhydrous Monocalcium Phosphate

Nil 85·5-90 7·5-8·0 0·1-1·0 0·1-1·5 1·0-1·5 Under legal limits Traces

T~ofthis material now are as ~Jk)_ur improver and as the acid ingredienCin 'self-raising' flour. As a flour lID:prover, acid calCium p'hosph.~t!: has a definite act jon on the glufen of flour, in that it ti htens or tou hentit,_hence its actIOn in ten mg to make a weak flour...hehave.as_a..stronger one. It is also effective in the ~l!mi1}a.riQJ:u~L:t:QPe-in_br~d. Acid calcium hos hate be ins to react with sodium bicit onate-slowly-in-the-cold,-aruU:he reactiQIl increases witl?~risejn teID:Rerature. For_th!§~. the.l:tesu:esults_ are obtained by baking almost immedi~te1y after II1ixing. The dkalcium. pnosphate -presen1':-in:rhe~_acid .ph9.§ph~lso reacts-at-higher-temperatures-and prolongs ,aer:ation. This material often produces black specks on thesurface of goods. A series of carefully controlled experiments, carried out in Canada,25 has shown that the monocalcium phosphate is responsible; but if it is reduced to a finely divided condition the occurrence can be avoided. Autogenously coated crystalline anhydrous mono calcium phosphate has attained a high place as a baking acid in the self-raising flour industry and as a constituent of baking powders. This special type of anhydrous monocalcium phosphate, developed by Schlaeger and Knox,21 is made by reacting lime with a strong phosphoric acid containing minor amounts of certain metal compounds at a sufficiently high temperature to prevent the formation of any substantial amount of hydrated monocalcium phosphate, and at a temperature low enough to prevent the formation of any appreciable amount of pyrophosphate. Generally 140°175° C. is employed. The reaction is carried out in a batch mixer equipped with an efficient agitator. The resulting product is a dry powder consisting of minute crystals of anhydrous mono calcium phosphate. These minute crystals are then subjected to a temperature of approximately 200°-

CHEMICAL AERATION

C. Under this heat treatment the potassium and several other elements appear to combine with the calcium phosphate surface of the crystals to form an autogenous, glasslike, substantially water-insoluble coating over the crystals. The exact composition of this glassy coating has not been determined, but it does have a great effect on the stability and reaction characteristics of the anhydrous monocalcium phosphate particles. As a baking acid, or acid constituent of baking powder, this new phosphate depends on its ability to resist decomposition in moist atmospheres and on its delayed as well as slow reaction with sodium bicarbonate in dough mixtures. The glassy coating protects the anhydrous phosphate from the action of atmospheric moisture. In wet dough mixtures it permits only a slow penetration of mixture into the interior of the particle and there,by delays its reaction with the soda present. As an example of this action, the following table shows a direct comparison between the actions of this special anhydrous phosphate and the ordinary hydrated monocalcium phosphate, which for many years had been a principal commercial phosphate baking acid. The table shows the amount of carbon dioxide liberated during different time intervals from a mixture of the baking acid and sodium bicarbonate in water at 27 C., the amount of sodium bicarbonate being theoretically sufficient to liberate 200 c.c. of carbon dioxide on completion of the reaction: 220

PER CENT CARBON DIOXIDE LIBERATED

Time (min.) I 'l 46 8 10

Hydrated monocalcium

61·0

Special anhydrous monocalcium

7·0

G'H~

7·5

64·0

22·0 49·0 60·0 64·0

The data shows that with ordinary mono calcium phosphate the reaction with soda is about 60 per cent complete within I minute, whereas with the special coated anhydrous phosphate the reaction is less than 10 per cent complete in 2 minutes and not over 50 per cent complete in 6 minutes. When translated to baking practice this information means that the chemically aerated doughs can be mixed, moulded, and cut out, and placed in the oven before any appreciable loss of the leavening gas takes place.

CAKE MAKING

Dicalcium Plwsphate, CaHP04ÂˇH.P

Monosodium Phosphate, NaH2P0 4'H20 (Sodium Biphosphate)

Experimental scones baked under uniform conditions, except for the type of acid, show that th:~ volume of the scones made with the special anhydrous phosphate is approximately one-third greater than when ordinary monocalcium phosphate is employed. As already mentioned under monocalcium phosphate, this salt is useu as a diluent in reducing the pure acid calcium phosphate to 80 per cent strength. It is scarcely affected by cold water. Certain American writers Z2 state that it has a baking value, and when used at a strength of 25 gave satisfactory results, although, of course, the characteristic tightening effect of calcium would be present. This is manufactured by adding soda ash to a solution of pure phosphoric acid in molecular proportions to produce the salt, evaporating, crystallizing, then drying above 0 100 C. to remove water of crystallization, and finally grinding. Monosodium phosphate crystallizes with I molecule of water. This salt is neutral in reaction to methyl orange, but acid to litmus and phenolphthalein. Since the anhydrous salt is deliquescent, great care is necessary in storage. It is readily soluble in cold and hot water, and in solution reacts vigorously with sodium bicarbonate in the cold, according to the equation: NaH zP0 4 (120)

+ NaHC0 (84)

= Na 2HP0 4

(142)

+ CO + H 0 2

(44)

(18)

The residual salt is the neutral sodium phosphate of commerce and has a mild, pure, saline taste with a slight aperient action. Although this was one of the first acid alkali phosphates to be tried as an aerating agent, its ready solubility and deliquescence prevented it from achieving success and caused it to be superseded, particularly by acid sodium pyrophosphate (q.v.). A patent23 was granted whereby it is claimed that this acid salt can be manufactured, so that it is no longer deliquescent, and at the same time is inert in the cold dough, only reacting with the sodium bicarbonate when subjected to the heat of the oven in exactly the same manner as the acid sodium pyro salt, and yet being entirely free from the objectionable taste of that substance. For complete neutralization, 10 parts sodium bicarbonate require 14'3 parts pure monosodium phosphate (anhydrous). Further, I gm. of the acid material plus sufficient bicarbonate of soda to leave no excess yields 18S'5 c.c. carbon dioxide at 00 C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 253'45 c.c. at 100Â° C. and 760 mm. pressure.

CHEMICAL AERATION

This is manufactured as the anhydrous variety by heating monosodium phosphate at 200°-220° C. for 6-8 hours, when water is driven off: 2NaH 2P0 4 (240)

H 20 (IS)

Na2H 2P 20 (222)

During the period of heating, the temperature must be kept under control in order to prevent dehydration from proceeding too far, for at temperature exceeding 220 0 C. further water is gradually expelled until, when 2400 C. is reached and this temperature maintained for some time, the following reaction takes place: Na 2H 2P 20 (222)

7 -

H 20 = 2NaP0 3 (IS) (204)

The formation of sodium metaphosphate, NaPO a, is to be avoided since this salt is insoluble in water and, further, has no acid properties. Acid sodium pyrophosphate crystallizes from solution with I molecule of water. It yields an aqueous solution having a neutral reaction to methyl orange, but acid to litmus and phenolphthalein. The solid is perfectly stable, non-hygroscopic, sparingly soluble' in cola- waterand ~a-ailyin:ll'Of;h-ence, So far as its speed of reactIon-with sodium bIcarbonate IS concerned, It IS a very satisfactory 'sLow-acttng'oa'Kmgacia.. Its reactIOn witli soaium mcarl)O:"" mte is expressed thus: . Na 2H 2 P 20 (222)

+ 2NaHCOa = (16S)

Na4 P 20 (266)

2C02 (88)

+ 2H 0 2

(36)

The residual salt normal sodium pyrophosphate, shows a very distinctly alkaline reaction to phenolpthalein. It has at first a not unpleasant saline taste, but soon causes a tingling, then burning sensation in the mouth and throat. It is the formation of this saIt, when this acid material has been used in baking, that causes the peculiar 'aftertaste', 'bite', or 'burning sensation' in the mouth and throat when the goods are eaten. This, unfortunately, is the characteristic of many of the cream powders now on the market, because of which cream of tartar is still used by some bakeries. The objectionable feature just mentioned has militated against the more widespread use of this convenient acid substance, as undoubtedly it produces excells;nt wlume aod texture, but 'lJP].Q.s,t always spoils the flavour, It is interesting to consider the signrticance of the prefix 'pyro', which is derived from the Greek word for 'fire', and the reason for this is the high

Acid Sodium Pyrophosphate, Na2H2P207·H20

CAKE MAKING

temperature which is required for the conversion from the ortho- to the pyro-condition. '}f Aqueous solutions of the pyrophosphates are stable even on boiling, but the addition of most acids and continued boiling causes gradual hydrolysis back to the ortho-salt. It has been suggested by certain writers,23 yet with some uncertainty,24 tI1at - the residual salt obtained in actual baking is disodium phosphate. The facts just enumerated preclude such a conclusion, as well as the results obtained by examining the actual extracted residual salt. The likelihood of the pyro-form of phosphates, as such, being assimilated by the human system seems remote, but possibly a certain portion, at any rate, may be hydrolysed to the ortho-state by the digestive juices, and so eventually be present in a form in which it can be utilized by the human metabolism. 13'2 parts pure acid sodium pyrophosphate (anhydrous) react completely with 10 parts sodium bicarbonate. 1 gm. of the acid sodium pyrophosphate with sufficient sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization yields 200·6 c.c. carbon dioxide at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 274'0 c.c. at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure. Effects of Baking Acids and their Residual Salts on Flour

It is of interest to consider briefly the effect of the acid materials employed in aeration, as well as of the inorganic salts resulting from the interaction of sodium bicarbonate and the various baking acids. In chemical leaveningJ_h_~_g.as is supplied .fulliL.Pj_carhona~f soda. This gas is released froni- the soda by reaction ~t~cid-a~ting--;ubstariCe. -The add must be~-;ctive towards the soda until liquid is addep. in the making.,.!p of the doug"!]., or batt~r, .otherwise there. would bG. pJ:~,mature ..!9~ _o_f _g~. -Xn addition to SU2plxing_ tEe raising__'p"~;cr, ~hel_!licaLaerat!Dg. materials,_after liberating the gas, leave r~sidual s,,!-lts in the dough that modify ihe flour R!:QIeins and affect ..tI1e~texture,sQiour..,:and. t.enderness..oLthe-baked ..._-----p.roducts. Taking weights oftaLtarkacidand cream of tartar, which show !l:.J:? eq~l acidity.~hy the usual titration methods, it is found that, although handled with all speed and baked off immediately, tl;).e former does nQt give a volume which compares with the latter although the residual salts differ only slightly. It is probable that in this case..1he inte~f acidity-i.e. ~ydrog_~I!-iQn concentration-in __t1;te_90ugli has some slight effect. on the .gluten in. the flour, the tar.tas.ic acid having greater hydrogen-ion concentratio~~ ~n~ ~o a '-0

-- _____

CHEMICAL AERATION

grea ter softening effect, where by the gluten strands break more easily and-do n6tstrefclil:cnlre-sah!eex:tericas-th-ey-do when cream of tartar is used; thus a depreciated volume results. More important, however, seems to be the comparative solubility of these two acids. Tartaric acid is much more readily soluble in the cold do~}i_a_Il. iscreain of lartar, and as a result greater solution takes place. Hence, some Interaction with the bicarbonate results and the gas produced dissolves in the liquor of the dough. When the goods are placed in the oven this gas expands, but as it has been produced in the cold, it has a tendency to cause the dough to flatten, so that on expansion in the oven only a steady lift results. This does not produce a bold-looking product, for from all experiments carried out, it has been found that a more rapid evolution of gas under the influence of the heat of the oven is required; this causes a rapid rise, and so gives bulk to the goods. â&#x20AC;˘ With cream of tartar, less solution takes place in the cold dough, so that more gas is given off in the oven, as a result of which a somewhat bolder product is obtained. As already mentioned, acid calcium phosphate has a toughening effect on gluten, which prevents its being stretched so fully on the evolution of the carbon dioxide in baking, and a pinched appearance is evident in goods baked with this material. This pinching effect can, to some extent, be reduced by the use of a larger amount of liquor than usual in wetting up. CREAM OF TARTAR

Potassium bitartrate KCH.H.0 6 66'7

Water' H.O 19'1

Sodium bicarbonate NaHC0 3 29.8

I ,~

Carbon dioxide CO. 15'6

Sodium potassium tartrate KNaC.H.0 6Âˇ4H zO 100

CAKE MAKING

It has also been observed that disodium phosphate has a marked action upon gluten, tending to keep from forming a tough, firm, compact mass, The action of the pyrophosphate is difficult to define, but the volume obtained with it is hard to surpass, Notable features of the phosphate baking acids are that they give the crumb a good white appearance, not obtained with Cream of tartar, which yields a creamy tinge, and also, so far as the sodium salts are concerned, the goods keep moist for a longer period than when tartrates are used. Cream of tartar and sodium bicarbonate, mixed together in the usual proportions of 2 : I, liberate by the action of the acid on the carbonate 15'6 per cent carbon dioxideTARTARIC ACID

Tartaric acid H 2C 4H 4O S 26,6

Water H 2O -

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO. 29'8

. . rI

Carbon dioxide CO 2 15,6

Sodium tartrate Na.c4H40,,2H20 4 0 ,8

MONOSODIUM PHOSPHATE

Monosodium phosphate (anhydrous) NaH2P04 42'5

Starch 17'1

Water Hp 70 '3

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO. 29'8

Carbon dioxide CO 2 15'6

Disodium phosphate Na2HPO .. 12H2O 127

CHEMICAL AERATION

i,e, 66'7 parts of cream of tartar and 33'3 parts sodium bicarbonate yield 15"6 parts (= percentage) carbon dioxide, Actually the same percentage of carbon dioxide would be obtained using the above quantity of cream of tartar and only 29'8 parts sodium bicarbonate, since it is this latter material which contains the carbon dioxide, Cream powders are sold guaranteed 100 per cent cream of tartar strength, and as a general rule, the neutralizing value is higher than that of cream of tartar, and lies somewhere between that figure and the one for complete neutralization of the sodium bicarbonate, hence the percentage of gas will be proportionately higher, Taking as a basis the production of 15,6 per cent carbon dioxide, the actions between some of the acid substances ACID SODIUM PYROPHOSPHATE

Acid sodium pyrophosphate (anhydrous) Na.H.P.0 7 39'4

20'2

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO a

Water H.o 25'6

Starch

29'8

1 Sodium pyrophosphate Na4P20ilOH20

Carbon dioxide CO. 15'6

79'2

ACID CALCIUM PHOSPHATE

Diagram A presumes AC,P, to be 80 per cent, i,e, go per cent Ca(H2P04)2,H20, the balance consisting of 10 per cent dicalcium phosphate, Acid calcium phosphate Ca(H.P0 4k H 20

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCOa

80%

29'S

37'3

Tricalcium phosphate Ca a (P0 4l2

Dicalcium phosphate CaHP0 4'2H.O 3'7

'13'8

Disodium phosphate Na.HP0 4'I2H 2 O 63'5

Carbon dioxide CO. 15,6

CAKE MAKING

Diagram B presumes A.C.P. to be

100

per cent. l'

Acid calcium phosphate Ca(H 2PO.)2ÂˇH 20

Sodium bicarbonate NaHC0 3

100%

29' S

33.6

I ,~

I Tricalcium phosphate Ca3 PO. 13' S

I Disodium phosphate Na.HPO.Âˇ 12H2O 63'5

Carbon dioxide CO 2

15"6

and sodium bicarbonate can be represented diagrammaticaUy, showing at the same time the relative amounts of residual salts produced for the same gas evolution. Starch is added in the diagrams of the phosphate baking acids to give the proportions of 2 parts cream powder to I part sodium bicarbonate. In each case the bicarbonate is taken as 29.8, as this will yield the 15"6 per cent carbon dioxide, and the amount of acid material shown is just sufficient for complete neutralization.

References

1. Kirkland, The Modern Baker, etc. (1910), p. 239. 2. Kirkland, The Modern Baker, etc. (1924), vol. i, p. 239. 3. Whiting, B.P. 7,076 (18'36). 4. Corifectioners' Raw Materials (1921), p. 127. 5. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (1922), vol. ii, p. 177. 6. Newton (HorsfordJ, B.P. 2,161 (1856). 7. Hart, Leavening Agents (1914), p. 51. 8. U.S.P. 42,140 (1864). 9. Hart, Leavening Agents (1914), p. 52. 10. U.S.P. 374,201 (1888). II. Jago, The Science and Art of Bread Making (1895). 12. Patten, U.S.F. 674,140 (1901). 13. B.P. 276,146 (1927). 14. Leavening Agents, p. 52. 15. Technology of Bread Making (1921), p. 357. 16. Food Inspection and AnalYsis, 4th edition, p. 349. 17. Technology of Bread Making (1921), p. 357. 18. Modern Cereal Chemistry (1927), p. 244. 19. Jour. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chern. (1917), vol. ii, p. 227. 20. Davis and Maveety, Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem. (1922), vol. xiv, p.21O. 21. Knox, W. H., U.S.P. 2,160,700. 22. Adler and Barber, Cereal Chern. (1925), vol. ii, p. 80. 23. Waggaman and Easterwood, Phosphoric Acid, Phosphates, and Phosphatic Fertilisers (1927), p. 260. 24. Ibid., pp. 265-6. 25. H. M. Newton and A. C. Willard, Canad. Chern. Metall. (1934) ,Jline. 100

Essences and Essen tial Oils

FOR general confectionery products, essences and essential oils are very widely used, and although liqueurs may be necessary in certain of the best-quality products, most of this chapter will be devoted to consic;J.ering those substances which find application in everyday bakehouse practice. Where delicacy offtavour is desired-and this should be the aim of those using flavouring materials-natural fruit juices may often be employed. Before proceeding with a detailed study of the various flavouring materials used by the confectioner, a survey of their constitution and composition must first of all be made. An Essential Oil or volatile-2!!__!Ilay J:>e d~fineQ as_illl odorous oil extracted -from-pJants~b-y_expression o_r_by -distillaiion In-steam:-Thus oil of lemon may be obtained eitheroy expression from the peel of the fruit or by distillation in steam; in this case, however, the latter process results in an oil of very inferior quality. Most volatile oils consist of varying proportions of compounds belonging to the terpene series, which are almost valueless as flavouring materials, together with highly aromatic oxygenated bodies. Naturg} Essences are prepared by macerating naturalflavouring materials, such as roots, ba:t:ks, §~eds, fruits,. etc~; in ~i!her spirits «(wine" isopropyLalcohol,---glycerine--gl-ywls, or a mixture of two or more of these. Sometimes alsQ _esseIi-_ tlal ods are dl§§__olyeqjn ..these..solvents.. - - --firtijicial Essences ~:e.r_<,:pared.b:yJlli~!!:..cj_!I1g.Ylir_ious _o~ga:nic .<;:ompounusw-itna suitable s.lliY.ent-. These. essences sometimes lack the subtlety of flavour obtained when natmal ingredients are"employed; bunhey-nave tIle advantag~s of ~ strength and e~onoinyJnJi~--Frequently an artificial essence has an entirely different flavour when used in a fondant heated at a comparatively low temperature as compared with the same essence when used in cakes or boiled sugar, which latter products are sub101

CAKE MAKING

jected to higher temperatures. It is therefore important to seek the advice of experts when selecting an ~sence for any particular purpose. True Fruit Essences are alcoholic distillates of fruits and, a_!iIii5llgh comparatively weak in flavour and expensive, yield pleasing results~ -They are partictilarfyrecommended for -'liign-class goouswhich are not subjected to high temperatures, e.g syrups, fondants, creams, etc. f2IJ.ijj_ed or. BlendeLEssences-consisLof frill!.. o~etable extr~cts blended with suitable synthetic compounds. '-Liqueur is an aIcoholif,E.rupy_il_uid ol:itainea-l)y-blending ,a ~gÂĽ. .srrup wi!.h_jtlcoh_c>!,_,gld flavouri~J!...with spices such as nutmeg, oil of ~o!ia_!lJkr,_mace,Jemon,_ana' others, the type of spic(; used determining the ofliqueur-:--' .... .. type .

Essences

Vanilla Extract

Vanilla Extract Preparation

..........----

This is probably the most widely used flavour for baking purposes. The best cured vanilla beans, from which this extract is prepared, vary from 8 to 25 cm. in length and from 4 to 8 mm. thick. They are of a rich, dark brown to almost black colour with an oily surface, and are often covered with fine frost-like crystals of vanillin. Bourbon, Madagascar, and Mexican beans are of the choicest grade and command a high price. The beans, when first gathered, are yellowish-green, fleshy, and without odour, developing their peculiar consistency, colour, and smell by a process of autofermentation or curing. Vanillin is the chief flavouring ingredient, and this is developed during curing. The quantity varies from 1'5 to 3'5 per cent in different grades. The vanillin is readily extracted by alcohol, but such a product would be far too expensive to compete with synthetic vanillin, an artificial product manufactured from clove oil and other raw materials: This is a dilute alcoholic extract sweetened with sugar; sometimes glycerine is added. The following proportions are used: 10 20 100

parts vanilla beans (crushed) parts granulated sugar parts alcohol and water (I : I)

Macerate the pods in half the amount ofliquid for two or three weeks, then drain off the liquid and set it aside. Transfer the vanilla to a mortar and grind it with the sugar to an intimate powder, after which add the remaining liquid. Filter this off by decantation, and wash the residue with alcohol to extract the last traces of essence. 102

ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

Such an extract contains about 0Âˇ2 per cent of vanillin. The extract not only contains the vanillin but also small quantities of gums, resins, and esters. Since vanilla extracts are naturally expensive, adulteration has long been practised. Imitation flavours consist of little more than a solution of vanillin in weak alcohol, coloured with caramel or occasionally coal-tar colours. Prune juice has also been used as an adulterant. Vanillin is manufactured from a variety of raw materials, but one example will suffice. By oxidation of isoeugenol, a phenolic compound prepared from clove oil, and recrystallization of the crude product, pure vanillin is obtained. This synthetic vanillin has the same chemical constitution as that which occurs naturally in the vanilla bean, but it does not possess the full bouquet associated with natural vanilla extract. The latter product is, however, too expensive for many flavouring purposes. â&#x20AC;˘ This is usually prepared by extracting the soluble constituents of lemon oil with alcohol, and may also contain a proportion of tincture made from the peel. The flavour of lemon is a popular one, and the oil is produced in large quantities to meet the universal demand. The principal centre of the lemon oil industry was at one time Sicily, but many other countries of the world, notably California, produce this oil today. The oil is obtained by machine expression from the peel of the lemon; and it is composed chieftyofterpenes, with the aldehyde citral as the most important constituent. The content of this substance has been standardized by the British Pharmaceutical Codex as not being below 3Âˇ5 per cent, but normal oils can contain more than this amount, and in some instances slightly less. California also produces a distilled oil which, however, is lacking in strength in comparison with the expressed oil. Lemon oil must be kept in a cool dark place, otherwise it is liable to deteriorate in quality. The container must be filled and securely corked or stoppered and stored in a cool place protected well from light. This is prepared by fractional distillation of the straight oil. The strength can vary from 15 to 20 times that of the original oil, and there is no tendency to go cloudy on standing. The price is correspondingly high. The oil is used in jellies, syrups, etc., where clarity is essential, and a solvent is generally employed. These are prepared from the terpeneless variety and are used in a similar way, but they possess the advantage of being more soluble in water and in alcohol.

Adulterants if Vanilla Extract

Vanillin

Essence

if Lemon

Lemon Oil

Terpeneless Oil

Sesquiterpeneless Oils

CAKE MAKING

Orange Oil

Orange Essence Almond Oil

Orange oil is obtained by expression from the peel of the fruit. There are two types-sweet and biffer. Originally the oil was obtained chiefly from Italian sources, but many other countries now produce oil of good quality, South and West Africa, California, West Indies, Florida, Palestine, Spain, and some states of South America. Terpeneless oils are also widely usea: they are of considerable flavouring strength. This is produced from oil of orange or from orange peel or both, and contains alcohol or other suitable solvent. Oil of bitter almonds is obtained from Prunus Amygdalus var. amara, or from peach and apricot kernels. After the fixed oil has been expressed the resulting cake is mixed with water and allowed to ferment, after which it is distilled. Bitter almonds contain the glucoside amygdalin, and the ferment known as emulsin. These react together, liberating benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid: C2oH27NOn Amygdalin

+ 2H 0 2

= C7H60

+ HCN + 2C 6H

Benzaldehyde Hydrot:yanic or Prussic acid

0 6

Glucose

The crude oil is then treated with lime and an iron salt to remove the very poisonous hydrocyanic acid and distilled. The essential oil of almonds so obtained is practically pure benzaldehyde. The oil must be kept in small containers well corked, as it oxidizes rapidly, particularly in the presence of moisture, to give the flavourless benzoic acid. Artificial almond oil consists of benzaldehyde manufactured from toluene, C 2H 5CHa, a coal-tar hydrocarbon, by chlorinating it to benzyl chloride, C 6H 5 CHCI 2, and then heating it with milk of lime under pressure in an iron vessel. C 6H 5CHC1 2

+ H 20 + CaO = C SH 5CHO

Almond Essence Peppermint Oil

+ CaCl + H 2

It has the same chemical constitution as the natural aldehyde, but differing from this in that it sometimes contains a trace of chlorine. As a flavouring agent, it is a satisfactory substitute for the natural product. This is generally prepared by making a solution of oil of almonds in a suitable solvent. This is one of the most important oils used for flavouring sweet meats. It is distilled from the peppermint plant. There are several types of oil in use, but the English possesses the finest aroma and bouquet, and is much more expensive than the others. The chief constituents are men104

ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

thol and various methyl esters. Alcoholic solutions are used as commercial essences. Spice flavours are available in great variety and may be in the form of solutions of the appropriate essential oils in a solvent or as emulsions. Examples of flavours obtainable are Anise, Caraway, Celery, Cinnamon, Clove, Ginger and Nutmeg.

Spice Flavours

There are many fruits possessing unique flavours which are of a particularly subtle, delicate nature. It is no easy matter to produce a natural flavouring from these, and because of the high prices they command, many artificial essences have been introduced. The essences already considered in this chapter are aU obtained from the essential oil of a fruit or plant, but with many fruits the flavouring is in no way connected with essential oils, but with what are termed esters. These are comparatively simple chemical substances, being compounds of various alcohols and acids. In reality they are salts of alcohol and -inorganic or organic acids. Just as inorganic acids and alkalis combine to produce salts, so alcohols can combine with organic acids to produce salts which are termed esters. These are the basis of the flavourings in many fruits such as strawberry, pear, apricot, pineapple, raspberry, etc. In order to explain simply the basis of the changes by which esters are produced artificially, the following equation is given:

Imitation Fruit Flavours

C 2H 50H

+ CH3COOH =

CH 3 COOC 2H 5

Ethyl alcohol

Acetic acid

Ethyl acetate (a salt or ester)

+ HP Water

In the same way we have many other substances, such as amyl acetate, which is the predominant ester in the oldfashioned pear-drop flavour. The artificial esters are far more pungent than the delicate natural flavours, so they must be used with great care. Besides these artificial flavourings, computed by careful blending of different esters, there are certain fruit pastes and syrups now on the market which are prepared from the fruit itself. They are sugar-preserved, the sugar being present in sufficient quantity to inhibit fermentation. The quality of these flavours is very good, and in all high-class trades they should be employed. 105

CAKE MAKING

Fruit Juices and Syrups

When fruits are in season the juices should be utilized, and it is advisable to make fruit syrups for one's 8'tvn use during the season when fresh fruits are not available. They are simple to make, and the method employed consists in heating the fruit in double-jacketed pans until the juice flows freely. This is carried on for I hour at 1900 F. It is allowed to cool and fermenffor one or two days, and then the juice is expressed by squeezing. This is followed by sterilizing in boiling water by intermittent heating and cooling, skimming off the scum which comes to the top. Sugar is now added, and the boiling and skimming are continued until no more scum rises, when the syrup should be transferred to sterilized bottles and sealed up immediately. Sufficient sugar should be added to give at least a 50 per cent solution-i.e., approximately It lb. of sugar to each quart of juice.

Concentrated Fruit Juices

The rather troublesome procedure outlined above may be dispensed with by the use of some of the excellent concentrated juices that are now available to the trade, and are produced from the various fruits in the country of origin while the fruit is in the best possible condition.

Liqueurs

These are either alcoholic tinctures or distillates of fruits, herbs, and spices sweetened with sugar, or they may be prepared by blending concentrated fruit juices, herbal or spice extracts, and various essential oils with alcohol and sugar.

Coffee Extracts

The roasted coffee beans are ground and infusions made in a pressure vessel for preference. Blends of coffee and chicory are also used. A test for a true extract is to render it alkaline and expose it to the air, when a green colour is produced. An icing or meringue which contains white of eggs should not be flavoured with coffee extract, for, on standing, the proteins of the albument will decompose, particularly in the presence of moisture, to give off ammonia. The evolution of the ammonia will gradually turn the products green. If coffee extract must be used, then a little citric or tartaric acid should also be added to neutralize any ammonia which would subsequently be formed. Diacetyl is sometimes used to impart a butter flavour to confectionery, as well as margarine and fats. It is extremely strong, and should be used in the proportion of I part in 100,000 parts of any product.

Butter Flavours

106

ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

Citrus-orange, lemon, lime Essential Oils / "'-Spice-clove, cinnamon, nutmeg Extracts-vanilla, ginger Esters-amyl acetate, ethyl butyrate, etc. Acids-butyric, acetic, etc. Alcohols-geraniol, citronellol Aldehydes-benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde vanillin Ketones-Ionone

Summary Groups of Flavourings

Spices and Flavourings "if

~Plc~e aromatic vegtl.ab.l~p-roducts which are used in _~er form to flavour yarious confections, an~e generally, as a condimentJor s~ning_[ood. These powders consist of the vegetable tissue of certain plants which have been dried and ground or pulverized by heavy machinery. The aromas and strong pungent flavours of spices are due to the presence of particular essential oils and glucosides. Owing to their strong odour and flavour, they are comparatively easy to adulterate with worthless material, such as the shells and husks of various nuts. The adulterant is seldom harmful in itself, but it reduces considerably the flavouring value of the spices. Another form of adulteration consists in extraction of the essential oils with alcohol to obtain the essence; then the residue is ground to a powder and sold as spice. They may be classified as being obtained from:

Roots-Ginger, Liquorice Barks-Cinnamon, Cassia Stems-Angelica Leaves-Sage, Thyme, Parsley, Peppermint Buds-Cloves Flowers-Roses and Orange Flower Fruits-All Types -Dry-Caraway, Coriander Seeds-Seed Pods-Vanilla -Nutmeg, Mustard

Ginger

Ginger consists of the rhizomes or underground stems of the plant Zingiber oificinale which are dug up, trimmed, washed and dried, sometimes scraped and bleached. Jamaica ginger, which is the finest quality, is carefully scraped and washed before drying. There are two forms of whole ginger used in confectionery: unpeeled ginger and peeled ginger, the former being stronger in flavour and odour. It is now cultivated in India, Jamaica, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. 108

SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS

The starch of ginger has a characteristic ovate to subrectangular shape with a small beak. Thus, it is an easy matter to recognize the presence of any foreign starches when ground ginger is examined under the microscope. Ground ginger is mostly used to flavour ginger cakes and~ biscuits. fi;{,(A. Stem ginger consists of peeled selected rhizomes preserved in sugar syrup. The same material finely minced yields 'ginger crush' and is used in high-class confectionery. Some of the smaller pieces are crystallized and sold as such.

1Cinnamon has long been a highly prized spice. It comes from the bark of a species of laurel trees which are grown in Ceylon. The crops are gathered in May and September, the two-year-old shoots being stripped of the bark, which is then carefully scraped. The cinnamon bar\<: is in the form of long cylindrical quills, having a pale yellow-brown colour and slightly furrowed outer surfaces. \Cinnamon yields on distillation about 1 per cent of essential oil, the chief Constituent of which--;:cinnamic aldehyde-is present to the extent of from 60 to 75 per cent. The oil owes its strong odour and flavour to this substance. Ground cinnamon is either used alone as a flavouring or as an ingredient of mixed spice.!

Cinnamon

Because cinnamon is so expensive, it is now largely substituted by cassia, the bark of a species oflaurel trees grown abundantly in China. It is somewhat similar in appearance, but coarser than cinnamon in aroma and flavour. The essential oil of cassia is also similar to that of cinnamon, but is not of such a fine flavour. The dried flower buds are largely used as an ingredient of mixed spice.

Cassia

Cloves consist of the dried flower-buds of an evergreen belonging to the myrtle family, which grows in Zanzibar, Madagascar, and the East Indies. The buds are gathered as soon as they assume a reddish appearance and are nearly ready to open. They are spread out in the sun to dry, and the colour changes to deep brown. \Cloves possess a strong, pungent flavour, due to a volatile essential oil, of which there is present on an average about 16 per cent. The chief constituent of this oil is the phenolJ:ugenolJVhich is present to the extent of about 88 per centl The limits of the British Pharmacopoeia are from 85 to go per cent. ~enQ_1 is a startin_g:p9intiocthe_manufactur_e_ofsynthetic-vanillin-used i~ making artificial vanilla ~ssence.

Cloves

109

CAKE MAKING

Pimento,.Alli.~ or Jamaica Pepper is the dried fruit of an evergreen belonging to the myrtle family~hich grows in Jamaica. The berries are reddish-brown in colour and like blackcurrants in shape and size. They are picked before they are quite ripe, because if allowed to ripen the aroma would be lost, siI}ce. the flavour is due to the presence of an essential oil in the shell, which is present in the maximum quantity before the berries are ripe. As in clove oil, the chief constituent of this volatile oil is Eugenol, which is present to the extent offrom 75 to 85 per cent. The flavour is said to s~~ ~Q.mbination of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, hence the name Allspice. Nutmegs and -The nutme tree YIelds a fruit which gives two different ese rees are-grown flavouring spices, nutmeg and mace. Mace iiitlieMalay Archipelago, also the East and West Indies. The fruit resembles a peach in size, and, when ripe the fleshy portion is split open, and the orange-coloured arillus, or envelope, which is known as the mace, is removed and dried in the sun, changing to a buff colour. Ma~ essentiaJ1y_1ill;_same-flav.our..~s nutmeg,._andjs_used..as_i!.n ~ent of m~I?i~l The seed at the centre of the fruit -IS also removed and driea.:-The hard, brown, shining coator testa-is stripped off, leaving the commercial nutmeg. l\[utmegs~I)..30-::40 per cent offix<:_<! fat!y" oil.) and about 7"~IO p~r: cent of volatile oil . .It...is .. this.oil-oLnutmeg that makes the !!<;~_d valuable .. aS-a_flavouring-agent.tNutm~_is used for flavouring_fQods,. and_ by_the. .s:_Qrliecti~Lfor fiaY.Q!!r,il}g custat:ds,_wedding and gingeLcakes .. .ILshould p.e kn_own _that .ex~e~!l of nutmeg a~ts ?s .a narcotic.'

Pimento, or Jamaica Pepper

Pepper

Pepper, either black o!: ~~te; is ()btained from peppercorns, the fruit of a climbing shrub called Piper nigrum, grown in the East and West Indies. They are small, round, reddish berries growing in clusters of about thirty to a stalk. Mter treatment they have the appearance of small, black pills. The fruit is picked before ripening, then dried, and ground to make black pepper. For white pepper the fruit is allowed to ripen, then it is dried, and after soaking in water the outer shell is rubbed off. The result of this treatment is that ~hite ~:eper: is milder in flayo.ur than .bll!~epper. The flavour of pepper is due to a cry..ยง.t.alline alkaloid subst~n~ ~n as i erine, also to a volatile oil @d_gleo resin in the berries~ It !ยง ).lse as a seasoning for meats. S ices-have practically no food' value in themsel~~; they are a e t 00 s as a s Imu an e appetIte, an t us aid the digestWlLof.food.

'Io..-f""'---

110

SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS

Mixed spice is compounded from spices, and sometimes occasionally contains a proportion of rice flour and sugar. The spices employed are cinnamon, cassia, caraway, ginger, coriandor, cloves, mace, and nutmeg in varying proportions, with cinnamon predominating.

Mixed Spice

RECIPES FOR MIXED SPICES

RicefiouT Cinnamon Caraway Coriander Ground ginger

25 28 25 3 3

Mace Nutmeg Pepper

32 -

32 16

100

16 4

100

These are not used in confectionery to a great extent in the Arom.atic whole, unground state. Coriander and caraway seeds are Seeds the two principal seeds concerned. Coriander is the fruit of Coriandrum sativum, which grows Coriander Seeds in Italy, the Mediterranean area, Russia, Great Britain, and India. It is globular in shape, yellowish-brown in colour, hollow in the centre, and therefore is easily crushed. It has a mild characteristic flavour, and is used for flavouring gi~er cake, lioney cakes, ancfjdlies.: are the commonest seeds used in confectionery. Caraway Seeds They come from the plant Carum carvi, which is a native of Europe. The seeds are about I inch long, and are curved slightly and nearly black. They have a strong, pungent stimulating flavour. The carminative properties are due to an essential oil, of which the ketone, carvone, constitutes about 60 per cent. The alcoholic extract is often adopted as the flavouring in place of the seeds. These are bluish-grey in colour and are used to decorate Blue Poppy ar plaited cholla bread and rolls, and, when crushed, as a Maw Seeds layering in yeast cakes.

-'1'n.ese

I II

Colouring Matter

COLOURS are used in confectionel}' both to please___the- eye and to assisttliepalate;-fOithere is no doubt that the appropriate CCilouriiifluences both the flavour and appreciation OfaproQuct. In addition,_tfie public have come to associate different shades of colour with._c.ertain_foods,--and-any departUreIfoiilthe ge~erally_acc.epted_shade is construed as indicating an alteration in the product itself, with the enSUIng posslblhty of comPlaints to the manufacturer and an immediate falling-off in sales. The public demands that its butter should be yellow; that its strawberry jam should be red; that its jellies should be suggestive of the fruits from which they have been made; and so on. Foodstuffs must appeal to the eye before being accepted bytnepalate.lh at:he!, ~ora.s, w!ien_a f2o_d looks good 'it makes the mo,-!th water'. One must not lose sight of this psychological aspect. The satisfactory physical appearance of many cooked and preserved foods can be ensured only by the addition of artificial colouring matters, and it becomes necessary for the food manufacturer to acquaint himself with the elementary principles controlling the use of_such agents, and with the properties and characteristics of the colouring products that are available. The correct colouring offoodstuffs is a science as well as an art, and it is important for the user of colouring matters to become fully familiar with one of the most useful but also most complex raw materialS: It must be realized lhat- the comPlications arlsing-trom the use of colouring matters are many, the reactions of the foodstuffs are varied and the applications diverse, and that it is only by collaboration with the colour manufacturer that a satisfactory product can be presented for the approval of the public.

Legal Position

The use of colouring matter in food in the United Kingdom is covered by a Colouring Matter in Food Regulations 1957, Statutory instrument No. 1066. This lists the go synthetic 112

COLOURING MATTER

dyestuffs which may be used for the colouring of the foods (see Table I). It also lists the Natural Colours which may be used (see Table II). A further report by the Food Standards Committee on Colouring Matters was published in 1964 which recommends that the six colours marked with an asterisk in Table I should be withdrawn from the permitted list and that a further colour Black 7894 be added. This has not yet been enforced. Under the proposed food labelling regulations, flour confectionery is exempt from declaration of constituents in prepacked goods, so that the use of colouring matter will not have to be declared. There are three primary colours~ red, X~!low, blue. None of these are obtainable by the admixture of any other colours. Secondary colours are prepared by mixing together two primary colours. The exact shade or colour obtained depends on the proportion in which the primary colours are used; thus, one can obtain an exceedingly large number of secondary colours by altering the proportion of the constituent primaries, i.e., red and yellow give orange shades; red and blue, purple shades; yellow and blue, green shades. Tertiary colours are mixtures of primary and secondary colours, or of two secondary colours. I t is obvious that an infinite variety of shades is obtainable.

The Principles of Colour Mixing

By judicious mixing of the permitted dyestuffs it is possible to provide almost any desired shade, and the colour manufacturers are equipped and prepared to recommend a suitable blend of dyestuffs for any requirement. As can be seen from Tables I-II, the list of permitted colours varies from country to country, and it is essential in any correspondence with the colour manufacturer regarding colours to specify the market or markets in which the finished product is to be sold. While some confectioners prefer to use powder colours and make them up into solution, it is often easier to ask the colour supplier to provide the colour in a more easily handled form, i.e. solutions, or predispersed on flour. The suppliers are also willing to recommend the quantities to be used to get the required shade. Should the confectioner, however, prefer to do this for himself, the following hints may be helpful. It should always be remembered that colours are deceptive in artificial light. For this reason they should be added

Blending Colours

113

-.----

CAKE MAKING

'"....

;:l

"'0 0 0

"'" ~~

-"'0 ~,-:::

~ ยง ~~

0 .....

~.....

til

S 0

"'0 bO

:::

:;a "'0 u .....

;:J

114

COLOURING MATTER

TABLE II Other Colours Group

Colour

Comments

Also known as 'Black Tack'. Ob- } tained commercially by burning sugars in presence of catalysts. I Brown viscous compound used to colour bread and rich fruited cakes. Obtained from the dried female insect Dactylopius Coccus. Usually produced as an aluminium lake of the extracted colour and most commercial liquid cochineals are prepared from this lake which is generally known as carmine. Used for decorative work giving an att~active pink shade.

Cochineal ---,

Any colouring matter natural to edible fruits or vegetables Alkannet Indigo Flavine Ochil Osage Orange Persian Berry Safflower Sandalwood Turmeric.

The colouring obtained from annatto seeds. May be in oleous 01" aqu~us solution. The oil~soluble form is of some interest for biscuit fillings. The water-soluble form is moderately stable in baked goods giving al!.f~ shade. Obtainable in various forms. Oilsoluble forms of some interest for biscuit fillings giving a butter

Annatto

Carotene

Chlorophyll

Saffron .___

Of no practical interest in confectionery work.

A gu:en colouring extracted from lucerne and nettles. Commercial forms are usually the copper complex of chlorophyllia. A dull shade and of no practical value in confectionery. Still used in the West of England to provide a 'yellow colour. Has a distinctive Havour. Obtained from the stigmata of the Crocus sativus.

CAKE MAKING

TABLE II (cont.)

...

Group

Colour

Comments

Bole Iron oxide Carbon Black Titanium dioxide Ultramarine

Insoluble earth colours are generally of no interest in confectionery, but ultramarine blue is sometimes used to whiten icing.

Silver Aluminium

Permitted solely for the external colouring of dragees and the decoration of sugar-coated flour confectionery. May be used in leaf or powder form.

The aluminium calcium salts (lakes), of any of the scheduled water-soluble colours

These are, of course, insoluble, and are of very limited interest to the confectioner. They can be used for biscuit filling and decorative work.

to fondant and icings in daylight. They should be added drop by drop-preferably from a dropping bottle-to a given weight of sugar until the particular shade required is obtained. If a record is kept of the number of drops required for a definite amount of sugar, then it is possible to get the same shades in artificial light by adding the recorded number of drops to the given weight of sugar. Normally a I per cent solution of the powdered dye in distilled water will prove satisfactory for this purpose. Testing of Colours

There is now a British Standard Specification for most of the dyes on the United Kingdom permitted list, but it is often more convenient for a baker or confectioner to purchase his colours in a diluted form. The testing of these for colour strength is no easy matter, but the following method may be recommended. Make up a I per cent solution of the colour by dissolving I gm. in 100 ml. of water. Now take some untreated flour and make it into a scald with boiling water. Into a basin place 50 gm. of this scalded flour and stir in I m!. of the colour solution. Note the colour against the standard colour. If the tinting power is below the usual, then add further quantities of the colour solution until the correct tint is obtained. In this way the relative colour strength can be evaluated.

1I6

Nuts in Confectionery

\NUTS are used in various confections in order to impart_a 'particular flavour and to helpJ~y:..oducing a greater variety of ~ypesi - -~Almonds are the most important of the nuts employ._edin conrectfoner~~h~y _can_ _Lo_ughly_b.e_ Jiiyide_d intQ _t_wo distinct types-bitter_and sweet. The bitter almonds have as an essent"i"ilf part 'of their composItIon subsfance known ~ amyg(j__attil. -There is also present an glzyme, emulSin, a constituent of both types of almonds, which is capable of hydrolysing the amygdalin into benzaldehyde, glucose, and prussic acid. The prussic acid is separated off from the benzaldehyde, when the essential oil of bitter almonds is obtained. Both bitter and sweet almonds are natives of Asia, Barbary, and Morocco, but are now grown over a wide area of Southern Europe and in California. There are many varieties, however, such as Jordan, Alicante, Valentia, Marconas, Longuetas from Spain, Baris and P.Gs from Italy, Faros and Douros from Portugal and Non-Pareil, Ne Plus, and I.X.L. from California. The following analysis shows the average composition of sweet almonds indicating their value as a food:

Water Protein Fats

Carbohydrates Cellulose Mineral matter Calories per lb.

6·0 24·0 54·0 10·0 3·0 3·0 2,970

Un confectionery work almonds are used either whole; split, filleted, nib, or ground, according to the type of goods required to be made. They can be bought ready for use in any of these forms. Formerly the almonds came to the bake-house in one form only-as whole almonds. The confectioner had to prepare them by blanching, splitting,

Almonds

CAKE MAKING

filleting, chopping, or grinding them to suit himself. Buying almonds in this way did protect the purchasepfrom adulteration. Today, however, if the various forms of almonds are bought from a firm of repute there is little likelihood of adulteration. The almonds are first of all freed from any foreign matter, Preparation of then blanched Dy placing them in boiling water for a few Almonds minutes. When the skins begin to rise, they are easily separated by pressing the almond between the thumb and finger. In practice, the almonds are subjected to friction between canvas bands in order to separate as many of the skins as possible without breaking the nuts. The loose skins are removed with a fan, and the skins are stripped by hand from any almonds to which they still adhere. In this way the whole blanched almonds are obtained, and these must be dried before storing away, otherwise they will become mouldy and mildewed. These are sometimes used in making rich cakes such as Christmas and wedding cakes. The whole blanched almonds are split by machinery to form split almonds. These are used in the making of rich fruit cakes, and for decorating the tops of slab and Dundee cakes. They are also excellent as a decorative medium on gateaux and fancies. Filleted and flaked almonds are useful for decorating various kinds of large and small pieces of confectionery. They are sliced very thin, and yet retain the shape of the almonds. The whole blanched almonds chopped up in small pieces are known as nib almonds. These are also useful as a decorative medium on tops of slab cakes, sides of gateaux and on biscuits and other small confectionery. Ground almonds are the whole blanched almonds ground as finely as possible in a mortar or by machinery. The material is employed in all classes of almond macaroon articles, also in good cake mixings, and in the manufacture of almond pastes and marzipan. There should be a small percentage of bitter almonds in the ground product, but not in any of the other varieties. The modern factory method of preparing almond products ensures that the almonds are hardly touched by hand from the time they are taken from the sack until they are ready for use. Everything is done by machinery, including blanching, splitting, filleting, flaking, chopping nibs, and grinding ready for packing into suitable containers for sale. Ground almonds are sometimes mixed with a cheaper class of nut, such as apricot and peach-kernels. These cheaper nuts influence the quality and flavour of the goods

II8

NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

made, because they do not contain so much natural oil as the sweet almonds, and so it is not advisable to use them in high-class confectionery. A very small amount of bitter almond is also frequently added to bring out the flavour. Marzipan h~~ b~e~ in. use .for a long time by confectioners. lti~bOugnt by the confectioner in the form ora paste, which ~ontai~s ,sugar llnd ,g:r_?und aliiiOllii~ I? var~~~~ ~~hons, accordmg to the grade and the pnce paId for It. SOme c()nfectioners try to make their own marzipanÂˇ out of ground almonds and sugar, but the results are mainly disa ppoin ting. In making large quantities of marzipan some heavy machinery is necessary, such as an almond-blanching plant and almond-grinding machinery with granite rollers; also double-jacketed steam boilers and stirrers. The almonds are first of all blanched in the usual way, then they are steeped in cold water. After steeping, they are chopped and mixed together with the required amount of granulated sugar. This mixture is then passed through grinding rollers. No syrup or egg whites are required to make the paste smooth, as the almonds should have soaked up sufficient water for pounding to prevent them become oily. After the almonds are ground to a smooth paste, the mix is transferred to a steam cooker, when it is heated to 220 F. and maintained under these conditions until it reaches the required consistency. The whole is kept continuously stirred to prevent the paste from sticking to the pan and so becoming burnt. When it shows no tendency to stick to the pan it is ready. The marzipan is then stored in air-tight containers ready for use. Extra sugar, colours, and flavours may be added to it as desired. This is often done in the factory in the production of cake marzipans but can be added by the confectioner himself. Up to I lb. of icing sugar to each pound of marzipan may be used for covering cakes. A little stock syrup may be added to moisten the paste if required. Properly made marzipan should be as smooth and plastic as potter's clay, and is very useful for many purposes. It can be used with advantage in all classes of cakes, if mixed in during the creaming process-in the proportion of 2 or 3 oz. to each pound offat employed. T.his_not onlyll_dpsJ:o-flavour the cakes but also assists in keeping them moist for a longer _ };!;riod, becau~:-Qflhe-mnural 2!l_m theaImonds. It also increa;es the food value.

Marzipan

Il9

Uses of Marzipan

CAKE MAKING

T!_le _term 'marzi:Ran'~ould be used only when the nut content of raw marzipan consIsts of1flnr<1l'Itls:-Foragoodquality product the nut content shoiiid be 66t per cent. Although there is no official standard for the almond content of marzipan, it is generally accepted that the nut content should not be less than 25 per cent. This is known as raw marzipan,' and from this product the full range of almond goods can be produced. When purchasing marzipan it is essential to know the nut content, otherwise it will not be possible to use it to advantage or have any basis for comparing the prices of products from different manufacturers. The percentage of almonds may be 25, 40, or 66! per cent of the product, and this quantity will obviously determine the quantity of sugar used with it subsequently. When other nuts are used the products should be referred to as 'Nut Pastes' with a suitable prefix. A small percentage of cereal in the product can be considered permissible as a mechanical aid to production. Coconut*

Walnuts

The coconut is the fruit of the coco-palm. The chief commercial supplies come from India, Ceylon, and the South Sea Islands. Coconut oil is extracted from the kernels and is used in the manufacture of margarines. The coconut shells are sometimes reduced toÂˇ a finepo;der, and by cautious roasting the colour of ground cloves and nutmegs is matched, with the object of adulterating these spices. By roasting at a higher temperature a charcoal is obtained which, mixed with starchy material, is a close imitation of black pepper. The fleshy portion of the coconut, after drying, is reduced to various.Âˇ forms adapted to~ the -corifec1ioIfer;such-as smeaded, coarse, medium, ~:)I::Jin!!_Q.esiccated coconut. -It is used in various tart fillings or for macaroon goods; also as a decorati~ium, either in the natural state or carefUlly roasted fo a nu"f::brown colour. It may also be coloured with vegetable or artificial liquid colours-and 'employed in th~ .decoration of cakes. Walnuts are obtained from the walnut tree, a native of Asia; it is now largely cultivated in the central and southern regions of Europe. When the walnut.oiLis extracted and.used._as_a vegetable oil the residue is sold as cattle food. Shells are sometimes.

* This is spelt coconut, cokernut, or cocoanut. 120

NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

crushed to a fine powder to serve as an adulterant of spice. The skins of the walnuts have a strong acrid taste, which is accentuated as the nuts become dry. When dry, the skin is difficult to remove, but boiling in water for a few minutes, then steeping in cold water for t hour, leaves them easy to peel. Walnl,lts are used in making.walnut..cakes and bread,.JillQ for cake and ~ateaux decoration and c~oco~ate confection<':t:y. Brazil nuts are the seeds of large trees growing in forests on the banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro rivers. The kernel, either whole or broken, is used in confectionery. The nuts are blanched by boiling them for a few minutes, then soaking in cold water, so that the skins are easily removed. As they readily go rancid and acquire a bad flavour, these nuts should be bought only in small quantities. Not more than one month's supply!should be bought at a time. In chocolate work they are usually applied whole for centres, but if soaked in cold water and crushed, then mixed with an equal weight of sugar and put through granite rollers, they make a nice paste useful for decorative purposes or for cutting out as chocolates centres.

Brazil Nuts

Pistachio_nutS,_QLgreen almOllds, as they are sometimes called, are cultivated mostly in the Mediterranean region. They are elongated, green nuts about 1 in. in length. The ridge is on the dorsal side, where it is also thickest. The spermoderm is dark purple. The outside of the nut has a brownish appearance, but the kernel inside is green in colour. They have ~ _fl~v<?u.~_ .a:l:!proxim~til}g___!2_]ordan almonds or Brazil nuts. The skin is removed by boiling and hibbIng the nut between the fingers, as in blanching almonds. Pistachio nuts, whether whole or chopped, are recognized by the carmine or brown colouring matter on the spermoderm becoming green when treated with an alkali. Almonds and other nuts dyed with coal-tar dyes are sometimes offered as substitutes, owing to the high price of pistachio nuts. :r'hey--are-used-for flavouring and d~~ _c!ass confectionery produ~ts.

Pistachio Nuts

Hazel nuts are of some importance in Europe, both as a table nut and for the production of hazel oil. The nut contains about 60 per cent oil. Ground hazel nuts are prepared from the kernels without /'

121

Hazel Nuts

CAKE MAKING

removal of the fat, and are used in conjunction with wheat and r_ye flour .i~ng_an<LConfect.ipneI:.y. Thq can also be used _in. ~a~~_yar~l.ls.1Y:R~ L!U;;tj::ar.o_Qn_go.Q.ds_ in place of ground almonds. As they go rancid quicker than grouno-alffionds dO, they Âˇshould not be purchased in large quantities. A delicious flavour is imparted to confectionery products by the use of ground hazel nuts. Pine Nuts

Pine nuts are the seed kernels or nuts of various species of pine trees. They are highly prized for their delicate resinous flavour.

Pea-nuts

Pea-nuts, or monkey-nuts, have a bean-like odour and flavour. They contain about 40 per cent of oil, which is employed in making vegetable fats. The ground nuts are sold as a cheap substitute for ground almonds. When fully roasted, they~_be made i~<? a s~ap cQ!;oa QL.chocolate.

Soya Beans

For 5,000 years the soya bean has been a staple article of food with eastern peoples, but it is only within recent years that its importance as a foodstuff has been recognized in this country by our dietetic experts. The soya bean is classed among the leguminous plants, and exists in some 1,500 varieties. The seeds are shaped either like an ordinary pea or bean, small in size, and of many different colours-yellow, brown, green, and black, and striped or spotted combinations of these colours. From the nutritional point of view the soya bean is everything that is desirable, containing, as it does, essential nutritive constituents-fat, protein, and carbohydrate-in a readily assimilable form. The oil in the soya bean contains a large amount of lecithi!l and vitamin A, and in this respect resembles butter, making the soya oil a most important human food. This lecithin is identical with that in egg yolk. It is only within the past thirty years that the process of milling the soya has been perfected to produce soya flour in a digestible and pleasant-flavoured form without detracting from its nutritive value. This flour is said to preserve all the good qualities contained in the bean itself. High-grade soya flour is now available for all bakery purposes. It is of a pale yellow colour and has a pleasant taste. When used in confectionery and the general production of small goods, soya flour can be used as an addition to, or to replace, other ingredients. In wartime it helped to make goods more palatable, and to improve their keeping 122

NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

qualities. It is cheap to buy, and reduces costs. It can be used in quantities up to 20 per cent in cakes and small goods, biscuits, etc. Table III shows the approximate composition and food value of the various nuts.

TABLE III

NUTS

Water

Protein

Fat

Almond* Coconut * Dried walnuts * Brazil nuts * Pistachio nuts * Hazel nutt Pine nutst Pea-nuts· Soyajlourt

5·8 14·1 2·5 5·3 4·2 9·3·

20·0 5·7 17·0 17·0 22·3 13·2 3J.4 23·3 42·84

54·9 50·0 66·4 66·8 54·0 63-2 48·0 38·6 20·0

9·2 8·33

Leach, Food Inspection and AnalYsis.

Carbohydrates

15·3 27·9 JI·O 7·0 16·3 14·3 20·6 24·4 19·35

t McKillop, Food Values. t C. J. Ferree, The Soya Bean and the New Soya Bean.

Cellulose

Mineral salts

2·5

2·0 1·7 1·7 3·9 3·2

1-4

2·5 4·79

2·0 4·69

Food value in calories per lb. 3,030 2,760 3,306 3,265 2,995 3,177 2,806 2,560 2,165

Fruits Used in Confectionery

this heading are included many ~f dried and and flowers which <lLe~uยง.ed in the manufacture of confectionery. 'Several kinds of fruits play an important part In the daily processes of the food manufacturer, cOf!tributigg_jQ__!b.e food value as well as the aesthetic a!!illtion qf the .products.l Although the succulent, easily crushed_r~p'e fruit!>.ilrellluch.used inJood manl}facture and add 1Q the. attractiveness of confectioner:y products, .the...dr.ied fr~its, for many obvious reasons, are of the gt:_ejitg_ importance to those who specialize in. the manufactur.e.of.cakes. Of ail the dried fruits, the product of the vines take first place. The grape vine grows at its best in the regions around the Mediterranean Sea, and in other parts of the world where there is a climate of the same type with suitable soil, wintry rains, and sun-baked summers and autumns. The sources of supply are greater today, for vines are now grown in Australia, California, South America, South Africa, and Israel, mostly on hillsides facing the midday sun. Three essential conditions must be fulfilled to enable the vine to produce fruit abundantly and of the greatest perfection. (I) Suitable soil of a calcareous nature, or of gypsum, or even of hippurite limestone, also warm marly or loamy limestone soils. The soil should be of a fatty character containing plenty of potash salts, as these are necessary for the production of sugars. (2) A bounteous water supply IS necessary. (3) The climate must be semi-tropical. UNDER

q:ystalli~ruits

Raisins

Ripe grapes are converted into raisins and sultanas in different ways. In the case of muscatels, the grapes are allowed to hang on the vines for a few weeks after the circulation of the sap has been stopped in the branches by partly twisting and cutting them. This helps to retain as much sap as possible within the grapes and increases the sweetness of the fruit. The raisins are then treated in a

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

similar manner to sultanas. After drying, the raisins have to be stoned by machinery before the confectioner can use them in his products. 1Raisins owe their importance to the fact that they have a ~e, a fine flavour, and also are valuable s~eet~jng a~n~. They contain approximately 65 per cent sugar, 2 per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins, and their calorific value is 1,300 calories per pound of fruit. The raisins from Alicanti, Valencia, Italy, Australia, and South Africa are most popular. When the seedless yellow grapes that are to be converted Sultanas into sultanas are ready the bunches are cut from the vines, and gathered together and dipped into vats of potash lye, flavoured with rosemary or lavender, with a layer of hot olive oil on the surface. This treatment varies in different countries. The main objects of such treatment are to soften the skin of the grapes, to make them bright and clear, and also to sterilize the fruit. Yeast spores are always present on the ripe fruit, and if these were not remov"ed, fermentation would set up at a later stage. After the dipping process, the grapes are dried by placing them on wire or fibre mats or wire frames, each about a foot from the other, in open sheds, to allow a free passage of air currents and sunlight. The fruit is turned occasionally, so that all parts are equally exposed to the sun and air. The open sheds in which they are placed protect the drying fruit from the occasional showers of rain. The effect of this drying process is to evaporate the moisture from the fruit and concentrate the sugars and other solids. In Australia the sultanas are dried on hessian mats on racks until sufficiently dry. The fruit is then tipped into a hopper which feeds a conveyor belt which takes the fruit into a revolving drum through which warm air is blown. This removes dust and stems, after which it passes over a magnetic table, where any metallic particles are removed before being packed in boxes or cartons. Australian fruit is sold under the 'Crown' brand name, and a tight specification is laid down for each brand. There are six brands for light-coloured type-six crowns containing no dark berries, down to one crown containing more than 50 per cent of light-coloured berries. Another crown series are for brown-coloured types, with one grade of plain sultanas consisting of fruit of any size of good appearance, texture and of any natural colour. Bleached sultanas are lacking in flavour, being bleached 12 5

CAKE MAKING

by exposing the dried fruit to the action offumes from burning sulphur, i.e. of sulphur dioxide gas, which also acts as a preservative. . Sultanas should have a fine flavour and good colour. They are valuable as a sweetening agent and 'have a liigh .1ood-vame, They contain apI)roxiffiaTdy~ÂˇQ2:.:~t sugar, 1 per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins. The calorific value is approximate,ly 1,260 calories per pound of fruit. The food value of raisins and sultanas is not sufficiently recognized by many people, but it is well known in the countries where they are produced. Sultanas are obtained from the seedless yellow graRes gro"WiliilSmyrna, Persia, Afghanistan, California, South Australia, and South Africa, and_a..D:..graded according to quality . .=-Currants

~ied.fDrm of small black g@p'es originally grown in Greece. There are several varieties of the special vine tree which produces small, dark, luscious, seedless currants. The best-quality currant is Eleme, which is a large currant of fleshy character. This variety has a pleasant sweet flavour when dried, but is generally too big for confectionery use. Some well-known brands of currants are Vostizzas, Gulf, Amelias, Patras, Pyrgos, and Australian. Vostizzas are generally the best and most expensive. The grapes of the currant vines, when seven years old, ripen in the summer. The bunches are cut and placed in thin layers on drying mats and turned occasionally. Evaporation of the moisture takes place through the action of the sun. The drying process takes from ten to twelve days, but deluges of rain often spoil the crop during this period. When dry, they are freed from stalks and stones by hand or machinery, then sifted,. packed in quarter cases, and exported ready for sale. Vostizzas and other high-class currants are generally dried in the shade. This process takes about twice as long, but it gives to the fruit a blue-black shade of colour, a better flavour, and a fine silky texture. The shade drying consists in hanging the bunches of grapes on strings and placing them inside wooden huts exposed to the sun. Shade-dried currants can always be recognized by their blue-black colour and silky texture. . Currants, when bought, should be bold and fleshy and clean, and devoid of shrivelled, red, and fleshless berries. The red berries spoil the flavour of cakes owing to their extra acidity. 126

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Currants contain approximately 63 per cent sugars, 0'5 per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins. Their calorific value is not nearly so high as raisins or sultanas, but is approximately 85 0 calories per pound of fruit, so they need not be ignored as a supply of potential food with a fair sweetening property. These dried fruits contain l~e_qm\n.tities of tr~it su_ga!-,s, often se~~ in crystal for~ i~ _I~i~ns.. Thell:.-fine flavour ftn<iiqod value .are their !!l_jlj_n..aJtractions. When they arrive in the bakery all dried fruits have been compressed into compact packs at the packing stations. As the vines are dried in the shade at ground level, dust and stones gain access, and these must be removed before they are suitable and safe to use in the bakery. The normal procedure is to break open the packages and empty the contents into a hopper of a fruit-cleaning machine through which water is circulated in such a way that the fruit is floated over sieves, and dirt and stones fall to the bottom of the machine, into a sump from which they can easily be removed. The amount of washing carried out will depend on the characteristics and type of fruit, small dry fruits being given longer treatment than fleshy fruits. After the fruit has been washed it is dried and transferred to a metallic table. It is desirable that the fruit should be spread evenly and fall from one level to another so that the sound of stones can be heard by the operator who is picking over the fruit. On the table the fruit should be hand picked and then transferred to an electro-magnetic table on which any particles of metal will be held. This was essential when wooden boxes nailed together or cartons with wire staples were used, but today any particles found are generally similar in size to the fruit itself. The use of wooden boxes and wire staples on hardboard boxes is now mostly discontinued because of the trouble which can arise from nails and staples getting into the finished products.

Preparation of Fruit for Use

Figs are among the cheapest of dried frults, and h~ay~ not been much-useclOy confectioners in tp.e .P~st, although widely usedJor d~s~_rt_'Be_cause_ of their .high_sugar. content ~fociavalue t~ can be us~cl.to conserve _s~ugat: _~upplies. Duiing the 1939-45 War a new interest was aroused in them, and they were widely used in confectionery and biscuits. Figs are largely produced in countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. They are wholesome, nourishing,

Figs

CAKE MAKING

laxative. T~ey are preserved IJ!ainly by drying in tb-e sun although they areoccasionally candied or crystallized. Their sugar content is in the region of 60 per cent, and their calorific value is approximately I , I 50 calories per pound of fruit .

Dates

Dates are abunaantly grown in the oases of the Egyptian deserts and similar regions. The most remarkable thing about the date is that it belongs to the same family as the coconut. The palms are the most useful fruit-bearing trees in existence, because their usefulness does not end with the fruit; the sap, leaves, fibre, and wood are invaluable for many widely differing purposes. The date is so different from the coconut that it is difficult to realize their relationship. Dates are mostly preserved by drying them by exposure to the sun. Their sugar content is over 60 per cent, and their calorific value is approximately 1,300 calories per pound of fruit. That is to say, they have the highest calorific food value of all the dried fruits. They are used by some natives as an entire meal. In this country dates are mostly used as a d essert, but they offer a valuable addition to our foods tocks, and when _used with other foodstuffs will enhance their palatability and food value. They are particularly popular when used with walnuts in cakes, and in puddings.

Dried Apples, Pears, Apricots, etc.

Large quantities of apples, pears, apricots and many other fruits in the ripened condition, dried before packing, are exported from many parts of the world, where the temperature, climate, and soil are suitable for their production. Stone fruits, such as apricots, are deprived of their seed kernels before drying. Apples, pears, etc., are cored before drying, and are also cut into discs. By exposing these fruits to the action of the a ir and sunlight, the moisture is gradually removed from the fruits . When thoroughly dry, the fruit is packed in lined cases and stored in a dry, cool place. These dried fruits are made usable by soaking them in cold water for a few hours, when a portion of thy water is absorbed and the fruit becomes serviceable. The characteristic flavour and aroma are only slightly impaired by this treatment of these fruits. Dried apple rings contain about 59 per cent sugar, and their food value is approximately I, I 30 calories per pound of fruit. Dried apricots contain about 50 per cent sugar, and their food value is nearly 1,040 calories per pound of fruit.

PLATE I .

PLATE 2.

a. The effect of varying amounts of sugar. A-Control. B- Sugar X It. C-Sugar X It. D - Sugar X 2 . b. The effect of varying amounts of baking powder. A- Control. B- Nil. C- Baking powder X I~- . D- Baking powder X 3. c. The effect of varying amounts of milk. A- Control. B- Milk X It. C- Milk X 2 . D- Milk X 2t. Illustrating the importance of using special cake flour and high emulsifying fats in high liquor/high sugar cakes. a. Varying the liquor/sugar ratio using normal fats and patent flour. b. The same liquor/sugar ratios using high emulsifying fat and special cake flour.

PLAT E 3 t"wo examples of flat type cakes using soft icing.

P LATE

Four examples of simple designs suita'>!.:

! :' r

fondant gateaux.

PLATE

Three examples of simple designs suitable for :ttercr eam gateaux.

I j

i.J~ ~_. '!

' ,#. r'"

r ~ ~

P LATE 6 T hree typica l fi nishes for Torten

P LATE

1 s a u rhum . a. A Ra Ja. b. ran ge 0 r othellos.

-c ~. r: ::: c... :::;. pji~

;:l

I"l r-;

} :3

2 -'

c...

â&#x20AC;¢

• '1'1,

! '

/1 :/,

/!:

'.' ! ,

I 'i

1/ If,

PLATE 9. e an d J ap slices. Franglpa~ a. Orange sltces. l.

---

.. ~ \

,Af'

A. " ... ·t

,'"

P LATE 10

a. R ear stator Oakes mixer. b. The Oakes continuous mixer head .

-• •

P LATE I I

a. Morton Gri?lap mIxer. b. Con [rol panel for m etering fl our. c. Baker cake machine.

P L ATE 1 2

a. A.M.F. continuou.< cake mixer. b. G as-fired band oven .

P LATE 13

Electro-Dahlen infra-red shelf ovens.

b. Reel oven.

.~ --

PLATE 14 a, Baker Perkins Swiss roll plant. b, Th e Oakes continuous m Ixer. '

PL ATE 15

~. Oakes depositor.

. Baker Copeland depositor.

"1 I

)

PLATE 16

Atlas tart and pi e plant. b. Controll ed cake oven .

'2 .

/ }

PLATE 17

a. Florida puff paste plant. h. Baked roll coming from oven. c. Forg rova 84 H cake wrapping machine.

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Fruits can be preserved by other methods besides drying. An additio!f 0 sugar to the ruit will act as a preservative and in quantities above 50 per cent i-t.prev~nts the microorganisms from working. Consequently, if sufficient sugar is added to any fruit it will preserve it from attack. Fruits that have to be crystallized, such as apricots, cherries, plums, and small good-flavoured pears, etc., should be just ripe and in perfect condition. The kernels must be removed from stone fruits by means of a special instrument similar to a hairpin, or a special kind of steel fork devised for this purpose, so that very little injury is done to the fruit on removal of the stone. The fruit is then cooked to the desired degree of softness in a dilute sugar solution, or in water, but the former is preferable. The fruit is next allowed to drain. A supersaturated sugar solution is boiled up to the desired degree, usually the hard crack, and the prepared fruit is dipped in it, so that a complete coating of sugar covers the fruit. It is then subjected to a dry heat, thus giving it a candied or crystalline appearance . Glace cherries are not subjected to crystallization. These are preserved in a thick syrup or a supersaturated sugar solution. When using glace cherries for the purpose ofmaking cherry cakes or slabs the syrup has to be carefully washed out of the cherries, and they are dried before use, to prevent the cherries from sinking to the bottom and disfiguring the cakes. Crystallized fruits are mostly used in the decoratio~_Qf cakes. The crystalline sugar can be washed off if desired, and the fruits cut up to the desired shapes and placed on the cakes as a decoration. They can then be washed over with a good stock syrup or a gum-arabic solution to enhance the brightness of the fruit.

Crystallized Fruits

The chief candied or preserved peels used by confectioners <:tie lemon, orange, ancLcitron. These are all members of the Oitrus family. The method of preserving the rinds of these fruits are very similar in each case, although there is some variation in the strength of the sugar solutions employed and the time occupied in the process of preserving citron peel in particular.

Candied P eels

Lemon Peel is generally prep~d from a special variety of coarse thick-rind lemons. The lemons are cut transversely through the middle and the pulp is extracted. The caps are then placed in a brine solution for several days to take out the undesirable taste and open up the pores of the rinds, so 12 9

CAKE MAKING

that they will absorb the sugar from the sugar solutions in which they have to be placed. The caps ar~washed in cold water to get rid of the salt, then they are placed in tanks containing warm, dilute sugar solutions. A fermentation takes place, and the lemon caps absorb sugar from the solution. The caps are passed successively through other sugar solutions each stronger than the preceding one, until they are thoroughly saturated. They are then placed on draining wires and air-dried, then they are ready for sending out to the market as drained caps, or for cutting up by machinery into small, evenly sized pieces of fine cut peel, then packed in boxes ready for sale. This is the general method employed in making the best types of cut lemon peel. The cheaper varieties oflemon peel are made from longi. tudinal strips, out of which some of the essential oil oflemon has been extracted before preserving as above. When the whole caps are drained, if it is intended to sell them as candied caps, they are placed on wire trays and subjected to a high temperature for several hours in a dryingroom or oven. The heating sets or fixes the sugar and hardens the caps. After cooling i.n a dry, cool room, they are ready for packing in cases for sale. The candied caps have generally a better flavour than the other varieties. Orange Peel and candied orange caps are prepared in a similar manner to that described above, using thick-rind oranges for this purpose. Manufacturers, besides selling cut lemon and orange peel as such, also mix the two varieties in roughly equal proportions and sell as mixed peel. When purchasing these peels, buyers should see that the samples submitted are of good colour and flavour. They should not lose colour on baking as some of the cheaper peels do. JlyLp.eels....when._add.ed._to cakes impart an excellent flavour. --.. There is about 66'5 per cent sugar in candied peel, and the approximate food value is 1,250 calories per pound. Citron Peel is also prepared in a similar manner to lemon peel, although there is some variation in the strength of the sugar solutions employed, and the time occupied in the process. The best caps are usually cut longitudinally for whole caps, although they are sometimes cut transversely for those caps that have to be thinly sliced by machinery ready for use on ~asa!<~. Citron can be bought either as drained citron caps or candied citron caps, or sliced citron, or even as cut citron. The popular use for it was as thin slices for decorating the top of Madeira cakes prior to baking them. This assists in ~-.~

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

causing a nice crack on this variety of cakes by slightly toughening the cake batter where the peel has been placed. When the slices of peel are cut too thick, they look ugly, and their weight may cause them to sink into the cake and incidentally spoil its appearance. After baking is completed the citron peel should be washed over with stock syrup to soften it and improve its appearance. Very few Madeira cakes are finished in this way today. The small cuts of citron peel are used in rich cherry and Genoa cakes. The sliced citron may also be employed for decorative purpose on gateaux and other cakes. Angelica is a perennial umbelliferous plant that is cultivated for its aromatic stem. It also grows wild in many ditches and swampy places in England. The method of preparing as drained angelica or candied angelica is very similar to that employed in candied or drained peels. The drained or candied stems are used in confectionery mostly as a decorative agent, although it is sometimes used for its aromatic flavour in confections.

Angelica

Ginger is obtained from the root stock of the herb Z,ingiber Oificinale, which is a native of India and China, although now cultivated in America, Australia, and Africa. The root is cut up when the plant is a year old. The cut roots are thoroughly cleansed and boiled in a weak sugar solution until soft, then stored in earthenware jars and packed with syrup ready for sale.lCrystallized ginger is made by soaking the prepared roots in sugar solutions until saturated, then heating until the sugar crystallizes. I

Ginger

Lilac violet, and rose ,[letals are the three main forms of Crystallized ~-flOwers. Aft~r th~temsana decayed petals have Flowers beenremovea~ the flowers are placed on tinned wire fraIlles in tiers; underneath each tier is a shallow tray to catch excess syrup. A thin sugar solution is allowed to drip through th~ , tiers of flowers until they are thoroughly saturated. They are then dried by gently heating or exposing to the sunlight. 1:.h(~se cry.~tallized flow<:rs have an excelle~t fl<l:,:ÂŁur and ,!:re mostly used as decOl:ati~ents_Qn_6)llfectionery. Bottling is one of the easiest and most simple methods of preserving fruit, and from an economical point of view the most important, since it ensures a supply of fruit when, in the ordinary course of events, fresh fruit is not available. It is generally bottled in vacuum bottles made to withstand

Bottled Fruits

CAKE MAKING

the heat of sterilization, and with glass or metal lids, with a rubber ring to act as a washer between :rile lid and the bottle, the lids being secured to the bottles with either a spring clip or preferably a screw band. The bottles must be sterilized before the fruit is added to them. All fruit to be bottled should be quite sound and free from blemish. Gooseoerries are bottled when green and underripe. Strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, currants, peaches, apricots, and cherries should be ripe and quite firm when required for bottling. Plums, greengages, and damsons are bottled when nearly ripe. All fruits should be bottled as soon as possible after picking to get the best results. The fruit is graded before bottling to sort out the best for this purpose, the fully ripe and under-ripe and blemished fruit being set aside for jam- and jelly-making purposes. The best fruit is graded into two sizes, large and small, each being bottled separately. The fruit should be washed in cold water and drained under cover. It is then freed from stalks and stems. Goosebe~ries should be hulled. When the fruit has been prepared and dried it is carefully packed as tightly as possible without crushing it into the sterilized bottles, filling them quite full. The bottles are sharply tapped to shake the fruit into position. They are then filled up with boiled water. The rubber rings and screwbands, or lids and clips, are then fitted on to the bottles, and they are sterilized by placing them in a boiler or sterilizing pan, so that they are completely covered with tvater, A gradual increase in temperature is required, so that the heat will penetrate to the centre 'of the pack. The length of time required for cooking depends chiefly on the nature and hardness of the fruit. The temperature of the pack is raised slowly over a period of It hours to 1700 F., and then maintained at that temperature until the fruit is cooked. Soft fruits such as raspberries, loganberries, and strawberries, require 10-15 minutes at 1650 F. Apples require about 20 minutes at 1700 F., pears 30 minutes, and apricots 15 minutes. Plums, greengages, gooseberries, and damsons require about 20 minutes. Blackcurrants and red currants require 20 minutes at 180 F. Cherries require 30 minutes at 1900 F. When cooking is completed, the bottles are removed from the sterilizer and the screwbands are immediately tightened. Faulty bottles are discarded, the bottles are wiped clean, and, when quite cold, are stored in a cool dry storehouse, away from the light. If the storeroom is damp the rubber 0

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

bands become damp, and mould growth sets up around the bands, which would, in time, force its way into the bottles. The fruit loses its colour if exposed to the light. Fruit bottled in this manner will keep fresh for a considerable period.

In many cases fruit bottled in syrup is preferable to that bottled with water. The strength of the syrup used varies with the type offruit being bottled. Blackcurrants, cherries, apples, and plums require 4 lb. sugar per gallon of water. Strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, and other soft fruits require 5 lb. sugar per gallon of water. Pears, currants, apricots, damsons, and greengages require 6 lb. sugar per gallon of water. Gooseberries are generally bottled in water, and as a result are very sour. If 2 lb. sugar per gallon of water is used to cover them the flavour is very much improved. A stronger solution of sugat than this will cause the gooseberries to shrivel up. The syrups are made by boiling the sugar and water together, then allowing the solution to cool, and straining through a jelly bag before using to cover the bottled fruit. When the fruit has all been bottled and covered with syrup and lids put on, it is sterilized in the sterilizing pans by heating to the same temperatures as those already given, and maintaining these temperatures for the same time as that given for the fruits when bottled with water only. Fruits preserved in these ways are excellent for making fruit pies and flans. Fruit pulp is generally prepared when the fresh fruit is in season by boiling the fruit with or without sugar, in a jacketed pan, such as is used for jam making. Only whole and sound fruit must be used for fruit pulp. The fruit is boiled gently at first, then more briskly until it is pulped. Generally 2 or 3 grains of salicylic acid or other preservative is added to prevent acid formation. The pulp is then canned or stored in a cool, dry place, ready for use in jam-making, etc., when required.

Bottled Fruit with Syrup

The canning of fruit is a highly scientific process carried out in factories specially designed for this purpose. The principle is much the same as that applied to fruit bottling. The fruit is first washed, then graded into various sizes by machinery, before filling into the cans. All bruised and broken fruit is removed, and any deformed specimens that would look unsightly when the cans are opened, also any over-ripe fruit that might go mushy when cooked, are rejected.

Canned Fruit

133

CAKE MAKING

The cans are then filled nearly to the top with hot syrup of the required density. Each type of fruit ~quires to be cooked in a sugar syrup of a density suitable for that type. The lids are next clinched on to the cans by a rotary clincher. They then go to an exhaust box where a vacuum up to 121b. is applied, and at the same time the temperature is raised. It is important to note that if they are put through the exhauster without lids, the top fruits are bleached; that is why they are first put through the clincher with the lids lightly fixed. The cans are not air-tight at this stage, as it would be no use passing them through an exhauster if they were, but the presence of the lids prevents bleaching, and the raising of the temperature prevents the re-entry of the air when the cans leave the exhauster. The exhaustion process is necessary on account of the natural evolution of gas, which goes on in spite of the most rigorous precautions, to ensure that there are no live organisms in the cans when they leave the factory. If this gas were to be evolved in cans already at atmospheric pressure, swelling would be inevitable and blowing likely. Complete exhaustion is unnecessary, and it is found, in practice, that the 12 lb. vacuum applied is sufficient. When vacuumizing is completed the cans are sealed by machinery which puts a double roll on the lids, making them airtight. The cans offruit are then cooked. The optimum temperature and time of cooking have been determined after considerable experimentation. The temperature of cooking lies between 200 0 and 212 0 F., and in any given instance depends on the type of fruit, as well as the size and ripeness, etc. Strict adherence to the temperature known to be most suitable for any particular fruit is achieved by thermostatic control. After cooking, the cans of fruit are passed through a water-spray cooler, and at the same time are subjected to l:l.ir cooling induced by a draught of high-speed fans. After quick cooling the cans are packed ready for dispatch. The whole process is continuous, and is carried out on the conveyor system. Fruits are also preserved in bulk for jam-making, particularly by means of sulphur dioxide. A method for smallerscale use has been evolved by the Campden Research Station using a special solution marKeted by them, as well as by the use of tablets of meta-bisulphite. The active principle in each case is sulphur dioxide.

134

FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Before the fruits can be used in confectionery products the fruit pulp must be boiled to remove the S02. Deep freezing is extensively used for preserving fruits which can later be used in the fillings for cakes and fruit tarts. By this method colour and flavour are preserved. Accelerated freeze drying is a new development which has been applied to certain soft fruits with considerable success.

135

Jams and Jellies

THE essential feature of jam production is uniformity. It is quite easy for an amateur to make a boiling of jam which might be considered perfect from every point of view, but it is another matter to reproduce the same results regularly under factory conditions. Some of the difficulties with which the jam manufacturer has to contend are seasonal variations, and changes in the fruit due to conditions of cultivation, harvesting, and storage. Analysis of the fruit does not always give sufficient information to enable a perfectjam to be made at the first trial, therefore an expert jam boiler is still required in the jam factory. Although jam production is a highly scientific process, the art still lingers on under strict scientific control.

taw Materials

The raw materials used are of first importance, and experience in choosing and blending fruit is very necessary. The jam manufacturer has four classes of fruit to choose from:

(I) Fresh fruit. (2) Frozen or chilled fruit: (3) Canned fruit' or fruit pulp. (4) Fruit preserved hy sulphur dioxide. These are placed in their order of merit as regards their suitability for jam-making, and while fresh fruit is used to produce the best jams, fruit preserved with sulphur dioxide is the most convenient for handling in the factory. It is for this reason, and also because large stocks of fruit may be preserved in this way for making jam when the fresh fruit is not available, that jams made from preserved pulps occupy a very important place in the industry.

Raspberries

There are various types of raspberries well suited for jammaking, but most of the usual canning varieties, such as Pynes Royal, Lloyd George, or Norfolk Giants are the best.

136

JAMS AND JELLIES

Those varieties which show an excessive number of seeds should be avoided. Scottish raspberries are always welcome in this jam, because the seeds of this fruit retain their fresh appearance longer than most English fruits. When English fruit is used the jam may take on a stale appearance after a lengthy storage. The fruit should be passed through a finemesh sieve to remove plugs, stalks, and hard berries. All strawberries are not really suitable for jam-making, so a large tonnage of the pulp is imported, chiefly from Holland and 'Russia. Some of the imported strawberries arrive in cans, but the bulk arrives in casks, having been preserved with S02. The best varieties of English strawberries for jam-making are Stirling Castle, Ruskin, Royal Sovereign, and Paxtons. Jam-making strawberries should always be firm and free from plugs and stalks, also the fruit should be carefully picked over to remove those with hard black patches. This is a blemish particularly liable to be present with Paxtons. Uniformity in strawberry jam is attainable only by blending different types of strawberries. This helps to compensate for seasonable and other variations. A boiling may be made from equal proportions of Ruskins, Paxtons, and Dutch pulp.

Strawberries

Most of the canning varieties of blackcurrants are suitable for this jam. The fruit should not be too ripe, nor too underripe; otherwise the jam will contain tough skins and there will be floatings of the fruit to the top of the jars. These are the main difficulties in making blackcurrant jam. To avoid this trouble, it is necessary to boil the fruit or pulp with water until it is tender, before adding the sugar.

Blackcurrants

These are a good fruit with which to make either jam or jelly. They can be cooked either ripe or under-ripe, but are at their best for jam-making before they are fully ripe. There are many types of gooseberries, the small green type being useful for jam-making, also the large red type, while the small, red, hairy type are most suitable for making gooseberry jelly.

Gooseberries

The best plum jam is made from the two varieties of egg plums-the Red and the Yellow-and Victorias. Other varieties are used, but are better mixed with one of those mentioned. They should be boiled until tender before the sugar is added. Too many stones are undesirable in plum jam, so about one-third of the fruit pulp is sieved through a

Plums

137

CAKE MAKING

coarse-mesh sieve to remove the stones, unless a stoneless plum jam is required, then all the stones arp removed entirely by sieving all the pulp.

Sugar

Either cane or beet sugar may. be used in jam-making, provided it is a good grade of un blued sugar. It is often used today in the form ot' a 'syrup, which is added hot to the boiling fruit. Liquid glucose, or invert sugar, may also be used to help in retarding the crystallization of sucrose during storage, but not more than 25 per cent of the sugar should be replaced thus.

Pectin

There is a quantity of natural pectin in all fruits, but some contain more than others; for instance, apples, gooseberries, and citrus fruits are very rich in pectin, while strawberries are naturally deficient in it. Pectin is one of the main factors in the jam which cause it to set firm. Pectin can be obtained either as a powder or in liquid form, as a 5 per cent solution. It is added to those fruits that are deficient in pectin. Either form can be used. The liquid apple pectin is cheaper than the powdered pectin, and perhaps more convenient for use in the factory. The powdered citrus pectin may be preferred by some, as there is no flavour or odour with it, and it is of uniform setting power. Apple juice, gooseberry juice, and red currant juice were much used before pectin came into vogue on account of the natural pectin in these juices, but these are now used only in making mixed-fruit jams.

Colouring Matter

Only permitted fruit colours should be added to jams. They should be used in liquid form, I~OZ. per pint of water. They should be bright and clear and not liable to fade.

Acids

Tartaric or citric acid may be added to jam to improve its setting and prevent graining of the sugar. A convenient form of either acid is a 50 per cent solution in water, i.e. 10 lb. per gallon of water. Acids are often included in jams to make up for a deficiency of natural acid in the fruit, so as to increase the amount of inversion. The amount of inversion of sugar during boiling is very important in preventing granulation. If the percentage of invert sugar is below 25 per cent, acid should be added; I oz. per I 12 lb. of jam will be sufficient, but the actual quantity that should be used will depend on the acidity of the fruit, and on the

JAMS AND JELLIES

length of the time taken to boil and fill the jam. The pH of the jam should be between 3'2 and 3'4' It is very important that jams should be boiled correctly, in order to avoid such troubles as fermentation, granulation, bad colour and flavour, mould development, and bad setting. After preparation, the fresh fruit or fruit pulp is weighed out, water as required is added to it, and it is placed in the steam boiler and the steam is turned on. It is generally necessary to boil the fruit for a few minutes, either to soften the fruit or to remove some of the S02' The maximum amount of S02 permitted in jam is 100 parts per million. Blackcurrants require more water than other fruits, and also require more boiling at this stage. After a few minutes boiling the sugar is added, also any required colouring matter and acid. A small amount of butter or nut oil should be added to prevent frothing and formation of scum. About five minutes before the end of the boiling period liquid pectin is added, if this is necessary. Pectin should not be added too early, otherwise some of its setting properties may be destroyed owing to the formation of pectic acid. When dried pectin is used it is generally mixed with five times its weight of sugar, and added before the bulk of the sugar. The jam-maker uses a thermometer to get it to the correct temperature, but a 'drop' test is also employed to make sure that the jam will set. After the first boiling of any particular fruit it is only necessary to use the thermometer to get it to the correct temperature. The temperature at which a boiling ofjam is considered to be ready is determined by the concentration of solids precisely when the correct set is obtained, as shown by the 'drop' test. There should be about 70 per cent soluble solids when the jam is ready. Those fruits with the higher sugar content, such as strawberries, require a higher finishing temperature than those fruits, such as apples, with a lower sugar content. There is only a matter of a few degrees difference, so that it requires very careful watching. Strawberry jam should finish at 2220 224 F., whereas apple jam should finish at about 2190 221 F. Since the finished weight of a boiling is dependent on the time of boiling, this gives an additional check on the correctness of the boil. The maximum tolerance is 1 lb. in 1 cwt. jam. It is generally checked by tipping the jam into a tared cooling pan. The first boiling of any particular fruit is of necessity in the nature of a test boiling, and if the set, the soluble extracts, and the invert sugar are found to be correct, then 139

Jam. Boiling

CAKE MAKING

subsequent boilings should be standardized. By adding each ingredient at the correct time, keeping the steam pressure constant, seeing the steam traps functioning properly, and using the correct temperature for the boiling, the finished weight should be constant. The soluble extract and the amount of invert sugar should not vary if the method of making is standa;dized. Boiling under vacuum is becoming popular, although it is considered more difficult to control. The advantages of this method are that lower boiling temperatures are used, and in addition it is virtually a closed process so that flavour can be controlled. In recent years there have been developments in jamboiling processes on a continuous principle both in openpan jam boiling and under vacuum. When the jam is ready it is transferred to coolers, where it is allowed to cool a little before filling into sterilized jars for the domestic market. It must not become too coo], as this fosters premature setting and spoils the final set of the jam. If it is filled while too hot, the fruits and stones may show a tendency to float, so that there is an uneven distribution in the jars. There is some diversity of opinion as to what is the best filling temperature, but many manufacturers fill at 180-200Â° F. It can either be filled by hand into sterile jars or through a feed tank by machine. When the jars are filled they should be cooled quickly in order to preserve the colour and prevent further inversion of the sugar. A round of wax paper is placed on the top of the jam in the jars while it is still hot. This paper should be impervious to moisture, and should be securely sealed to the top of the jars. Parchment closures for the tops of the jars are only satisfactory if the jam has been correctly boiled and the storage conditions are good. Parchment tops let through both air and water vapour. This latter will be absorbed by the jam in a damp atmosphere, and will be given off if storage conditions are too dry, unless some other form of protection is available. Dampness causes mould and dryness causes crystallization. The modern method of sealing jars of jam with metal closures is best, as then the external atmospheric conditions do not affect the keeping qualities of the jam. When metal closures are used it is necessary to make sure that the jam is sterile and that the insides of the caps are also sterile. This can be done by passing them through a sterilizer, while shielding the main body of the jars from the heat, in order to avoid discoloration and over-inversion.

140

JAMS AND JELLIES

For confectionery purposes jam is poured into 28-lb. containers, generally non-returnable tins, although polythenelined cartons are now extensively used. Bulk delivery III IQ-15-cwt. stainless-steel units is now being developed. These are prescribed in the Food Standards (Preserves) Order I 953, No 69 I, and are as follows:

(I) Jam shall contain a percentage of soluble solids of not less than 68t per cent unless packed in hermetically sealed containers, when it shall contain not less than 65 per cent. (2) The fruit content of jam shall be not less than as specified in Table IV. TABLE IV Minimum Fruit Content j

DESCRIPTION OF JAM

Fruit content

Blackberry or bramble Blackcurrant Damson Gooseberry Gooseberry and raspberry Gooseberry and strawberry Greengage Loganberry Melon and lemon Melon and pineapple Melon and ginger Raspberry Raspberry and gooseberry Raspberry and loganberry Raspberry and redcurrant Redcurrant Strawberry Strawberry and gooseberry Youngberry All other varieties

38 25 35 30 30 30 38 30 40 (8) 40 (5) 40 (1) 30 30 30 30 35 38 35 38 40

(%)

(3) Except as provided in paragraph (4), the firstnamed fruit in all mixedjams shall amount to not less than 50 per cent and not more than 75 per cent of the fruit content. (4) Where figures appear in brackets in the second column of the table above, the figure in each case denotes the minimum quantity by weight of the second-named fruit to be contained in the finished jam expressed as a percentage based upon the number of parts by weight of the second-named fruit required to be present in 100 parts of finished jam.

Standards for

JalD

CAKE MAKING

General Standard for Mincemeat

No jam shall contain any acid other than citric, tartaric, or malic acid. ::l (1)

Each

100

parts of mincemeat shall contain:

(a) not more t4an 0路5 part of acetic acid (80 per cent or glaci;:tl) ; (b) not less than 30 parts of added sugar; (c) not less than 30 parts of dried fruit and peel; (d) not less than 2路5 parts of suet or equivalent fat.

(2) The percentage of soluble solids contained in mincemeat shall be not less than 65 per cent. Confectioners' Lem.on Curd

These products are largely manufactured by preserve manufacturers today, but for those wishing to make their own product, the following information and recipe will be of use. First of all, a standard specification is given as follows: (1) Each 100 parts of fruit curd shall contain not less than (a) 4 parts offat; (b) 0路33 parts of citric acid; (c) 0.125 parts of oil oflemon (or 0路25 parts of oil of orange); (d) I part of dried whole egg, or It parts of sugar dried whole egg, or 3f parts ofliquid or frozen whole egg, or 4! parts of shell egg.

(2) The percentage of soluble solids contained in fruit curd shall be not less than 65 per cent. No restriction is made with respect to stabilizers or gelling agents. In general, bakers' curds are made from the ingredients specified above, together with starch in the form of corn-starch, flour, or both. Sago flour or specially prepared starches, such as Feculose, are -sometimes used. Stabilizers, such as gelatine, solium aglinate, and Irish moss, are also advocated but are inferior to starch. The following recipe given by Corn Products Ltd. produces a satisfactory lemon curd which will bake well. Sugar Globe 3A Glucose Margarine Wheat flour Cornflour Citric acid Dried egg yolk

lb. 40 20 7 5 6 2

oz. 0 0 8 0 0 12 0

Dissolve the egg yolk in 7! lb. water. Mix the flour with 23i lb. water. Dissolve the citric acid in t pint of water.

JAMS AND JELLIES

Mix the sugar, glucose and margarine and stir in the creamed flour, citric acid solution, and egg solution. Heat the mixture at about 19oo F. Colour and flavour just before pouring into jars. The flavour of this product can be enhanced by the use of oil of lemon, or oil of orange, in the proportions specified. Fruit and piping jellies of various colours and flavours are a Fruit and very useful commodity for use as fillings or for the decoration Piping Jellies of cakes and gateaux. There are great differences in some of these products, not only in flavour but also in quality and smoothness. Goodjelly should be bright and clear, have an attractive colour and flavour, should not be too expensive, and when used should be perfectly smooth, and retain the form in which it has been piped out. These qualities in a confectioner's jelly are obtained in a variety of ways, but the best results are obtained by the use of good materials, boiled in the correct manner and acidified at the right time. Natural fruit jellies have generally the best colour and flavour, and make excellent fillings, but are sometimes inclined to be short when used as a medium for the decoration of cakes, or else are runny and flow out on the goods, so that they do not retain the form in which they have been piped out. Reinforcing fruit jellies with either liquid or dried \ pectin has helped the modern manufacturers to produce \ better jellies without these faults. Some jellies are not pro~ duced with dried pectin alone as the jellying agent. I Agar-agar is another reinforcing agent much used in the making of piping or confectioners' jelly. Agar-agar is the dried form of a red seaweed found along the shores of California and Japan. It can either be purchased in powder form or in a dried stringy form. It consists principally of a carbohydrate-GeLose-which is similar in properties to fruit pectin. Agar-agar is insoluble in cold water, but swells and absorbs large quantities of it when soaked for 12 hours. When a solution is boiled gently for 3-5 minutes it goes into a colloidal solution that sets firm like a jelly when cool. Leaf gelatine has also been used as a reinforcing agent in piping jelly. This has only about half the water-absorbing power of agar-agar. The jellies made with it are good and clear, and set nicely when the correct quantity has been used. Jelly-making is a process of preserving fruit juices which can Natural Fruit be carried out by two successive operations. Most soft fruits 'Jelly

143

CAKE MAKING

are fairly suitable for making jelly, except, strawberries, since they are lacking in both pectin and aci2r. Strawberries can be made into jelly only if they are mixed with some other fruit juice strong in pectin, or if the prepared pectin is used with the strawberry juice. Except in the making of gooseberry and apple jellies, all fruit should be fully ripe, because then the flavour is fully developed, and the yield of juice will be greater. The fruit should be picked over to take out any unsound and bruised fruit, and then it is washed, the proper proportion of water is added to it, and the whole is brought slowly to the boil and then allowed to simmer until the fruit is quite tender. Some fruits require only a small quantity of water, because they already contain plenty of juice. Redcurrants, raspberries, and loganberries require only I gal. water to 21 lb. fruit. Blackcurrants, gooseberries, apples, and plums require I gal. water to I I lb. fruit. When the fruit is sufficiently soft the juice is strained or separated from the pulp, by passing it through a jelly bag or a filter press, to obtain the pectinous juice. The pulp may again be boiled with more water to obtain more juice of a lower quality. The quantity of sugar required to make a jelly from the fruit juice depends to a large extent on the quantity of pectin in the juice. This can be estimated by testing it for quality. Take a spoonful of juice in a cup and add three spoonfuls of methylated spirits, shake together, then carefully decant off the spirits. Pectin is insoluble in alcohol and is thrown out of solution, so that it should settle out as a jelly-like clot at the bottom of the cup. This clot should be examined. If it is fairly solid the j~ice is- rich in pectin, and rib. 2 oz. sugar can be used per lb. of juice. If the clot is weak the juice is only moderately rich in pectin, and I lb. sugar should be used per lb. of juice. When little or no pectin is formed, then some other fruit juice rich in pectin should be used with the juice, or a proportion of liquid or dried pectin can be used, and only I lb. sugar per lb. of juice. It is important to have the proportion of sugar in a jelly exactly right. When too much is used the jelly will be too sweet and will not set properly. When too little is used the jelly will be tough. If the jelly is boiled too long with the sugar it will be ropy and syrupy. When boiling the jelly it is necessary first of all to heat the juice until nearly boiling, then add the sugar, and have it all

144

JAMS AND JELLIES

. dissolved before the mixture boils. Stirring during boiling spoils the clear colour of the jelly. Some jellies require only a few minutes' boiling, others may require up to 15 minutes' boiling, to reach the desired degree of jellying. The thermometer is used and the drop test. About 220-221Â° F. is generally found to be the correct temperature at which the jelly will set when tested. With experience one soon gets to know when a boiling of jelly has reached its maximum setting point. The overboiling of a jam or jelly destroys the pectin and acid combination, and gives a sticky syrupy jelly. The sugar content of the jelly should be about 65-68 per cent when finished. It is impossible to make fruit jellies from some of the most popular flavoured fruits, owing to their deficiency of pectin and acid, but this deficiency can be overcome by the use of powdered pectin and acid solution. The standard recipe to use is as follows: lb. oz. Sugar 50 Fruit juice 50 Pectin 4-8 Acid solution 3-6

Fruit Jelly with Pectin

The pectin and acid used depend on the available supply in the fruit juice. Yield about 84 lb. for 65 per cent soluble solids. lb. Sugar Fruit juice Pectin Acid solution

50 42

oz.

Lower Cost Jelly

8 8 6

Yield for 65 per cent sugar jelly 77 lb. Method of making jelly with pectin: Place the fruit juice in the boiler. Mix the powdered pectin in a basin with 5 times its weight of sugar taken from the total sugar to be used. Before heating the juice, sift this sugar pectin mixture over the juice while stirring it in the boiler. Bring the mixture to the boil, add the main portion of sugar, and boil to about 220-22 1Â°F. Cool the jelly slightly and add the acid, then pour into sterile jars. There are a vast number of recipes for making confectioners' piping jelly, either with agar-agar as the main jellying agent or with powdered liquid. F

Confectioners' Piping Jelly

CAKE MAKING

The following recipe can be utilized by those confectioners who wish to make this commodity:'1I Agar-agar Water

lb. oz. 4 10 0

Sugar Water

20 6

Apricot puree

Tartaric acid solution

Soak together for 12 hours, then bring to the boil and allow to simmer for 3 minutes, and strain through a hair sieve into the sugar .solution. Bring slowly to the boiling point, then boil to 2400 F., add the agar-agar solution and boil the mixture to 220 0 F. Heat the apricot puree until boiling, then pass through a fine sieve into the boiled solution. Allow the mixture to cool a little. Add to the jelly, then pour into sterile jars, cover with waxed discs, and tie down with strong greaseproof paper. Colour and flavour as required.

The tartaric acid solution is made by dissolving I part tartaric acid in 2t parts water. It is always added to the batch just before colouring and flavouring and pouring. An alternative is as follows: lb. Powdered agar-agar Water Glucose Sugar Tartaric acid

oz. 4

7 8 25 10

0 0

Steep overnight and b~il to 220 0 F. Add and boil again to 220 0 F. Add and cool quickly Colour and flavour as desired

Using sodium alginate the following formula can be used: Manucol SS/LM Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Sugar (sucrose) Glucose syrup Citric acid Water Colour and flavour

Parts by weight 1·7 0·35 70·0 44·0

0·75 110·0 q.s.

Procedure

Mix together in the dry state the SSjLM, the tetrasodium pyrophosphate, and half the sugar, and stir into 100 parts of the water. Heat until dissolved, and then add the other half of the sugar and the glucose syrup. Boil down to 221-223° F. or 105-106° C. (see Note I below for laboratory scale batches). Add the citric acid, colour, and flavour, which have previously been dissolved in the other 10 parts of water, and stir well. The above formula gives approximately 161 parts of finished piping jelly.

Notes

(1) In laboratory-scale trial batches the boiling temperature is not an accurate guide. In such cases boil down until the batch weight is 150 parts before adding the citric acid, colour, and flavouring as directed above.

JAMS AND JELLIES

(2) Some glucose syrup, as supplied, has an acid reaction which should be neutralized before use. (3) To reduce the chance of including air bubbles, the mix should be allowed to stay hot for some time after boiling and before introducing the acid.

When a confectioner has made open fruit tarts or flans he finds it necessary to cover them over with some type of jelly to enhance their appearance and also to preserve the fruit. Apricot puree, which has been coloured and flavoured to match the fruit, is sometimes employed for this purpose, but often the confectioner prefers a jelly made with cornflour and mixed with apricot puree. To make this jelly the following ingredients are required: lb. oz. Water 2 8 Sugar â&#x20AC;˘I Cornflour 2 Apricot puree 2 Colour and flavour

Cornflour Jelly

The water and sugar are brought to the boil in a copper pan; then the cornflour, which has been mixed with a little of the water, is added and the boiling continued. The apricot is then added, and the whole is brought to boil again. Finally, the necessary colours and a suitable flavour are incorporated. Another very useful jelly for covering fruit flans and tarts is made from arrowroot. The following ingredients are required: lb. oz. Water 12 3 Sugar 4 Arrowroot 8 Water 2 Orange colour Carmine colour Strawberry essence The water and sugar are boiled together in a copper pan. The arrowroot is mixed with the remainder of the water and then added to the boiling sugar solution. The whole is boiled together for 5 minutes, when it will be quite thick. The colours and flavour are then added and the jelly is ready for use. This is the jelly generally employed for covering strawberry tarts when the strawberries are in season. It is applied while still hot.

147

Arrowroot Jelly

CAKE MAKING

Many other types of jellies are used by the confectioner, but those given above are sufficient for mtfst purposes. If they are required to set firmer, a little gelatine can be added; for instance, in the case of the arrowroot jelly up to 4 oz. gelatine, which has been soaked in 2 pints water, can be added and a jel~y is obtained that will set firm.

Quick-setting Jellies

There are a number of quick-setting pectin jellies which set in the cold. The pectin component is sold as a liquid, suitably sweetened, coloured, and flavoured in some cases. When this product is to be used the quantity of liquid pectin is weighed, and to it is added the predetermined quantity of the acid component and stirred slowly, and then the mixture is used as quickly as possible before the gel forms. It is general practice to make up only small quantities so that it may all be used before it has time to set in bulk.

Gums and

Jellying Agents

GUMS have been used in the bakery for very many years, but of more recent years an increasing number have found their way into flour confectionery, either in the manufacture of prepared materials or used directly in the baked product. The sources of gums are very widespread, and classification of them may be considered under the following headings: The Exudates

These are found in: North, Central and South West Africa Asia and Asia Minor India and adjacent countries Australia South America Europe (to a small extent) These are located around the shores of the following:

The Seaweed Gums

Japan United States of America England and Scotland These are manufactured from starches obtained mostly from: America East Indies The United States and certain European countries also supply the main gelatine requirements of the world. Gums can be divided into four main categories: A Animal-Gelatine and such substances as are covered by this term, i.e. glue, casein and the albumens. B Vegetable-Such as Arabic, Tragacanth. 149

The Starch Gums

CAKE MAKING

C Marine-Irish Moss, the Alginates, and Agar-agar, together with fish glues. 1-' D Synthetic-this class of gum is coming into greater use at the present time, due to the pioneer work carried out in Germany. These are cellulose synthetics, and the products 9f ,these researches were marketed under various trade names.

Anim.al Gum.s Gelatine and Glue

All gums are not edible. They can be divided, according to their behaviour in water, into two classes-Iyophillic, which means 'water-loving', and lyophobic, which means 'water-hating'. The former includes water-soluble or waterdispersible gums, adhesives, and also dextrins, which either swell in water to form mucillages or are soluble in water. The second class will not swell or dissolve in water, and so are usually inedible. Most edible gums, particularly those used in the food industry, fall into the lyophillic ciass. Gelatine and glue are the principal animal gums today. They are nrotein_ilL.!;haracter and so have the a~ Jo swell in cold water and dissolve in hot water. In production, gelatine can be divided ir'lto three main groups:

(a) Edible gelatine (b) Photographic gelatine (c) Inedible gelatine The edible grade is usually marketed in the forms of:

(i) Sheet gelatine (ii) Flake gelatine (iii) Powdered or 'Crystal' gelatine. (I) MANUFACTURE OF GELATINE

__The two main sources of raw materials for the making.of gelatine are hide trimmings ar{dbOiies: --'the trimmings- are-cleanea~]jy a preliminary soaking in water, and soaked in successive baths of lime water, each bath of increasing strength, which removes hair, blood, and other undesirable matter and causes the hide to swell, making available by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis the...two main proteins in .gelatine which are coll<l;gen anq o~ This process may take up to tllre'e months. \\Then the liming process is finished the material is washed almost free of lime with water and treated with sulphur dioxide, which removes the residual traces of lime, and bleaches and reduces the alkalinity. After this treatment the stock is extracted several times with hot water in successive stages. The highest grade of edible gelatine is produced in the first extract between 60Â° and 70Â° C. Successive extractions are

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

made at higher temperatures up to 100° C., the last extractions being carried out at temperatures above 100° C. in an autoclave. The first extracts possess better colour and gelling power, and have a higher viscosity than the products from subsequent extractions. The last extracts, carried out at higher temperatures, produce what are known as glues, and these are classed as inedible. The extracts contajning the collagen and ossein are then filtered, and, for the highest grades, further clarification is effected by treatment with blood albumin or egg albumin. From these clarified extracts, a firm jelly is obtained which is further dried to give either sheet or flake, and these are further ground to give the crystal or powder variety if desired. The grade of gelatine depends upon the colour, flavour, smell, and chemical impurities. With a good grade there is never more than 3'25 per cent mineral matter, and the new Statutory Regulations governing the quality of gelatine include the limit of 3'25 per cent of ash. These limits can briefly be enumerated as follows: Arsenic Zinc Lead Copper

1·4 parts per million parts of gelatine 100 10 30 "

There is also a statutory limit for sulphur dioxide, which at present is 1,000 parts per million parts of gelatine. Gelatines for food purposes containing over the prescribed limits of impurities are rejected. Essentially the same process is applied to the extraction of gelatine from bones after the bones have been treated. They are degreased by an organic solvent, and the calcium phosphate and other minerals are dissolved away with acid, the remaining collagenous material being treated in the same way as that from hide. (2) MANUFACAs..alr~ad.y PQinte,d out, glues are reallyanJ!!furior._for.m of gelatine and are extracted from the liide trimmings. _at- TURE OF GLUE higher temperatures-at 'atmospheric' -pressure, and also in pressure vessels after the extractions at 100° C. have been made. The colour Qra.good edible grade of gelatine should be 00 Properties cif E!0re than a gale. golden"y'~llow__,_andThe produash~ Gelatine fairly free from odou~ ~.nd flavour of any' ki!J,d. ' Jt should yield~~rlectly:a:ear_.aru!l?ri.ght gel on making up in water and should be free from any sediment. ~

CAKE MAKING

Jelly strength and viscosity cannot, of course, be specified rigidly, as various users demand various! strengths and viscosities. Gelatine swells cons~<ie.0bly in sold water and dissolves completely in hot water. - -----:GelatIne als_!)_'p_p~sesses_the _remarkable _R:r:_{n~erty of being <ible,_under-certain. conditions, to combine e~ an acid or an__alkali.. It can dO-this only when it removeSfrom its 'isoelectric point', i.e. a pH value which is fixed for gelatine. The isoelectric point for gelatine is 4'7. Thus at pH values above 4'7, i.e. tending towards the alkaline side, it can combine with acids, and conversely at pH values below 4'7, i.e. tending towards the more acid side, it can combine with alkalis. Another interesting point to note is that, at the isoelectric point most of its properties, such as viscosity, solubility, osmotic pressure, etc., are at their minimum values. Uses of Gelatine Edible gelatines are used in such food preparations as: Table jellies Fruit gums and pastilles ~rshmallo~

GI~edg29ds Stabilizer for ice~cream

Meat extracts, galantines, brawns, etc. Mayonnaise and salad cream Flavour emulsions Bu~m_s _and related p~o_9_ucts And many other foodstuffs Fine-grade gelatine has application also in pharmaceutical products such as: Capsules Pill coatings Emulsions Lozenges Toothpastes Vegetable GUIDS

Very generally, vegetable gums can be divided into two sections:

(a) The exudates. (b) The seed extracts. (a) Exudates

(I) Gum Arabic

These are found in North, Central and West Africa, Asia and Asia Minor, India, Australia, and South America. J_~~t grade of thi~ _gu~ i~_called Acacia. The gum

15 2

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

was probably known as early as 2000 B.C. The Egyptians used it in paints of various kinds, and trading in this gum in Northern Egypt was known as early as the seventeenth century B.C. It is an exudation collected from a number of species of the acacia tree, probably about 400 in number, and usually occurs in 'tears', so called from the shapes of the exudations. This type of exudation dries and forms nodules. The collection of this gum is a casual trade carried on by natives, who barter the gum, which is later exported. The origin of the name arises from the ports of export and not because it originates from Arabia. Botanically the gum is widespread in Africa, stretching from Dakaar and Senegal on the West Coast across the continent to the Red Sea, through Arabia, portions of Persia, India, and finally Australia. It is also found in sections of the lower United States, Mexico, and Central America. The principal sources of supply are Sudan and French Senegal, and one of the main ports of export is Aden. The exudations arise where damage, either deliberate or accidental, arises; apparently the greatest yields arise from 'sick' trees and bushes. The exudations are due to infection at the site of the damage. This state of affairs can be compared with a cut finger. In the Sudan the gum collected from cultivated trees is called 'Hashab geneina' and from wild trees is called 'Hashab wady'. The best quality is colourless, or whitish, and the lower grades are dark with an astringent flavour, owing to the inclusion of dark-coloured tannins. The best grade comes from Kardofan in the Sudan, and the less pure gum is known as Senegal gum. It is used in food in fruit gums and as an emulsifier. It is also used in adhesiv~olishes-, printing, textites, the sizing of paper, in the production of inks, and in pharmaceuticals. Confectiollers_us___~glaziI!g_almond_a__Qd marzi pany-rod ucts. The gum is known by several other names, such as Turkey Gum, Gum Senegal, Sudan Gum, East Indian Gum, Wattle Gum (Australian origin), and Scent Gum-a lower grade. The world production is in the region of 30-50 million per year. The word 'Tragacanth' comes from the Greek meaning 'goat thorn'. The gum is an exudation from the Astragalus shrub, which grows in desert places. Unlike gum arabic, it changes during exudation due to a change in the soft cells of the pith. It forms ribbon-like bands which are snapped off 153

Uses of Gum Arabic

(2) Gum Tragacanth

CAKE MAKING

(3) Gum Karaya

as they flow out and, here again, the plant has to be a sick plant. This is effected by impoverishing1/the roots or by burning the tops of the shrubs. It originates in Persia, Iraq, Khurdistan, Turkey, and Syria, and the best grades come from Khurdistan and Iran. It is usually ground for the food industry into ~ Eulverized white powder which does not completely dissolve in water, but swells and forms a mucillage, which is far stronger than gum arabic. Gum tragacanth is used as a basis for hair creams and cosmetics, in the production of confectioners' gum paste, and as a stabilizer for emulsions, it is also used with phosphorus in the manufacture of match tops. The two main constituents are tragacanthin, which is water-soluble, and bassorin, which is insoluble in water, and the amounts of these two substances determine its quality. In normal gums 20-40 per cent is tragacanthin and 60-70 per cent bassorin, and the better grades contain more of the latter. The gum is believed to consist chemically of polysaccharides. The viscosity of the mucillage is increased by a short period of boiling or by a process of ageing. Too long a period of storage deteriorates the mucillage. The viscosity of the mucillage can be raised to a maximum by passing it through an homogenizer four times. It has been found that the addition of a mucillage of acacia gum in any proportions to one part of a mucillage of gum tragacanth results in a viscosity lower than those of either constituent. The price of the gum is fairly high, and because of this, it is often adulterated with cheaper gums. Lead carbonate has also been found as an adulterant. Also known as Sterculia Indian Gum, or India Tragacanth Gum. India is the sole country of origin of this gum, which comes from trees of the genus Sterculia urens. The trees grow from 25 to 30 ft. high and are tapped by making five or six deep incisions about 21ft. long and deep enough to reach right into the heart of the wood to get an exudation. It is collected by natives, during periods of scarcity of work, in irregular knobs every two to four days. The best-quality gum is collected between March and the middle of June, although the gum is obtainable throughout the year. After about nine months of yielding the trees cease producing for about two to three years, and then again yield gum. It is marketed and sorted in Bombay, the best grades being white and the poorest dark in colour. The remnants of bark and tannin which usually contaminate the raw 154

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

deliveries are removed by air flotation. The gum possesses the odour of acetic acid, due probably to the presence of a substance called a galactan. This gum swells in water, but does not dissolve completely, except under heat and pressure, such as by heating in an autoclave. It is used in the cosmetic, food, and textile industries, etc. Gum karaya is often used as a substitute for gums tragacanth and arabic, and has been found in laboratories as a constituent of several so-called fat extenders. Also known as Indian Gum or Gatti Gum, this is an exudation from a large tree growing in India and Ceylon called Anogeissus Latifolia; the best grades are exported in globular tears and ground in the importing countries. The poorer grades are not exported. Gum gahtti is not entirely soluble in water, but swells and has to be heated under pressure in an autoclave to form a viscous adhesive mucillage. It is found in a variety of products, including pharmaceuticals, for which gum acacia is directed to be used, and some baking emulsions made by laboratories, although it is not considered to be a very good emulsifier. It is purified in much the same way as gum karaya and is ground to a white powder. Also known as Locust Bean Gum, Locust Kernel Gum, Tragan, Tragasal, Gatto, St. John's Bread Gum or Hydragum. The whole fruit is the familiar 'locust' that used to be sold in confectioners' shops. The gum is extracted from the seeds of the tree which belongs to the bean family, called the Carob, or Locust Bean Tree, Ceratonea Siligua. It grows in Cyprus, Egypt, and the Mediterranean countries. The fruit is cut open and the seeds separated by treatment in rollers and crushers and then are roasted at 1500 C. This turns them a golden brown colour. The partially dehulled seeds thus roasted are then extracted with 20 times their weight of boiling water. The viscous extract is then filtered and the clear filtrate is evaporated to a pasty mess containing about 25 per cent moisture. This pasty solid is dried in the air in trays and yields carob gum. It can be used as a substitute for gum tragacanth for many purposes, and is also found in a number offat extenders. It also has quite high emulsifying powers. This comes from a shrub of the order Rosaceae, which has very shallow roots and the leaves, the flowers and the fruits of which are like apples or pears. The number of seeds in each fruit varies from thirty to seventy-five. The usual article of commerce is the dried seed, which comes from fruits

155

(4) Gum Ghatti

(b) Seed Gums ( 1) Carob Seed Gum

(2) Quince Seed

CAKE MAKING

grown mainly in Persia, although lesser quantities are imported from Iraq, Portugal, and South Africa. The American quince is primarily utilized as a canned fruit or in the manufacture of jellies or preserves. I t is usually left to the consumer to extract the gum from the dried seed,_ si!,!ce the process of commercial extraction would make the price of the extracted gum prohibitive. Two parts of seed are agitated for t hour with 100 parts of water, after which the seed hulls are strained off and the strainings will give the required mucillage. The highest amount of gum can be extracted from the seed of the Persian Quince. This gum is approximately 10 times as effective as gelatine as a stabilizer in ice-cream, though when the icecream melts it does not do so uniformly, as is the case of icecream 'mixes' stabilized with gelatine. The mucillage from quince seeds is used extensively in the cosmetic industry as a demulcent in hand lotions, hair waving and cleaning lotions, and in medicinal preparations.

Marine Gums

lJq>ical marine gums_are_b~ Moss, an~ Alg.~~t~s, )Yill.ch_are all closely related and alrIiavetheir-ungm m ~e~e_d_oL..algae._They are located maln1y round the shores of Great Britain, Japan, and the United States. The hydrophyllic gums are derived from two main groups of algae known as brown and red. The major classes of brown algae are called fucoids and kelps, and these yield gums of the algin class. The red algae yield gums of the agar class. This classification can be made clearer by illustrating it in a diagram:

Apart from this classification, the seaweed algae can be further divided into: (a) submerged weeds, which grow as deep as five fathoms, and (b) rock adher:ers, which are found between low and high tide levels. The alginate gums were accidentally discovered in about 1883 during investigations into the chemicals from seaweeds, and their discovery was due mostly to the work of an American chemist called Stanford. He found that alkaline extracts of the brown algae yielded products possessing unusual gelling properties. A little more detail can be given about representative

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

gums from the seaweeds starting with the well-known agaragar. This is also known as Japanese and Chinese Vegetable, (I) Agar-agar Seaweed Isjngl~, and Kanten. -:;gar is produced from the red ahme which is found round the coasts of Japan, Australia, Mexico, California and the Malay Coast. Production of agar from seaweed dates back as far as the seventeenth century in Japan, and an interesting story is told about its discovery. The remnants of a species of seaweed which had been served as a food had been thrown on the ground on an extremely cold day. The fragments froze -hard, and the host, thinking they could be used as a delicacy, gave some to a priest who tasted the jelly produced and expressed his delight by naming it 'Kanten', which, literally translated, means 'Frozen Heaven'. Each country has its own methods of collection, but normally agar is collected by divers who go down and collect the seaweed from the sea bottom during May to October, and bring the weed to the surface in bundles. It is laid out in the sun and bleached for three or four weeks on the sea-shore. It is then taken to the mountains, and the agar is extracted during the winter months. It is first cleaned by washing with fresh water to remove salt and other impurities, then pounded heavily with wooden pounders, after which it is boiled for 30 or 40 hours and allowed to settle undisturbed in layers. The top 70 per cent, when skimmed off, gives the best quality agar, and the remainder is of inferior quality. The thick solution is poured into trays, and when cool and set to jelly it is squeezed through the small holes in the bases of trays or presses, and comes out in strips which are dried and bleached in the sun. The climate plays an important part in production, and a right combination of bright sunlit days and cold frosty nights is essential to successful production. The Americans clean and cook under pressure and extract the agar after suitable clarification of the extract by a comparatively new process known as freeze dehydration. The gel, after being frozen for two days at 14Â° F., is thawed and the water removed in a rotary vacuum filter. The product is then dried in hot-air dryers, after washing, to 35 per cent moisture. After further purification the agar is dried to 20 per cent moisture. This process gives a very good grade of gum. A good jelly can be obtained with a t per cent solution, but a gel can be obtained with as little as I part in 500 parts of water. This gum is used for jellies and sweets, water -J

157

CAKE MAKING

ices, marshmallows, and also in the manufacture of N~Â chatel cream che~~!--It can also be taken dryas a cure for constiparwnana-is extensively used in bacteriology. Ageing, or prolonged storage, reduces the swelling power of agar, and some authorities claim that it loses 60 per cent of its swelling capacity in three years. Freezing also reduces swelling power, but this is restored on heating. Agar also possesses eight times the gelling power of gelatme anals capable of setting_tQ a g~l without refrigerat~on. ' Other names by which this gum is known are Carragheen, (2) Irish Moss _darrageen-Moss,-Pearl..Moss,_.li_ock Salt Moss, etc. It is derived from seaweed called Chandrus crispus, and is collected from the Atlantic round the British Isles and the American Atlantic coast. It is collected during the period from May to September from small boats called 'dories' at the ebb tide with 15-2o-ft.-Iong rakes. A 'Mosser', as the collector is called, can, by hand, strip a section of rock bare of all seaweed, and in about four months the growth will be just as luxuriant as ever. It is stated that a good 'Mosser' can collect anything up to 400 lb. of 'Moss' during the season, working in periods of 4 hours. Moss so gathered yields a high price for food and drug purposes, while that gathered between I and I4 ft. below ebb tide is used in the paint industry. Irish Moss is treated in much the same way as agar, and is sun bleached and dried to about IO per cent moisture. The salt inherent in the growth must not be removed, or the jellying properties are impaired. The mucillage is normally extracted by the consumer, but some of the dried extract is available commercially. The best quality is that which is collected in September by hand. Mechanical means can be employed, but a great deal of undesirable waste from the sea bed is also collected in the process, and this foreign matter impairs the jellying properties -of the gum. It is used in cosmetics, pharmacy, boiler-water compounds, and in the production of non-settling chocolate drinks. As far as its action in boiler-water-conditioning compounds is concerned, it is probable that by exercising some colloidal action it prevents the hardness salts, which are thrown down by the softening and conditioning compounds, from coagulating into hard masses at the bases of boilers and in the boiler tubes. Finally, some details about the alginates. This class of gums was discovered by an American chemist (3) Alginates called Stanford in 1883. This particular gum comes from the seaweeds Laminaria and Macrocystis. The seaweed is collected mechanically by barges with __:;>

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

underwater cutting equipment, the weed being brought to the surface by inclined chain elevators. The barges have a capacity of about 300 tons each. The kelp is leached with dilute hydrochloric acid, drained and shredded, and is digested with caustic soda solution at pH 10. The gelatinous mass so produced is distintegrated in a hammer mill, about six volumes of cold water added, artd the whole mass is then adjusted to pH 10·6-11 ·0. For boiler compounds the pulp is dried at this stage and sold. If required for other purposes the pulp is clarified and filtered through a filter press. The filtrate is then treated with calcium chloride to throw out the alginic acid as a surface scum of calcium alginate. This is washed, chemically bleached, converted to alginic acid, and after more purification is converted to sodium alginate by sodium carbonate additions. This constitutes the product commercially available tod<iy under such names as Manucol, etc. These gums have a basis of cellulose derived from wood Synthetic ~he pulp is treated ~ various chemicifsiil diverse Gums ways to form 'woolly-like' materials which possess remarkable emulsifying and stabilizing abilities. These synthetic gums were developed in Germany before the war and have gained popularity in this country and the United States. They_baYk..a high emulsification power and can be manufactured completely pure ana to (iefi;;:iie standards. T~s~ualities are almost insoluble in hot water and almost completely dispefSl@e III colO;-Put to.prepare ~er_dispersions they musfliC"i£eated nrst wit~·h.ot )Y:<_:l.ter then-allowed to cool- for about 12 hours, after which the dispersion is diluted with cold water to "produce~ complete dispersion. Synthetic.gums can be used ~r: many/<:>_odst_!lffs and form Ihe.inain.emulsifier in-manyemulsions; they are also used in mayonnaises. and sauces as thickeners. They are practically non-putrefactive and non-poisonous. Pectin is the name given to a mixture of polysaccharides Pectin foundJn.Jmit~and:SQ1Ile rQQ.ts~hl~g~ when it is boiled-with.sugar. The composition of pectin is a complex one, and it is now customary to classify the pectin substances under the following headings :-{-I) protopectin; (2) pectin; (3) pectic acid and its derivatives~~g. mdEyl _pe£tate, w1i_ich~is:p_re~· __J.ent in all Eectin E!"~para!i'?_!ls.

159

CAKE MAKING

These occuLin_plant tissues, but are insoluble ~y:r. T:hey are c~~verted into pectins by hyclrolysts,WIlich can be bm,ught_abouiby-acids,' including fruit::aCia~~~ted or ~y !!!!. w.z.~m~ ,p_r.otopectin~se. (2) Pectin ~is is_.a---water=soluble__substa,nce which occurs in all frui . It is a macromolecular substance whIch, w-rren hydrolysed, yieids' galacturonic acid, galactose, arabinose, and acetic acid. Galacturonic acid is derived from galactose, the monosaccharide which, with glucose, results from the hydrolysis of lactose. The acetic acid derives from the methoxy groups eHa'O-which are present in all pectins. Arabinose is a monosaccharide which contains five carbon atoms and is called a pentose. Pectin appears to consist of methylated galacturonic acid residues combined with pentosans. The pectin molecule is a long chain of these units combined together in a manner similar to starch. There may be over a thousand units in the chain. Pectin from different sources has different physical properties which may be influenced by the number of galacturonic acid residues combined together in the molecule, the number of methoxyl groups which each one contains, and the proportion of pentosans present. Pectin was first isolated by Braconnat in 1825, and after some years a process was developed for its commercial manufacture, but it was not produced in this country until 1917. Originally the pectin was in a liquid form, but today it is available in a highly concentrated powder form. The setting ofjam is d!!e to_a~ination of the pectin in thTfruit, quantity of sugar used, and ~. d' - -In an acicl"medium-the 'pectin 'is negatively charged, the addition of sugar affects the pectin-water equilibrium, the destabilized pectin conglomerates and so forms a network of fibres through the, jelly. This structure is capable of supporting liquid~ The continuity of the pectin network and the denseness of its fibres are determined by the concentration of the pectin. Thus, the higher the concentration, the denser the fibres and the structure. The rigidity of this is affected by the sugar concentration and the acidity, the higher the sugar concentration, the less water there is for the structure to support. Acid toughens the fibre of the network, but unduly high acidity affects the elasticity and results in either a tough jelly or destroys the structure due to decomposition of the pectin or hydrolysis of it. On the other hand, low acidity results in weak structure and a slack jelly.

( I) Protopectins

160

GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

Gel formation occurs only within a limited range of \ hydrogen-ion concentration, the optimum for jams being pH 3-3'5. Beyond this no gel formation occurs. The firmness of the gel depends on the quality of the gel as well as the quantity, and normally about I per cent of pectin is adequate. The importance of starch as an ingredient in many con- Starch fectionery products, such as cornflour jelly for use in flans and as a thickening agent for custards, is due to its ability to swell when heated in water and form a gel. This function of starch is also of fundamental importance in the production of fermented goods, when the freshness and keeping qualities are influenced by the degree of gelatinization which takes place on baking. Starch consists of two fractions (a) amylose, (b) amylopectin, both of which are 10ng-cJ:1ain carbohydrates, the amylose being built up of hundreds of glucose molecules, the amylopectin of over a thousand glucose molecules arranged in a branching and sub-branching tree-like structure. Starch can be chemically treated so that swelling occurs) in cold water, and such prepared starches are finding an increasing industrial use in many industries besides food.

Chocolate

~itia:n..oÂŁcho.colate.and/.oL_cocQa.p_~der

to flour con-

~ecti2!!.e_ry_:e.roduS~ giyes the!ll_ ~. <!i~tincti~ve flaYQ!!Lan~p-p'@r~nce.

At one time there was a tendency to use little more than chocolate colour in the cheaper types of cakes; a very bad practice. Today the law requires that cake described as chocolate must contain 3 per cent of dry non-fat cocoa solids. A code of practice on the use of the word chocolate lays this down quite clearly. This is 3 per cent in the moist crumb of the baked cake as sold, excluding fruit, nuts, filling, etc.

History of Chocolate

Although chocolate manufacture has only been developed in Europe during the last hundred and fifty years or so, its great value as a food-stuff has been known for many centuries. There are many books dealing with the history of it and telling of its manufacture, such as: Cocoa-All About it, by 'Historicus'; or Cocoa and Chocolate, by R. Whymper; or Modern Methods of Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacture, by H. W. Bywaters. All these books give a vast amount of information. Here, it is proposed to give a brief idea only of how chocolate manufacture has developed in Europe, and an outline of its food value and uses. Chocolate was first discovered in the early sixteenth century by the Spanish explorers, who found it used very widely in the best circles of Mexican society as a drink called 'Chocolatl'. This drink was actually a cross between cocoa and chocolate as now known, being a very thick chocolate drink. It was prepared by a primitive and laborious process, basically, however, the same as modern chocolate manufacture. The biological name for it, Theobroma cacao, means 'The Food of the Gods', for the Mexicans considered it a divine product. The Spaniards, however, had more practical ideas, and took the recipe back to Spain, where they kept it a close secret and managed to hold the monopoly for over a cen162

CHOCOLATE

tury, after which it slowly spread to Italy, Holland, and France. Raw cocoa first appeared on the English market in the early eighteenth century, and manufacture was started in the west country, as Bristol was then the principal port for the West Indies. Previous to this, the drink had been imported from Spain as an expensive luxury, costing lOS. per pound, then an exceedingly high price indeed. This drink was apparently known as 'Jocolatte'. At least that is what Pepys called it when he saw it in 1664. Chocolate was at one time regarded as a luxury, but when it is partaken of in moderation it becomes a sustaining and useful food which is now regarded as an almost essential commodity. It is a very pleasant sweetmeat and makes an agreeable addition to other foodstuffs. It is now regarded as a necessity for the armed forces as an emergency ration, thus acknowledging its great food value. One pound of chocolate supplies about 2,515 calories. The average composition of chocolate is as follows: Proteins Fats Carbohydrates Theobromine

Chocolate as a Foodstuff

4路8 32路5 59路5 1-2路5

Theobrorriine is an alkaloid possessing stimulative propertIe_s. Chocolate is rather more expensive than many other foodstuffs, but good chocolate cannot be made cheaply, because the best raw materials must be selected for its production, and elaborate processes are involved in its manufacture to produce the best grades. It is .generally known thi!LQoth-choco!ate-aacLcoc.oa-.a_r_e made from the same Rrjn~.ipaljng.t:.edient, the cacao bean. Cacao trees grow only in tropical climates, and the fruit is in the form of large pods, similar to a melon, but with slightly more pointed ends. The cacao beans correspond to the seeds of a melon, but are about the size of almonds, and each pod holds thirty to thirty-five beans. Each tree bears fourteen pods, and there are nominally two crops per year, so that each tree produces approximately 3 lb. of usable beans per annum. The fruit when ready for harvesting is of a rich golden-red colour. The characteristics of the beans vary very considerably according to the district in which they are grown. The Spaniards were not long in finding that cacao trees grew

Manufacture of Chocolate and Cocoa

CAKE MAKING

considerably better in Latin American countries other than Mexico, both north and south of Panama, tfotably Venezuela, which remains to this day one of the regions where the finest cacao beans are grown. They were also responsible for the transplanting of the cacao trees to the West Indies, which was a very: successful experiment. Since then cacao planting has steadily progressed westwards, first to other Atlantic islands, and then finally into West Africa, which is now by far the greatest producing region of all. The beans are harvested with success in Ceylon,Java, and Samoa. The cacao beans from these different regions have quite different characteristics, and one of the arts of chocolate-making is the correct handling and blending of the different varieties. When the beans come to this country they have already been fermented and partially dried out. The ftayol![ is g~vclQ2ed during fermentat~o!l, _anjmpo~st_<!ge in the process. ~~ ~he _fU'rther-processing~~of the .cacao beans has the object of building-up-a-good-chocolate flavour, and of removing excess aÂŤid and moisture, th~ l!ltter being_parlicu~arlyinji_irIoli;to Âˇchocolate. In the chocolate factory the beans after blending are first mechanically cleaned to remove any dirt, pieces oftne original husk, sacking, etc. Next, they are roasted-this being a very critical stage in the manufacture, as the degree of roasting exercises considerable changes in the flavour. The temperature of roasting varies between 100 0 and 135 0 F. In Mexico the beans were roasted in small quantities over an open fire; in a modern factory they are roasted in large quantities either in batch or continuous roasters. Cacao beans contain about 40-50 per cen~ Ja~ao butter, also proteins, carbciliydrates such as starch, fibre, traces- oC sligar,niineralsaIts, moiSture; and other ~nt products. - . -The roasting_process extracts_~ large part of the mQigur_e, and removes many unwanted acids; the hea~ @.!!_ses J!!l active d<;v~loPIll~_~l of flayour inside the beans, and-modifies ihe colour. Next,the shell with which each bean is covered is removed by a winnowing machine. These shells have considerable value as feeding-stuff owing to their vitamin content. Only the kernels or nibs, as they are called, are of value in making chocolate. The cacao nibs are ground by passing them through steel rollers. Heat is generated and a rich reddish-brown liquid is produced which sets hard on cooling. This is the un-

CHOCOLATE

sweetened block chocolate, with the following average composition: Moisture Fats Nitrogenous matter Starch Ash Silica Theobromine Cellulose Total nitrogen

4-5 45-55 13-15 21-23 3-3·5 0·1--0·3 1·3-1·5 3-4 2·1-2·2

To make chocolate, sugar must be added to this ground mass, together witli any desireq::1_laY0l!nngs."Tneflavolirffig generally used is vanilla. The sugar used is always ilie best ~stal sugar p-uly'eriz~d-t:oa nne-pOwderwith-liammer mills. The sugar and cacao mass are niixe<rtogether for the most-part in tneMelangeur machines, which were introduced in France and Switzerland in the latter part of the last century, and are still known by the original French name. Extra cocoa butter is addedJQ bring.the_CQOsistency o(_the fiiiis11ed Gh.ocolate to th_<"<_desi!:ed ckgre_e of fluidity. _ Cocoa butter is expressed from the unsweetened chocolate ~akir:!g ofcocoa. In the Melangeur a thorough blending takes place, and the grains or particles of cocoa and sugar are reduced to a very small size. The proportions depend on the purpose for which the chocolate is required. In recent years milk chocolate has become very popular. Fresh milk (liquid) cannot be added to chocolate, owing to the amount of water it contains. The milk is incorporated in the form of milk crumb. Milk chocolate crumb is made from fresh milk which is condensed, to which sugar and cacao mass are added. The mixed chocolate is next further ground through powerful roller mills, known as refiners. It is passed through many times, the number varying with the degree of refinement required. If this is not done the granules of sugar and cocoa appear like grit in the chocolate. After the grinding comes the process known as 'conching', again French-Swiss in origin. This process ensures that the chocolate will be smooth eating. In this machine the chocolate is buffeted about in a hot condition for periods of up to 72 hours, to effect a great improvement in smoothness to the tongue, and also in flavour, the whole mixture being amalgamated into a homogeneous mass. The chocolate is then ready to be run into moulds and set, ready for distribution. This product is then known as 'couverture'. It will be appreciated that it reqiures consIderable skill

CAKE MAKING

and also expensive equipment to manufacture a good chocolate. ~l It was not possible to manufacture chocolate as it is now known until comparatively recently, when efficient grinding machines became available.

Types of Chocolate

When a confecti~ner buys chocolate he can make important decisions with regard to flavour. The differences in flavour are produced by the manufacturers by: (r) choice of beans; (2) blending of nibs; (3) degree of roasting; (4) percentage of added flavours; (5) amount of sugar used; (6) process of manufacture; (7) maturity of the chocolate; (8) percentage of cocoa butter. Combinations of these variable factors produce numerous grades of chocolate. Some manufacturers run as many as seventy types of chocolate couverture to meet the demands of their various purchasers. The differences refer to the percentage of cocoa butter, sugar, added flavour, blend of beans, method of production, and fluidity of the product when melted. Lecithin is widely used to improve this factor. But couvertures are manufactured ex~vely_f[om cocoa, sugar, arid cocoa butter, an.c19J!..];>e guaranteed for purity. - The demands ofthe flour confectionery trade for chocolate couvertures are very different from those of other users. Chocolate, as normally made, has a short break. It also contracts considerably on setting, which is a very necessary characteristic if it has to be set in moulds. Both of these features are undesirable in the flour confectionery trade, because when chocolate contracts on a cake the area is so large and the film so thin that it easily cracks, both through shrinkage and its own inelastic nature when set. It is like trying to coat a bath sponge with a film of thin glass. Again, when a cake covered with normal chocolate couverture is cut with a knife the chocolate cracks and tends to split in all directions. This led to the development of soft-cutting chocolate coverings.

Tempering Chocolate for Use

Considerable skill and care has to be exercised when melting and tempering chocolate couverture for use in flour confectionery, not only care in the manipulation of the chocolate itself but also in the choice of the ingredients with which it has to be mixed, otherwise the familiar fat and sugar bloom will become evident. The technical explanation of this fault is that cacao butter is the natural constituent of the bean and is a mixture of glycerides of different melting points. It is easily supercooled, and the liquid can be brought r66

CHOCOLATE

below its setting point without visible crystallization taking place. This is one of the characteristics that has to be studied during manufacturing operations. While the solidification is taking place the volume change in the case of crystallized fractions is sufficient to cause an uneven distribution of the fats, and some of the lighter fractions rise to the surface in the plastic mass. The result is that the surface of the chocolate becomes covered with the fat crystals, usually of a streaky formation; therefore, in order to ensure the best results, it is important to consider thoroughly the art of tempering effectively any chocolate couverture. The chocolate must first be melted by heating; excessive heat should be avoided. The melting should be done slowly and carefully, great care being taken that the chocolate does not burn or char at any point. Normally, for vanilla chocolate, it should not be heated above 120° F., and not above 110° F. for milk chocolate, and at the first melting, not less than 5° under these maximums. If the melting temperature is too low good gloss and good flowing properties are not ensured; if the melting temperature is too high there is unnecessary work in cooling the chocolate again, also the flavo~r and homogeneity of the mass are likely to be upset. Melting in a bowl over a hot-water bath is recommended only when no thermostatically controlled chocolate-melting pan is available. Care must be taken that no steam or water reaches the chocolate. Stirring is, of course, essential, and the chocolate should be broken up in small pieces before commencing to melt it. After melting is completed the chocolate must be cooled quickly to 82° F., or below the dipping temperature, and then reheated to the exact temperature required. If a proper chocolate-mixing kettle with steam and cold-water connections is available this is ideal. Otherwise, if the chocolate has been melted in a bowl, the bowl may be taken to a cold place, and the chocolate thoroughly cooled, with constant stirring, not exceeding 22 revs. per minute, until it is just on setting point, when it is reheated again to the dipping temperature of about 86-90° F., and it is ready for use. Milk chocolate temperatures are best about 3° lower, or approximately 84° F. An alternative method of tempering is to pour the liquid chocolate out on to a marble slab and keep moving it until it is cool, then scrape it back into the bowl for rewarming to the dipping temperature. The reason for the preliminary lowering of temperature is to bring about partial crystallization of the cacao butter. The subsequent rise of temperature is not sufficient to

CAKE MAKING

destroy all crystals. The unmelted crystals form a nuclei around which crystallization can take plaqt:, without any separation. At this point the couverture is tempered. Many confectioners find consistency a more reliable guide than temperature. For instance, if a chocolate is cooled slowly it will set at a higher temperature than ifit is cooled quickly. The gloss may not be so good as that from the fast-cooled chocolate, but it will be more durable. Further, different chocolates have different characteristics; at a cooler temperature a thinner chocolate works better than a thick one. The temperature and air draughts in a room in which the work is carried out also have an important influence. The room should be as far as possible free from humidity and draughts; if possible, chocolate work should be done in a room with a temperature about 75Â° F., and the cooling of the goods in a temperature of 50-60Â° F. It is apparent, therefore, that all extremes of temperature and rates of heating and cooling should be avoided; also, a reliable brand of chocolate couverture should be used, and when difficulty arises, it is advisable to consult the manufacturers, who are always quite ready to give expert assistance and practical advice. On a large scale the process is basically the same, but it is naturally more mechanized. The small user would be well advised to use a thermostatically controlled chocolate pan. The bakers' chocolate covering that has been mentioned does not require this elaborate tempering procedure. Most of the large chocolate manufacturers have a staff of expert advisers, who are prepared to give advice on the most suitable type of chocolate coating to use in any particular business, and also advice on how to manipulate the chocolate, and the most suitable type of equipment for the purpose.

Hints on Chocolate

Here are a few worth-while hints on chocolate: (I) Remember that chocolate easily takes up foreign odours, so it should not be stored in a damp or smelly place. A cool, dry storeroom with good ventilation is ideal. Stack the containers on battens, so that there is air circulation under the stacks. Stand them a few inches from the wall to allow air circulation on all sides. (2) When using chocolate, remember that moisture is a great enemy of chocolate; it spoils the flavour, thickens the chocolate, and spoils the gloss. If it condenses on finished chocolates it will cause sugar bloom. Make sure, therefore,

168

CHOCOLATE

that the storage room is not damp; over 75° humidity is dangerous. (3) Do not attempt to melt the chocolate as though it were a piece of cast iron; it will not stand high temperatures at all. While overheating will destroy the delicate flavour, under-melting should be also avoided. (4) All goods that have to be covered with chocolate should have the chill taken off them before-hand, as, during cold weather, a very dull finish is caused by neglect of this precaution. (5) When the goods have been covered they must be cooled or set in a cool room about 55-60° F., as the final gloss of perfectly covered chocolate goods is assured or spoilt by correct or faulty cooling. It takes about 20 minutes to set the chocolate thoroughly. It is better to keep the drying-room free from draughts, as a severe draught of cold air on to liquid couverture causes discoloration. (6) During hot weather, when it is impossible to keep the temperature low, it is helpful to keep all doors and windows open and to use electric fans. (7) Chocolate goods that have been cooled in a refrigerator must not be brought too suddenly into a warm atmosphere, otherwise condensation will take place on the surface. Large users of chocolate should have some form of air conditioning. Rapid cooling ensures a good gloss and snap, but too Iowa temperature causes super-cooling and subsequent blooming. Therefore, a careful balance must be maintained between these two factors, and this has to be left to the discretion of the craftsman. Chocolate-coated goods are often spoiled when stored under bad conditions, and so the importance of strict attention to the temperature and moisture conditions cannot be over-stressed. Too high or too low, or even a varying temperature will inevitably result in 'bloom'. The ideal storage temperature is 60-65° F. If any kind of heating is used it should be of a diffused nature. The technical explanation of this is that 76° F. appears to be the critical temperature for chocolate, at which point lower-melting fractions of the cacao butter begin to melt and rise to the surface as the heavier cocoa and sugar particles sink in the softened mass, with resultant 'bloom'. Therefore, it is advisable to store well below this temperature. Too moist an atmosphere is definitely harmful, owing to the danger of condensation and subsequent 'greying'. The humidity should be kept below 50°. In the ordinary way chocolate goods will keep well if stored in a dry room, 169

CAKE MAKING

cool in summer, and with some form of supplementary heating during cold weather. The room should be well ventilated, with plenty of air space around the shelves. Cocoa Powder

Bakers' Prepared Chocolate or Cake Coverings

CO~Rowder is produced from the cacao mass after some of the cacao butter has been taken out of it. It varies in compositlOn accora:i~g to the process used. It may contain fr9ID 10 to 49: per cent fat. The description 'pure cocoa' is interpreted in this country as unmixed cacao nib with variable amounts of fat removed by expression. The best grades contain about 25 per cent cacao butter, and cheaper grades about 15 per cent. Husk beyond 3 per cent is not a normal constituent, and the admixture of foreign starches and sugar prevents the name 'pure cocoa' being used, but permits the name 'chocolate powder'. In pure cocoa with 25 per cent cacao butter, the remaining 75 per cent is classified as fatfree cocoa. Cocoa is used as the flavouring and colouring agent in making chocolate cakes and spong~oods,wlffi:h contam at least' 3 per cent fat-free cocoa. It is also usedJ;_o colour and fillvo]J.r various.cho~cDlate biscuits,- icings,-buttercreams, etc.

Since the introduction of special bakers' chocolates many years ago, great advances have been made in the technical development of them, not only from the technical usage but from the economic aspect of their usage, due to the rising costs of all cocoa products. Research which has been carried out has not only developed greatly improved products but has also increased the palatability of them. The soft-cutting chocolate coverings are produced by replacing cocoa butter with softer vegetable fats. They are highly refined and smooth, and because of their soft cutting qualities are ideally suited for the covering of soft cakes such as Swiss rolls. They have also the added advantages of not having to be tempered. The recommended method of handling whether by hand or in an enrober is to melt to 1300 F. for plain and 1250 F. for milk compound. The temperature should then be allowed to drop until the compound is of desired dipping and covering consistency. This should be 105-1100 F. for plain and 100-1050 F. for milk. To produce a product with similar characteristics to chocolate couverture hydrogenated palm-kernel oil (H.P.K.O.) has found an extensive use with most promising results, while lecithin is added in a suitable proportion to give the most suitable fluidity.

CHOCOLATE

The natural flavour and aroma of the cocoa butter is a very elusive characteristic and is only obtained in such preparations where the amounts required are often uneconomic. Flavour is one thing, but it is intimately connected with the eating properties, that is to say, the melting point and melting range of the fat. The ideal fat as a vehicle for chocolate should melt sharply just below blood heat, so that it eats well but is brittle to the touch. Where a chocolate is based upon H.P.K.O., the properties of this fat are quickly detected by the palate. The product has some slight greasiness in the mouth. This is due to the long incipient melting range of this fat, which means that high-melting glycerides are present in a relatively low-melting fat. This is the primary cause of surface deterioration, or bloom, in so far as it applies to this type of product. The lower-melting fractions of the fat permit migration of the ingredients of the chocolate at normal temperatures, and it is no't uncommon to see a whitish fat film on the surface of this chocolate. In order to overcome this, a fat with a higher melting point is employed which gives a better 'snap', better handling properties, and longer shelf life, but the reluctance of this fat to melt in the mouth gives poorer eating qualities, and the flavour is impaired. So great is the effect of the melting point of the fat selected, that if two chocolates were made identical in composition except that one contained a higher-melting fat and the other a relatively low one the first would have a waxy texture, and would taste quite flat and poor in flavour compared with the second. Recently, there have been developed new fats which conform to the pattern of cocoa butter. These melt at 92Â° F. and melt sharply, but they differ in one important respect from cocoa butter in that they cannot be supercooled to such low extents, and the tempering procedure must therefore be frequently modified. In the main, these new fats need to be tempered in the normally accepted sense of the word. That is to say, a grain must be set up in the molten batch before a stable finish is obtained which is free from fat bloom. Fats such as these have been used successfully in chocolate-making, where chocolate is melted down and poured into moulds at a high temperature, that is, in an untempered state and cooled very rapidly or quenched before the various fat fractions can separate during the solidification process. The use of special plant obviously limits the application of these fats, and so the more conventional cocoa-butter type of 17 1

CAKE MAKING

fat which is tempered in a very similar way to cocoa butter is used. It is necessary to stress, however;:Âˇ'that while this chocolate has many of the characteristics of cocoa-butter chocolate-hardness, long life, excellent eating properties and flavour-it cannot be used on soft fondant centres, etc., as the fat does not stand up well in the presence of moisture. '. One difficulty encountered in the manufacture of chocolate where these new cocoa-butter alternative fats are used is that they do not tolerate the admixture of other fats with them. So sensitive are they to 'unlike' fats that the cocoabutter content of the cocoa powder has been found to cause appreciable softening. Consequently, solvent-extracted cocoas, whose cocoa-butter content is low and of the order of 6-8 per cent are now used. The effect of mixing cocoa butter with hydrogenated palm-kernel oil has been known for some time, and if such a mixture is to be made, one fat must comprise not less than 95 per cent of the mixture, otherwise softening and fat separation will occur after some period of time. By the use of these special fats, a wide range of chocolate coverings suitable for all types of products has been produced. A most recent advance has been the use of surfaceacting agents which has enabled coverings to be produced which will stand up to higher storage temperatures, such as are experienced in many parts of the world, and in this way has extended the consumption and use of such. The emulsifying properties of these surface-acting agents enable the chocolate covering to be assimilated on the product without waxiness or greasiness. Though there is a tendency-to waxiness when substances whose melting points exceed 97Â° or 98Â° F. are eaten, this is less apparent in coatings than in bars or tablets of chocolate. Following considerable research on these fats, or 'hard butters' as they are called across the Atlantic, claims have now been made that 'summer coatings' with hydrogenated vegetable fats as a base will withstand temperatures up to 0 120 F. for long periods, and, at the same time, cannot be differentiated in eating qualities from 100 per cent cocoabutter-based couvertures. These claims have been made as a result of the incorporation into the coatings of up to 0'5 per cent of the emulsifiers sorbitan monostearate or polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate; these emulsifiers make the resultant coatings more stable and resistant to blooming. 'Sorbitan monostearate' is a solid with a melting point of about 126 0 F., and is lipophilic (oil loving); 'polyoxy-

CHOCOLATE

ethylene sorbitan monostearate' is an oily liquid and is hydrophilic (water loving). For chocolate-type coatings it is best to use a cocoa powder with a low cocoa-butter content, so that the hydrogenated fat does not interfere with any residual cocoa butter present in the cocoa powder. It is also advisable to use skimmed milk powder (spray-dried), which tends to absorb the lower-melting portions of the fat and improve the eating qualities of the coating. Full-cream milk solids can be used, but tend to make the final coating less stable; however, mixtures of skimmed milk powder and full-cream milk powder, both spray-dried, have been used up to 12-16 per cent with success. Couvertures based on cocoa butter, such as are suitable for enrobing purposes, are tempered as follows. The couverture is cut into small pieces, placed in a chocolatekettle, and slowly heated with gentle agitation to a temperature of 100-105° F. It is then transferred or pumped to a second kettle, brought gradually down to 85° F., and finally heated slowly to 88-8g0 F., at which temperature it is ready for enrobing. The enrobed goods must pass along a 40-50-ft. cooling tunnel controlled at 46-48° F. Throughout the operation the room temperature should not exceed 70° F., and the relative humidity must be controlled. The procedure for couvertures based on hydrogenated vegetable fat is as follows, these couvertures being again suitable for enrobing purposes. The pieces of couverture are heated in the kettle with slow agitation to a temperature of 115-120° F.; the couverture is then cooled slowly with slow agitation to a temperature of approximately 100° F., at which temperature it should be transferred to the enrober bath. Enrobing should be carried out at between 95° and 100° F: After enrobing, the coated goods can either be passed along a cooling tunnel controlled at about 48-52° F. or be taken off on trays and allowed to set at a room temperature of 55-60° F. From the foregoing it is easily seen that couvertures with a hydrogenated oil base are, by their simplicity of handling and wider temperature tolerance, considerably more economical to use, since they allow the operator to dispense with complicated temperature control and to complete his task in a much shorter time. If couvertures based on cocoa butter are tempered imperfectly, the different fat fractions separate on cooling, and fat bloom appears on the chocolate surface; thus, apart 173

Tempering for Enrobers

CAKE MAKING

from the time element, a considerable amount of skill is required to ensure a perfect product. With cb'uvertures based on hydrogenated vegetable fat, however, the wide temperature tolerance, which allows of a variation in temperature of several degrees, not only simplifies but also expedites production. As the second chocolate-kettle and lengthy cooling tunnels are not'required, a considerable economy in equipment and space is effected, which means that chocolatecoated goods can be handled by smaller manufacturers. As the fat vehicle is the most important factor in a chocolate couverture, a great deal of work has been necessary to produce a highly refined fat that is easy to work, fairly stable, of good taste and good eating qualities. It was found that, with such a fat, by using sugar and lecithin and a cocoa powder of low cocoa-butter content, together with thorough mixing and refining, a good chocolate-type coating could be produced. Uses of Chocolate

In addition to bakers' chocolate another very good covering is as follows: Take 4 lb. good chocolate couverture, break it up into small pieces, place it in a pan, and melt it down over a bainmarie or in a hot prover until it is all in a molten state. Mix it well with a spatula, and after tempering, raise the temperature to about 96Â° F. and add some stock syrup to it. The temperature of the syrup should also be about 96Â° F. Add the syrup, 1 gill at a time, and mix it in well with the spatula. At first it thickens to a stiff mass, because of the moisture present in the stock syrup, then it will get thinner and seem to curdle. Keep on adding syrup and stirring well, when it will take on a delightful smoothness and beautiful gloss. This covering is thinned down with sufficient stock syrup to get it down to the required consistency for the work to be done. It requires nearly 2 pints of stock syrup to reduce 41b. of good chocolate couverture to the required degree for dipping fancies or covering gateaux or cakes, or for coating eclairs. The chocolate should be spread thinly on the goods with a palette knife. It does not set quickly as ordinary couverture, but it sets smooth and glossy. It combines excellently with the cakes, because when set it is soft and mellow instead of being brittle and hard like chocolate. It is easy to make and use, and takes barely 10 minutes to set. It has the full chocolate flavour, combined with an excellent glossy chocolate colour, and soft eating qualities. It goes much farther in use than ordinary couverture, and is much more pleasant to the palate than chocolate fondant. It can

174

CHOCOLATE

also be used to pipe lines over the covering to form decorative work. Care has to be taken to keep the temperature of the chocolate and the syrup at about 96Â° F. when mixing to facilitate the amalgamation of the two in the minimum time. Chocolate fondant has probably been the most popular Chocolate Fondant and favoured icing for the masking of gateaux and fancies. It should always be coloured and flavoured with real chocolate and not a mere chocolate colour and flavour. To make a full-flavoured and coloured-chocolate fondant from fresh white fondant, take 41b. fondant and place it in the fondant pot, and add I i lb. of melted unsweetened block chocolate, that is, 6 oz. per pound of fondant. The fondant and chocolate should be heated together over a bain-marie. Stock syrup is added to reduce it to the required consistency. The whole should be well spatulated to ~ix thoroughly during heating. Care should be taken that the temperature of the fondant does not exceed 105Â° F. This fondant will take about I! pints of stock syrup to reduce it to the required consistency for masking gateaux and fancies. The chocolate has a binding effect, hence the reason for using so much stock syrup. A little vanilla extract should be added as a flavouring. A chocolate fondant prepared in this manner should have a brilliant gloss, which should be much better than the usual gloss on fondant prepared with chocolate colours and flavours. The flavour of this chocolate fondant is not quite so good as the flavour of the chocolate covering prepared from sweetened chocolate and stock syrup, because it does not contain quite such a high proportion of chocolate as the latter does. It is much sweeter, however. A lower portion of block chocolate may be used if desired, say 4 oz. per pound of fondant, and a little less stock syrup. This is the average proportion used by many confectioners, but the flavour and colour are not quite so good as when 6 oz. per pound of fondant is used. Chocolate fondant can be very much improved in An Addition of flavour and eating qualities if some good unsalted butter is Butter to added to it. Cocoa butter may also be used for this purpose. Chocolate Fondant Up to 2 lb. of butter to 4 lb. of fondant may be used with good results. More than this will show a fat and sugar bloom on the cakes. To obtain a mellow-eating fondant with a beautiful gloss, use 4 lb. fresh white fondant, It lb. melted unsweetened chocolate, I lb. unsalted butter or cocoa butter, and I full pint stock syrup, with some vanilla extract to flavour the whole. These materials should all be heated together in a fondant pot over a bain-marie, and well

175

CAKE MAKING

An Addition of Oil or Lard to Chocolate Couvertute

spatulated together to mix thoroughly. The temperature should never exceed 1050 F. :;! Either of these chocolate icings, when used on cakes, gateaux, or fancies, will give a superior appearance to these goods thus attracting the public to buy them, and give a flavour that will make them want more. When properly prepared and tempered, chocolate couverture is used for masking biscuits or small cakes. It has to be carefully manipulated to obtain a good gloss on the finished products, and the temperature of the chocolate and the goods on which it is used has to be carefully studied to prevent the familiar fat and sugar bloom from becoming evident. Even after the most careful handling, it is very often too thick on the goods arid sets as a hard, brittle covering, which does not combine well with light fancies, cakes, and short-eating biscuits. By adding a small percentage of olive oil or ordinary lard to the melted couverture, the chocolate becomes more fluid, and consequently will go much farther on the goods, as a thinner coating will be used, and it will not be so hard and brittle when set, but will set sufficiently firm to enable the goods to be handled without its becoming sticky. It will also combine much better with the light cakes or short-eating biscuits on which it is used, and so will be more enjoyable to the consumer. I oz. of olive oil or melted lard per lb. of chocolate can be used with good results. The chocolate is tempered in the usual manner; the oil is added to it, and spatulated well in until the chocolate is nearly set. The whole is then gently reheated at about 87 F. until it is all in a molten state, and is then ready for use for covering biscuits or small fancy cakes, such as chocolate rolls, othellos, or chocolate eclairs, etc. Care has to be taken not to overheat the chocolate, but it can be used when its temperature is under goO F. The cakes can be dipped in it, or it can be spread thinly over them with a palette knife. The covering should have a good gloss, and should be set soft and be mellow to eat, instead of being hard and brittle. The cakes, etc., should not be dipped in puree when using this covering, as the jelly and chocolate do not combine well. If, as sometimes happens when care is not exercised in the preparation of chocolate couverture, some steam or a few drops of moisture are mixed into the chocolate, and the chocolate stiffens up like piping chocolate, the trouble may be easily remedied by an addition of oil or lard, as in the above. Harder fats may be added to the chocolate in larger quantities than the thin olive oil with good results. 0

CHOCOLATE

Chocolate buttercream is often used for covering and decorating gateaux and fancies and for sandwiching purposes. In many places this is prepared from ordinary buttercream with an addition of chocolate colour and flavour, but for good results a superior chocolate buttercream should be used which has an addition of melted chocolate as the colouring and flavouring agent. The following makes an excellent buttercream for both covering and decorative purposes:

Chocolate Buttercream

3 lb. lump sugar I! lb. glucose ! pint water Vanilla essence 4t lb. unslated butter 6 eggs I t lb. melted chocolate Chocolate colour The sugar, glucose, and water are measured into a copper pan, and the solution is boiled up quickly to 2400 F., taking the usual precautions to prevent graining of the sugar. The eggs should be beaten up in the machine bowl, and the sugar solution slowly poured over them, while whisking should be continued until the mixture is nearly cold and light. The whisk should then be removed from the machine and the butter beater put on. The butter should then be added gradually to the mixture and the whole well beaten up to a light, velvety cream. Some drops of vanilla essence and the melted chocolate should be added to colour and flavour the cream. If the colour is not deep enough, sufficient chocolate colouring matter should be added to obtain the required shade. The cream is then ready for use as desired. This buttercream will set firm and mellow when cold. If this happens, it should be heated and mixed to keep it soft and at a working consistency. A buttercream of this description will be superior to ordinary buttercream in which 2 oz. melted chocolate has been used per lb. of buttercream. It is not only essential to have some real chocolate in the coverings used on cakes but, where possible, it should also be introduced into the actual cakes, in order to enhance their flavour and eating qualities. Chocolate can be introduced into cake batters either in the form of cocoa powder or as melted unsweetened chocolate. These will both colour and flavour the cakes in which they are used, and give them eating qualities superior to cakes which are coloured G

Chocolate Gateau

CAKE MAKING

and flavoured with ordinary liquid colourings and flavourings. The following recipe can be used to produce cakes for chocolate gateaux:

2t pints eggs 2

lb. castor sugar

It lb: flour

4 oz. cornflour 4 oz. cocoa powder I lb. melted butter Vanilla essence Chocolate colour

Chocolate Genoese

This batter should be made up on the sponge batter process of cake-making. It will produce ten gateaux scaled at I2! oz. each, and baked in 7-in.-diameter hoops. The. temperature of the oven should be 380" F. These gateaux should be matured for a few days in a cool room before decorating. They should be sandwiched with chocolate buttercream and decorated in the desired manner with one of the chocolate coverings given above. When a confectioner has to make various chocolate fancies, such as chocolate slices, chocolate boxes, or chocolate dipped fancies, the cake used for these should be a good Genoese, coloured and flavoured with either unsweetened chocolate or cocoa powder. One can use either of the following recipes to produce good sheets of chocolate cake: (I)

t lb. butter

! lb.

compound fat lb. brown sugar 2 pints eggs 2 lb. soft flour i lb. cornflour i oz. baking powder 12 oz. melted chocolate Vanilla essence 5 oz. water 2

(2) I-llb. butter !lb. compound fat 2t lb. brown sugar 2 pints eggs 3 lb. soft flour 1 oz. baking powder t lb. cocoa powder

17 8

CHOCOLATE

pint milk or water Chocolate colour Vanilla essence These batters should be made up on the usual sugarbatter or creamed method of cake-making. When prepared, they should be spread out on papered baking-sheets to barely I in. in thickness. The top should be slightly moistened with milk, and the batter spread level with a palette knife. These sheet cakes should be baked in a cool oven about 3600 F. It takes just over 20 minutes to bake them properly. When baked, they should be allowed to cool and mature for a day before cutting up to decorate. In order to produce chocolate cakes which comply with the legal requirement of 3 per cent dry non-fat cocoa solids in the moist crumb it is necessary to know the composition of the cocoa powder being used. • Cocoa powders vary in analysis, but one can always get the suppliers to give the composition of the cocoa powder they supply. Here is the analysis of various cocoa products sent to us for tests carried out at the National Bakery School: GRADE

Cocoa butter (%)

F"'-'=I

Breakfast cocoa Bakers' cocoa NO.3 cocoa Drinking cocoa Drinking chocolate

26·0 22·5 22·0 16·0 6·5

74·0 77·5 78·0 84·0 18·5

cocoa %)

Quantity of Cocoa Powder to Use Anarysis oj Various Cocoa Powders

Sugar (%)

75·0

From this it will be quite evident that if drinking chocolate is used it must be used in greater quantities and an allowance should be made for the sugar present in it, by reducing the sugar added to the mixture. The following examples are given of the calculation necessary to determine the percentage offat-free cocoa in the final products. The following recipe can be used for best-quality ,chocolate rolls: 20 oz. eggs 12 oz. castor sugar Chocolate colour 2 oz. cocoa powder 8 oz. soft flour Vanilla flavour 16 oz. cream filling

179

Good-quality Chocolate Rolls

CAKE MAKING

The total weight of ingredients used is S8 oz. Total weight of cake portion only is 42 oz. Aveiige total loss in baking is 7t oz. Leaving a total weight of finished cake of sot oz., or a total weight of cake portion of 34t oz. The percentage of cocoa powder used in these chocolate rolls works out ,!S (ollows for the roll before baking: 2 oz. in 42 oz. = 4.76 per cent. For the cake after baking 2 oz. in 34t oz. per cent.

Cheap Chocolate Swiss Rolls

5"79

The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using breakfast cocoa, which is 74 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calculation at 4.26 per cent in the baked rolls. The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using NO.3 cocoa powder, which is 78 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calculation at 4·S2 per cent in the baked rolls. The recipe used in the production of cheap-quality Swiss rolls is as follows: 17 oz flour oz. baking powder 3 oz. cocoa powder 20 oz. sugar 10 oz. eggs 10 oz. milk 24 oz. cream filling

The total weight of the ingredients used is 841 oz.; the total weight of the cake portion only is 60! oz.; average total loss in baking is 91 oz., leaving a total weight of finished cake of 7St oz., or a total weight of cake portion only of SIt oz. The percentage of cocoa powder used in these cheap chocolate rolls before baking works out as follows: 3 oz. in 60! oz. = 4·93 per cent. and for the cake portion only after baking: 3 oz. in SIt oz. = 5"82 per cent. The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using breakfast cocoa powder, which is 74 per cent fat-free cocoa, therefore works out by calculation at 4.31 per cent in the baked rolls. The percentage offat-free cocoa, using NO.3 cocoa powder, which is 78 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calculation at 4·S4 per cent in the baked rolls. The basis of calculation of the fat-free cocoa content of a chocolate Swiss roll is only on the cake portion, but where a 180

CHOCOLATE

chocolate cream filling is used, it might be a different matter, because it is reasonable to expect a chocolate-coloured cream to contain a proportion of chocolate also, just as it is expected that there should be a proportion of chocolate in a chocolate fondant. If all the different types of chocolate-coloured and chocolate-flavoured confectionery were kept to this standard there would be a definite improvement in quality and flavour, and a much better demand from the public for them.

181

Icings, Fillings, and Glazes

IT is proposed in this chapter to deal with the wide range of icings and fillings which are used to make cakes more ~v~Ild_appetizing .. The range is extending as it becomes necessary to modify traditional recipes to meet present-day requirements of mechanization and distribution involving such factors as wrapping and packaging.

Icings

~c_ an~ functio~~Lingredients_oUcing~ ~sugar,

water, egg. whltes, gelatme, gums or modified starches, and fats: the latter case the high-emulsifying shQf!e'ningsare ~the most suitable. Each of these ingrep.ients imparts a distinctive quality to the resultant icing. Milk powder is also a common ingredient in the fudge type, but may be regarded more-ase~hi!ici~g_ or imparting a distinctiv<; fia~ou~_ril.!her lllan- play':ing any part i~ the physical nature of thc::_idng itself. "Suga.r alld water will pr_oc[llc~~_er "icing iF fonda,nt; the adartloilof fat produces a fudge icing; sugar and egg { w""1iiteSPrQduce Royal icing and menn ues: wliile the addition ge1atinegum or moaifie starch produces marshThere are in addition boiled meringues, that is ~hich are produced by pouring hot syrup on to an egg-white foam. Wheeler and Endres! define various types of icings as follows:

( mallow:Âˇ

Water icingsincluding fondant Fudge Icings Marshmallow-type Icings

These are composed of sugar, water, and flavour. Variations may include stabilizers, fruit juices, milk and other liquids, cocoa and chocolate. Basically water icings containing shortening. Highly aerated icings composed of sugar syrup, egg whites, and/or gelatine. Another classification 2 is as follows:

(1) Those icings which, like fondant, are melted by

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

heat and will set to a firm coating when cool. They all contain a high proportion of small sugar crystals that partially dissolve on warming and recrystallize on cooling. These icings are suitable for -iliPping and enrobing. (2) Icings more suitable for ~~g_ a~d l?ieing, where aeration by beating or whipping is used to produce pastes of stiff, non-flowing consistency. The following are the most common types of icings together with typical formulae: This is produced by adding ~y _hqt wa!er t~ icing sugar until it is approximately the same consistency as fondant. A petter method is to add stock syrup to icing sugar and to add a small quantity of glucose as per the following recipe: INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method'

Percentage

Icing sugar Stock syrup Glucose

6 I

Mix together to a smooth consistency. Heat to 100° F.

4 4

Water Icing

16·7

3·3

q.s.

Colour and flavour

Stock Syrup

Sugar Water Glucose

I 3lb.

I-

oz.

8 8

I Dissolve sugar in water. Bring to boil and remove any scum. Add and boil. Cool, filter, and bottle.

Fondant consists of IEirwte-sucrose_CI:YstaLs_JlJlSPJ~!!~ Fondant in a s'!_tu!:._ated _sugar syrup with sufficient invert sugar or g!l)C91le to pre_vent..tb~ grQ'\~th_of cr:.ystals. it must be ·handled with care if the loss of gloss is to be prevented when it is used in cake decoration. The value offonq;:lllt as a de<:.orative medium lies in th~ attractive smooth gl9ssy surface which can be obtained on the cake surface when correctly applied. In preparing fondant for use it should be heated in waterjacketed pans with the appropriate amount of stock syrup to produce the desired consistency, because in this way there is less danger of overheating. Thermostatically controlled pans are desirable. The temperature should not greatly exceed 100° F. if a good gloss is to be retained. If overheated, the crystals redissolve and, on cooling, recrystallize into larger crystals,. which do. not.reflect.sQ-.much light, and thus the gloss is spoileddf itiLunderJ:leated the

CAKE MAKING

fondant will not set firm, but willl?e stidw and__ruIlJ!Y. The bulK"fondantshould therefore be heated ca.refully to about 100° F., stirred continuously, then thinned down to the required consistency with stock syrup, and used immediately. It can be coloured and flavoured as required RY the addition_ofliquid __colo_Ul:s and flavours. At 100-105°'F: approximately -10-'1 5 per cent of the sucrose crystals dissolve, which on recrystallization cement the remainder together and thus produce a firm dry surface. 2

*Dry Fondant

The manufacturers of this product, which is fondant in a powdered form, give two methods of reconstitution: (I) The water or syrup is added to the powdered fondant and mixed together on slow speed for 15 minutes. (2) A shorter mixing time on slow speed (2-3 minutes) and then leaving for approximately I hour or overnight. In either case warm to 105-110° F. and adjust to consistency before using. The following shows the relative composition of conventional and dry powdered fondant: Dry powdered fondant (reconstituted) 81% Sucrose 9% Invert sugar 10% Water

Conventional fondant 81% Sucrose 9% Liquid Glucose 10% Water

Soft Icings

These are blends offondant with whipped marshmallow or boiled meringue which make excellent soft-eating icings and are easy to handle. Another good type is made by blending two parts fondant with one part Royal icing. This sets quickly, giving a short-eating icing with good appearance.

Parfait Icing

This is a smooth icing containing fat and milk.P.9wder. Due to the presenc~f the fat, it reiiiaiils~_Qfter. than.sugar/ water-lcings:hut has a <!uli matt finish. This may not be regarded as good as the high gloss of, say, fondant, but it is a distinctive characteristic which along with different eating quality has its own attraction to the eye and palate. INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Fondant Icing sugar

4 4

Milk powder High-emulsifying shortening

Blend together on slow speed until }sugart Water smooth. 2·6

Percentage

= =

78 4

15·4

* This product is marketed as 'Drifon'-see also Chapter 6, p. 71.

fat

Assuming fondant at 10 per cent water: sugar = 78 per cent; 15·4 per cent.

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

These icings are very similar to parfait, the only difference being that they are ~~low_ed. to cool. and ..then beaten. to produce a covering suitable-for spreading. The finish is dull but..q!lite distinctive. INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Icing sugar Milk powder

8 4

Margarine Water Sugar Gfycerine

2 -

8 15 0 2

Sugar

I Method

Percentage

Mix together.

57·5 2·0

Bring to the boil. Add and allow to cool. Beat to fudge consistency.

13·3 8·5 17·7 1·0

75·2 per cent; fat

13·3 per cent.

Royal icing is the traditional icing used for the decoration of wedding cakes, and despite the danger of it setting too hard when made incorrectly, it is us~d very extensively. It is made by beating air into egg whites and icing sugar. The quantities used are: INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Icing sugar Egg whites

7 1

Fudge Icings

Royal Icing

Percentage 85 15

Reconstituted albumen is better than egg whites, and although it is fairly common practice to add a little acetic acid in order t.o help the icing .to :r:etain ~lmpe_until it sets, this _is not- necessary. The danger when adding acid is that it produces a very hard, brittle, and aitogether unpleasant icing which is almost inedible. There is the added danger whencoloured icing is being used for birthday cakes, etc., that some colours may not be fast to acid. Tbs; 9Blyjwnificati~n f2DIDngA_ci5i is whet! ilie egg white is alk'!:line, which is sometimes t.h.~sas_f with fresll ot: fro_z_en. whites. The addition of a uantit of glycerine revents the icing from ecommg very hard; I gill to the icing made from I pint of whites. Care must be taken when beating. Underbeating produces a running icing not suitable for piping, and one which will not set. Over-beating results in the production of a coarse texture, difficult to pipe or to spread smoothly and a tendency to set very hard. Meringues do not fall into any tidy classification, as various types are used as fillings on their own or in combination, in addition to those used for covering purposes. They are made by beating air into egg whites and sugar, and in this sense are similar to Royal icing. The proportion of

Meringue Icings-

CAKE MAKING

whites to sugar is, however, much greater, so that it is possible to whisk in very much l!lore ~r, producing a lighter product. The lightness of this sugar/white foam is governed by the amount of sugar as follows:

Heavy meringue Light meringue

Sugar

Egg white

2·5-3 parts 1-1·5 parts

1 part 1 part

Boiled meringue is the type most used for covering purposes. This is commonly known as American icing. American icing is a boiled icing which_when hot can be pour~ over the cake or gateaux. It sets rapidly, the sugar 'formmg fine crystals as it cools, producing a smoothgrained icing with an egg-shell finish which is very attractive. A typical recipe is as follows:

IPercentage

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Egg whites Salt Vanilla essence

4 0·25

Whisk to a stiff foam.

8 2

Sugar Water Cream of tartar

8 0·25

11·5

Boil to 240 F. Pour on to foam and whisk until light.

14·5 14*

* On basis of 84 per cent sucrose in solutlOn boiled to 240 0 F.

Other Types of Meringues

In addition to using meringue as a filling or covering, it is used to produce a range of meringue-based goods. For convenience they are included in this chapter. The various processing methods are as follows: (r) Cold. Whisk whites- to stiff foam, gradually add one-third of sugar, add flavour and colour, then mix in remaining sugar'. (2) Warm. Same as for (r), but warm sugar to 120 F. before adding to whites. (3) Hot. Add suga~ to whites, and whisk over water (not below 160 F.) untilJ. stiff meringue is obtained. . (4~ Boiled. Wh.iskjllO wh~tes to ~ stiff foam. While this IS bemg done, boll s,~" r (WIth 1 gIll water to every 1 lb. sugar used) to 240~~~ hen pour sugar on to whites and whisk until stiff. < ,t,f The following qu/Wties should be used for various types of meringues: f;~'~' 1t (r) Shells an,- 'ases: 1 pint egg whites; 3 lb. castor sugar; flavour " d colour. 0

Q,UANTITIES

186

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

(2) Set Ornaments: I pint egg whites; 4 lb. castor sugar; flavour and colour. (3) Coconut: Add 3 lb. coconut threads to I pint of No. (1). (4) Almond: Add 2 lb. flakes or filleted almonds to I pint of No. (I) boiled.

Using a basic meringue mix, a variety of popular meringues can be produced with the following additions: (1) Jap slices: 10 oz. meringue; 5 oz. ground almonds; I! oz. flour; It oz. melted butter. (2) Coconut slices: 10 oz. meringue; 4 oz. fine coconut; I oz. flour; I oz. crushed praline; ! oz. melted butter. (3) Chocolate coconut nests: 10 oz. meringue; ! lb. castor sugar; 4 oz. melted chocolate; chocolate colour; 12 oz. coconut threads. (4) Shells and cases: 10 oz. meringue; 8 oz. castor sugar; flavour and colour.

Popular Meringues

Marshmallow was originally made from the root of the marshmallow plant with the addition ofsugar and egg white, but this is now no more than history. Commercial marshmallow, most of which is purchased from specialist manufacturers, is a form of meringue into which a jellying agent has been incorporated. These are gelatine, agar-agar, or modified starches. The following are typical of this type of product:

Marshmallow

(I)

USING AGAR-AGAR

lb.

oz.

Method

Percentage

2 I

Soak 12 hours. Bring to boil and strain.

12·3 1·1

Gran_~d_ sugar

Add and boil to 225 0 F. 65·5

Glucose

Egg white (3 oz. -albumen ·to I pint water)

INGREDIENTS .J1!ater _!igar

Warm and add. Do not stir. Continue boiling to 245250 0 F. Skim offimpurities.

15·9

Whip to a stiff foam. Pour boiling solution on to foam top speed. As mix replace thickens whisk with beater. Beat for 15 minutes.

5·2

Calculation based on 87 per cent sugar in solution at 245 0 F. and glucose at 80 per cent solids.

CAKE MAKING

Preparation for Use Add 4 lb. stock mallow to

pint egg wHite and whip.

(2) USING GELATINE

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Percentage

Sugar Water

12 10

Boil to 65% Solids

36·0

Glucose *

Add

34·6

Gelatine Water

I 2

Disperse in water and add

3·0

Total water

26·4

* Enzyme converted glucose with a high dextrose equivalent figure which produces shorter-eating qualities. This is a stock marshmallow sold as ajelly. It is prepared for use by adding 4 oz. water to one pound, heated and whipped. The temperature of heating must not exceed 160 F. 0

(3) INGREDIENTS

USING THIN-BOILING STARCH

lb.

oz.

I Method

Percentage

Starch Water

3 5

4 4

Disperse water.

Sugar Glucose Water

19 15 20

Place in steam boiling pan. Add starch slurry. Boil to 67% solids. Beat to cool.

Add and beat to required bulk.

Egg albumen • --Water

starch

Total water

5·9

35·9 23·0

0·7 34·5

Calculation based on glu,:_ose at 84 per cent solids.

Preparation for Use Add 4 lb. _stock mallow to Sugar Pastes

pint egg whites and whip.

In recent years the use of sugar pastes as coverings for cakes has become popular. They are pleasant to eat and easy to handle. Many are produced as proprietary products, but the following produce good results: (I) SOFT TYPE-USING MARSHMALLOW INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Marshmallow Hard fat (H.P.K.O.) or cocoa butter Icing sugar

Melt the fat and work all to a smooth paste.

188

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

(2) HARD-DRYING TYPE

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Sugar Water Glucose

Boil to 200 0 F.

Leaf gelatine

Soak in water and add.

Royal icing Icing sugar

1 5

Add and dough up to a smooth paste.

It will be noted that these pastes are essentially produced from icing sugar and gelatine or a gum with a hard fat being added for the soft-eating type. In the case of recipe (I) the marshmallow is the source of the gum. This is essentially a sugar paste made using gum tragacanth as the gum constituent. Cornfj.our is used as part replacement for icing sugar in order to produce a very smooth product. This paste has its uses for the production of cake ornaments, but is not really edible, and its use is therefore very limited. I! oz. gum tragacanth is soaked in a pint of cold water for about twenty-four hours. The jelly formed is passed through a muslin cloth to remove impurities and hard pieces of gum. Icing sugar and cornflour in the proportions of 14 oz. sugar to 4 oz. cornflour are then worked into it until a firm, pliable paste is made. About 8 lb. sugar and cornflour are required to the above quantities. Blue is also added during the doughing stage, and sometimes some royal icing to make it smoother and produce a better colour. Other colours can be added as required. Mixtures of fats and sugar or the other sugar-containing substances, such as fondant, marslimaIlow, or boiled meringue, are tIieÂˇ basis of creamedÂˇ fillings. . . Tlie useofsuch common descriptions as cream or buttercream is governed by legislation. In the case of buttercream a proposed code of practice defines it as a filling or a decoration prepared from butter and sugar with or without other ingredients. It must contain at least 15 per cent butter fat and no other fat added as such. The description must be presented as one word. Two words or a hyphenated. word, viz. 'Butter Cream' or 'Butter-cream' are not approved. s The use of the word cream for any product other than Dairy Cream is governed by the Food and Drugs Act 1955, section 47, which lays down that: 18g

Gum Pastes

METHOD OF MAKING

Fillings

Buttercream

CAKE MAKING

(I) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall sell, or offer or expose for sale, f61 human consumption(a) any substance which resembles cream in appearance, but is not cream; or (b) any-ar.ticle offood containing such a substance, under a description or designation which includes the word 'cream' (whether or not as part ofa composite word). (2) The foregoing subsection shall not apply to the sale, or offer or exposure for sale, of any substance being reconstituted or imitation cream as defined by this section, or of any article containing such a substance, under a description or designation which identifies the substance such, or to the sale, or offer or exposure for sale, of any substance under a description or designation which indicates that the substance is not for use as, or as a substitute for, cream. (3) In this section 'reconstituted cream' means a substance which, not being cream, resembles cream in appearance and contains no ingredient not derived from milk, except(a) water, or (b) ingredients (not added fraudulently to increase bulk, weight or measure, or conceal inferior quality) which may lawfully be contained in a substance sold for human consumption as cream; and 'imitation cream' means a substance which, not being cream or reconstituted cream, resembles cream in appearance and is produced by emulsifying edible oils or fats with water, with or without other substances not prohibited by regulations made for the purposes of this section under section 47 of this Act, or added in quantities so prohibited. (4) For the purposes of this section, the description or designation under which a substance or article is sold, or offered or exposed for sale, shall be deemed to include the word 'cream' if it includes any other word (composite or otherwise) which is calculated to lead a purchaser to suppose that the substance is or, as the case may be, the article contains either cream or a substance for use as a cream.

Dairy Cream

The foregoing legislation regarding the use of the word cream, together with the extensive advertising promoted 190

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

by the Milk Marketing Board, has led to a very considerable increase in the use of fresh cream by the confectioner. There is no doubt that there is a very good market for fresh cream . goods. 'Imitation' cream is an excellent product, but this qualifying prefix is not calculated today to stimulate sales. The Foods Standards (Cream) Order 1951 states that 'Cream shall consist of that part of cow's milk which is rich in fat, which is separated by skimming or otherwise'. It is therefore a concentration of the butter fat in milk. Fresh cream is classified by butter fat content: (1) single cream not less than 18 per cent; (2) double cream not less than 48 per cent; (3) clotted cream not less then 48 per cent.

Fresh cream used as a filling has to be whipped, and the best for that purpose is one of about,40 per cent butter fat which is known as whipping cream. Whipping cream can be obtained with butter-fat contents ranging from 38-45 per cent. The purpose of whipping is to occlude air. As in the case of cake batters and sponges, the introduction of air increases the volume. The change in volume can be measured by specific volume or over-run. Fresh cream can be satisfactorily whipped to an over-run of 2-2'5. The following points should be observed when whipping cream:

Whipping Cream

Whipping

(I) The cream should be about 24 hours old. If the cream has not been aged by the supplier when received, then it should be stored for this length of time. (2) At no time during storage should the temperature of the cream exceed 40Â° F. (3) Whatever method is used for whipping, it should take place at 40Â° F. Hand whipping is quite satisfactory for small quantities, but for the most part a machine will be used. The normal vertical mixer and whisk is quite suitable, but there are now a number of special cream-whipping machines on the market which are very good for this purpose. Any addition to fresh dairy cream would appear to be prohibited by law. Sugar, which has very frequently been used to add sweetness, especially where the filling is being used in choux pastry which does not contain sugar, is, however, permitted by many local authorities. The Milk Marketing Board's advice is that the local authority should be consui'ted before sugar is added.

Additives

CAKE MAKING

Reconstituted Cream

No other substance is permitted, although egg white, gelatine, and pectin jelly make for very good !fillings. These can be added to fresh cream, but the resultant filling must not be referred to as cream. Reconstituted cream is produced by taking a high-grade 100 per cent solu.bl~ milk powder produced by the spray process and dissolving it in water. This produces reconstituted milk (such milk is largely sold in America). To this a high-grade unslated butter of low acidity is added, and the mixture heated to 145 0 F. and maintained at this temperature for not more than 30 minutes. During this time the butter particles are distributed in the milk by means of a suitable agitator, and the whole mass is then pasteurized. The mixture is passed through the emulsifier, and the cream produced is cooled down to about 40-450 F. and placed in cold storage. It is generally kept 12 hours before being used, although it is suitable for use as cream immediately. If the butter-fat content is sufficiently high it will whip readily. Such cream is many times purer than fresh cream from a bacteriological view-point. It possesses the same vitamin content as fresh cream, has a perfect flavour, and will keep for a longer period, providing a good-quality butter has been used. The following mixing will give a cream of approximately 42 per cent butter-fat content, but by increasing or reducing the quantity of butter used the fat content is proportionately increased or lowered as required.

I Butter Water Milk powder

lb.

oz.

5 4

Method Heated to 145 0 F. for 30 minutes.

Stabilizing agents, such as agar-agar or gelatine solutions, lecithin, or promulsion, are employed to stabilize the emulSIOn.

Imitation Cream

Confectioners and others who wish produce an imitation cream can produce one using a formula such as thefollowing:

Water Cornflour Special hydrogenated shortening Egg yolks

lb.

oz.

3 -

12 2t

The above will make about I gallon of imitation cream which whips well and is quite satisfactory.

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

Make a paste of the cornflour and a portion of the water. Boil up the remainder of the water, add the cornflour paste, and cook until it gelatinizes, but keep stirring to prevent it burning or forming lumps. Cool the mixture to 1500 F. and add the melted fat slowly to it while stirring. When the mixture reaches 1300 F. add the egg yolks and pass through the emulsifier. Store the emulsion in a refrigerator for 12 hours before use. This will then whip to the consistency of cream. Imitation creams that are manufactured and sold to bakers generally contain 32-40 per cent fat, which is emulsi~ fied with water. With the addition of suitable stabilizing agents they may whip to three times their original bulk. The simplest of these is a butter cream prodw:ed by creamin~et!_ler butter and sug~r in approximately equal propoi'flOns. Th~ ~atio of butter to s_ug~r determin~ the nature of the filling~good_h~rd.setting ~l1ing, then the fat content must be high. An increase in sugar-proauces a l~fiI!~ng~_ but one which wilI.:n6LSe1.up.so-."fi"rn More complicated types are what are known as Conti~ nental Buttercreams and Fillings. The following are some typical recipes for buttercreams or creamed fillings, including the Continental types:

(I) Simple INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Butter or margarine Icing sugar Vanilla essence

3 3

Beat together light. Blend in.

Percentage until

44Âˇ4 55Âˇ6

(2) Using Marshmallow INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Percentage

Marshmallow Egg whites

Beat up light.

43 14

Soften, cream up and blend in.

I Butter or margarine

(3) Using Fondant INGREDIENTS

Fondant Butter or margarine

Percentage

M,ilioo

Work fondant to a pliable mass. Add butter and cream up light.

50 50

193

METHOD

Creamed Fillings

CAKE MAKING

(4) Continental Type INGREDIENTS

Percentage

lb.

oz.

Method

Sugar Water Glucose

7 1 1

0 14 8

Boil to 245 0 F.

Eggs

Whisk to a sponge. Add boiled syrup and whisk until cold.

10·5

Soften, cream up, add, and blend in.

Butter or margarine

41·5*

* Calculated on basis of 87 per cent sugar in syrup at 245 0 F.

(5) Boiled Meringue Type INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Percentage

Method 0

Boil to 245 F.

30·3*

Whisk to a meringue. Add boiled syrup and whisk until cold.

17·3 13·1

Soften, cream up, add, and blend in.

39·3

Sugar Water

Egg whites Sugar

1 1

Butter or margarine

* Calculated on basis of 87 per cent sugar in syrup at 245 0 F.

(6) Custard Base Type INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Percentage

Milk Cornflour Sugar

8 4 8

Boil milk and gelatinize the cornflour to make a custard.

22·3 2·3 4·4

Icing sugar Butter or margarine

4 4

Cream together. Blend in custard when cool.

35·5 35·5

It will be noted from the foregoing that the fat contents range from 35'5 to 50 per cent, which is in considerable excess of the minimum stated in the proposed code of practice relating to buttercream.

Glazes

Glazes are used to enhance the appearance of baked goods, and in the case..9f tl:!..~s~ containing sugar, they improve the flavour and eaj:ing_~y_gmsi£1era'6IY. They range from a simple egg wash used for buns and roliStilroughtIle -_.-"

194

ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

~ious

sugar and water types to 'varnish' _u~e<Lto _glaze chocolate moulded goods. The hun washes ~ili be referred to in Chapter 17; the remainder may be summarized as follows: (I) RO,t boiled apricot.pureerwhich-is-br-ushed--on.such goods_asJ:)anish.and, puff. pastries-immediately they come f-rom the gyen. (2) Water icin_g, which produces a semi-transparent _gl~ze n~y on D_anish and puff pastries but also on ~goods ~ fr~nzipan__!'!_ta!:ts ~ns. lii "the case of Danish pastries, the icing is sometimes coloured and flavoured lemon and is often used after the goods have first been brushed with hot puree. (3) Rot fondant, which is a popular Continental methodused for glazing dipped fancies. The fancies are first dipped in boiling puree and .then hot fondant which has been thinned down with stock syrup. The fondant must be taken to 1400 F., and it must be reduced in consistency. The goods are then placed in the oven at 4000 F. for a very short time. (4) Thinjellies used as glazes on fruit and similar lines. Gelatine;arrowroot, and pectin jellies are all suitable for this purpose. (5) $}um arabic solution made with one part gum to four parts water, allowed to stand overnight, then heated and used hot for glazing almond goods such as Parisian and English routs. These are types of goods which are first flashed offin the oven. Some are also brushed with egg yolk before flashing, which also gives a highly glazed surface. (6) Gum sandrach, which is soluble in alcohol and is used to glaze modelled and moulded marzipan goods which are not flashed in the oven. (7) Gum benzoin dissolved in alcohol and used as a varnish to glaze chocolate moulded goods primarily for display purposes. Chocolate couverture correctly tempered and run out into properly prepared moulds comes out with a first-class gloss of its own, so that the use of a varnish should not be necessary at all for normal production work. Ganache is used both as a filling and as a topping. It is a mixture of cream and chocolate. The cream, be it dairy cream, reconstituted cream, or imitation cream, should be about 48 per cent butter fat for a good smooth ganache. The chocolate is usually couverture, but bakers' chocolate can also be used.

195

Ganache

CAKE MAKING

The following is a typical formula: INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Percentage

Chocolate

61·5

.1 -

Melt to a temp. not exceeding 11 0° F .

Bring to boil add and stir well together.

38·5

Cream (48%/at)

PREPARATION

FOR USE

References

Ganache should be stored in a cool place for about two days before using. Place ganache in the machine bowl, warm slightly, and beat up light on second speed. Plain chocolate couverture produces a rather strongflavoured ganache not always acceptable to the British palate. Milk chocolate produces a milder flavour, and ganache made with it is usually flavoured with rum, kirsch, or coffee. A blend of 50 per cent plain chocolate ganache and 50 per cent milk chocolate ganache produces an excellent flavour. Bakers' chocolate produces a ganache which is rather sweet. Most of the imitation creams on the market are about 38 per cent fat, which is rather low for the production of a smooth ganache. This can be overcome by using I lb. of imitation cream and 4 oz. butter in place of the I pint of cream. 1. F. G. Wheeler and]. G. Endres, 'Icings-a new look at some basic facts', Bakers Digest, October 1965, pp. 52-4. 2. 'Modern Icings, Toppings and Finings'-Bulletin No.2, British Chapter, A.S.B.E., 1962. 3. 'Draft Codes 0/ Practice', Bulletin No·.~I, B.B.I.R.A., 1966.

196

Fermented Goods

THERE is a wide range offermented goods which come within the scope of a work on flour confectionery, generally classed as Bun Goods. With this class of goods are buns of all kinds, fruit breads, brioches, Danish pastries, babas, and savarins. For all such articles a high-class flour is required in order that a bold bun may be ob'tained. AlLfcrmented buns contain a considerabl~p'ercenta~f enriching agents, such as fat, sugar, and eggs. As these t~retara"fermentation, the q,!;!~cntity of yeast employed must be g~~thal)._that :used.in.breaclinaki!j.gfoi:a.similar q-uarrrity of flour fermented for the ~ame_jength_of ti:rn.e. If ~y"east.is.adjusted aq;or.ding to the .pr~portio,n of enr!_c_hiIlK agents used,. then correct ripening. of .the dough can_.be ob-tained in the requisite time. --For bun doughs the strong or fast-working Wpes of yeast \ are best, since these are capable of bringing about a thorough maturing of the dough, followed by rapid gas production during final proof. The use of eggs was formerly limited to the richer types of \ fermented goods, but research has shown that eggs should be included in all types of fermented small goods. These, apart from increasing the food value of buns, also condition the dough and impart silkiness on the texture of' the finished product. They enable increased volume to be obtained by increasing the extensibility of the dough. This is brought about by the physical action of the albumen on the gluten and the lecithin present in the egg yolk. These properties can be capitalized by decreasing the scaling weights and so producing buns of normal volume. Eggs may also be added to a dough after it has fermented, as is sometimes customary with Bath buns. These may be in addition to those already used at the doughing stage, and may be supplementary to those already present. While castor or gr~nulated sugar is generally used,

197

CAKE MAKING

~p~es' are often llsed,_aS:.1hesecare~helpful~in~modifyifig the ,glut~ILand-stimulating-the..action ..ofJ:h~y.easp.

Fermentation 6:ither of two systems of fermentation may be used in the. System Used production of fermented small goods, the fermtnt-and d~ethod or the straighL,dQllgbJn.ethod. For very many years the ferment and dough method was the traditional one, since by this two-stage system of fermentation a t~gh ripening of the dough was ensured, particularly , when the slower types of yeast were more generally used. / Today it has been largely superseded by the straight dough system for the ordinary bun goods, and is used only for the richer types, such as babas, savarins, and brioche, although Danish pastry is produced on the straight dough system. This changeover is largely a matter of economics, a onestage method being more straightforward than a two-stage process, particularly with present-day yeasts. Provided the yeast and conditions of fermentation are adjusted, very satisfactory results can be obtained. There are, however, those who still maintain that a better bun is obtained by the ferment and dough as compared with the straight dough, the difference showing in the keeping qualities. With, however, the introduction of emulsifying agents and dough retardation in bun making, these differences are not significant, since holding the moulded buns in a retarder before baking causes a mellowing of the gluten to be obtained which is even more effective than the use of a ferment and dough. One great objection to the ferment and dough was that it introduced a potential cause of trouble through temperature faults at the dough stage because of possible heat losses in the ferment itself prior to dougl.! making. The following is a suitable mixing for buns, but different types of goods may be made, in.. all of which the standard ferment is used. The ferment should stand for 20 to 30 minutes, and then the dough should ferment for I! hours:

Setting a Ferment

FERMENT

lb.

oz.

DOUGH

lb.

Water Milk powder Sugar reast Flour

8 2 2 3 8

Flour Salt Fat or oil Sugar Currants Peel Eggs

oz.

8ÂŁ

II 10 1

0 2 5

The milk powder and sugar should be dissolved in the water by whisking; the yeast is then thoroughly broken down and

.lg8

FERMENTED GOODS

the flour mixed in, so as to produce a clear batter. This is then thoroughly aerated by whisking in order to stimulate the action of the yeast. T ferment should be at a tempera. tur:.<:: of go F., and should be left for not longer t an f hour. Afterwards the remaining mgre3ienfs are incofporatea. 0

The following is a suitable mixing for a straight dough. With this process the dough time may vary from 45 minutes to 1 l hours, th~_.length of bulk fermentation time being controlled by the ~Ount of .yeast and. the temperature of the dough.

Straight Dough Processes

------

INGREDIENTS Water Flour Milk powder Suga Fat Peel Currants Eggs Yeast Salt

lb.

oz.

2 4

8 12 2 12 12 2

5 5

Finished dough temperature 80 c F. Bulk fermentation time It hrs.

Any recipe for a ferment and dough system can be converted into one for a straight dough by totalling up all the ingredients and increasing the yeast by 25 per cent for the same final bulk fermentation time. The main differences in bun doughs are the varying quantities of the enriching ingredients, eggs, fat, and sugar; also, fruit may be present in varying amounts, or may be absent altogether. All bun doughs should be kept at 78-820 F. and should not be worked warmer, otherwise an article is produced which will become dry and stale very quickly, and will be lacking in bloom. QOQl c:!oughs containing more yeast are preferable always to warm doughs~· and oetter bl.!ns will be obtained. C~stor sugar is not. .a.lways used in a dough; for example in Bath buns sugar nibs are used, and are worked in the dough only after it has fermented for its full time. Clearly the reason for this is, first_ofalJ,Jhat the sug~lL present as cas_tQrJ._ would re~dily dissQIYe/while . . the· buns were proving, and so a small amount of it would .be.fermented· and a- much greater quantity inverted by the yea~t. As a result, the sweetening power would be definitely reduced. Second, too large a quantity of sugar dissolved in the dough before it reached the oven would affect the gluten, 199

Fermentation of the Dough

Ingredients Added after Dough- . Fermentation SUGAR

CAKE MAKING

EGGS

FAT OR BUTTER

FRUIT

Knocking Back

and so cau~e the buns to flow in the oven, in~t~a_d_O[having a bold.appeariuice: -- .. - - V These are another ingredient sometimes added when the dough has been fermented but only when quantities greater than t pint of eggs have been used with a quart of liquor. Extra yeast must be used, however, since_th~er quantgy Qf egg~,.the..greater- the amount-of yeast-required. For ordinary English varieties of buns the above quantities are adequate. Quantities in excess of this alter the character of the bun. For bun doughs, lard is undoubtedly the best, since it can be easily distributed in the dough and has good shortening qualities; other neutral fats and oils can also be used. In buns such as Chelsea and richer varieties of Continental buns, extra fat is incorporated after the dough has fermented, so as to produce an effect similar to the layer formation in puff paste. As with puff paste, a good flavour is required, so that butter should be used, although, for cheaper varieties, a high-grade margarine in conjunction with Demerara sugar will prove quite satisfactory. When currants are employed it is the practice to work the fruit into the dough as it is made, although it is sometimes added later. In the case of articles in which sultanas are employed, such as Bath buns, it is customary to work the fruit along with sugar and eggs into the dough after fermentation has taken place. This practice most probably has arisen because of the greater amount of natural sugar present in the fruit which would affect yeast fermentation. It may be that this practice was necessary, not because of the effect of the sugar in the sultanas alone, but because of the collective effect of the three enrichingjngredients, all of which are likely to retard fermentation. However, the best results are still obtained by fermenting the dough and adding the fruit afterwards. When lemon and orange peel is used it should be chopped very fine so that the flavour from it can be dispersed evenly throughout the dough. As the dough ferments, it increases in bulk, and, especially with short-process doughs, fermentation becomes very vigorous. The smaller the dough, the more is it necessary that 'knocking back' should be carried out in order to prevent the dough from being chilled. With the rising. oX !h~ dQllgi:!, its interior aCQuires an intimate cell~like. structure.in.. the..form..of..a_v..er.y_fine..ne.tw.ork, t::~c!I cell being_filled with carbon dioxide gas. Knocking the d_?ugh _t~eth:: brings the yeast back into 200

FERMENTED GOODS

contact with its food supply, eliminates w!ist~ .:pr_oducts _of f~fn1eiiBuion! arfd-~o produces more vIgorous f~r!!!..e!lli!!ion. Mor~over,. the. working. olllie. dough stretches. the gluten, which is grad1lally conver_ted into fine threads, and renders it more elastic and capable of producing better and more e~Il-~tured goods. 'Ip.i~ ~nocking back should be carried out at the early ~~_e~ _of fermenfation:~' iii fact, a bun dough should be knocked back every 20 minutes if a bun of good bulk and silk-like texture is required. As the dough ferments, the temperature should not be allowed to rise too high, otherwise the dough will work too fast and become exhausted. As a result, poor-volumed buns deficient in bloom would result, which would not only be unattractive in appearance but also very dry to eat. 4. dough temperature of 78-82Â° F. is most suitable, and this, in ÂŁ.onjunction with frequent' KnocKing back, WIll produce the best results. .. .- - ------- The final proving is usually carried out in steam, and here the fatal mistake is often made of forcing. By this is meant proving the buns in a superabundance of steam at too high a temperature so that first of all excessive condensation takes place, followed by a rapid working of the yeast at the surface and the production of a broken skin. Steam is necessary in the final proving, but the quantity should be controlled so that the surface of the bun is kept 'green', and not actually moist. The temperature of the prover should be about 88-g00 F. For all bun goods, a solid oven is required in order that qyick cooking can be carried out with the production of good volume, a pleasmg bloom, and the loss ofmoisture just sj1fficient to brinK about corn::ct baking without any excess drying out. For most buns other than Bath buns, an oven at 4600 F. is best, but for Bath buns, a cooler oven at 4300 F. is necessary, because of the sugar nibs used for decorative effect; a cooler oven is also required for Chelsea buns, which are batched close together on baking sheets. A pleasing appearance is desired on all goods, and it is therefore usual to apply some variety of bun wash, either before baking or after they have been withdrawn from the oven and cooled slightly, to impart such a glaze. This may be applied by a mechanical spray or ordinary brush. The following bun washes may be used: Bun Washes-There are many mixtures used for this purpose, and preparations are now sold which require only 201

Proving

Baking

Glazing

CAKE MAKING

the addition of warm water to produce a liquid which can be used as a glaze. One of these, which has been examined, is nothing more than ordinary powdered glue, and while producing a glaze, confers an unpleasant hard surface and bitter flavour on the bun. The following glazes will give satisfactory results: ( I) An egg an"d water glaze, consisting of two parts egg to one of water, thoroughly whisked. Fresh eggs will give a better glaze than frozen eggs. (2) One egg, a gill of water, and I oz. of sugar, all thoroughly mixed. This will produce a good gloss, but will be slightly sticky. (3) Stock syrup, in which I oz. of gelatine has been dissolved, will produce a good glaze. Stock syrup alone produces an extremely sticky glaze-unless the buns are placed back in the oven to enable the syrup to set after it has been applied-and should only be used in those districts in which such a glaze is desired. Table V gives recipes for a normal range of bun goods based on a 100 parts of flour using a straight dough process. The water percentage will vary slightly in practice, according to the strength of the flour used, but the dough should always be 'free' and never 'tight'. TABLE V Recipes for Bun Goods (Based on 100 parts Flour, Straight Dough Process)

..,... ... ~"1:1 o! E bll :-:::;s: o!

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

52 54 54 54 54 54 52 56 56 53 56 56

J!l

.::

....o!

...o! ... ..,...o! ... ~

., o!

.::

r:... ~ 0 rn ;oj

<l ..,

;;

o! ..,bll

.gp

~o! .~

~ rn

12 -

1·0 1·0 1·0 1·0 0·75 0·5 0·5 1·0 0·75 0·5 0·75 0·75

....., o!

~ -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -16 14 20 2 4 - - 1·0 5 3 100 54 Currant buns A Currant buns B Tea cakes Currant bread A Currant bread B Fruit bread Chelsea buns Bath buns Swiss buns Doughnuts Hot cross buns Cookies Bridge rolls

;oj

~8. rn

3 3 3

3 2 3 3

3 3 3 3 3

20 12 12 14 16 14 14 14 14 16 16 4

Bulk fermentatIOn tIme 202

14 8 8 8

20 12 16 16 20 16

-20

10 10 10 16 10 10 14 14 12 14 16 -

Ii hours.

r.<l

!Xl

3 3 3 3 4

12 12

8 -

4 4 6 4

4 4 8

QJj Z., -

Dough temperature 80° F.

5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 6 5 5

FERMENTED GOODS

For doughnuts a Swiss bun or cookie mixing can be successfully used. Great care should always be taken in the frying of doughnuts, and the finishing off if attractive buns are to result. Powder aerated doughnuts are popular today, and special machines are available to produce these continuously. The following points should be noted:

Doughnuts

(I) The temperature of the fat should not exceed 380° F. (2) The best-quality fat should always be used. Hydrogenated shortenings should be used, since their smoke point is very much higher than 380°-F. Thus there is no objectionable odour while frying. (3) After frying, the doughnuts should be allowed _to c_ool down berOI:e~£eing I:olkd3n_slig~r-,- ~s the _do_ughnuts . cool down_steam. is-given. off,_and.iLthey are. rolled..in .. sugar imme_diately_.on withdrawal from the fat..this moisture is abs.or:Q~.9J:)y lh.~.sJlgar and a wet, sodden sug;g:-_ coat is-;btained. This spoils the appearanceaand uses. a _much _greater a~ount of_s\!gar. Automatic doughnut plants with a capacity of 100,000 yeast or powder raised doughnuts per hour are available today. Automatic doughnuts fryers are also widely used. These are thermostatically controlled so that very regular products are obtained. Brioche is a very rich type of fermented teabread made by confectioners, and used for sweet or savoury fillings. They are rich in fat and eggs, but the sugar is very low. Continental recipes for these goods are sometimes very complicated, but the following formula can be recommended to give good results: INGREDIENTS Flour Yeast Warm milk Butter Eggs Sugar Salt

Brioche

lb. oz.

10 8 8

2 21

Take! lb. of the flour and make a sponge with the milk and the yeast. Beat this sponge well, and leave it to ferment for t hour at 80° F. 20 3

Method

CAKE MAKING

Sift the remainder of the flour, place it in the machine bowl, add the salt, sugar, and I t pints egg§! and mix these well to form a stiff dough. Add the remainder of the eggs, and beat the dough thoroughly. Then add the butter gradually, beating it well in until the dough loses its stickiness. Lastly, adg. t?e sponge, and clear it well through the mixture. The whole should be well beaten until it will not stick to the dough hook or the fingers, although it should be a fairly soft mixture. This dough should be left in a cool place for 2 or 3 hours before working it off into small finger-shaped rolls, crescents, plaits, scrolls, etc. The weight of these goods need not be more than 1 t oz. for a size equivalent to 2-OZ. buns or rolls. The brioche should be egg-washed before proving, then again after proving for about 25 minutes in the prover at about 85° F. They should be baked in a fairly hot oven. When cold they are filled with savoury fillings or whipped cream. Sometimes some of the eggs are replaced with soya flour and extra milk. Two-thirds of a pint of eggs, or 8 eggs, may be replaced with 12 oz. soya-bean flour and t pint milk. The procedure of mixing is the same.

Babas and Savarins

Babas and savarins are a very rich type of fermented goods which, after baking, are soaked in a rum-flavoured syrup and, after drainage, are decorated with whipped cream before being served. More butter, but less eggs, are used in them than is used in the brioche. The difference between a baba and a savarin is that a baba contains dried fruit and a savarin is plain dough but is served with fruit when baked.

INGREDIENTS

lb. oz.

Flour Clarified butter Yeast Sugar Eggs Milk (105° F.) Currants }for babas Orange peel

3 2

2 1 I

2t 3 3 9

A sponge is made with milk, yeast, and t lb. flour. It should be well beaten to aerate it, before setting away to ferment for t hour. The remainder of the flour is sifted on to the board or

FERMENTED GOODS

into the machine bowl, the sugar and eggs are added, and these ingredients are made into a dough which should be well toughened by a thorough mixing; it is then made elastic by continued beating. The soft and creamy butter is added at this stage, and is well beaten into the dough. Lastly, the fermented sponge is added, and the whole is thoroughly beaten until the mixture loses its stickiness. It produces rather a soft batter, but, by continuous working, it is well matured, and should produce good bulky cakes. It should be allowed to ferment for t hour, for babas, when the fruit should be mixed in. It is then ready for piping out into the buttered moulds. After the babas have been proved for t hour, or until the batter has filled the moulds, they are baked to a golden brown colour in a fairly hot oven at 4200 F. The cakes so produced should be light and porous. When cool, they are soaked in a rum-flavoured orange and lemon syrup, and after draining are filled with whipped cream. For savarins, chopped fruit is also added. The syrup used for soaking these goods is made from the following: INGREDIENTS

lb. oz.

3 15 Water Sugar 2 Rum - 5 Rind and juice of 2 oranges Rind and juice of 2 lemons

Make a syrup of the sugar, water, fruit juices, and rinds by bringing the lot to the boil. Add the rum before use, but use hot. Savarins may be made in large moulds 6 in. in diameter or small moulds 3 in. in diameter. When baked, the cakes are steeped in the hot syrup, lifted out with a slice, and placed on the dish from which they are to be served, before they are filled with fruit or whipped cream. Chopped cherries and Angelica, peaches, pineapple, pears, or other tinned fruits may be used to produce a variety of fillings. Many recipes are used to produce fermented or Danish pa,'ltries, but the principle is the same in each case. A rich dough is mellowed by fermentation and partly aerated by puff paste principles.

Ferm.ented or

Danish Pastries

CAKE MAKING

The following ingredients can be used to make up these ~ goods: INGREDIENTS

lb. oz.

Flour Butter.or cake margarine Sugar Salt Eggs Egg yolks Milk Yeast Pastry butter

8 8 6 5

2 15 4

A cold dough is made up of all the ingredients except the pastry butter. This dough is left to ferment in a cold place for 2 hours. It is then pinned out and the pastry butter is rolled into it, as in the making of puff pastry. Two turns are given to it, then, after an hour, another two turns are given. This paste can be used after resting for a further hour, but better results are obtainable if it is left overnight in a refrigerator. It can be moulded up into various shapes and filled with numerous fillings, such as custard, jams, curds, macaroon pastes, nuts; also fruits, such as apples, pears, and pineapples. After moulding, the pieces are egg washed and proved for about i hour, then baked in a fairly hot oven. When baked, they are washed over with stock syrup or masked with a fruit-flavoured icing and roasted flaked almonds. There are numerous shapeJ and finishes to these goods. Each confectioner should have his own special variety. Many bakers of fermented pastries make them from an ordinary fermented bun dough by rolling I lb. pastry butter into 4 lb. bun dough, and after giving it four turns, as in the case of puff pastry, they place it in the refrigerator, then work it off into the various shapes, as before.

Chemically Aerated Goods

CHEMICALLY aerated goods are those morning goods which are lightened by the use orclieniiCals instead of yeast or eggs. Most of these chemicals are baking powders, whIch consist of an acid suh~tance together with bicarbonate of soda. Themain differences between the various powders Âˇon the market is the nature of the acid material which is .used to liberate carbon dioxide gas from. bicarbonate of soda, and so effect the necessary aeration. The various chemical actions which take place have been fully discussed in the chapter dealing with chemical aeration. ,Qream of tartar is still regarded as the classic acid component, and for tnis reason most of the others used are .known unaer-the general name of cream powders. They are marketed~~~der proprietary names and are so compounded that by the addition of an inert filler they can be used in approximately the same quantities as cream of tartar when making baking powder. The main factors governing the use of chemical aerating1 agents from a practical baking point of view are:i (I) They should produce adequate quantities of carbonÂˇ dioxide gas. \ (2) They should be harmless. \ (3) They should not react very readily until the goods, enter the oven. (4) The residual salts should not adversely affect the I quality of the resultant goods. ~

Baking powders must, by law, conform to certain minimum standards as follows: (1) A baking powder shall yield not less than 8 per cent available carbon dioxide. (2) The residual carbon dioxide shall be not more than I' 5 per cent.

Legal Requirements

CAKE MAKING

This applies to prepared baking powders offered for sale, and most of those on the market produce coifsiderably more CO 2 than this prescribed minimum. The acid component and the sodium bicarbonate should be well sifted together before use. If necessary a small amount of rice flour can De added to prevent the baking powder from becoming moist and lumpy, thus losing its strength through the interaction of the acid and the alkali. 2l parts cream of tartar Recipe for I part bicarbonate of soda Baking Powder or when using a proprietary cream powder: 2 parts cream powder I part bicarbonate of soda Alternatively, a saving of time is brought about by preparing what is virtually a self-raising flour by carefully sifting together baking powder and flour in the proportion of 3-4 oz. baking powder to 4 lb. flour. The common name for such a prepared flour is Scone or Patent Flour, which is also' referred to in Chapter 2. In addition to a saving of time, the risk of error when weighing off small quantities of baking powder is eliminated. The flour use_dJor. making. aerated _gQ_ods should not be too strong, as bulk is not the main .consideration.ÂˇTeiture, flavour, -moistness, and cqlour are the maiILconsideratio~s. A winter wheat flour or a good medium flour will impart these qualiti~~ the goods. I.~f 4',a&..1!lust. be oLgood ,9.!lalit~. Margarine and com\>.0 ., potin'a fat of faIrly low meltmg pomt are commonly used. ,_ Good-quality vegetable oil gives excellent results, particularly in scones', making them bulkier and softer eating, provided the oil and milk areÂˇ mixed together first. as an emulsion. This ensures a more even distribution of the oil in the dough .. Eggs are not absolutely essential in aerated goods and are-theexception in scones today, but if price is not the first consideration the flavour and colour imparted make their addition worthwhile. The fruit used in this type of goods should be clean and bright. Dirty fruit is wasteful and expensive. Chemically aerated goods may be roughly divided into two main groups:

The

Preparation of Baking powder

(I) Scones-in many varieties either oven-baked or on the hot plate. (2) Rock Cakes-raspberry buns, etc. 208

CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

Sultana scones are the most common variety of scones made in most English bakeries where the goods are baked in the oven. The mixture and method for the best type are as follows: INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Flour at 100

Flour Baking powder Salt Fat or oil Sugar (castor) Milk (2 pints) Sultanas

2 -

100 6·25 0·78 18·75 18·75 62·50 18·75

12 12 8 12

If a scone flour has been made up, 41 lb. of that should be used instead of the flour and baking powder separately. There are various methods of making up the dough for these goods. The flour should be thoroughly sifted on to the board or in the bowl with the baking powder and salt. The fat can either be thoroughly rubbed into the flour as finely as possible or creamed up separately with the sugar. The latter method ensures a better and more even mixing. If the former method is used a bay should be made with the flour, in which the sugar and milk are placed and the fruit put round the edge. The liquid should then be mixed up with the sugar, and, finally, all the ingredients should be kneaded together into a smooth clear dough free from scraps. If the latter method is used, when the cream is ready the milk should be worked in, then all the ingredients should be worked together into a smooth clear dough free from scraps. Today most of these mixings are made up on the machine, and for this purpose crumble up the fat with the sifted flour, baking powder, and salt, using the slow speed. Dissolve the sugar in the milk, add on slow speed, and when nearly clear add the sultanas. The emulsion method of making up scones ensures a better distribution of the fats and softer eating scones of better volume. An emulsion is made of the oil, or melted fat, salt, sugar, and milk by heating these ingredients slightly, then whisking them together until cool. The flour and other ingredients are then added to make a smooth clear dough. The dough should not be too soft nor, on the other hand, too tight. A medium soft dough that is easily handled will give the best results. The dough is then scaled off into 9-oz. pieces which are handed up to obtain a smooth skin on the surface. Rounds about 6 in. in diameter and about I in. thick are cut and placed on cleaned and greased baking sheets. These rounds H

Sultana Scones

CAKE MAKING

Cream Scones

Victoria Scones

are each divided into four pieces of equal size, cutting them right through with a scraper and separatii-tg slightly. They are then washed over carefully with egg, care being taken to keep the egg wash out of cuts and off the baking sheets. Finally, they are allowed to stand for 20 minutes before baking, then b~k~d in a warm oven at about 4500 F. This standing after moulding allows the goods to recover from any toughening that may have taken place. The gluten of the flour relaxes somewhat, and consequently bulkier, more evenly sprung scones are obtained. Richer or leaner scones can be made by simply altering the proportions of fat, sugar, milk, and baking powder. If required, a little egg colouring can be added to the milk to improve the colour. This is a richer type of scone, the following being a typical recipe: INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Flour at 100

Flour Baking powder Salt Butter or margarine Sugar (castor) Milk

100 5·47 0·78 25 2J.88 56·25

I -

14 4

These ingredients are made up to a smooth dough in a similar manner to that adopted for sultana scones. Fiveounce pieces are then scaled off, moulded up round and smooth, pinned out to 6 in. in diameter, placed on greased baking sheets, egg washed, and after being left for 20 minutes, baked in an oven at 4500 F. When the scones are partly baked and can be handled without spoiling the shape they are turned over on the baking sheet and replaced in the oven to finish baking. Care must be taken not to bake too much before turning over. Small cream scones are made from this mixing by rolling out the dough and cutting out with a small cutter of the desired size. The small scones are finished off in the same way as the large. This recipe is typical of its type.

210

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Flour at 100

Flour Baking powder Salt Oil Sugar (castor) Milk

100 7·03 0·78 12·50 12·50 65·63

8 8 10

CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

The dough is made up in the usual way and scaled off in pieces, moulded up round and smooth, pinned out to 8 in. in diameter, then divided into eight equal parts, egg washed, and placed on clean baking sheets and baked at 4500 F. These scones are also turned over when partly baked. Referring to the above mixings, it can readily be seen that the greater the quantity offat and sugar in the mixing, the less the amount of baking powder and milk required. Also, the smaller the amount of fat and sugar used, the greater the quantity of baking powder and milk required. The fat has a shortening effect on the goods, reducing resistance to gas pressure, so that when more fat is used a lesser amount of baking powder is required to aerate the the goods. Any of the above mixings can be used for any of the types of goods mentioned. It always depends on the quality demanded in any particular area. There are several varieties of scones, such as soda scones, Scotch pancakes, and milk scones, which can be baked on the hot-plate. These must be made as a soft dough; also they must be turned on the plate and must flow to some extent in order that a good shape results. Buttermilk can be used instead of fresh milk, since it gives a much softer crumb. When it is used an adjustment in the proportion of the chemicals used for aeration may be made. With good buttermilk, bicarbonate of soda alone can be used at the rate of 2 oz. per stone of flour for soda bread. The mixings shown on p. 2 I 2 can be used. Other mixings can be evolved from the foregoing instructions. The pancakes require special care in dropping them on the plate by means of a Savoy bag, as the mixing gives a thick batter. The sugar is dissolved in the milk along with the salt, and the eggs are whisked in. The powder is sifted into the flour, and this is then mixed into the milk until the batter is cleared. The melted butter or lard is now stirred in. The mixing must not be too stiff. By the addition of another quart of milk a thinner batter is obtained which, when dropped by means of a ladle, will flow out and produce a cake similar to a crumpet full of holes. Many varieties can be produced by adding small amounts of fruit or spice after the batter has been dropped out onto the hot plate. All these products are turned during baking, and the hot plate must be well greased before the batter is dropped out. In order to get the best results, the plate should not be too hot. 12-OZ.

2 I I

Hot-plate Scones

CAKE MAKING

HOT-PLATE SCONES-SMALL BATCHES to

INGREDIENTS

Flour Baking powder Salt Oil Butter or lard Sugar Milk Buttermilk Eggs

Soda scones

Milk scones

Scotch pancakes

lb.

lb. oz. 4 - 3! - t - 7t

lb.

oz.

2 -

6 8

oz.

4 t

8 3 -

TAKING FLOUR AT 100

INGREDIENTS

Flour Baking powder Salt Oil Butter or lard Sugar Milk Buttermilk Eggs

Rock Cakes, Raspberry Buns, etc.

Soda scones

Milk scones

100 6·25 0·78 7·80

100 5·47 0·78 11·70

62·50

Scotch pancakes

100 6·25 0·78 -

12·50

9·38 62-50

79·69 10·94

The same rules apply to aerated buns as apply to scones, as will be seen from the two mixings on p. 2 [3. The dough for these products is made up in a manner similar to that for scones. There are variations in the finish of the goods. When the dough has been made for rock cakes it is dropped on to baking sheets in small pieces of a rock-like shape. These are roughened then egg washed, sprinkled with castor sugar, and baked in a hot oven at 4500 F. . When the dough has been made for coffee buns it is weighed off in I t- or 2-0Z. pieces. These pieces are moulded round, placed side by side on the board, and egg washed. They are then dipped in sugar nibs, placed on pans, and baked at 4400 F. The dough for raspberry buns is also weighed off into I t- or 2-OZ. pieces. The original and still the best method for finishing raspberry buns is as follows: they are moulded round, then flattened out, and a little jam placed in the centre of each. The buns are again moulded, so that the jam will be in the centre of the buns. They are then washed with egg whites, dipped in castor sugar, and placed 212

CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

on baking sheets. Two cuts are made in each, so that the jam shows through when baked. The more common method today is to mould the buns round, wash with egg, dip in castor sugar, make a small indentation in each and pipe in a small quantity of raspberry jam. The buns require careful baking owing to their richness. They are usually baked on double sheets at 4200 F. If baked at a higher temperature they will run flat and take on too much colour. ROCK CAKES-SMALL BATCHES

INGREDIENTS

Rock cakes lb.

Flour Baking powder Salt Fat Castor sugar Demerara sugar Milk Eggs Currants Coffee essence

1 2 -

oz.

lb.

4t t 12

Coffee buns

1 1

lb.

1 1

4 14 7

Raspberry buns

oz.

8 8

4 7

FLOUR AT 100

INGREDIENTS

Rock cakes

Coffee buns

Raspberry buns

Flour Baking powder Salt Fat Castor sugar Demerara sugar Milk Eggs Currants Coffee essence

100 7·03 0·78 18·75 25

100 5·47 0·78 31·25

100 4·69 0·78 37·50 37·50

54·69 18·75 -

31·25 46·88 10·94

6·25

31·25 10·94

Raspberry buns or coffee buns can also be made from the rock-cake mixing, but then they require similar baking to rock cakes. Even less fat and sugar can be used in these goods if the proportion of baking powder and milk is increased. Sometimes a pinch of 'Vol' is used in cheap buns in order to produce a quick lift in the oven and a nice break on the top. It is in fact the common practice, certainly in the south, to make up a basic mix from which the various types can be taken. This saves time, and is satisfactory I

213

CAKE MAKING

provided that additions made, such as fruit, jams, nib sugar, and coconut, are in such quantities as to alter substantially the flavour and general eating quality. The 'sameness' of '. some of these products due to the rationalization of the production process has led to a falling off in the sale of a profitable and ~as_ily produced range of goods.

214

Pastes

PASTES may be considered under two main headings: (1) Short (2) Puff or Flaky

These may be further subdivided as follows:

Short Pastes

â&#x20AC;˘

(a) Sweetened pastes used in the manufacture of jam tarts, fruit pies, and similar products. (b) Unsweetened pastes used in the manufacture of savoury pastries. (c) Richer pastes, such as shortbreads, where none or very little liquor is used; Viennese which are in reality soft shortbreads or sweet pastes; sweet pastes used for lining and as bases for a large range of fancies; and the types of biscuits still being produced by the flour confectioner such as wine, Derby, Shrewsbury, and Easter. II!_all these types of products shortness is produced primarily by the fat, which bnngs about _sllcli:a-ffiechanical interference-in the gluten structUI:~ in a. dough that-when the baked paste IS rubbed between the fingers it will. br.eak down into a homogeneous powder. Shortenings vary considerably in their ability to perform this function, but, in addition, the ejfici~ncy with which the ~~orte!!:ing is i,rlcorporated with.the flour w!ll influence thIS prop~r_ty ",ery considerably. This in turn is influenced by the type of flour used'i"n the making of the paste, and the quantity and type of mOIstening material used, as well as the amount of mixIng given. '~gar <1]80 affects shortness. When too much moisture is used there is a toughening of the paste and _~hrinkage :when baked. W4e!l too little -is used,_ th~ pastes are too. short. and .friable. There are many good shortenings available today, either 100 per cent fats or margarines, and selection should be governed by the effects on the eating quality of the final product rather than by price. In the case of unsweetened 21 5

CAKE MAKING

short pastry for savoury goods, lard is the best to use. Taken on average, the normal proportion {1[ fat is 8 oz. per pound of flour in this type of product. Selection of flour is all important, and soft flours will always give shorter ancL.l:!ctte~aj;ing_p-astes than strong flours. This should be an obvious fact, since, tkfllnction~of fat being to reduc-e the toughness of the gluten and_modify the gliitenous_strandS~in_the_::aougb, the softer:...amLshorter tii_e_g~hich is w~ed in the flour .employed, the kยง~the ~l!ghness to be oy:er.come. General-purpose special cake flours are also being used today for this reason. With some soft flours the ratio of fat to flour can be reduced and 7 oz. per pound of flour are adequate; even 6 oz. per pound will produce very satisfactory short pastes with certain flours. Sometimes when pastes with a lower fat content are used, it is customary to add some baking powder to the mixing to assist in producing a short-eating paste, since the addition of such an aerating agent will result in some liberation of carbon dioxide gas during the baking process, which will separate the fat and flour particles and so affect the consistency of the dough structure in such a way as to confer the 'short' properties on the finished paste. Low-fat-content pastes also contain less water in order to prevent the formation of gluten as much as possible. Shortness may also be conferred on pastes by the addition of fillers containing starch for the most part, such as cornflour and rice flour. Potato flour was used during the r939-45 War when fats were in short supply, and mashed potato, particularly the dried product, was found to give excellent results. The amount of sugar used in all but the unsweetened paste is at the rate of I t-4-oz. per lb. of flour. For the production of savoury lines, such as meat pies and pastries of all types, salt is used to give flavour. Method of Making Paste

There are four methods used for making short pastes: (1) Rubbing in method (2) Creaming method (3) Boiled paste method} r (4) Hot paste method lor unsweetened pastes In the first method the fat is mixed into all the flour until a fine crumbly consistency is obtained. The liquor-water/ milk/egg-into which the sugar if any has been dissolvedis added and the paste mixed until clear. Mixing must not be overdone, otherwise the paste will be toughened, and it will be hard and flinty instead of short. With machine mixing, there is a much greater chance of toughening than 216

PASTES

when hand mixing is carried out, yet, by -correct timing, more consistent results can be obtained. In the second method the fat with an equal weight of flour is creamed light as in the flour-batter method of cake making, and then the remainder of the flour and liquor is added and mixed until a clear paste is obtained. This method ensures that there is a complete dispersion of the fat in the flour, so that the maximum shortening effect is produced, and it is the one best suited to machine mixing. The creaming methoq is the only one suitable for Viennese mixings. The mixing is softer than the other pastes, having to be of piping consistency. The boiled paste method is mainly used for meat pie pastes and consists of boiling the water, fat, and salt together and stirring in the flour so that the starch gelatinizes. Such pastes can be used either for hand blocking or for machinemade pies. â&#x20AC;˘ Modification of this method is the use of hot water, which does not gelatinize the starch but which still produces a smooth paste easy to handle. This in fact is the more common method today. Where short paste is to be used on machines, it is customary to use a higher proportion of fat and sugar and less moisture, often half the quantity used for hand-worked pastes, and to employ the creaming method. This method produces a paste which shows very little sign of toughening even when well handled. It is generally the practice to make up the paste on the dry side, and it should rest overnight, otherwise it will be too short and difficult to handle. If a normal paste is used on the machine it will tend to stick and be difficult to handle with necessary speed. Very recently a considerable amount of work has been done using high-speed mixing methods with a controlled work input for the making of all types of cake, including pastes. The machines used to date are modified high-speed bread mixers, and the chief advantage is that they enable mixings to be made in one stage. Short paste is made in 25 seconds on such a mixer, all the ingredients being placed in the machine before starting up. This 'all in' method is an attractive proposition for the large producer. The following Table VI shows the relationship so far as the essential ingredients are concerned between each type of short paste. Chou paste is included for comparison, although it is not 'short'. 21 7

High-speed Mixing Methods

CAKE MAKING

~oj ;::l 0

...c:

.,..,..,

~I I I I I I I I

I.,., I.,.,

...c:

.:: .::

:9'<1<1

I~-

I I-

~~ ~.~

.., ;::l

~I 1 1'<1< 1 1 1'<1<

... u

..s::.~

rt:J.rJ

::9~

1 1-- 1 1-

0.. ..,...

...c:

I-<

.....

...s::

<r:

E-l

~ 1 1 1 1 I IS

.:: G ~:E :9'<1<1

I~~

I I I

c.8~

0..

..... ..,

.., ~

':l

sJ3

rt:J

~ 1 I 1 I;::! I IS

:9'<1<1

1I I I

I-<

..,....

f.x.<

.Sl ('j '"

I I I I I I I I :9'<1<1 I~- I I I

il....

j:Q

...c: rt:J

.., .::

0..

E .::' ..,.., ;:J~

I ~~ 1 I 00 I I

:9'<1<1

1- I I

..... ..,

.., ~

rt:J

I I :9'<1<1 0

.....

c c

..... ..,

.....

...

..,

::!

'" ~

rt:J

I I I I

...

C") ~

r--

0 0 1 lOcO

.,.,- I

t:0 ...c:

..,

.::

~ 0.. ..... ...0 oj

...c:

rt:J

-I -S .,., 0 0

rt:J

E ..,

I~~

I I I

0 .,.,

C")C")

6 ~ oc:-,c:,o I~ ;:J.,

..... ..,

.., ~

rt:J

r--

.,.,

r--

0 100cO 0

.,.,-

C") ~

o{l

El <>

oQ,

~ t;~

;::s~.:::~ ~1:;:-::: ~

~~~~~=~~ 218

.,.,

...

o{l

~ ~

~.,.,

...

C") ~

..,...

..."

0 .,., I c:. 0 I I~ I

~;::l

0 0

0..

p:<

I;::! IS I

.rJ

I I I

0 0 1 1

..,'~

.:: G l:l ...c:u ~:E pa

...c:

rt:J

0..

..,

.S....

..... ....

..,'"

t:0

!j"

rt:J.rJ

0.. "0

ยง

~.~

.., ;::l

... u

...c:.~

'3 ..;:::u.... oj

'"bD .@

I~ I

;::l

5bD

- I I"'''''

{ill

....'" ...s

~l:l

0 .,.,

>...

~ 0

I~ I~

0 0

>. l:l .,

E .,

I-< ~

......

..,'~

<.,

U'.l~

...:l v......, ('j......, j:Q

.::

..,.::

....oj

..,

2;-

'in oj

0 SI

'0.."

>... ;::l

...,v '"('j P... ...,

;::l 0

~ I I IS I I 00 I

.S:l

0..

:9 ;- I

0..

~t;

s~-~~-~b.o

~~~~~~~~

PASTES

As the name implies, the goods produced from this kind Puff Pastry o[p_a~t~ ~hould_be very' light and fl<J~y,Cyet there sllOufif'be a,~tness about tl}e. .P~st!:y....ยงQ Qt_a~ it eats crisp and is free from toughness or...5!.~~ . Let us look at the technical side of the manufacture of puff-paste. The_fundamental obj~~hen making_ _s~<]t paste is to build up a structure of fat and paste that when subjicted to the hea_1 of the oven will expand and lift eveIl1y to pro,duce, srmmetrically-shaped products with short e.ating"p_roperties. To pr:o_duce such ar.ticles, the flour selected must possess ~ _sufficient quantity of good-quality extensible gluter:.1.. ~o that When the paste is sheeted it will form contin1d9.us strands throughout_the whole mass. It must not be excessively~h_ort, otherwise thestrands ,~ill break wh~-folded over .as_the layers are built up. Very often flours possessing far too strong a gluten are used for this type' of paste in an attempt to produce excessive volume, with the result that the finished products are tough to eat and devoid of any shortness. The type, oLfloULtO use-is also governed. by the mixing and p_rgcessing methods used. For example, it has been found that when making puff pastry on a continuous process, where there are little or no rest periods from the time of initial sheeting to the goods entering the oven, a more extensible flour is required. This desired extensibility in the dough is also obtained by using a higher proportion of compound fat in the dough than with more conventional methods. Whereas I -2 oz. fat per lb. of flour are normally used at the doughing stage, with the continuous process quantities as high as 3'7 oz. per lb. have been found necessary with a corresponding reduction in the amount of fat used for rolling in. High-speed mixing techniques are now being introduced using virtually the Scotch method. The mixing time is about 20 seconds, and further work may show a need for some modification in flour quality when making puff pastry by these machines. The selection of the fat is most important .and" as with the ~flour, the eIll:phasis ha_:; often been on fats which will giv_e, 'lift' and, as a result, many fats have been made which do this very well but leave an objectionable waxiness in the finished article. Exc,ellent eating puff E.a~try can be produced from butter and cake margarine, but tli~s)nvoIves_c,onslderable c~rein processing and the use of a refrigerator or a cold room. In the earry days of development on fats specially suitable for

CAKE MAKING

WHY DOES THE PASTE LIFT?

laminating under normal bakery temperatures many were manufactured which appeared technically p{:rfect but which produced puff pastry which was almost inedible. Manufacturers are now able to produce fats and margarines with good plastic properties over a wide temperature range which will produce the desired film of fat and yet give a final product wIth-good, short-eating characteristics. Given, then, a fat with good plastic and shortening properties and a flour possessing a suitably extensible gluten, the foundation is laid for a good paste provided the subsequent processing is correctly carried out. The lift or expansion of puff paste is brought about by several factors.

(I) The mechanical manipulation of the dough, where, bj' continualslieetmg ancnOlding of the dough, alaminated structure is built up consisting of hundreds oflayers o.ffatinthe doug~. For exampl"e, wnen uSIng the French method' and 'giving three full turns the number of layers offat in the dough is 729. The number oflayers of dough insulated by thin films of fat is one of the most important factors governing the amount of lift and the regularity of it. There must be a minimum number of layers to obtain puff pastry as we understand it, but given this, then in general the fewer the number of layers, then the greater, and the more irregular the lift, and conversely. (2) The creation of very many layers determines the manner of the lift, but the main reason for puff pastry rising is the expansion of the gluten in the dough, and this is generally considered to be due to steam ~ure within it which is generated sluring ~ng. This can be demonstrated by taking apieceolgluten, putting some tension on it by moulding, and placing it in a hot oven. Th~r~ is a y_er.y rapid_expansiQ!!.,9f the $luten bag._This is much greater in a hot oven. than in. a G.ooler Qn.e, and it faor this reason 1J!at_p..1lff p..MtrS is b~ked atfaidy high tem:perat\ii-e~.~fhe amount of expansion and the regularity ofit is also governed by the amount ofrela.l{ation given to the gluten ball (i.e. resting) before placing in the oven. There is indeed an optimum rest period for puff pastry which is variable, depending on the amount of tension put on the paste during sheeting and making up into various lines.

Methods of Making Pastes

There are several methods of making paste, such as the French (or Continental), Scotch, and English methods, as well as modifications of each. 220

PASTES

In addition, there are pastes of varying degrees of richness. For example, the richest paste is known as full puff and carries I lb. fat to I lb. flour; the next is the threequarter paste carrying i lb. fat to I lb. of flour; and there is a much leaner type, half paste carrying only t lb. fat to I lb. flour. FRENCH OR CONTINENTAL METHOD

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Flour at 100

Flour Cake margarine or compound fat Water Pastry margarine or fat

10 1 6 8

100 12·5 62·5 87·5

4 4

The cake margarine or fat is crumbled into the flo~r as finely as possible, the water is added, and the dough made up. This should be a nice, well-developed dough. Scale this off into five pieces at 3! lb. each and allow to rest for about 30 miilutes. At the end of this time the pastry fat should be scaled into Ii-lb. pieces and formed into rectangular blocks about I in. thick. Each piece of dough is rolled out so that the centre is about I in. thick and the edges much thinner. All surplus flour must be removed by brushing, and the piece of fat is placed on the raised portion and the edges folded in so as to encase the dough. There should now be three layers of equal thickness, two of dough and one of fat. The dough should now be pinned out to a square of about 36 in. This is now folded into a third of its size, first of all by folding one-third over the middle portion, and the other side over the double fold, thus producing a piece 3 ft. X I ft. This is then lightly rolled to make sure the layers are adhering when the two ends are folded over to the centre. Finally, the paste is folded in two, like a book, thus making it about I ft. square and about I in. thick. At this stage there will be 12 layers of fat. The paste should be covered with a damp cloth to prevent skinning, and rested for 30 minutes. It is then rolled into a yard square again and folded as before, and again rested for 30 minutes before the operation is completed a third time. The paste is then said to have had six single or three double turns. The same principle is carried out when using power rollers, but attention must always be paid to removing surplus dusting flour before each folding process. 221

CAKE MAKING

SCOTCH METHOD

INGREDIENTS Flour Pastry margarine or fat Water

lb.

oz.

Flour at 100

10 10 6

100 100 62-5

This method differs from the French method inasmuch as the fat is chopped into lumps the size of walnuts in the flour, and with the water, is made into a dough and left to rest. It is scaled into pieces of workable size, approximately 710 lb., according to the type of sheeting machines available, and when it has relaxed it is rolled out and folded in layers in the same way as in the French method. ENGLISH METHOD-THREE-Q,UARTER PASTE

INGREDIENTS Flour Cake margarine or compound fat Water Pastry margarine and fat

lb.

oz.

6 6

4 4 4

Flour at 100

100 12·5 62·5 62·5

Three-quarter paste was usually made up by the Scotch method, but much puff pastry with a total fat content of ! lb. per lb. flour is being made today using the English method. It is a method well suited to mechanical sheeting. When power rollers are used the dough must be made a little tighter. A good guide to consistency is the same as that of the fat being turned in. With continuous processes the water content can be as low as 5"7 oz. per lb. flour (36 on Flour at 100). This method resembles the" French method inasmuch as a dough is made up by rubbing in the cake margarine or fat into the flour, and when ready, is left to rest for 30 minutes before the pastry fat is turned in; it differs, however, in that the pa£try margarine is spread over two-thirds of the surface area instead of being placed in the centre, and the third portion, on which no pastry fat has been spread, is folded over half the remaining piece of dough, and then the final third is folded back. This paste is then treated in the same way as the other pastes so that three double turns are given, when it is ready for cutting after a rest period. While much skill and care is required in the making of the paste, equal skill must be displayed in the utilization of it. 222

PASTES

Once the paste has been reduced to the correct thickness for cutting into shapes, it should again be left to rest or in some way to relax; and after the final cutting out and placing on trays it should be left for some time before baking off. It is important to point out that all goods which should have a vertical lift or a horizontal one should be made from virgin paste. Owing to the delicate nature of the paste it must be handled carefully and rolled out to an even thickness for each particular article. To ensure regular shapes and thicknesses, suitable templates and guides should be made, for only in this way can consistency of size and quality be maintained. Mechanical production does, of course, help in maintaining regularity of size and thickness. It is quite good practice where refrigerators or cooling chambers are available to prepare the cut-out pastries and leave them overnight in the cold chamber ready for baking on the following day, or when required. When cutting out from virgin paste, care must be taken to reduce the amount of cuttings as much as possible. When circular pieces are being cut out there must inevitably be a fair amount of cuttings. For this reason there is now a growing tendency among the larger manufacturers to produce rectangular-shaped pastries, where cuttings can be reduced to the absolute minimum. There are two ways of using up puff paste cuttings:

(I) The more traditional one by the production of many lines where accurate lift is not necessary but where flakiness is required. (2) Whereby the cuttings are mixed in with subsequent doughs, due account being taken of the composition of the scrap dough. The full amount of fat is then rolled m. We are indebted to Mr. A. T. Whybrow for the following example of the calculation necessary when using scrap in this way: TYPICAL PUFF PASTE MIX

INGREDIENTS

lb.

Percentage

Flour Water Salt Compound fat Pastry fat

560 200

47 17 0·7 10·9 24·5

130 290

223

Utilization of Cuttings

CAKE MAKING

MIX WHEN USING 100 LB. CUTTINGS

Fresh ingredients

INGREDIENTS Flour Water Salt Compound fat Pastry Fat

Chaux Pastry

Cuttings

513 183 - 7路3 94路6

560 200 8 130

47 17 0路7 {10.9 24路5

290

Total ingredien ts

290

Although this product is not normally considered under the same heading as the previous pastes, it is included because it is commonly referred to as a paste. A normal formula for paste for cream buns is: INGREDIENTS

Small batch

Margarine Water Flour Eggs

lb. 1 1 1

oz. 8 4

Flour at 100 50 125 100 125

The water and margarine are heated together. When the water boils, the flour is stirred in and partially gelatinizes to produce a smooth paste. It is most important that the flour should be well cooked, otherwise the subsequent addition of the egg will not produce a paste which will give good volume on baking. As soon as the paste has slightly cooled, the eggs should be well beaten in, a little at a time until the paste is well cleared and is of a suitable consistency for putting through a Savoy bag, using.a star- tube for cream buns. Sufficient eggs must be used to get the paste to the correct consistency. Baking should be carried out in a warm oven under tins or in special cream bun pans if the maximum volume is desired, as with cream buns, and sometimes a pinch of 'Vol' is used. The volume in such paste goods is entirely produced by the conversion of water into steam. The effect of heat on the gelatinized starch on the surface is to produce a rigid film which is much less permeable than the surface of normal batters, so that there is much less tendency for steam to escape. As water from the mass evaporates pressure builds up within the bun, the surface cracks and the cracks fiiI with softer batter from within, which in turn forms a film. In this way buns with a hollow centre are produced. 224

PASTES

Eventually the egg protein coagulates and the starch gels to the rigid form to give a firm, hollow shell. When the buns are baked under tins the space around them quickly fills with the steam that does escape. This has the double effect of reducing still more the tendency for steam to escape from the bun and of keeping the surface softer and more pliable. This enables larger, lighter buns to be produced. Baking must be carefully judged, otherwise the paste will collapse. It requires at least 20 minutes to bake the buns at 4600 F. Eclairs are generally taken from the same mixture, but are baked without covers. For eclairs, a modification of the recipe may be used, since the paste should be softer. The ingredients used are: INGREDIENTS

Small batch

Margarine Water Flour Eggs

lb. I

oz. 8 4 12 4

Flour at 100 66·7 166·67 100 166·67

The method of working is the same. Such pastes can be used for a wide variety of pastries, such as cream rings, petits choux, Gateaux St. Honore. The new high-speed mixing process would appear to be very good for the production of choux paste. The paste is cooked in the normal way, placed into the high-speed mixer, and the whole of the egg added. The egg is thus mixed in in the one operation, and the resultant paste is reported to be better than that made by the traditional mixing method.

225

High-speed Mixing

Cake-Making Processes :1

Batter-type Cakes

IT is proposed in this chapter to deal with the 'pound' type of cake and its many modifications, together with the various methods of manufacture. . A good cake should show a multitude of evenly distributed ~ 'minute cells without any large holes. It should have good . colour and sheen, should eat moist, have a good flavour, and . the general appearance should be attractive, with good ' \ eye appea.l. I 'Cake batter.is_an.emulsion _of the.oil-in-water up~ith Ciir qybbles entrapped in the fat ph~se,. and the remainder of the. ingredients. dissolved or dispet:s_ed in the water p]1ase. I t is generally accepted that the aeration of a cake depends on the expansion of the gases-air and carbon dioxide if baking powder is used-together with the water-vapour pressure within the air bubbles.1 As the volume of a cake batter is increased by about 3! times during baking, this could not be due solely to the gases, and it has been found that the air content accounts for little more than 10 per cent of the total expansion. The remaining go per cent is obtained by the conversion of water into -steam within the ;bubble. Price! states that the ;olume of b;-ked cakes is proportional to the air content, and Dunn~nd White 2 have shown that a batter which has been d,e-aerated by vacuum treatment fails to rise at all. \ As the temperature rises during baking the ba_tter thins and some coalescence. of the bubbles occurs wit~some loss of gas. The rate of coalescence depends on the~bble size and, more important, the variation'in bubble si#e: \Fine bubbles of even size impart stability to t'mix and produce fine-textured cake. Variations in bubble~ize and the pr~sence of large bubbles results in an unstaBle." mi~~ producmg cakes of coarse and more uneven texturef~i7-'-' IThe process of coalescence is finally arrested by a thickening of the batter due to the swelling of the starch and the coagulation of the egg and flour proteins/ Some authorities

I:"

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

regard the coagulation of the flour proteins as being oflittle importance, as quite a good cake can be made with all starch and no flour. This does not explain why, for example, it is necessary to use a high-protein flour in high-sugar, high-liquid fruit cakes. I The presence of the air bubbles, therefore, is essential, and they can be regarded as the nucleus for the expansion of the cake, controlling it and governing it. The purpose of batter mixing is: \ (I) to disperse all the ingredients as efficiently as possible; (2) to incorporate air into the mix. \ The incorporation of air, according to Fuller 3 and FranciS,4 takes place in'two stages: (I) a period of rapid incorporation in the form oflarge bubbles; (2) a stabilizing period when the bubbles are reduced in size. With the foregoing points in mind, let us now look at the .~.~~arious me~hods. empl?yed t? make ~ cake. AI~ of the.m

lllvolve a dlsperslOn of lllgredients and lllcorporatlOn of air. The various methods may be summarized as follows: (I) Sugar batter (2) Flour batter (3) Sugar/flour batter (4) Dry crumbly batter (5) Blending (a) Crumbling at Stage 1 (b) Pasting at Stage 1 (6) Continuous (7) All-in, high speed , The mixed fats and castor sugar are creamed together . until light. The time for this is about 10 minutes, depending on the creaming qualities of the fats and the speed and type , of machine. A vertical cake mixer on second speed, running at go r.p.m. is about normal.* In view of the variability of speeds in second gear and of the mixing action with different machines, a better method is to cream to a fixed specific volume of batter. The egg is then added in four to five additions over a period of 5-7 minutes with a good creaming between each addition. This is to ensure that curdling of the batter does not occur at this stage. Curdling is the breaking down of the emulsion which is being formed, the fat separating out from the aqueous phase.

Objects of Mixing

INCORPORATION OF AIR

Cake-Dlaking Methods

* The second speeds in fact range from_70-110 r.p.m. 227

Sugar Batter

CAKE MAKING

It is in fact possible to add the egg in a steady stream, providing the correct temperature is used to suppl)l-'enough energy to maintain' the emulsion. When all the eggs have been creamed in, the batter should have a nice soft, velvety feel. At this stage any required flavours are added. The flour should have been sifted with any powders that are required, and it is gently mixed into the batter; the required milk or water is added at the same time.tThe fruit should be added when clearing the batter. If fruit is mixed with the flour some adheres to damp fruit and will tend to produce holes in the cakes. In all cakemaking processes temperature of ingredients and times of creaming and mixing must be controlleQ.if consistent results are to be ~btained.' _ / ". . . The o~ULtemperalJlre'for all Jhe illgQ:dlentSJÂŁ-+O~. Theflour batter method of cake making requires two machines. The mixture of fats is creamed up with its own weight of flour, or a little less, until a light creamy mass is obtained; a proportion of 14 oz. of flour to each lb. fat is about the best. The egg is then whisked up with its own weight of sugar, but the operation need not be so thorough as for sponge cakes, since approximately 6 minutes of whisking is sufficient. The mixture is then carefully blended into the creamy mass, the addition being made in three portions, the first being creamed in, the second mixed well in, and the third stirred in. The remainder of the flour is added while clearing the batter. Since in cheaper cakes more milk and extra sugar must be added, these should be mixed together and added with the flour after the egg has been stirred in. Finally, the fruit is added while clearing the batter, care being taken never to toughen it. Exhibition cakes, especially the richer types of Madeira and fruit cakes, are often made by this method:The same factors with regard to times of mixing and of temperature apply as for the sugar batter method. This method is very similar to the flour batter, with the exception that a solution of the egg and sugar is made instead of a sponge. This solution is added to the creamed fat and flour in a number of additions, as for the sugar batter method, or in a steady stream. The remainder of the flour and any milk are added at the final stage. A variation of this method is one whereby the fats and sugars are creamed lightly together in the bowl, then a quantity of flour equal in weight to the faf employed is creamed in. When this mixture is light, the egg and flavours are creamed in to produce a light velvety batter; lastly, the 0

Flour Batter

Flour/Sugar Batter

228

â&#x20AC;˘

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

remainder of the flour, which has been sifted with the baking powder, is mixed in. Any milk in the mixing should be added with this last portion of flour, and any fruit should be added while clearing the batter. This is a method which was developed when dried egg was being used extensively. It is one which might well be very popular when A.F.D. egg comes on to the market and certainly with pre-mixes, whether pregared in the bakery or purchased already made up. The rules for the blending method are these: (I) Place in the machine bowl the sieved sugar, dried egg, milk powder, and salt. Add the fat and its weight in flour. Mix on srow speed until the fat is rubbed in to a crumbly consistency. This takes about I minute. (2) Add a quantity of water approximately equal in weight to the fat. Cream on middl~ speed for 5-7 minutes. (3) Add the remaining ingredients in the normal way. In converting any recipe to this method, the point to remember is that the flour in the first stage and the water in the second must be approximately equal in weight to the fat. A modification of this crumbling method is also used for the manufacture of high-ratio cakes. For this type of formula the fat and all the dry ingredients are brought to a crumbly consistency at stage I. Water or milk added at stage 2 with about a 4-minute mixing on slow speed. The egg and the remaining milk is added in a steady stream at stage 3 with a final beating of the batter on slow speed (13 minutes). This method, together with the modified crumbling process is used for high-ratio cake formulae. Again there are three stages: (I) All the flour, baking powder, and any special addition, such as milk powder and rice flour, are mixed to a smooth paste with the fat. (2) Sugar, salt, and milk or water to approximately 40 per cent of the flour weight are mixed together and added over 1-2 minutes on slow speed. The machine is then scraped down and the batter mixed for a further period on slow or medium speed, depending on the formula being used. (3) The egg and the remainder of the milk or water are streamed in with a final beating of the batter onslow speed. To illustrate the various mixing methods for cakes of orthodox or traditional formulae the following are given. All are based on the same composition, which is: 229

Blending (a)

CRUMBLING

AT STAGE I

(b)

PASTE AT

STAGE I

CAKE MAKING

INGREDIENTS

Flour Fat Sugar Total liquid . Baking powder-

Flour at 100

Pel',\jentage tot;;'1 mix

100 57

30·6 17·5

72 97

22 29·7

1·34

0·4

SUGAR BATIER

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Butter or margarine Compoundfat Sugar

3 4

9 8

Cream up light. Approx. time 10 minutes.

Eggs

Add in 4-5 additions.

Flour Baking powder

4 1·34

Sieve together, add and half clear.

Milk

Add and clear.

FLOUR BATIER

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Butter or margarine Compound fat Flour

Cream up light. Approx. time 10 minutes.

Eggs Sugar

4 4

8 8

Whisk to ! sponge. Add in three additions.

Flour Baking powder

Sieve together, add and half clear.

Milk

1·34

Add and clear.

FLOUR/SUGAR BATTER

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Butter or margarine Compound fat Flour

3 3

Cream up light. Approx. time 10 minutes.

Eggs Sugar

4 4

8 8

Dissolve sugar in egg. Add in 4-5 additions or in a steady stream.

Flour Baking powder

2 1-34

Sieve together, add, and half deal'.

Milk

Add and clear.

9 2

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

BLENDING (CRUMBLING)

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Butter or margarine Compound fat Flour Sugar Dried whole egg Milk powder

Mix to a crumbly consistency.

9 9 8 2 2·5

Water

Add and cream up light 7 minutes.

Water

3·5

Add and half clear.

Flour Baking powder

II 1·34

3 4 I

Sieve together, add, and clear.

The following formulae illustrate the mixing methods for high-sugar, high-liquid cakes.

HIGH-SUGAR CAKE-CRUMBLING METHOD

FLOUR AT 100

Percentage total mix

Ingredients

100 125 10 1·25 3·75 50

24 30 0·3 0·9 12

Special cake flour 6 Castor sugar 7 Milk powder Salt Baking powder 2 : I High-emulsifying fat 3

Water

Add water on low speed, streaming in gradually, and taking care to have the batter free from lumps. Scrape down and mix for 4 minutes on low speed. Scrape down bowl and beater.

Whole or frozen egg

Add egg on low speed, streaming in gradually over 1-2 minutes. Scrape down and beat for a further 3 minutes on low speed.

204-

lb.

oz.

Method

4 Sieve the dry ingredients together, 13 place in the machine bowl with 10 the fat and on low-speed mix to 1·25 a fine crumbly consistency. Do 3·75 not form a paste at this stage. 2

CAKE MAKING

HIGH-SUGAR CAKE-PASTE METHOD

FLOUR AT 100

Percentage total mix

Ingredients

100 85 3·75 7·5

20·7 17·6 0·78 1·56

Special cake flour 6 High-emulsifying fat 5 Baking powder (2 : I) Milk powder

120 2·5 40

24·8 0·52 8·3

Sugar Salt Milk Essence-as desired Egg colour-as desired

lOa 25

20·7 5·2

Frozen whole egg Milk

Continuous Mixing Method

lb.

oz.

Method

4 5 3·75 7·5

Blend 1-3 minutes on slow speed, or until a smooth paste is formed. Scrape down the bowl and beater at least once at this stage.

8 2·5 8

Mix together and add slowly to the above paste over I minute while mixing on slow. speed. Scrape down and mIX 4-8 minutes on medium speed. The variation in time is to allow for the prevailing temperature conditions.

6 I

4 9

Add slowly to the above batter over 2 minutes on slow speed. Scrape down and continue to mix for a further 3 minutes on slow speed.

There are two types of continuous cake mixers on the market, the Oakes and the A.M.F. plant, details of which are given in Chapter 26. Essentially the process is one whereby all the ingredients, after a preliminary mixing, are fed to a mixing head. The mixer head is so constructed that the ingredients are very efficiently dispersed in a very short time, while simultaneously with this dispersion, air is injected in and incorporated. The amount of mixing in the head at anyone time is about 8 oz. The pre-mixed ingredients or 'slurry', as it is commonly called, and the air under pressure must be fed to the mixer head in a continuous and even stream. This involves the-use of special apparatus to control the flow of Ingredients, also a flow-rate meter and back-pressure valve to control the amount of air being injected. The rotor speed-i.e. the speed of the mixing head, controls the amount of mixing given. This should be the lowest possible consistent with full air incorporation and a homogeneous mix. The amount of air injected is adjustable according to the density required in the cake batter. In practice, this is determined by taking the weight of a fixed volume of batter. The normal procedure is for an ice-cream cup or some such similar container to be filled carefully and weighed. The air is adjusted to give a predetermined cup weight. Messrs. A.M.F. Ltd. have incorporated into their appara-

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

tus what is termed a 'U' Tube Density Meter. This is a piece of apparatus which measures the specific gravity of the batter, records this value on a permanent chart, and automatically adjusts the amount of air flow to the mixing unit if necessary. Very recently, experiments have been carried out using a modified high-speed dough mixer to make cake of all types in an all-in, one-stage process. The process recently demonstrated was the result of cooperation between Geo. Tweedy and Co. Ltd. and Messrs. Rank, Hovis, McDougall Ltd., and is called 'The Tweedy CRESSEX ONE-STAGE CAKE PROCESS'. With the Tweedy/ Cress ex process all ingredients except the fruit are added to the machine and the required degree of mixing is given. Where required, the fruit is then added, and a 3-second burst on the machine will evenly distribute it without tearing it in any way. Each mixing is given a fixed amount of work as measured in terms of watt-hours per pound of batter. We are indebted to Messrs. Tweedy and Rank, Hovis, McDougal for the following: TYPE OF BATTER

Watt-hours/lb. batter

Time in minutes

Cherry slab Sultana slab Angel slab Home-made-type cake

1·50 1·0 3·0

1·00 1·00 3·50 20 (sees.)

The appropriate number of watt-hours is set on the control panel. The mixer automatically cuts out after the completion of the pre-set work induction. The following points are listed by Messrs. Tweedy and Rank, Hovis, McDougall: The Tweedy/Cressex one-stage process can be an aid to quicker and more uniform confectionery production. At the present time the employment of experienced staffis difficult, and any method which simplifies production and makes more efficient use of machinery must be considered by all units whether large or small. The advantages may be summarized as follows:

(I) Complete one-stage mixing. (2) Elimination of the human element. (3) Time-saving-mixing times show a saving of up to go per cent of conventional mixing time. (4) Ease of operation. 233

All-in High-speed

ADVANTAGES OF THE TWEEDY/ CRESSEX PROCESS

CAKE MAKING

(5) Improved batter stabilization-more uniform results. (6) Successful fruit incorporation. (7) Greater machine utilization. (8) Ease of cleaning the machine facilitating easy change to widely different recipes. (9) PremixeS. During the next decade the number of lines produced by larger bakery units will inevitably be reduced, enabling longer runs to be achieved. This will in turn bring the use of premixes, whether prepared on site or bought in, into the larger bakery. This process and machine are ideal for the purpose; indeed, it was this interest in premixes, and the development of A.F.D. egg for this purpose, which sparked R.H.M.'s interest in the process. One of the factors which has held up the development of premixes on large-scale production has been the lack of a one-stage process to go with it, but this has now been achieved. Other Factors Governing

Cake Quality

1Apart

from correct mixing methods there are, of course, other factors to which attention must be paid if good cakes are to be produced. These are:

(I) Correct preparation of hoops or other containers so that adequate protection is given during baking. (2) Careful preparation of all the ingredients prior to mixing, especially with regard to temperature and to fruit if being used. (3) Careful handling of the batter during scaling and depositing. The batter should be weighed into the hoops, or frames, with as little handling as possible. If it is placed in hoops, or frames in more than one portion, it may cause large holes in the cakes where air has been enclosed between portions. Scrapings from the bowl should, if possible, be kept for the next batter, but if it is necessary to use them they must be mixed into the batter. Otherwise, if placed on top they show up in the crumb of the cake as dark streaks. When all the cakes are weighed off into hoops or frames the batter may be levelled off with the back of the hand, using a little milk or water to moisten and prevent it from sticking to the hand. This moisture helps to form steam in the oven and aids in producing a soft, thin crust. (4) Correct baking. This is a most important factor, as 234

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

it is at this stage that all other care can be nullified. The main point is that a cake should be baked as quickly as possible consistent with its size and quality. This subject is dealt with separately in Chapter 24Âˇ

IThe basic ingredients in batter-type cakes each perform a particular function. These may be summarized as follows: (I) Those which provide strength and structure to the cake, viz. flour and egg. (2) Those which open the texture, viz. sugars, fats, baking powder. (3) Those which close the texture and which reduce lightness, viz. milk and water. For a cake recipe to be correctly constructed it must have a good balance between those ingredients which open the texture and those which close it. This in fact is what is meant by recipe balance. If a cake contains too much sugar, then the structure is weakened to the point where it collapses. This takes place in the centre of the cake, producing the well-known 'M' fault. Similarly, a cake with too much baking powder will sink in the centre. Conversely, a cake containing too much liquid will have a tough very close rubbery structure, collapsing after baking, and a tendency to shrink. This results in the cakes pulling away from the cake bands or paper cases, forming concave sides to produce what is known as the 'X' fault. The 'M' and 'X' faults will cancel one another out to a large extent. That is to say a cake of high sugar and/or baking-powder content can be prevented from sinking by adding more liquid. Similarly, a high liquid cake can be balanced by increasing the sugar or the baking powder. Egg is very important in providing strength of structure, but excess of it tends to produce a tough rubbery cake. The function of the fat, in addition to air, is to shorten the structure and make the cake more tender. The egg and the fat then produce opposite effects, and it is generally accepted that for the production of satisfactory cake the ratio of egg to fat should be of the order of 1Âˇ25: I (i.e. I pint of egg to I lb. fat). When considering the construction of a recipe the most commonly accepted method is to relate the quantities of the various ingredients to the flour. Taking flour at 100, for plain cakes of average quality,

235

Recipe Construction and Balance

Egg/Fat Ratio

Orthodox Cake

CAKE MAKING

the sugar content is about 60 and the liquid content about 90, although in some of the better-quality'ttakes sugar and liquid is in the order of 80 and 95 respectively. These figu~es are not to be confused with percentages of the total mix, which will be discussed later. John Price,! jn a paper on this subject some years ago, gives the following range of formula for orthodox cakes: Flour Fat Sugar Total liquids Baking powder

100 20-60 50-60 80-90 q.s.

In fact, the total liquids in most plain cake today is nearer 95Âˇ For cakes within this range, good cakes can be made using soft flours and good-quality fats. Special high-emulsifying fats or special cake flours are not necessary Price also gives the following ratios of fruit to cake batter for different types of cake: Fruit cake Christmas cake Birthday cake Wedding cake

(I) HIGH SUGAR CAKES

With the introduction of special cake flours and high emulsifying fats, it has been possible to step up considerably the amount of sugar and liquid in a cake, and much of the cake produced today is of this type. Developed from American high-ratio formulae originally, such cake is very moist, light, and tender, yet of fine even texture with good cutting quality. Price divides this type of cake into three groups: Those which contain as much sugar and liquid as flour with a formula range of: Flour Fat Sugar Liquid Baking powder

(2) HIGH LIQ.UID CAKES

20:80 45:55 50:50 55:45

100 30-60 100 10()":'11O q.s.

Those which contain high liquid but low sugar. These have a formula range of: Flour Fat Sugar Liquid Baking powder

100

30-60 60-100 100-130 q.s.

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

Those which have a formula range of: Flour Fat Sugar Liquid Baking powder

(3)

HIGH SUGAR/

HIGH LIQUID

100 30-60 120-140 125-150

CAKES

q.s.

For this type of formula a high-emulsifying fat must be used in addition to special cake flour. For all types of cake the following points should be borne in mind:

(I) The fat should not exceed the egg (2) The fat should not exceed the sugar (3) The sugar should not exceed the liquid. In addition, when constructing or rebalancing orthodox formulae the following rules are a very good guide:

â&#x20AC;˘

(I) Add liquid (milk or water) at the rate of approx. O'g parts to every 1'0 part of flour in excess of the egg. The exact amount depends on the water absorption power of the flour. (2) Add baking powder at the rate of 0'25-0'5 parts to every 1'0 part of flour in excess of the egg, depending on the size and shape of the cake. (3) The sugar should be approximately 20 per cent of the total mix. If it is thought desirable to increase the sugar content, then either the baking powder must be reduced or the liquid increased. To construct a recipe then, proceed by the following stages:

(I) Take flour at 100. (2) Decide on the fat content required, say 60. (3) Calculate the amount of egg on the basis of parts egg to'l part of fats. 60

1'25

X 1'25 = 75

(4) Calculate the additional liquid on the basis of o'g parts to I part of flour in excess of egg. Excess flour =

100 -

75 = 25

:. Additional liquid = 25 X o'g = 22'5 (5) Calculate the sugar to give 20 per cent of the total

mix. Sugar equals t of mix :. Flour fat liquids =

of mix 237

Example

CAKE MAKING

. A f Flour .. mount 0 sugar = = 100

+ Fat4 +'li Liquids

+ 60 + 75 + 22'5 4

257'5 = 64'4 4 (6) Finally, calculate the baking powder. For a plain round cake of about I t lb. in weight use the factor of 0'05 Excess flour = 25 :. Baking Powder = 25 X 0'05 = 1'25 The final formula (excluding colour and flavour) for a plain cake would therefore be: Flour Fat Sugar Egg Milk Baking powder

Other Ingredients

100 60 64-4

75 22Âˇ5 1Âˇ25

A trial bake is then necessary, and some adjustment may be desirable, depending on the quality of the flour and fat particularly, and on any special characteristics required in the final cake. So far as other ingredients are concerned:

(I) Dry substances such as cornflour, rice flour, ground almonds can be substituted weight for weight. (2) Cocoa powder requires in addition extra liquor about equal in weight to the powder. By law chocolate cake must contain 3 per cent fat-free cocoa. The average powder contains 75 per cent fat-free cocoa so that it is necessary in this case to ado 4 per cent cocoa powder to the mix. (3) When including syrups, honey, or similar substances which contain a high percentage of sucrose in solution, then allowance must be made for the amount of moisture present. This is approximately 25 per cent. (4) Glucose and invert sugar may only be used in small quantities, because of the Maillard reaction of reducing sugars on proteins, which increases the colour of the cake. This is an advantage in very lean mixes, which would otherwise appear unattractive. Again, these substances contain about 25 per cent moisture, which must be allowed for if the recipe is to remain balanced. r(5) Fruits can be added in almost any amount up to

23 8

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

the point where the batter can no longer hold them together, according to the type of cake required. The batter, however, may need strengthening to carry the fruit. This can be done in one of two ways: (i) by increasing the amount of flour and/or egg in the mix, or by using a stronger flour, as is done when high-protein cake flour is used for high-ratio fruit cake; (ii) by increasing the acidity of the batter.

\ The Hedley Research Bakery investigated this problem, particularly in connection with high-ratio cakes, and found that by the addition of an acid substance, such as tartaric acid or cream of tartar, rich slack batters are enabled to carry a full fruit content in a stable manner, producing cakes in which the fruit is evenly distributed. \ \In order to produce stability in a rich moist cake batter a pH of 5·4 or less is essential if it is to carry fruit satisfactorily. Such a pH is not normally obtained, but an adjustment can easily be made by the use of tartaric acid. Other acids, or acid salts, can be also used, but the quantity will vary with the nature of the salt./ While it is common practice today to take flour at 100 and give the other ingredients in relation to it, in order to get a more complete picture, one needs to calculate the percentages per total mix. Take, for example, the four main types of formula.

Percentages of Total Mix

INGREDIENT

Basis

A Orthodox

B High sugar

C High liquid

D High sugar High liquid

Flour

Flour at 100 % total mix

100 32·25

100 27·8

100 28·6

100 22·7

Fat

Flour at 100 % total mix

60 19·35

60 16·7

60 17·2

60 13·7

Sugar

Flour at 100 % total mix

60 19·35

100 27·8

60 17·2

130 29·6

Liquid

Flour at 100 % total mix

90 29

100 27·8

130 37·2

150 33·8

In terms of total mix one striking thing is that the highsugar, high-liquid types of cake might also be referred to as 'low flour', 'low fat'. In general, the flour content of orthodox plain cake is around 30 per cent, as against 22 per cent for high sugar, high liquid. Formula D is high in 239

CAKE MAKING

sugar, but the increased total liquids (4.8 per cent) is really not as high as the figure of ISO based OIli-'flour at 100 suggests. Using flour at 100 does, however, show the ingredients in relation to the main structural ingredient in a cake.

Functions of

Highem.ulsifying Fats and Special Cake Flour High-emulsifying Fats Special Cake Flours

The high-suga.r, ~igh-liquid types of cake, then, are in consequence lower in flour and fat than the orthodox mix. It is because of this that the fat and the flour must have special properties to carry the sugar and liquid. These fats are good-quality shortenings containing an added emulsifying agent which is co-plasticized with the fat. The presence of the emulsifying agent is necessary in order to enable the increased moisture to be carried and to keep the batter stable until baked. These are flours of low-extraction, low-protein content which have been milled to finer particle size and heavily chlorinated. The finer particle size increases the surface area so that more moisture can be held by the flour. Heavy chlorination increases the acidity of the flour and weakens the proteins. Farrand,5 however, regards the function of chlorination as much more an effect on the starch then the protein in flour. He regards the wheat protein as of little importance. Francis 4 lists three main factors which affect the setting of the cake in the oven:

(I) The sugar/water ratio in the mix (i.e. the percentage concentration of sugars in the aqueous phase.) (2) The physico-chemical condition of the starch. (3) The physico-chemical condition of the egg. He regards the wheat protein as of little importance. High sugar concentrations raise the temperature of coagulation of the egg and delay the gelation of the starch. The setting of the cake is delayed, and it inflates to excessive volume and collapses. Conversely, if the liquor content is excessive and the sugar concentration low, then the cake sets too quickly, resulting in low volume and close rubbery texture. Chlorination of the starch together with- the finer particle size increases the rate of gelation, off-setting, as it were, the delaying effect of the higher sugar concentrations, thus stabilizing the batter at the critical stage in baking. Even so, if fruit is to be added to a high sugar, high liquid cake, then it is common practice to increase the stability of the batter during baking by using a high-protein cake flour, which would sometimes appear to be little more than a bread flour of low extraction milled to finer particle size.

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

TABLE VII Cause

Fault

(I) Sad streak under top of cake

(I) Underbaking (2) Cake being knocked or moved during baking (3) Too hot an oven

(2) Sad streak at bottom of cake

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(3) Collapse in centre of cakewhite spots on the crust

( I) Excess sugar

(4) Collapse in centre of cakedark crust

(I) Excess baking powder

(5) Small volume-collapse at the sides, shrinking from the sides

(I) Excess liquid (2) Insufficient egg (3) Flour too soft

(6) Small volume-'cauliflower' top

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(7) Long holes in texture

(I) Insufficient aeration (a) Insufficient creaming (b) Poor creaming fat (2) Bad scaling (3) Too much mixing

Too much liquid Insufficient baking powder Insufficient sugar Too soft a flour Weak or insufficient egg

Too hot an oven Insufficient steam in oven Too strong flour Too much egg Insufficient sugar

.,;( 8) Discoloured crumb

(I) Badly balanced baking powder-excess alkali

(9) Too tender crumb

(I) Too much fat in relation to egg

(ID) Crumbly crumb-coarse open texture

(I) Weak flour (2) Insufficient egg in relation to fat (3) Too much sugar (4) Too much baking powder (5) Cool oven-slow baking

(II) Fruit sinking

(I) Weak or insufficient flour (2) Insufficient egg (3) Too light a mixing (a) Over creaming (b) Insufficient mixing (4) Cool oven-slow baking (5) Fruit too heavy (a) Very wet (b) Syrup not removed in case of cherries (6) Batter insufficiently acid (7) Too much sugar (8) Too much baking powder

CAKE MAKING

Cake Faults

Faults in cakes are due to one of, or a combination of the following causes: 11 t

(I) Poor or unsuitable raw materials (2) Incorrect balance (3) Faulty processing-e.g. batter too cold, insufficient creaming, excessive handling at the final mixing stage, incorrect scaling or faulty depositing (4) Incorrect baking (5) Faulty handling after baking I The more common faults and their causes are summarized in Table VII:

Wedding Cakes

In the designing of a tiered cake, either square or round, it is advisable to decide the dimensions of the cakes beforehand, because a balanced three-tier cake will not necessarily give a two-tier cake simply by the removal of the top or bottom tier. In such instances it is advisable to adjust the size of the cake and board of the top tier to that of the bottom. There are a large number of possible variations which will give satisfactory results, but for both round and square WEDDING CAKE

A Guidefor 3 Tier round Total wt. 21 lb. 12 oz.

No.

ITEM

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

SiI;e of !wop or frame Batter weight Baking temperature Baking times (approx.) Baked weights Baked size Weight of almond paste for tops Weight of almond paste for sides Size of boards Size when almond pasted Weight of boiled fondant Weight of royal icing coating and decoration (approx. amount)

2 Tier round Total wt. 16 lb. 4 oz.

Bottom tier 11 in. 71b. 8 oz. 3300 F. 4t hr•. 7 lb. 0 oz. 10! X 21 in. 31b. 0 oz. lib. 8 oz. 15in. diam. lIt X 31 in. 4 oz.

Middle tier 7 in. 2 lb. 12 oz. 330 0 F. 21 hr,. 2 lb. 8 oz. 7 X 2t in. lib. I oz. 9 oz. 10 in. diam. X 3in. 2 oz.

Top tier 5 in. lib. 6 oz. 3300 F. It hr,. 1·lb. 4 oz. 5 X 21 in. 8 oz. 4 oz. 7! in. diam. 5t X 3 in. I oz.

2 lb. 4 oz.

lib. 0 oz.

2 lb. 8 oz. lib. 10 oz. 2 oz.

lib. 4 oz. 12 oz. I oz.

oz.

Bottom tier IOl in. 61b. 0 oz. 330 0 F. 3t hr,. 5 lb. 8 oz. lOt X 21 in. 2 lb. 6 oz. Ilb.2 oz. 15 in. diam. 10! X 3t in. 4 oz.

2 lb. 12 oz. 330 0 F. 2£ hrs. 2 lb. 8 oz. 7 X 21 in. lib. I oz. 9 oz. lOin. diam. 7t X 3 in. 2 oz.

lIb. 12 oz.

lib. 0 oz.

51b. 8 oz. 31b. 8 oz. 4 oz.

2 lb. 8 oz. lib. 10 oz. 2 oz.

Top tier 7 in.

Total weights 13 14 15 16

Baked cake Almond paste Boiled fondant Royal icing (coating and tfecora .. lion, approx. amount)

'lb. 0 oz. 4 lb. 8 oz. 4 oz. 2 lb. 4 oz. 14 lb. 0 oz.

References

o oz.

7 oz.

5 lb. 4 oz.

2 lb. 8 oz.

lib.

lib. 12 oz. 11 lb.

o oz.

lib.

o oz.

51b. 4 oz.

1. J. Price, 1952, The Balance of Cake Recipes, Lecture given at the Borough Polytechnic. 2. J. A. Dunn andJ. R. White, 1939, Cereal Chemistry, 16,93-100. 3. C. H. F. Fuller, 'Aeration of Bakery Products', Chemistry & Industry, 1952, 185-188.

CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

cakes the tables on pages 250 and 251 were given many years ago by the Craigmiller Service, and will serve as a guide for general production. It is also of interest to record the results of a practical exercise carried out by students at the Borough Polytechnic to determine the weights of the decorative materials required for cakes of various sizes. WEDDING CAKES (PROPORTIONS AND WEIGHTS)

! Cake weight Almond paste Jam Cake board , Hotfondant Royal icing: Ist coating 2nd coating Decoration and artificial decoration Total weight

9 in. round

6 in. round

5 in. round

9 in. square

lb. 5 2

lb.

lb. I

lb. 5

oz. 0 8 2 9 6

2 1

oz. 0 0 1 4 2

oz. 2 9 1 Ii

oz. 8 12 2 12 6

6 6

2 2

2 Ii

6 6

CHART

General Production 2 Tier square

3 Tier square

Total wt. 17 lb. II oz.

Total wt. 25 lb. 15 oz.

Top tier

No.

Middle tier 7!x7tx3in. 3 lb. 12 oz. 3300 F. 3 hrs. 31b. 6 oz. n X 7! X 2i in. lib. 8 oz. 12 oz. 11 X 11 in. 81 X 81 X 2tin. 2 oz.

Top tier

Bottom tier

IOxlOx3in. 81b. 4 oz. 330 0 F. 4! hrs. 7 lb. 13 oz. 91 X 91 X 21 in. 3 lb. 5 oz. I lb. II oz. 15 X 15 in. lOt X 101 X 3f in. 5 oz.

5~ X 5l X 3 in. 2 lb. 0 oz. 330 0 F. I hr. 25 mins. lib. II oz. 5t X 5! X 21 in. 12 oz. 6 oz. 8 X 8in. 51 X 51 X 2i in. 2 oz.

9 X 9 X 3 in. 6 lb. 0 oz. 330 0 F. 3t hrs. 5 lb. 8 oz. 8! X 8! X 3 in. 2 lb. 10 oz. lib. 8 oz. 12 X 12 in. 9l X 9t X 31 in. Hoz.

6 X 6 X 2! in. 2 lb. 12 oz. 3300 F. 2! hrs. 2 lb. 8 oz. 6 X 6 X 2! in. lib. 3 oz. 14 oz. 8 X 8 in. 6l X 61 X 3 in. 2! oz.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2 lb. 4 oz.

lib. 4 oz.

10 oz.

2 lb. 0 oz.

lib. 2 oz.

3 lb. 6 oz. 2 lb. 4 oz. 2 oz.

lib. 11 oz. I lb. 2 oz. 2 oz.

21b. 8 oz. 21b. I oz. 2! oz.

13 14 15

o oz.

lib. 2 oz.

llib. 14 oz.

5 lb. 13 oz.

Bottom tier

7 lb. 13 oz. 5 lb. o oz. 5 oz. 2 lb. 4 oz.

lib. 4 oz.

10 oz.

15 lb. 6 oz.

71b Ooz.

3 lb. 9 oz.

51b. 8 oz. 41b. 2 oz. 4! oz. 2 lb.

4. B. Francis, 1966, Lecture to the Department of Baking Technology, Borough Polytechnic. 5. E. A. Farrand, 1959, Cake & Biscuit Alliance Technologists Conference Proceedings, pp. 12-14.

243

THE main ingredients in sponge goods are egg, sugar, and flour plus air which is introduced during the mixing process. In recent years, especially in the case of sponges produced on a large scale, where shelf life is an important factor, a number of other ingredients have been added, particularly fats, plus an emulsifying agent. In the leaner types of sponges, that is those containing less egg, then baking powder is used in the conventional mixing processes in order to provide additional aeration. A basic sponge formula is as follows: Eggs Sugar Flour

125 100 100

This is for the sponge sandwich type of goods. Sponge drops and fingers contain slightly less egg (112Âˇ5 to flour at 100), while for Swiss rolls a typical formula is: Eggs Sugar Flour

200 140 100

Due to the extensive use of special cake flour in sponge goods, it is now possible to produce high-liquid sponges up to: Liquid (egg and water) Sugar Flour

Aeration

200 140-160 100

Air is mechanically beaten into the egg/sugar mix until a stable foam is produced. The flour is then mixed in carefully and the whole baked until the egg and flour proteins coagulate, the starch partially gelates, and the cake sets. Aeration is brought about by the expansion of the air-and carbon dioxide gas when baking powder is used-together with the water-vapour pressure within the air bubbles. Today many sponges are produced by all-in methods using conventional, continuous, or high-speed mixers, but so far as aeration is concerned the same principle applies. This is the 244

SPONGE GOODS

incorporation of air to form fine bubbles and a stable foam. Fullerl defines beating as the process of mechanically incorporating air into a mix by continued disruption of the surface by a fast-moving body. It is the movement of the rods in the conventional whisk which introduces air into the mix, and whether a bubble is formed will depend on the relative values of the speed of movement of the rods, the surface tension of the liquid, and its viscosity. Fuller further states that it is not sufficient merely to be able to beat sufficient air into the mixture; the foam must possess stability, by which is meant its ability to retain the bubbles without loss or coalescence during the baking process. The bubble size det'ermines the stability of the foam, the number of bubbles determines the grain structure of the cake, and the percentage of air in the mix governs the volume increase obtain~d during baking. Substances conferring stability on the foam according to Fuller are whole egg, egg albumen, modified casein, modified soyabean protein, modified fish protein, methyl ethyl cellulose. More recently a number of surface-active substances are being used in sponge mixes for two main reasons: (1) To increase the speed with which air can be occluded and a stable foam produced, especially with the all-in types of mixes. Whisking time can be reduced from about 20 minutes to as little as 3 minutes on a conventional vertical mixer. (2) To increase the stability of the foam so that it does not collapse readily on handling or during any time interval between depositing and baking. This is particularly important with many production processes involving mechanical handling, although it is reduced to a minimum if a continuous mixer is used feeding direct to a depositing line.

These emulsifying/stabilizing agents are sold under proprietary names in a paste or powder form, and are usually diluted with water so that they can be easily incorporated into the mixing. Two of the most common on the permitted list are the partial polyglycerol esters and the monoglycerides (partial glycerol esters). Taylor 2 carried out a number of experiments to determine the effects of various factors in egg/sugar foams. These may be summarized as follows: Speeds of 180-200 Lp.m. on vertical cake mixers would appear to be necessary to obtain full volume. 245

Effect of Various Factors on Egg/Sugar Foams (I) MACHINE SPEED

CAKE MAKING

(2) TEMPERATURE

(3)

(4)

GLYCERINE

(S)

(6)

SALT

FAT

EMULSIFYING

AGENTS

(7)

EXTRA YOLK

_(8)

SUGAR

Sponge-making Methods

The best whipping temperature for shell and frozen egg is 70° F. Higher temperatures cause the~ioam to come up very quickly, but with poor stability. Below 70° F. the foam comes up much slower, and never reaches as high a final volume. Reconstituted spray-dried egg on its own does not whip, no matter. what the temperature. Additions of salt up to I·S per cent based on egg is a desirable level, but has little effect on the final volume of the foam. There is some slight volume increase with shell eggs. Glycerine can be added up to IS per cent without impairing the specific volume of the foam and can safely be added to sponge mixes without any other adjustment to formula. The presence of 2-3 per cent fats results in loss of air, confirming the care which must be taken, when using the traditional method of making sponges, to see that the machine and whisk are scrupulously clean and free from grease. Fats at high temperature can be added to egg/sugar foams without great loss of air. The best results are obtained when the melted fat is added hot (200° F.) and very quickly (45 seconds), using slow speed just before full volume is reached. Emulsifying agents enable reconstituted spray-dried egg to be used successfully. They increase volume even with frozen egg plus water. The foams are stiffer, the bubble size smaller, and the resultant sponge is improved all round. Extra yolk increases the volume of the foam proportionately to the amount added. The best quantity to add is 20 per cent based on weight of-egg. Icing sugar produces slightly better volume and more quickly than other types of sugar. Recent work indicates that the best' results with pasteurized eggs are obtained by whisking on top speed initially (i.e. approx. ISO r.p.m.) and then completing on second speed (approx. 100 r.p.m.). A more stable foam is produced in this way. Harper 3 carried out some interesting work on G.M.S. in sponges which the student would do well to study. The various methods of making sponges are:

(I) Orthodox or traditional (2) Delayed soda (3) All-in

SPONGE GOODS

(4) Pressure whisk (5) Continuous (6) High-speed This is the method whereby the egg and sugar are whisked together to a stable foam and then the flour folded in carefully to avoid loss of air as much as possible. The flour must be well sieved in order to remove any lumps and to assist in its easy dispersion throughout the mix. The foUowing are typical recipes for sponge sandwiches of varying quality using the orthodox method: Full egg INGREDIENTS

Egg Sugar Flour Baking powder Water

Flour at 100

Small mix

125 100 100

lb. 3 3 3

oz. 14·5 2 2

50% egg 50% water

Flour at 100

Small mix lb.

Orthodox

75% egg 25% water

94 100 100 0·8 31

2 3 3

oz. 15 2 2 0·4 15·5

62·5 100 100 1·6 6'2·5

ISmall mix lb. 1 3 3

oz. 15·25 2 2 0·8 15·25

Better-quality sponges than full egg can be produced by the addition of egg yolk. Up to 20 per cent yolk based on the egg can be added, and the following is a typical recipe:

Addition of Egg Yolk

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method lb. 4

oz.

Whole egg Eggyolk Sugar

128 22 100

11 it

SPecial cake flour

100

Whisk to a full sponge.

Sieve and add.

Note that this recipe uses Special Cake Flour and therefore more liquid is carried. This is a modification of the orthodox process whereby the egg white and yolks are whisked up separately, each with a proportion of the sugar, blended together, and then the sieved flour is folded in. This is a method very common in high-class mixings where fresh eggs are used. It is a method particularly suitable for very light sponge mixings, such as is required for Othellos. 247

Separated Sponges

CAKE MAKING

A typical mix is as follows: INGREDIENTS Flour at 100

Method

55·5 ·27·75 0·35

lb. oz. Whisk to a thick sponge. 10 5 Continue on slow - 0·0625 speed until whites are whisked.

Egg whites (24) Castor sugar Cream qf tartar

133·3 33·3 0·35

Flour (patent) Cornjlour

100

Egg yolks (16) Castor wgar Salt

Method With Chocolate Sponges

Small mix

8 Whisk to a meringue. Blend in t to sponge 6 and clear. 0·0625 Sieve together. Add and clear.

II 7

When making chocolate sponge by the orthodox method, the egg and sugar are whisked to a full sponge, chocolate colour is stirred in on slow speed, a small quantity of warm water (100 F.) equal in weight to the cocoa powder is then added, and finally the sieved flour and cocoa powder. The amount of cocoa powder to be added if the sponge is to be sold as a chocolate sponge is governed by law to give a final baked product containing a minimum of 3 per cent fat-free cocoa. The average cocoa powder contains 75 per cent fat-free cocoa, so that it is necessary to ensure that 4 per cent is used based on the baked weight of the sponge. This amount must be deducted from the flour weight. A typical recipe for chocolate Swiss roll is: 0

IINGREDIENTS Eggs Sugar

200 140

Chocolate colour Water,

100

Flour (soft) Sconejlour Cocoa powder 2.

Delayed Soda

Flour at 100 Small mix Method

5 20 40} 40 100 20

lb. .6 4-

oz. 4 6 2!

Whisk to full sponge. Add on slow speed.

Add.

4 4 10

Sieve together, and clear.

add,

In this method all the ingredients, including the flour, are whisked together with the exception of the bicarbonate of soda, which is dispersed in a small quantity of the total liquid and stirred into the sponge after it has attained full volume. The bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline component of the baking powder which is virtually being used. The acid component-i.e. cream of tartar or cream powder-is added at stage one. This acidified mix whisks up much

SPONGE GOODS

better, and the method v.:as first introduced to produce a stable foam when using drIed egg, which on its own will not hold air. In this case it is the flour proteins which are mainly responsible for entrapping the air. The use of G.M.S. or other emulsifying agents to speed up the whisking process is now very common, and the method is not confined to the use of dried egg. Many sponges using frozen egg are now made by the delayed soda method. Care must be taken, however, to see that the bicarbonate of soda is thoroughly mixed in at stage two. This is not very easy, especially as the soda does not readily dissolve in the small amount of water which is held back. Failure to obtain complete dispersion leads to sponges with a very unpleasant soda taste and some discoloration of the crumb. Typical recipes using the delayed soda method are: (I) USING FROZEN EGG AND GLYCERINE

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method Frozen egg Water Glycerine Special cake flour Sugar Cream powder Milk powder Water Bicarbonate of soda

96 32 3

lb. 3 1

100 106 3·5 4·5

16 2

3 3

oz.

Warm together to 100° F.

2 5 1·75 2·25

Add and whisk to full sponge, 10 minutes top speed, 10 minutes second speed.

8 1

Add and mix for 1 minute on slow speed

1·5

(2) USING DRIED EGG AND G.M.S. EMULSION

3 :

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method lb.

Dried egg Sugar Salt Special cake flour Cream powder

25 112 1 100 6

Water Milk Glycerine G.M.S. (3·1)

75 30 3 6

Milk Bicarbonate of soda

16 :3

oz. 12·5 8 0·5 2 3

Sieve together.

5·5 15 1·5 3

Mix together, add to dry ingredients. Whisk at top speed. 30 minutes.

8 1·5

Add to mix in 1 minute. Slow speed.

249

CAKE MAKING

(3)

USING PARTIAL POLYGLYCEROL ESTER-TYPE EMULSIFYING AGENT

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method lb.

Egg .104 Emulsifying agent 20 (3: I) Water 16 Special cake flour Sugar Milk powder Salt Cream powder Water Bicarbonate of soda

3. All-in

100 112 3 2 3 16 1·5

3 3

oz. 410

Blend with whisk on slow speed.

8 2 8 1·5 1 1·5

Sieve together, add, and whisk 2-4 minutes on top speed.

8·0 Disperse soda in water. 0·75 Add 1 minute second speed.

As the name implies, this is a method whereby all the ingredients are mixed together in one stage. In conventional vertical mixers this is not such a common method as the delayed soda but it does produce a reasonable sponge. For good textured sponges it requires the use of an emulsifying agent. The following produces a good sponge sandwich.

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method Egg Water Sugar Emulsifying agent Flour Baking powder Milk powder

4. Pressure Whisk

84 42

lb. 2 -1 3

100 3 4

oz. 10 5 10 3 2 1·5 2

Mix for 30 seconds on second speed.

Sieve together, add, and whisk. Top speed 4 minutes.

Strictly speaking, this is not a distinct method for making sponge goods, but rather the use of a specially enclosed mixer to allow for the introduction of air during the whisking process. It is merely a different method of adding air, and with this type of mixer sponges are made either by the orthodox or the all-in method. The following recipes illustrate the two methods of using the pressure whisk.

SPONGE GOODS

USING PRESSURE WHISK-QRTHODOX METHOD

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method lb. 4 6

Frozen egg Sugar Invert sugar Soya flour

72 96 4 4

Special cake flour Baking powder

96 3·5

Water Milk powder Glycerine

48 4 2

oz. 8

Whisk for 3 minutes at IS p.s.i.

Sieve together and add.

4 4

3-6

4 2

Mix together, add, and whisk I minute at 15 p.s.i.

USING PRESSURE WHISK-ALL-IN METHOD

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

Frozen egg Water Castor sugar Cornflour FlouT Baking powder Salt Milk powder Glycerine

}

88·5 36 98·5 100

2·45 0·82 4·9 4·9

lb. 1

oz. 11 Whisk all ingredients 11 together for 3 14 minutes at 15 p.s.i. 4·5 10 0·75 0·25 1·5 1·5

This same mixing requires a 20-minute whisking time in a conventional mixer with an increase of baking powder to 1·75 oz. (5·75 with flour at 100).

This is again virtually an all-in method using a different type ofmachine. All the ingredients are metered continuously into the mixer head together with air, which is fed in at a pre-determined rate to produce the desired density of batter. Details of this type of machine are given in Chapters 20 and 26. The back pressure is an important factor governing the bubble size and stability of the final batter. The air bubbles expand on emerging into atmospheric pressure, and the degree of expansion is related to the pressure difference. Too rapid an expansion may lead to coarse texture or a very unstable mixing. It is claimed for this type of mixing process that optimum incorporation of air makes a reduction in egg content possible-up to 10 per cent-and in baking powder-up to 75 per cent. Full emulsification by the mixer head reduces the need for emulsifying agents. A reduction of 50-75 per cent is possible.

5. Continuous

CAKE MAKING

A typical formula using a continuous mixer is as follows: 7.-t

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Batch quantities Frozen egg Water Granulated sugar Colour/jlauour/ syrup compound

91 28Âˇ5 106 3Âˇ6

Baking powder Special cake jlour } Soyajlour

3-6 100

lb. oz. 87 8 26 IOJ 8 3 3 92 3 12

Method

Pre-mix.

Add to pre-mix to form slurry.

The slurry is pumped to the mixer head with settings for the Oakes 14 M Mixer as follows: Rotor Pump Back pressure Main pressure Air flow

6. High-speed

Enriched Sponges

110 r.p.m. 110 r.p.m. 70 p.s.i. 100 p.s.i. 62

Again an all-in process using a different type of mixing action. The Tweedy/Cressex one-stage process, as referred to in Chapter 20 is also used for the manufacture of sponge goods of all types. No modification in the normal all-in type of mixing is required. The mixer is a modified Tweedy high-speed type, and the mixing is carried out at atmospheric pressure-no air injection. For sponge sandwiches the watt-hours per lb. of batter is 1'50, with a total mixing time of 1'50 minutes. This is a marked saving in time, as compared with the conventional vertical mixer, and it is claimed that the product is eq1,!ally as good. An enriched sponge is one which contains fat in addition to the basic ingredients, viz. egg, sugar and flour. As .mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, many of the sponge goods produced today, certainly by the large manufacturers, contain fats, plus emulsifying agents in varying proportions. The practice is becoming so common that it may well be at some future date that the enriched sponge will be regarded as the normal product. There is indeed a danger with modern production methods that the characteristics of the traditional sponge will be unknown except in the individual family baker's shop. There is no recognized lower limit to the amount of fat which must be present for a sponge to be termed 'enriched',

SPONGE GOODS

neither is there an upper limit befor-e the sponge becomes a cake in the normally accepted sense. Taking a survey of current recipes, it would appear tha.t the range is from 5 to 25 per cent, based on the egg (or egg and water). For gateaux bases of the butter sponge type the amount of fat can be up to 60 per cent based on the egg (i.e. 12 oz. per pint of egg). Boiled Genoese can be regarded as an enriched sponge with a very high fat content (80 per cent based on the egg), made possible by the mixing of a b ()iled fat and flour to a clear paste before adding to the spo nge. The following are typical recipes for enriched sponges. 1. BUTTER SPONGE

Orthodox method. Fat = ,3'0·6 (on egg) INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Smallm:ix: Method Egg Sugar

111 100

lb. 3 3

7·5 2

Whisk to sponge.

Butter

Add hot (200 0 F.). Slow speed-45 seconds

100

Sieve together, add, and clear.

Flour (soft) Cornflour Scone }l<JU%

5·5

near full

~·5

2. ENRICHED SPOISGE

All-in method. Fat = I4'3' (egg/water) INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method Eggs Water G.M.S. (40%) emulsion 3 : 1

100 40 30

Special cake flour Baking powder Milk powder Salt Sugar

100 5 10 0·6 100 20

Butter or margarine

lb. 3 1

oz.

Mix together.

4 15

Sieve together, add, and whisk. Top speed 5 minutes.

2 2·5 5 0·3 2

Heat to 200 0 F. Add on low speed over 1 minute.

253

CAKE MAKING

3. ENRICHED SPONGE Using oil-delayed soda method. Fat = 18'4 (egg/water) INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method Egg Water Glycerine

Special cake flour Cream powder Milk powder Salt Sugar

lb. oz. 3 - 14·5 - 2

96 29 4 100 3 12 1 100

0: 1

Milk Bicarbonate of soda

19 1·5

2 1·5 6

11·5

Warm to 100° F. Mix together. Sieve together and add. Whisk for 10 minutes top speed.

0·5 Add hot on slow speed.

9·6 Dissolve and add im0·75 mediately-clear well.

GATEAU BASE

Using oil and G.M.S.-delayed soda method. Fat (Egg/water)

= 47

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

Egg Water

100 28

Special cake flour Sugar Milk powder Cream of tartar

100 100 12 4·5

Bicarbonate of soda G.M.S. emulsion (1: 3)

2·25 32

Oil

254

lb. oz. g- 2 - 14 3 3

Warm to 100° F. Mix together.

2 2 6 2-25

Sieve together, add and whisk. 10 minutes top speed. 10 minutes second speed.

J.l25

Mix together and add over 1 minute.

Add and clear on slow speed.

SPONGE GOODS

BOILED GENOESE

Fat = 80 (on egg) INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

Egg Sugar Gfycerine

125 112 6

lb. 3 3

oz. 14Â·5 8 3

Compound fat Cake margarine Special cake .flour

50 50 100

1 1 3

9 9 2

Whisk to full sponge.

Bring fats to boil, add flour and make a clear paste. Add to sponge and clear.

1. C. H. F. Fuller, 'Aeration of Bakery Products', Chemistry and Industry, 1952, 185-188. 2. W. F. -Taylor, 'Egg Foam in Sponges', British Chapter, A.S.B.E. Proceedings, April 1957, 19-32. 3. B. E. Harper, 'G.M.S. in Sponges', Food Manufacture, 28, 429-432.

255

References

Almond Goods

ALMOND goods are generally understood to be those which contain almonds and sugar as the main basic ingredients. It is proposed in this chapter to extend this somewhat to include those goods containing almonds in considerable quantities, such as franzipanes, japonaise, and wafer mixings. Almond goods proper may be classified under the following headings:

(I) Those where the ratio of ground almonds to sugar is I : 2, to which is added egg whites in varying quantities. These may be further subdivided into(a) Those which are piped directly on to baking sheets-usually on wafer paper, such as Macaroon biscuits, Fancy Mac biscuits, Ratafias, Cracker Macs, all of which have a general formula of: Ground almonds Sugar Egg whites

100 200 60

(b) Those baked on or in a sweet paste base such as Congress Tarts, Almond Slices, Almond Crescents, which are slightly softer,_having a basic formula of: Ground almonds Sugar Egg whites

100 200 80

French Macaroons can be included in this group, the distinctive difference being that egg is used instead of egg white as the moistening and aerating agent. (c) Those baked on puff paste or in puff pastry cases, e.g., Scotch macaroons, Surrey puffs-lines produced by a well-known almond firm. These have the same basic formula as (b). (2) The second main classification is where the ratio of ground almonds to sugar is 1 : I. The greater the

ALMOND GOODS

amount of sugar, the greater the flow, and in this class of goods a lower sugar content is used, because retention of shape is an important factor. Increasing the ratio of almond to sugar also markedly alters the flavour and eating qualities generally. Examples of goods in this main category are English Routs, Parisian Routs, and Almond African biscuits. The general formula is: Ground almonds Sugar Egg whites

100 100 30

It should be understood that the foregoing is a general classification. There will, of course, be some variation in the ratio of almonds to sugar in particular recipes. There are two methods of mixing the ingredients to- Mixing Methods gether for the production of almond goods, both of which give good results. . (I) The ground almonds, sugar, and egg whites are mixed together and then beaten moderately. It is necessary for a certain amount of air to be beaten into the mix, but care has to be exercised in this direction, as too much aeration results in what is known as 'blowing' during baking. This is the tendency to form a large hole at the base in the case of products such as Congress tarts, or a concave bottom in the case of macaroon biscuits. There is also a tendency to shell badly, and the characteristic 'chewiness' associated with a close texture is lost. A small percentage of rice flour is often included in the mix in order to help in the production of this close texture. (2) An alternative method is to whisk the egg whites with an equal weight of sugar and blend this in to the remainder of the sugar and ground almonds. This is a popular method, especially when marzipan is used instead of ground almonds. While quite good almond products can be made with Use if Marzipan ground almonds, the use of marzipan or a macaroon paste and Macaroon produces better results. Paste The first point to remember when using marzipan is that Marzipan the ratio of almonds to sugar must be retained as in the original formula. Top-quality raw marzipan contains twothirds almonds and one~third sugar. There is also about 14 per cent moisture, but for practical purposes the significant point is the almonds/sugar ratio. Cake marzipan contains one-third almonds, two-thirds sugar, plus a percentage of glucose. There are other marzipans on the market with varying almond/sugar ratios, but these proportions are usually stated clearly on the container. For example, 40 per cent almonds, 60 per cent sugar. 257

CAKE MAKING

When using raw marzipan with an almond/sugar ratio of an equal weight of sugar and marzipan brings the ratio to I : 2, which is what is required for macaroon biscuits, etc.

2 : I

ExaDlple

3 parts raw mar:zipan = 2 parts almonds + I part sugar 3 parts sugar = 2 parts almonds 3 parts raw marzipan 4 parts sugar

.'. Almond/sugar ratio

Similarly, if a ratio of I

: I

1'2

is required, then:

3 parts raw marzipan I part sugar = 2 parts almonds parts sugar Cake marzipan needs no addition of sugar when a ratio of I : 2 is required. For a ratio of I : I, then ground almonds must be added as under: 2

3 parts cake marzipan = I part almonds X 3 parts cake marzipan + I part almonds monds 2 parts sugar

Macaroon Paste

parts sugar 2 parts al-

Due to the presence of the moisture in the marzipan the amount of whites to be added has to be adjusted slightly, but this is the only modification in the formula. The method when using marzipan is as follows: The marzipan should be warmed slightly so that it is pliable. It is then placed in the machine bowl, together with the sugar. Egg white is added gradually until a soft paste is obtained. This takes approximately two-thirds of the total whites. The remaining one-third whites is whisked to a stiff foam and added on two portions. The first is blended in, and the mixing cleared. The remainder is then folded in lightly. Macaroon paste is virtually a rather tight macaroon biscuit mixture, that is it contains almonds and sugar in the ratio of I : 2 plus albumen solution. A typical formula is: Marzipan (2 : 1) Granulated sugar Castor sugar Albumen solution

150 75 75 40

This is equivalent to: Almonds Sugar Egg whites

100 200 40

ALMOND GOODS

Provided that the macaroon paste contains almonds and sugar in this ratio of I : 2, then aU that it is necessary to do is to add the additional whites and beat. Alternatively, and better still, whisk the whites to a stiff foam and add in two additions. Typical recipes are as follows: MACAROON BISCUITS-USING GROUND ALMONDS

Almonds Sugar Whites

INGREDIENTS

lb. 1

oz. -

Method

Ground almonds Sugar Ground rice Egg whites

2 4

Mix dry ingredients together. Add whites and beat 3 minutes top speed.

100

200 60

MACAROON BISCUITS-USING MARZIPAN

Almonds Sugar Whites

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Raw marzipan Sugar Egg whites

3 3

Mix together to a smooth paste.

Egg whites

100

200 60

Whisk to a stiff form. Add half and clear. Fold in lightly.

remainder

CONGRESS TARTS

INGREDIENTS

lb.

Ground almonds Sugar Ground rice

Egg whites

oz.

Method

Almonds Sugar Whites

Mix dry ingredients together.

100 200 80

4 4

Whisk to a stiff foam. Add half and clear. Fold in remainder lightly.

Line pastry pans with sweet paste and spot with raspberry jam. Pipe in almond filling.

259

CAKE MAKING

DUTCH MACAROONS

INGREDIENTS

Ground almonds

Castor sugar Icing sugar Egg whites

lb.

oz.

4 12

2 1

Method

Almonds Sugar Whites

Mix together and heat to 90° F.

100 240 80

Layout and allow to stand for 24 hours

FRENCH MACAROONS

Almonds Sugar Eggs

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Raw marzipan 2: 1 Castor sugar Whole eggs

3 3 2

Work egg gradually into the marzipan alternately with the sugar until smooth.

12 4

100 240 110

Layout into crimped sweet-paste-lined pans. PARISIAN ROUTS

Almonds Sugar Whites

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Ground. almonds Icing sugar Egg whites

2 2

Mix together and heat to 100° F.

100 100 30

Pipe out into fancy shapes. Allow to dry and flash in hot oven.

Japonaise

Japonaise mixings have a similar composition to almond goods proper, containing almonds, sugar, and whites. Taking a survey of current recipes, a general formula for J ap fancies and gateaux is: Almonds Sugar Egg whites

Use

of Hazelnuts

Method

of Mixing

100 150-200 100

A rather firmer mix is required for jap slices, so that the ratio of almonds to sugar is nearer to I : 1·5, while there are some very light jap fancy mixings with a ratio of I : 3. Many jap mixings contain a small proportion of ground hazelnuts. This is a direct replacement for ground almonds. Marzipan and macaroon pastes are again used extensively rather than ground almonds. The normal method is to produce a stiff meringue by whisking the egg whites and approximately an equal 260

ALMOND GOODS

weight of sugar. The ground almonds and the remainder of the sugar are then carefully blended in to form a clear mix. This produces a much lighter article than the normal almond mixings. When using marzipan this must first be softened with some of the whites. Some of the sugar is mixed in at the same time. The remainder of the whites and sugar-equal weights approximately-are whisked to a stiff meringue. The meringue is then added to the paste in two portions, the first mixed in well and the second blended in lightly. Typical recipes are as follows: JAP FANCIES USING GROUND ALMONDS

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Egg whites Sugar

I I

4 4

Whisk to a stiff meringue.

Ground almonds Sugar Cornflour

Mix together and blend in carefully

â&#x20AC;˘

Almonds Sugar Whites

100 130 100

JAP FANCIES USING MARZIPAN

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Raw marzipan 2 : I Castor sugar Egg whites Cornflour

2 -

4 10 10 4

Mix sugar and cornflour. Add whites and sugar! cornflour alternately to produce a smooth paste.

Egg whites Sugar

14 12

Whisk to a stiffmeringue. Add half and clear, fold in remainder lightly.

Almonds Sugar Whites

100 150 100

JAP SLICES-USING MACAROON PASTE AND HAZELNUTS

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Macaroon paste

Place in machine bowl.

Sugar Egg whites

I I

Whisk to a stiff meringue. Add in two additions.

Ground hazelnuts

Fold in lightly.

Almonds Sugar Whites

100 150 100

CAKE MAKING

..'-

JAP FANCIES-USING MACAROON PASTE

INGREDIENTS

Macaroon paste

Frangipane

lb.

oz.

Method

Place in bowl.

100

200

Egg whites Castor sugar

14 -

Whisk to a stiff meringue. Add in two additions.

Ground hazelnuts

Fold in lightly and clear.

100

Frangipane fillings are virtually good-quality cake mixings where a substantial proportion of the flour is replaced by ground almonds. They contain fats, sugar, eggs, flour, and ground almonds. It is a very common practice to use a percentage of good-quality cake crumbs in place of ground almonds. This produces a very satisfactory filling, provided at least 40 per cent of the dry ingredients are ground almonds. The distinctive character and flavour is due to the almond content, so that where the cake crumb content virtually replaces almonds, then the product, strictly speaking, should no longer be referred to as frangipane. As with the other almond goods dealt with in this chapter, marzipan or macaroon paste can be used in place of ground almonds and sugar with the same basic rule applying: that is to maintain the same almond/sugar content as in the original formula. Good-quality frangipanes have a general formula of: Fats Sugar Egg Almonds/cake crumb/flour

Mixing Methods

Almonds Sugar Whites

100 100 75-100

100

The normal sugar-batter m'Cthod is used for these mixings with the dry ingredients-ground almonds, cake crumbs, flour-being added at the final stage. The only modification to this is when using marzipan or macaroon paste. In the case of marzipan the fat is first of all added to it in order to produce a soft paste free from lumps. The additional sugar is added and the mixture is then beaten up fairly light, the eggs added as in the sugar-batter method, and finally the flour is mixed in. The batter should be well cleared at the final stage. With macaroon paste this is creamed up with the fat, then the eggs added as in the sugar-batter process and the flour mixed in at the final stage and cleared.

ALMOND GOODS

Typical recipes are as follows: FRANGIPANE-TOP Q.UALITY

Ground almonds = 75 per cent dry ingredients INGREDIENTS

lb.

Butter or margarine Compound fat Castor sugar

Eggs

Ground almonds Flour

oz.

Flour! Almonds at 100

Cream up light.

100 100

Method

Add in four additions.

Mix together, add and well clear.

100

FRANGIP ANE-USING MARZIPAN

Almond = 75 per cent dry ingredients INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Flour! Almonds at 100

Marzipan Butter or margarine

2 2

4 -

Mix together to a soft paste.

Fat 100 Sugar 100 Eggs 75

Sugar

Add and mix in well.

Eggs

Add in four additions.

Flour

Add and clear.

FRANGIP ANE SLICES-USING MACAROON PASTE

Almond = 47 per cent dry ingredients INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Macaroon paste Butter and margarine

2 I

Mix together and beat up light.

Eggs

Flour

Flour! Almonds at 100 Fat 100 Sugar 100 Eggs 100

Add in four additions. Add and clear.

Wafer mi~dngs as a whole are virtually soft cake mixings using egg whites instead of eggs. This produces the languede-chat type of product. Almond wafer mixings are very similar, the only difference being that a considerable pro-

Almond Wafer Mixings

CAKE MAKING

portion of the flour is replaced with ground almonds. They are often coloured and are exceptionallY' good for using with stencils to produce various fancy shapes. A typical recipe is:

Use of Other Nut Products

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Marzipan Icing sugar Dairy cream Cornflour Egg whites

Work down marzipan, sugar and some egg whites to produce a smooth paste. Beat in cream, cornflour, and whites to produce a flowing consistency. Leave for I hour before using.

Many of the foregoing types of goods can be satisfactorily made using other nuts. While some are used as substitutes due to the high cost of almonds, others, for example, hazelnuts, walnuts, ground apricot kernels, or paste, may be used in their own right. Coconut is also used extensively in its own right to produce a good range of products, one of the most common being coconut macaroons. With coconut it is necessary to heat the mixing and a typical recipe is: COCONUT MACAROONS

INGREDIENTS

lb.

oz.

Method

Fine dessicated coconut Castor sugar Ground rice

3 5

Mix together thoroughly.

Egg whites

8 8

Add and mix well over a bainmarie to approx. 100Â° F. Allow to cool-mix again before piping out.

Gateaux and Fancies

THERE is a wide variety of decorative materials available to the confectioner with which he can produce a selection of very attractive gateaux and afternoon tea fancies; attractive not only in their appearance and finish but in their eating qualities. â&#x20AC;˘ It is with this point in mind that careful consideration must be given in deciding the type of finish to be made to a specific variety of cake base. The forms of decorative materials include: fondant, Decorative marshmallows, buttercreams and fresh creams, almond materials pastes, marzipans, sugar pastes, jams, jellies, chocolate, fudges, meringues. The variety of cake bases available will vary from the Cake bases very lightest of sponges through butter sponges, light highratio cakes, medium light flour batter and blended cakes, boiled Genoese to the heavier sugar-batter type Genoese, as well as the sweet pastry lined fillings, meringue and almond meringue mixtures. It can be seen that each of the decorative mediums will not make an attractive blend, either in appearance or eating quality, with every type of cake base mentioned. The lightest of the sponges and cake mixtures will prove most appetizing when sandwiched with jams, jellies, creams, or blends of marshmallows and buttercreams, and decorated with a light icing, such as water icing, fudge or a buttercream. Cake bases of medium lightness will blend attractively with a light fondant icing: that is a blend of fondant and marshmallow, 60/40, or a fudge icing, or buttercream finish, particularly as layer cakes. The heavier Genoese varieties are most suitably used with fondant, particularly when hand dipping is employed, also with the marzipan-wrapped cakes, such as Battenburg, where a clean, firm cut surface of cake without undue crumbliness is required.

CAKE MAKING

Another important consideration is the relative sweetness of the cake base to the quantity and sweeCtiess of the sandwiching and decorating material used, avoiding excessive sweetness in the overall taste of the confection. Packaging and distribution will also be a determining factor in the type ,of decoration employed. A fudge icing or cream, which dries with a thin shell-like crust, being ideal for the individual wrapped unit, as will the marzipan or sugar-paste-covered cakes, together with the chocolateenrobed varieties, which are also suitable for wrapping in foil. Preparation of Cake Bases for Decoration

While the very light sponges are best decorated and finished as soon as they are cool, the Genoese and cake mixtures will slice and sandwich more easily if left for a day after baking. Sheet Genoese should be subjected to a little pressure with a baking sheet to close the crumb slightly and make it firmer for cutting. All traces of skin or crust should be removed from the cake base, as this tends to spoil flavour, and the cake layered once or twice with appropriate jam, jelly, or flavoured buttercream, into which can be incorporated chopped nuts or fruit as desired. The masking of the cake surface on top and sides where possible with a good-quality apricot puree, freshly boiled, will always provide a little sharpness to the overall flavour, whether it is buttercream or fondant that is being used for decoration. It also acts as an insulating layer, preventing the passage of moisture from fondant to the cake, so helping to retain the gloss and fresh appearance of the fondant covering for a longer period. The scope and variety of finish of gateaux and fancies, a few of which are illustrated, is practically unlimited. The attractiveness of the fondant finish is essentially in the perfection of the covering, the brightness, and the minimum thickness offondant, together with simplicity and effectiveness of line and added decor, being a complete blend with the flavour of the gateau or fancy. Appealing flavour blends can be produced in preparing fondant-covered fancies by varying the topping mixtures used on the Genoese bases, shaped marzipan pieces or piped macaroon mixtures being particularly suitable. Alternatively, marshmallows or a blend of buttercream and macaroon mixtures can be used effectively. For chocolate-covered confections a piped chocolate ganache provides an ideal topping. It is essential that these piped toppings are allowed to set and become quite firm

GATEAUX AND FANCIES

before covering with the icing or chocolate, and the buttercream varieties are best subjected to refrigeration for a short period before dipping. Fondant-covered gateaux and fancies always appear most attractive and fresh when a bright clear gloss is produced on the surface. This can be attained by paying attention to the preparation of the cake base, using a boiled puree for masking, warming the fondant carefully to 100-110 F. without over-heating, and by using stock syrup to produce the correct consistency for covering. The use of goodquality leaf gelatine in the stock syrup! oz. to every 1 pint syrup or the addition of a small quantity of marshmallow, 10 per cent of the fondant, will help considerably in retaining the fondant gloss for a longer period. A fondant glace finish produces an attractive variation of the more conventional finish. For this variety chopped fruit, pineapple or cherries being very saitable, is placed firmly on the surface of the cut Genoese pieces after a masking of hot apricot puree has been applied. The Genoese pieces are then placed on to draining wires and then completely enrobed with suitably flavoured and coloured fondant which has been heated to 1400 F. As soon as the fondant is dry, the wire full offancies placed on a drip tray are then put into an oven at 4000 F. for a few minutes, just until the fondant begins to melt at the side of the fancies. Withdraw them from the oven immediately, allow to cool and set, as they will, with an attractive transparent glaze. This variety of finish is less sticky in nature, easier to pack, and because of the thinner covering offondant, less sickly sweet to eat. This is a method lending itself to a continuous finishing sequence. Tinned fruit can also be used in preparing a delicious variety of jam-dipped fancy. The small mandarin oranges, apricots, or peaches are best used. These are placed firmly on the apricot pureed surface of cut Genoese shapes, together with a half cherry to brighten the colour contrast. Using a dipping fork, the fancies are immersed in freshly heated apricot puree, surplus jam removed, and the sides of the fancy then pressed into a fine roasted coconut. Other jam-dipped varieties can be decorated with marshmallow topping, in place of the fruit, or alternatively, piped with buttercream after the jam-dipping process. 0

Mechanical aids can be usefully employed to produce semi-automatic sequences in the decoration and finishing processes.

Large-Scale Production

CAKE MAKING

Cake trimming and slicing machines with horizontal and vertical vibrating slicing blades can be usecl:~'to cut Genoese sheets into suitable shapes for bar gateaux and layer cakes, Battenburgs, and enrobed fancies. Ribbons of cream can be applied continuously as a layer-Âˇ ing or topping through suitably shaped extruder nozzles, prior to passing'tlirough an enrober applying an icing or chocolate on a continuous-band production line. Added decorative line piping can also be introduced automatically. Mechanical sheeting rollers can be used, pinning out marzipan and sugar pastes to accurate degrees of thickness in the production of Battenburg cakes and marzipanwrapped fancies. Marshmallow and cream toppings can be applied on to biscuit and sponge bases automatically using mechanical depositors. Continuous Swiss-roll production plant can be used to produce sponge layer bars, splitting lengthwise after cream spreading; angled guide arms achieving the layering, and subsequently being cut in suitably sized bars which pass on to the enrober and cooler. Torten and Continental Type Fancies

(I)

The word 'Torte' is the German term for a large, flat gateau. 'Torten' is the plural. These cakes vary considerably in different parts of Europe, and indeed, within the borders of Germany itself, in the make-up of the base and in the decoration. The secret of success when producing this type of gateau is to emulate the continental confectioner in his meticulous attention to detail. This is a product which the craftsman can take a pride and joy in making. In Germany, Torten are usually divided into equal sections and, with certain exceptions, each segment is decorated identical to its neighbour. These sections are cut and sold to the cash-and-carry customer in the shop or, more popularly, to the person taking morning coffee or afternoon tea in a restaurant. It is sold, also, as a whole cake for parties, etc. The packaging of the pieces is very important, and small cardboard trays are necessary to ensure the customer gets the cake home in first-class condition. Torten can be divided into three main groups. The first incorporates a wide variety of bases and is finished with buttercream and/or chocolate. The top decoration signifies the overall flavour. For example, a

GATEAUX AND FANCIES

'rum and chocolate Torte' would be coated with chocolate, finished with buttercream decor, and have a piped 'R' as a motif. The second group of Torten use a smaller variety of bases, mainly sponge types and puff paste, but incorporate large quantities of fresh cream in combination with fresh or canned fruits. In this country legislation does not allow this type of cake to be labelled as a 'fresh cream Torte' because the cream has been combined with a stabilizing agent such as gelatine, or with custard to produce a cream known as 'diplomat'. This is really of little consequence, because once the customer has tasted it, further purchases are assured. Torten containing fresh cream should never be attempted unless adequate refrigeration is available both in the bakery, and in the shop or restaurant. Daily production is absolutely necessary if high standards are to be maintained, although this need apply only to the finish, as the partfinished bases lend themselves admirably to the process of deep-freezing, being taken from stock as required. The third grouping consists of speciality cakes such as the Linzer Torte, which has a base made from a type of Viennese containing ground almonds, or the Sacher Torte, a rather heavy chocolate sponge, sandwiched with a layer of apricot jam and topped with a special chocolate icing. There are also Torten produced to celebrate various holidays, such as the grape Torte for the wine festival. A wide variety of bases and fillings can be combined to produce very pleasing results, and many confectioners have a speciality of their own particular establishment. With this type of confectionery it is important to remember that a careful balance between bases and fillings must be maintained. The fat and sugar levels should be such that the eating quality is not too sickly. Sponge bases are made with a high egg, low sugar content, and fillings are made from eggs and custards. When using fruit the sugar content should be kept at a minimum so that the natural sharpness of the flavour is predominant. Natural flavours should be used as far as possible. The vanilla pod, lemon or orange zest and juice, spirits and liqueurs, roasted nuts, block chocolate, and powdered coffee will enhance the quality of these cakes, leaving the essence bottle for the more common type of confectionery. Torten are cut into segments, and the interior is on display, so every effort should be made to see that the inside is

269

(2)

(3)

CAKE MAKING

Hazel Nougat Torte

Rum and

Chocolate Torte

Strawberry Torte

as attractive as the finish. Good contrast of colour between base and filling should be aimed at, anq: strong adhesion between one layer and another, so that a good, clean cut is possible. To ensure good packaging do not exceed a height of 21- in., coat smoothly and keep the edging perfectly square. Make the decoration simple but interesting. A few examples of well-balanced Torten are given as follows: From a sheet of roulade coated with nougat buttercream, cut strips I in. in width, and proceed to roll these up as for Swiss roll until a disc 10 in. in diameter is obtained. Place in a refrigerator to set. Sandwich between two chocolate Vienna sponge discs approx i in. thick, using buttercream containing roasted, crushed hazelnuts. Coat with nougat buttercream, set off, and then coat again to get a better finish. Divide into 16 or 18 portions and decorate simply with clean lines, finished with roasted whole hazels and also chocolate motifs. Refrigerate before cutting. Take 6 thin discs of dobos sponge and sandwich alternately with white rum-flavoured butter cream and a dark chocolate buttercream. Brush each layer generously with a rum syrup (75 per cent rum: 25 percent syrup). The filling should be at least t in. thick, so that, when cut, the brown and white layers show distinctly. Coat with a layer of well-beaten ganache and mature for 12 hours in a refrigerator. Coat with a good quality of baker's chocolate (or add 25 per cent couverture). Mark and cut through the chocolate layer with a hot knife so that the chocolate does not splinter when finally cut by the shop assistant or customer. Finish with a whirl of ganache on each section, a touch of green decor, and a chocolate 'R' motif. From good-quality puff paste cut out an I I-in. vol-auvent case with a I-in. edge, and two very thin well-docked discs also II-in. in diameter. These must be baked out thoroughly untU they are really dry; an oven at about 4000 F. is ideal. The bases can be stored in a dry cupboard, at a temperature of 80 0 F., providing the humidity is kept low; and made up as required. Brush the bottom of the vol-au-vent case with boiled apricot puree or flanjelly, and fill with strawberries. Fill in between the fruit with a sauce made from I pint fruit juice coloured bright red and thickened with I oz. of arrowroot, to which is added, while still hot, two leaves of soaked gelatine. Place on top of this one of the discs cut to fit in the top

GATEAUX AND FANCIES

of the vol-au-vent. Now place a lo-in. metal plate over this, and with a sharp knife trim to this size, so that it will fit into a 2-in.-high Torte ring. This will approximately half fill the ring, the remainder being filled with the following mixture: t pint of vanilla custard (to which has been added, while still hot, three leaves of soaked gelatine) and t pint whipped cream. The custard must be cooled to at least 60° F. before blending gently but thoroughly through the cream. Trim the remaining disc to 10 in. and place on top, then refrigerate until firmly set. Cut round the ring and remove. Coat the whole with whipped cream, and dress the sides with crushed macaroon or jap pieces. Mark the top into sections, and on to each place a whole glazed strawberry. Finish with a little cream piping on each segment. Sandwich a i-in. chocolate sponge to a disc of sweet almond shortcrust using black cherry jam. Place into a 2-in.-high Torte ring and cover with a layer of pitted black cherries in a sauce as given for Strawberry Torte. Cover with another disc of chocolate sponge and cool thoroughly. Fill with t pint custard containing 4 oz. plain chocolate and three leaves gelatine cooled to 60° F. and mixed with t pint whipped cream. After setting off in the refrigerator, remove the ring and coat with plain whipped cream. Cover the entire Torte with flaked chocolate, dusted with icing sugar. When making fresh cream Torten, the cream should be slightly underwhipped to allow for further mixing when blending with custard or coating. It is impossible to give a complete range of bases that can be used in Torten and continental fancies but important details for the production of the main ones are given as follows: The eggs and sugar are warmed until the sugar is completely dissolved (approx. 110° F). They are then whipped together until a thick sponge results. The flour is folded in by hand. Whip the egg yolks and some of the sugar to a sponge. At the same time whip the egg whites and the rest of the sugar to a meringue. Combine the two together and fold in the flour. Maximum addition up to t of sugar weight in the warm mix-up to i sugar weight in the cold mix. Raw marzipan can be used providing it is made to a smooth paste with egg yolks and a weight not exceeding the

Black Forest Torte

Torten Bases

Sponges WARM MIXTURE

COLD MIXTURE

BUTTER SPONGE ALMOND SPONGE

CAKE MAKING

VIENNA SPONGE .~

INGREDIENTS

Eggs Talks Castor sugar Salt

Water Grycerine Lemon zest Cake flour Cornflour

lb.

oz.

Method

1 3 14

Warm eggs and sugar to 1l0° F. Whisk to a thick sponge.

10 3

1 1

Warm and add.

Sieve together, add and fold in carefully.

Bake at 4000 F. For Chocolate Vienna add 2 oz. cocoa, deduct 2 oz. flour, and increase sugar by I oz. Also add i- oz. cinnamon and chocolate colour. ROULADE

IINGREDIENTS

oz. 10

Eggs Talks (3 oary) Raw marzipan Granulated sugar

3 5

Breadflour Cornflour

I Method Warm eggs and sugar to llO° F. Work in marzipan as per Almond Sponge method. Sieve together, add and fold in carefully.

Bake at 5000 F. for 4 minutes. Yield: I sheet 15 in. X 18 in. DOBOS (COLD SPONGE MIXTURE)

This mixture is usually stencilled out on to greaseproof discs using a 10 in. X ~ in. ~etal stencil. INGREDIENTS

oz.

Method

Castor sugar White (8 onM

Whisk to meringue.

Castor sugar Talks (8 DaM

Whisk to sponge.

Butter

Add at 110° F. to the yolk/sugar, mix prior to blending in the whites/sugar mix.

Salt flour

Add.

Bake at 4200 F. Yield: 6 bases sufficient for one Torte.

GATEAUX AND FANCIES

sugar content is added. No alterations to the recipe are necessary. Add ground almonds (slightly bitter) up to the equivalent sugar weight. Deduct the weight of almonds from the flour content. The range of small confectionery items over the whole of Europe is too large to include in a book of this type, but a description of the more general items can be made as follows: A typical recipe for this item is given in Chapter 2 I. It is a light sponge drop with a dry texture, having an indentation on the underside in which various fillings are placed. Two are sandwiched together to form an almost spherical shape and then covered with fondant and other media. The sponge shell is filled with thick vanilla custard, glazed lightly with puree, and coated with a rich, chocolate/fondant. A spiral of the same fondant is piped on to the top, and it is then finished with a silver dragee. The sponge shell is filled with a mixture of raw marzipan which has been softened down with a liqueur or rum with quantities of finely chopped glace fruits added. Glaze with puree and coat with white fondant. Finish by painting on a face with edible chocolate colour and add a marzipan hat. It is important to fill the othello shell sufficiently to moisten the sponge all through as it stands. Insufficient filling is a common fault with this type of fancy and leads to a poor eating quality. These are formed from sheets of thin sponge, japonaise or pastry, etc., and sandwiched with jellies, flavoured buttercreams, fresh cream, and other fillings to give a cut surface as neat and colourful as a cut Torte. These fancies can also be built up in half-round formers, shaped like a gutter, to give a different look to the finished fancy. Cover the inside of a half-round former with plain roulade and coat with buttercream flavoured with fine zest and juice of an orange. Place mandarin orange segments along the entire length with tinned cherries on either side and add enough buttercream for good adhesion. Cover with a strip of chocolate roulade. Fill up the rest of the mould with more orange-flavoured buttercream to which has been added a large quantity of broken macaroon pieces soaked in orange curacoa. Close the former with another strip of chocolate roulade and set off in the refrigerator. Turn out K

Continental Type Fancies The Othello Shell

Chocolate Othello

The Carnival Othello

Strip Fancies

Orange Slice

CAKE MAKING

Apple Slice

from the mould and finish by coating the rounded surface with very thin orange marzipan (to which has been added 50 per cent raw marzipan). Divide into sections and add a little decoration to each portion. A low-sugar, custard buttercream should be used because of the high proportion of filling, and the slice must only be cut when firmly set. Line the inSide of a half-round former with plain roulade and fill with the following mixture: oz. diced apples cooked in wine or lemon juice and water, with only enough sugar added to avoid sharpness. 4 oz. small sultanas boiled to soften and then soaked in rum for 12 hours. l pint custard containing 4 leaves gelatine and cooled to 12

60Â° F. pint whipped cream.

Drain the fruits and mix together, blend the custard and cream, and add the fruit. Turn at once into the former and close with another strip of roulade. Set up in the refrigerator. Cut into sections and dust heavily with icing sugar. Enclose each slice in a sling of greaseproof paper for easier handling and packaging by shop staff.

274

Baking of Confectionery Goods

IT is most important in the bakery to have efficient ovens, for high fuel consumption is ruinous to any business. Ovens should be easily controlled, so that the heat can be regulated to the requirements of the goods. They should be easy to heat up to bakery temperatures, and be so constructed that when heated they will not lose heat except in performing the work for which they have been designed. A bright and clean exterior is also desirable, and so it is always best to have glazed tiles, or vitreous enamel, to oven fronts, and polished handles on doors and fittings, since all these help to give a bright appearance to the bakery. There are many types of ovens in use, and it is difficult to state which types are the best, but for confectionery work there has been for many years an increasing tendency to use either gas or electricity as fuels, since they are clean and involve the lowest labour cost in their operation. Ovens may be classified in various ways, according to their construction, method of use, method of heating, or according to the class of articles baked therein. Electrically heated or gas-heated multi-deck peel ovens are now widely used together with reel ovens. In larger establishments straight-through travelling ovens or controlled tray ovens are used. Today the trend is towards heating by turbo-radiant effects rather than direct gas heating as in the traditional biscuit and confectionery travelling ovens. For slab cake and pound cakes oil-fired draw-plate ovens are still extensively used or turbo-radiant swing tray ovens, also oil-fired. Multi-deck, electric- and gas-fired steam-pipe ovens have gained in popularity. These are constructed in units of two to four or five decks of varying sizes, the main advantages being economy of floor space and fuel. Steam-tube ovens

275

Multi-Deck Ovens

CAKE MAKING

consist of straight tubes placed in rows between each oven chamber so that the bottom tubes of one neck constitute the top tubes of the deck below. The tubes project into a fire box, and small bunsen burners play on each tube so that the maximum efficiency is obtained fr~m .the gas consumed. Each row of burners is thermostatically controlled, which means that it is possible to have a different temperature on each deck and, thus, to bake a range of confectionery in one unit. The chambers possess a low crown and, consequently, it is found that goods bake more quickly because the heat is constant and, owing to thermostatic control, is being replaced as soon as it is used. Also, because of the low crown, there is less cubic capacity, and so less air to heat up and become saturated with water by evaporation. Consequently, by reduced baking time, losses from evaporation can be reduced and weight conserved. In some cases it is found that temperature readings from 10 to 20 degrees lower than normal may be used, and yet give a similar type of baking. Electric ovens have now reached such a stage of efficiency that their use for confectionery work is becoming widespread. Peel ovens find flavour, and are particularly suited for small bakeries. The method of heating by means of elements differs with different makes, and much attention has been given to the distribution of heat uniformly in crown and sole, and to the loading factor-a most important consideration. The reel oven is now popular because of its efficiency in running and its versatility in baking. Reel ovens are built in many sizes to suit small or large production, they are economical on labour and are heated either by gas or oil, depending on their size and the bakery in which they are situated. Confectionery Travelling Ovens

There are two main types of travelling ovens used for confectionery, namely the 'Straight Through' and 'Controlled Tray'. Gas firing by multiple burners with the flame directly in the baking chamber is sometimes used for confectionery ovens. This method gives accurate control of both top and bottom heat along the whole length of the baking chamber, and enables the baker to have any desired temperature at any point in the oven by lighting or turning-off burners at the required points. The greatest heat can thus be concentrated at either the feed or the delivery end of the oven to suit the goods being baked, which is a marked advantage over peel

BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

and drawplate ovens, where no such temperature variation can be economically exercised. These ovens are built in many varieties, some having a single baking chamber, while others have two decks-one above the other-and each deck can again be sub-divided into various baking chambers. Such ovens can be made to suit the output of any bakery, the length ranging from 25 ft. to 50, 60, or even 100 ft. It should here be stated that with their great flexibility, due to accurate control of both heat and baking time, these ovens can be used for an unending variety of goods. The articles to be baked. should naturally be arranged to follow one another in such a way that only small adjustments need be made to either the speed or the temperature of the oven, as a new line is fed into the baking chamber-the underlying principle being the same as in the case of baking in a peel oven with a 'falling' temperature. The ovens can be built to have the operating (control) side to suit the bakery layout. The drive usually incorporates a variable speed device so that the baking time can be quickly adjusted to suit a variety of goods. The body of confectionery travelling ovens is usually constructed in steel, having double walls packed with insulating material. They are all fitted with inspection doors to enable the operator to see the goods at various stages of baking. Oven lights, thermometers-and, in some cases, steaminjecting pipes are also provided. The gas burners are fed from a gas compressor, which either simply boosts the gas from the main and allows for the air to be mixed at the burner injector or else adopts the premix method of adjusting the quantities of gas and air and then boosts both together. The raising of the pressure is to give an equal flame along the whole length of the burner tube and so ensure even baking across the oven. Turbo-radiant types of ovens work on the 'Heat flow' principle, which comprises the radiation of heat from sets of tubes through which hot gases are passed, the heat being derived from either a single or a number of burners, each heating a section of the oven. These burners can be either gas or oil fired. No confectioner's oven is ever required to exceed 5000 F. A competent confectioner should always know the temperature at which to bake his goods most effectively. When these have been well made and ready for baking it depends on the efficiency of the ovensman whether they come out correctly baked, with an attractive and appetizing appearance. The majority of the products should be baked in as hot an oven

CAKE MAKING

as possible, consistent with their being baked before taking on too much colour. When cakes are bakell. in too hot an oven a thick crust is produced with a huge crack on top. This is due to the heat forming a crust before the cakes have finished rising; then, as the gas in the interior expands, it must crack the .crllst to escape. Thus, too hot an oven will spoil the general appearance of goods and make them close and heavy in texture. On the other hand, if they are baked in too cool an oven they will come out with an insipid appearance, and the inside may look dark, open, and crumbly, and have a bitter taste, or eat harsh and dry. The ovensman can make or mar all the work of the rest of the staff by lack of judgment or care. It is necessary to regulate the work so that the goods required to be made can be baked in the correct rotation in the oven. It is the usual practice to have the ovens heated to the correct temperature in the morning in preparation for the day's work, and the ovens so regulated that they gradually cool down during the process of baking. The following baking temperatures of the various types of products are only a guide to those whose ovens, when registering about 4600 F., can bake a batch of bread properly. One should remember that it is not good policy to be guided too closely by the reading of the thermometers; experience of the conditions of the ovens must be included. An efficient ovensman must be gifted with a large amount of common sense. He must develop a sense of judgment which instinctively tells him when goods are baked. Small goods of all types usually come first in the day's work, not only because they are wanted first in the shop and in a fresh condition but also-because the oven is usually more suitable then than later in the day. Whenever possible, each batch of goods should be just sufficient to fill the oven, and whenever the goods are taken from the oven, there should be another ovenful ready to go in, especially when electrically heated ovens are used which can give continuous baking. Other ovens may have to be left for 5 or 10 minutes before further baking can be carried out. FerDlented

Goods

Fermented goods are usually made first thing each morning. When sufficiently proved, they should be baked in a hot oven (450-4600 F.). About 8 minutes is sufficient to bake a batch of 2-oz. plain or currant buns properly if the oven is right. They should be baked to a rich brown colour, careful note being made that they are properly baked by testing at the light-coloured parts of the sides. Rich Bath-buns require

BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

a slightly cooler oven (about 4300 F.), and if the:: oven is inclined to be hot on the sole a good plan is to ba...ke them on a double baking sheet. Chelsea buns, which are batched close together on baking sheets, should also be baked at this lower temperature, otherwise, the hot oven would brown them on top before the centre buns were baked: Baking time 12-15 minutes. Sultana scones, cream scones, wholemeal sccmes, other varieties of oven scones, the cheaper varieties or aerated buns, such as raspberry, rice, lemon, orange, and r~ck buns, with not more than 4 oz. fat and 4 oz. sugar to each pound of flour, should all be baked in a hot oven (about.,450o F.). Richer varieties of aerated buns, such as raspberry buns containing more fat and sugar than the above proportions should be baked in a cooler oven (about 4200 F~). Small cakes, such as Madeira, lunch, cherry, and queen cakes, which are baked in patty pans or cases, require a Qloderate oven of 380-4000 F., depending on the richness of the mixture.

Chetnically Aerated Goods

The baking temperatures of these depend on the <J.llality of the paste and filling employed. Jam and lemon "tarts are usually baked at 4200 F. Fruit tarts and custard tarts are also baked at the same temperature. Small meat pies and patties require an oven about 420 0 F., but the larger sizes require a lower temperature. Madeira and rice "tarts are also baked at about 4000 F.

Short-paste Goods

The majority of puff paste goods should lie at least 30 minutes before baking. Open tartlets or vol-au-v~nt cases are baked at about 4200 F. Eccles cakes, Banbury cakes, Coven tries, and other pastries of this type are baked at 4200 F. Almond tarts are baked to suit the filling at 3800 F. Sausage rolls should also be baked at 4200 F.

Puff-paste Goods

These are products richer in quality than those pJ'eviously noted. With Frangipane, Delicia, Maid of Honollr, Congress, and other tartlets of this type made with swect paste and a good quality filling, the oven temperature should not exceed 3600 F. Almond slices and Frangipan slices are also baked at the same temperature.

Sweet-paste Goods

Sponge cakes should be baked in frames on the ().ven sole. Victoria sandwiches are baked at the same tem]lcrature. The heat recorded should not exceed 4000 F. Savoy fingers

Sponge Goods

279

CAKE MAKING

and drops should be baked in a warmer oven (450° F.). It is advisable, when the sole of the oven is too f{ot, to turn the baking sheet over and place the papers containing these products on the reverse side of the sheets. This ensures that they will not form a crust underneath, but will bake to an appetizing colour without being dry. They require only a few minutes to bake. Swiss rolls and buttercream rolls are also baked in a fairly hot oven (450° F.). Savoy cakes and sponge loaves are baked in a much cooler oven. They require a steady heat of about 360° F. Othellos are a very rich type of sponge goods which also require baking in a cool oven (about 360° F.). Genoese, bases or light gateaux should be baked at 380° F. for about 20 minutes, depending on the thickness of the cakes. Macaroon and Meringue Goods

Almond macaroons require careful baking in a steady oven (about 380° F.). Too warm an oven will cause them to flow out more than is necessary. A little steam in the oven while they are baking will help to produce a better honey-combed appearance. Fancy macaroons, orange macaroons, ratafias, and other dessert biscuits of this consistency also require to be carefully baked at 360° F.; care must be taken not to dry them out too much. Dutch macaroons and Patience biscuits are biscuits containing a larger quantity of sugar; as a result, they must be partially dried before baking. After drying they are baked in an oven at 350-360° F. Parisian routs and English rout biscuits are types of biscuits that require to be dried or set before baking, so that they may retain their shape during baking. They must, however, be baked in a very hot oven (about 460° F.). They are not dried out, but only coloured to a nice golden, appetizing colour, then washed over with stock syrup to enhance their appearance. Cakes decorated with boiled meringue need only be coloured for a few minutes in a hot oven (about 450° F.). Coconut macaroons should be baked in a cool oven about 330° F. Meringue shells and fancies require to be baked in an exceptionally cool oven (250-300° F.) with the door open, so that the steam is allowed to escape. Too hot an oven for these goods causes the meringues to colour quickly and rise more than is necessary during baking, thus spoiling their appearance. The majority of confectioners bake their meringues at the close of the day's work, when the oven is usually most suitable.

Choux Paste

Cream buns are usually baked in their own steam under cover in a special cream bun pan in a hot oven (450° F.) for

280

BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

at least 20 minutes. Care must be taken not to remove tbe cover until they are baked, otherwise the buns will collapse and be quite unsaleable. Eclairs are usually made from the same mixing as cream buns, but are not baked under cover, as they are not required to puff up so much; therefore, they are baked on open baking sheets at about 4500 F. if there is a full oven, but good results are obtained by having a little steam in the oven when there are not enough eclairs to fill it. Gingerbread, on account of the syrupy nature of the dough, must be baked in a cool oven (about 3200 F.). If the oven is too hot the cakes will rise too much, then sink in the centre, and they will also be too highly coloured. Rich ginger cakes, containing more fat than ordinary gingerbread, should be baked in a moderate oven (about 3500 F.).

Gingerbread and Ginger Cakes

The baking temperature for shortbread depends on the size and thickness of the pieces to be baked. Small cakes should be baked in an oven at 4200 F. Larger and thicker cakes should be baked in a cooler oven (as low as 3800 F. for the thickest cakes). These require a band of paper round them to protect the borders from taking on too much colour. It is not easy to tell when shortbread is sufficiently baked, but when the colour is right, then they can be regarded as finished~ If the oven is too cold they may colour through from the bottom and acquire a bitter taste before the top colour indicates that they are baked. They should be baked in as hot an oven as possible without browning them too much before they are sufficiently baked.

Shortbread

The baking temperature for all kinds of cakes depends mostly on their richness and quality. The rule is-the richer the cake, the lower the temperature at which it should be baked. Cakes should be baked in as short a time as is possible in an oven that will not give them too much colour or too thick a crust. Cakes are best baked in large batches with the oven door kept shut, so that the steam is retained until it is considered that they are cooked. Good-quality I-lb. cakes require baking at about 3800 F. Larger sizes require a cooler oven (about 3500 F.). Cheap-quality I-lb. cakes require a warmer oven (up to 4200 F.), and larger sizes a correspondingly lower temperature (down to 3800 F.). The same rule applies to slab cakes. An oven that will bake an 8-lb. slab cake of about 4 in. thick in 2-2! hours is the best, depending on the richness of the cakes. For heavy fruited slabs and wedding cakes, the oven should be about 3300 F.

Round Cakes and Slab Cakes

281

CAKE MAKING

Table VIII summarizes baking times and~emperatures:

TABLE VIII

Baking temp., of.

Baking time (approx.)

Other information

White bread (Ii lb.) Brown and germ Breads (14 oz.) French and Vienna Bread rolls Malt and fruit breads

480

40-45 min.

450-470 480 480 325-400

35--40 20--25 " 10--12 "

For malt and fruit bread temperature must be lowered as malt is increased.

Plain Medium rich (Chelsea, etc.) Rich buns and dough cake

460

450 420--440

12-15

Powder buns and small cakes

Individual scones Rounds of scones Rock, raspberry buns, etc. Madeira, fairy cakes, etc.

470 450 430--450 430

9-12 15--18 " 10--12 " 10--12 "

Puffpastry

Egg washed and unfilled Sugar glazed or filled Crisps and french pastries

460--480 420--440 420

Short and sweet pastry

Normal short pastry Savoury and pie Rich sweet pastry

400--420 400--450 380--400

Choux pastry

Eclairs, cream buns

450--460

20--25

Sponge goods

Dry-mix Swiss roll (aerated) Beaten Swiss roll Sandwiches Small goods Fingers and drops

500 430--460 400--420 420--440 450

4-5 5--6 " 18--20 "

Cakes and slab

Pound Madeira Pound fruit Slab Madeira (4 to 5 lb.) Slab fruit (5 to 7 lb.) Rich cakes (wedding, etc.)

360-380 350-370 330-350 320-340 320

50--60 60::70 " 2-2t hr." 2!-3 "

Biscuits

Plain Rich (wine, etc.) Shortbread (small) Shortbread (large)

450-500 400--420 430 380--400

Almond and coconut goods

Macaroons Fancy macaroons Japs and pyramids

340-360 320-340 340-360

Meringues

All types

250-280

CLASS

Type

Bread and rolls

F crmented

buns

8-10

" "

Puff pastries baked in too cool an oven will lack volume, lightness, and bloom. The fat will run out on to the baking sheet.

" "

ÂŁ-8

" Cakes baked in too hot an oven have peaked tops, high colour, streak under crust; in too cool oven, flat top, poor colour, stale rapidly.

BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

For medium-fruited slabs the temperature should register 3500 F. Madeira and seed slabs require a higher temperature (3800 F.). Cheaper-quality slabs containing a larger percentage of flour and milk than the other ingredients require to be baked at 4000 F. During the baking of the slabs the oven temperature should be falling gradually. In no circumstances should cakes be baked in an oven on a rising heat. As a matter of general guidance, the following timing can be taken in regard to fruit cakes: WEDDING OR RICH-FRUIT CAKES

Hoop sizes, in. Batter weight, lb. Baking time, hours (approximate)

It-I!

6 2-2t

8 10 9 7 2t-2! 3t-3! 4t-4! 6t-6!

11 7t-8

12 13 9t-9! ll-llt 4t

Refrigeration in the Bakery

REFRIGERATION is so extensively used today that due consideration must be paid to its many applications in the confectionery bakery. Particulars concerning the working of refrigerating units will not be dealt with here, since such information is covered in other books dealing with that side of the work. The use of refrigeration can be considered under the following headings: (1) storage of raw materials for both long and short periods; (2) use of refrigeration during processing; (3) retardation of fermented doughs; (4) storage of finished products at temperatures above freezing point; (5) deep freezing of finished products.

In the storage of raw materials in the bakery the operating temperature ranges generally from 38Â° to 45Â° F. By the use of bulk storage for raw materials, such as cream, eggs, butter, margarine, milk; certain types of fats, and meat products, waste can be eliminated, and adequate stocks can be carried to meet any contingency and fluctuation in trade. During processing refrigeration may be used to produce cooler water for dough making in hot weather, ice for use in processing, and cool air for air conditioning rooms when special work such as pastry making is carried out. In warm weather bulk storage of puff-pastry and short pastes can be carried out, while cake batters can be made in bulk and used as required when only small quantities of a particular type are required at anyone time.

Dough Retardation

Retardation of bun and roll doughs is now becoming normal practice, and for this, temperatures of 36-38Â° F. are used.

REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

There must be sufficient humidity, and a relative humidity of 85 per cent is adequate. Most units supplied for retardation can achieve this with ease at from 34° to 38° F. Retardation of bun doughs is more successful than that ofro11s because of the higher fat content in most bun mixings. If the fat content of rolls is increased sufficiently, satisfactory results can be attained. Dough retardation is simplicity itself if the following points are watched:

(I) The temperature of the bulk dough should not exceed 76° F., so that the yeast content of doughs will probably need to be increased by 20 per cent over normal formulae. A slightly lower temperature is used so that the pieces of dough will be cooled down more quickly when placed in the retarder, and so less power will be consumed in working the plant. A cooler dough also improves the mellowness of the final product. (2) The buns should be made from doughs in which fat is used at the rate of 3 lb. per gallon of liquid, with sugar at the same level at least. (3) As soon as the buns are moulded and placed on the sheets they can be transferred to the retarder and left until required. This may be from 24 to 48 hours, and as long as the fat content is sufficient they will stand for at least 48 hours and, moreover, produce a bun with a more mellow crumb. (4) When the buns are required for baking they can be withdrawn from the retarder, as many trays at a time as are required, and left in the bakery for 15 minutes to come up to baking temperature before being placed in a steam prover for final proof, which will take about 30 minutes. They should then be baked in an oven 20° cooler than normal, because they will take on more colour than buns made in the normal manner. Rolls are not so easy to produce satisfactorily because of the lower fat content. As a result they get some proof in the retarder before fermentation is arrested and so the texture tends to be more open. Further, there is a tendency for blistering and white spots to appear, and with leaner mixings a short bulk fermentation period is desirable. If, however, retardation of roIl doughs is to be carried out, fat should be used to the rate of 2! lbs. per gallon ofliquid for a 24 hour retardation period. Storage of puff-paste and Danish pastry at 38° F. is quite successful, and it is common practice to cut out the pieces

CAKE MAKING

overnight and lay them on the trays and in the morning place them in a warm prover prior to bapng off, treating puff-pastry the same as Danish pastry, with highly successful results. With cake batters kept at 38Â° F. it is essential to bring them up to 70Â° F. before baking off. The best practice is to place the batter in the papered pans and hoops rather than leave it in bulk. These should be left for : I hour in the warm bakery before baking off. It is also considered desirable to counteract the effects of chilling, which tends to give a closeness in the crumb of the finished cake. Deep Freezing

Equipment for Freezing

Much attention is now being paid to deep freezing of bakery products, and because of the high capital investment involved it is very necessary to plan carefully the installation of deep-freezing equipment. The first step is to consider the proposed method of use and work out a detailed plan of working. The quantity of goods to be stored and their nature must be estimated. Seasonal fluctuations need to be taken into account as well as the build-up of stock for weekend trade. In this way the size of unit required can be estimated, also taking into account the proposed method of packing the goods. Packing in nesting wire baskets leaving at least a 2-in: air space at the top of each basket is to be recommended. The baskets stacked on trolleys up to a height of 6 ft. will require about i cu. ft./lb. of goods stored. If the goods are stored on wire trays on racks slightly more space is required, which can be estimated from the number and size of racks and allowing an ex~ra 50 per cent for gangways to facilitate removal in.any order. When space for the whole installation is being considered allowance should be made for a thawing-out area. Conventional freezing equipment (gas compressors) is generally used, although a new technique involving the spray application ofliquid nitrogen can also be used. This is being used in Britain for maintaining freezing temperaturesduring the transport offrozen foods, but not as yet in bakery equipment. When large quantities of goods have to be handled continuously a blast freezing system can be employed. Where perishable products are concerned, it is an advantage to blast freeze in a tunnel and store in a frozen state, rather than freeze and store in a static freezer with a large cubic capacity.

REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

In the case of bread, and flour confectionery, the quicker the freezing the better, as staling is accelerated at low temperatures above the freezing point of water. Normally, the rate of freezing of rolls and buns is adequate under ordinary deep-freeze conditions. One earlier disadvantage of blast freezing would be the increased rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface of unwrapped products, so that when blast freezing is used the goods should be wrapped prior to freezing. This presents no problems today. In the- preparation of a site for a built-in unit it is usual to excavate to a depth of 12-14 in. to allow the finished floor to be level with that in the bakery. There is usually a 4-in. layer of concrete with 6 or 8 in. of insulation, finished off with 2 in. of granolithic concrete. This is necessary to prevent the ground freezing and pushing up the floor. • The cabinet or room may be constructed of wood or brick to which there is 6-8 in. of insulating material attached, which must be completely sealed to prevent the penetration of water, since such penetration can cause off-odours which will be absorbed by the baked goods. When the door is opened during operations, heat enters by exchange of air with the bakery, and unless precautions are taken, there will be a severe build-up of frost on the walls and ceiling and even on the goods themselves, which can cause spoilage on thawing. The cooling coils inside the cold room need to be defrosted at regular intervals, preferably every 8 hours. A remote-control indicating thermometer s_hould be fitted outside the cold room so that a constant check can be kept on the satisfactory operation of the equipment. For safety, it is desirable to have door fastenings which can be opened from the inside as well as the outside. It is generally accepted that an operating temperature of -5° F. is adequate for freezing baked goods, although up to - WO F. is used. The temperature at which baked goods freeze is determined largely by the proportion of soluble solids present. Thus, although bread will freeze over a range between 22° and 29° F. Madeira cake, having a much higher proportion of soluble solids, does not freeze until it reaches about

6° F. As the rate of staling of bread and similar products increases as the temperature is lowered, it is essential to use a refrigeration temperature which will reduce the tempera-

Freezing Temperatures

CAKE MAKING

Articles for Freezing

ture of these goods through the staling range as quickly as possible. 1-1 The following articles can be frozen satisfactorily; breadparticularly Vienna bread-soft rolls, morning rolls, fermented buns, and tea cakes. Choux pastry goods, raw puff paste and short paste, baked puff pastry goods including Eccles cakes and -jam puffs, sponge sandwiches-jam and cream filled, jam rolls, Genoese, scones, raspberry buns, jam tarts, macaroons, plain Madeira or fruited cake, high-ratiotype cakes, queen cakes, and cup cakes. Pies containing fruit or meat fillings can also be frozen, but these present problems on thawing out. The following is a method used in Scotland for morning rolls, using a brick-built chamber of the walk-in type with 1,000 cu. ft. capacity with an outer air lock of 500 cu. ft., which serves as a normal cool store. The insulation of the deep freeze can be so effective that the temperature of the air lock has to be maintained at 30Â° F. by a special compressor unit of! h.p. This deep-freeze chamber can take 18 trolleys, each of which carries 2 I trays of morning rolls; each tray carries 35 rolls, so that 13,230 rolls can be held in deep freeze. The temperature of the deep freeze is -10Â° F., and aluminium trays are recommended. Special emphasis is laid on adequate provision for defrosting, since unless an automatic system is used, much mess results from water. This installation was installed to deal with morning rolls, in order to use deep freeze rather than dough retardation, and it is now used to keep production a day ahead of actual requirements. The baked rolls are normally cooled for 30 minutes and then put in the deep freeze. Tney are then taken out as required and left for 30 minutes to defrost before being sold. To speed up defrosting, the tray of rolls may be placed in an oven at 25Â° F. for 2 minutes. Tea bread should be cooled for 20 minutes before being put in the freezer. It should be left for 20-30 minutes in the open bakery when withdrawn for sale. The quality of this product is considered to be improved. Cakes such as iced buns, fondant-covered gateaux, or fancies are all affected by condensation, so that they must be wrapped before deep freezing, and specially prepared icings should be used which will stand up to the freezeing. Soft fudge icings are well suited to deep freezing. Unbaked pastry products, such as sausage rolls and vol-au-vent

REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

cases, are made and are packed in boxes and have a big sale. Baked custards, because of moisture seepage, present a problem, but this has been largely overcome by the addition 0·1-0·2 per cent (of the filling) of sodium acid pyrophosphate and the use of 0·6- 1 ·25 per cent of phosphatemodified starch, preferably gelatinized in part of the milk before use, together with an increase in the quantity of eggs to 8 oz. of egg per pint of milk. Fruit Hans and similar goods in which a gelatine jelly has been used may sometimes be spoiled due to shrinkage of the jelly away from the fruit and pastry. When goods are wrapped before freezing, special moistureproof cellophane which will not become brittle at low temperatures must be used, and any printing must be in fully waterproof inks. , Certain lines of deep-frozen confectionery, such as cream Thawing sponges and unbaked puff-pastry preparations, are on sale as such in shops which sell the usual range of deep-frozen foods. Flour confectionery, however, does not usually compete in this market, and with this deep freezing, is used as a production aid. Therefore the problem of thawing out the products to produce goods which have every semblance of freshness is all important. When goods are removed from deep refrigeration to room temperature, moisture in the atmosphere will condense as long as the surface temperature of the goods remains below the dew point of the atmosphere. This condensation is more obvious on some goods than others, depending on the ability of the surface to absorb moisture. In order to minimize the amount of condensation, it is necessary to increase the surface temperature of the goods to the dew point of the atmosphere as rapidly as possible. The speed at which this is done will depend upon the manner in which the goods are packed to allow for easy access if circulating warm air, and the temperature of the air. It will be evident, therefore, that some means of calculating the amount of heat which will be required to thaw products would be useful; normally for confectionery goods this can be taken as 50 Btu/lb. In practice, the difficulties in thawing depend on the scale of operation. On a small scale a temperature of 70°-75° F. is adequate, but in commercial practice, where there may be racks of goods, the conditions at the centre of the stack will be cooler and more moist than in the sur-

28 9

CAKE MAKING

rounding atmosphere. Small unwrapped goods require an atmospheric temperature of 80Â°-go OF., and'M'rapped goods gOO-100Â° F. Higher temperatures may be used, and they will generally increase the rate of thawing, but some control of humidity is desirable in the case of unwrapped goods, as, once they have been thawed, they will tend to lose moisture if the' atmospheric temperature is high and humidity low.

290

Bakehouse Machinery

and Plant

THE use ofmachinety and mechanical aids is, today, general in flour confectionery establishments because of the increasing number of machines available, designed to help in the production of all normal articles of production in both small and large bakeries. In large bakeries, flour is now delivered in bulk and is lla~ ~aterials taken into the bakery by pneumatic suction. In smaller Intake bakeries it is delivered in paper bags, generally 70 lb. in Flour weight, since this is an easier unit to handle and avoids the risk of dirt and fluff getting into finished products. It also cuts down the amount of dust in the bakery, thus aiding the maintenance of more hygienic conditions. These bags may be taken into the bakery by conveyors or manually in very small units and then stored in a clean, well-ventilated store on wooden slats or skids. Each delivery of flour should be dated and labelled so that it can be used in the correct rotation. From the store or storage bins the flour is taken as required and must be sifted to safeguard against any foreign particles getting into the mixings as well as to aerate it prior to use. It may also be blended, when special blends are required. These operations can be carried out by special blenders and sifters available in different sizes according to the volume of output in the bakery. Bulk deliveries of sugar are now the general practice in Sugar many larger bakeries, and so provision of suitable storage bins has to be made from which it can be delivered by metering devices as required. With the increasing use of continuous mixers this method of supply is becoming increasingly important. For other establishments it is still delivered in I-cwt. paper bags, and in the case of icing sugar polythene bags. The introduction of pumpable shortenings has led to the Fat

CAKE MAKING

Egg

Cake-m.aking Machines

Three-speed Cake Machines

need to instal fat-storage tanks which can be temperature controlled. The fat is delivered by tanker and pumped into the storage tanks, from which it is metered as required. In smaller establishments the normal containers used are fibre board, to eliminate the risk of nails and splinters getting into the finished goods, which formerly happened where wooden boxes were used: . Although much of the egg used in bakeries is delivered in the frozen state to the cold store or refrigerator, bulk supplies of liquid egg are now being used, which calls for special storage tanks and handling to prevent contamination and risk of the development of harmful bacteria before it is used. Dried egg is supplied in polythene bags. There are many types of cake mixers, some which are only suitable for cake making, while the more modern types can be used for both cake making and sponge whisking. The horizontal universal type of mixer is made by many firms, and the 'Baker' cake machine is representative of this class. These machines are of very strong construction, and the troughs are so arranged that the ingredients can be readily put in and discharged. The cake beaters are for mixtures containing butter or fats, and are so constructed that they will mix into the mass any kind of fruit, without damage. An automatic safety lid is fitted to the machine as part of the standard design to prevent the machine being opened while in motion. Two speeds are provided, the high for mixing light batter, and the slow for mixing in the flour, fruit, etc. All gearing is totally enclosed, and the machine can be supplied either for pulley drive-or direct drive by electric motor. The machine is made in three sizes with capacities from 18 to 600 lb. These machines have been developed to deal with all types of mixings in the bakery-doughs, batters and sponges, and foams, such as meringues. The machines vary in size from 10 to 80 quarts capacity according to the make. Three speeds are generally provided, and gear changing is simple-either through the normal gate change and clutch or through a combined clutch and gear control. Automatic timing devices are also fitted. The bowls are secured to a circular ring during the time the machine is in use, but they can be detached and re292

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

moved from the machine with ease either by placing them on a suitable trolley or by normal manhandling. Stainless steel is now extensively used for these. The machines are fitted with whisks for spo~ge work, beaters for cake batters, and dough hooks for bread or bun doughs or for pastry work. The whisks and beaters revolve, describing a planetary motion so that they practically scrape the sides and bottom of the bowl. In some machines an automatic scraping device is fitted which keeps the sides of the bowl clean d\lring mixing. In some machines variable-speed motors are fitted which eliminate the gear-box, while with other machines threespeed, constant-mesh, pre-selective gear-boxes With complete automatic lubrication are fitted. Well-known makes of such machines are Peerless, Hobart, Collins, Hunts, and Artofex. This is the accepted pattern for sponge-whisking machines, Morton Pressure and the machine is of the stationary type. It embodies the Whisk familiar Morton whisk in the centre container, and has two hoppers, one at each side, by means of which the eggs and sugar are fed into the mixing compartment. The reason for having two hoppers is to prevent the sugar becoming wetted by the eggs, and so producing a stoppage in the hopper. The larger machines are motor driven, and there is an air compressor embodied in the structure. With S\lch machines it is not necessary to remove the lid until the end of the day, since there is fitted an ejector valve through which the batter can be ejected when sufficiently whisked. The compressor is fitted with an automatic regulator, which is set and locked to ensure that the pressure will not rise above what is required to work the machine. There is also fitted a safety valve on the air receiver and a special type of safety cock on the machine itself, by means of which the lid cannot be removed unless the cock is open to allow the air to escape. Pressure gauges are also fitted on all machines in order that the working pressure can be observed. The ejector valve is of the piston type. This is at the bottom of the container, so that when the valve is opened the pressure of air in the container ejects the batter into a bowl or mixing machine as required. By means of this machine a sponge batter can be produced in 3 minutes, instead offrom 15 to 30 :minutes, while an increased yield of 10 per cent is claimed because of the more efficient aeration. The sponge produced has a very fine even texture of great uniformity. The machine is built in many sizes from 5 to 75 quarts.

293

CAKE MAKING

Oakes Continuous Mixer

Tweedy Mixer

This mixer is being used for the production of all types of confectionery which lends itself to continuous production. It is of hygienic construction and is easy to clean and maintain. It is accurate in operation, yet with adequate capacity. The operational part of the machine is the mixing head. The ingredients are fed in the form of a slurry (liquid batter) continuously with a stream of air into the back stator of the mixing head, and flow radially outwards to the periphery, and then flow radially inwards along the front stator before being discharged through the outlet. The rotor speed and teeth distribution are arranged to give the optimum intensity for a particular product. At the outlet a pressure-regulating valve is situated, which enables the pressure in the mixing head to be regulated to ensure that the air bubbles are completely incorporated within the slurry before the mixture is released through the delivery pipe. The mixing head is equipped with cooling jackets, should cooling be necessary, but with cake mixers the temperature rise rarely exceeds 2°_3° F., due to the fact that the material is only in the mixing head for the matter of seconds. The degree of mixing obtained produces a completely homogeneous product in which the air is uniformly dispersed, so that the finished cake has uniform cell structure, texture, and good keeping qualities. The method of operation usually employed in mixing cake batter consists of dumping all the ingredients, wet and dry, into the bowl of a batch mixer, mixing for 1-3 minutes to produce a uniform dispersal of materials within the slurry, and transferring it to a holding tank adjacent to the mixer. The slurry flows by gravity from the holding tank to the suction of the product pump on the mixer, which delivers the material under pressure through a pipe-line to the mixing head and then to the depositor, the output of the mixer being exactly synchronized with that of the depositor. This mixer, hitherto well known for its use in bread making, has been adapted for all types of cake making, such as slab cake, sponges, choux paste, and angel cake, by the use of special blades. As in bread making, the mixing process is determined by the number of watt-hours per pound of batter. For the majority of cake batters between 1·5 and 2·0 watt-hours. lb. is the optimum, but this may be reduced as improvements in the design of the plate are made. With this machine all ingredients are placed in the mixing bowl at once, mixing is completed in I minute for slab cakes and 3·5

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

minutes for angel cake, 1'5 minutes for sponge sandwiches, and under I minute for choux paste. No vacuum is required in cake work. These incorporate the feature of a turbo-shear mixing A.M.F. action, which ensures complete uniform dispe~sion of small Continuous air or gas bubbles through the mix. This system offers a Mixers choice of two types of operations, the first method being the semi-continuous sytem. All the ingredients except flour are alternately loaded into two bowls, thoroughly mixed, and then pumped into the disc blender bowl. There the proper amount of flour is added to the mixture. This pre-mix is then pumped into the continuous cake mixer, where the correct degree of aeration is carried out. The specific gravity of each batter can be varied according to the type of product required, and this is measured by the U-tube density meter, which detects, records, and controls the specific gravity of the batter, increasing or decreasing the amount of air metered into the batter. The second method utilizes the A.M.F. Glen mixer. This is a semi-automatic system, and all the ingredients are premixed in batch form and passed into the Ioo-gallon holding tank. The batch is then processed and aerated through the continuous cake mixer. . There is a wide range of machines designed to deposit accurately predetermined quantities of mixes used for the production of a wide range of confectionery products, such as cake batters, fruited and plain, cup cake mixings, sponges, meringues, Viennese mixings, short-bread biscuits, choux paste, crumpets, and similar batters. Some will perform most of these functions, others only a limited number, depending on the size, while others will work in conjunction with sheeters and spreaders, as in the case of Swiss-roll production. This handles any mix which will exit freely from the hopper under the influence of suction from the depositor plunger. This includes a wide range of mixes from light sponge to heavy fruit cake. The machine consists of a hopper and depositing head which is arranged to give a lift motion to break the deposit. Alternatively, the head can be stationary when there is wire cut-off. An intermittent chain conveyor transports sheets or tins to a position under the depositing head. There is quick handwheel change-over on the conveyor when changing from one size of pan to another.

295

Depositors

The Copeland Depositor

The hopper and parts of the depositor head in contact, with the mix are of stainless steel, an$ this material is also used for the conveyor table. The machine is built specifically to deal with pans 762 mm. (30 in.) long X 457 mm. (18 in.) wide, but it can be adapted to take pans as large as 9 I 4 mm. X 508 mm. (36 in. X ~o .in.). The speed range is 9-36 strokes a minute, and the deposited weight capacity is up to 2 kg. (4t lb.) per stroke, depending upon the density of the mix. The hopper has a capacity of 108 litres (95 quarts). There are today a range of depositors suitable for small bakeries, typical of such is the Oddy Junior, which is de~ signed to handle all normal cake batters and fruit mixings, as well as sponges and coconut meringues. The weight range is easily adjusted as required. The table height can be controlled and moves through 3 in. of travel, so that it can make 40 drops per minute with a weight range from t to 3 oz. The machine is powered by i-h.p. motor, and so can be run from a light point if necessary, as it is quite mobile. The machine, of Austrian. design, is capable of dropping biscuits such as hitherto have been dropped only by a Savoy bag, and has a wide range of possible shapes. A newcomer to this field is the Oakes depositer, designed to work in conjunction with the continuous mixer. This is suitable for depositing marshmallow as well as sponge and cake batters, and has enabled marshmallow products to be made with a much more tender structure. It is an extremely flexible machine, depositing a variety of shapes and SIzes. Pastry Brakes and Sheeters

Power pastry brakes have ~een developed, so that today machines are available for the smaller confectioner as well as the larger ones. In addition, pastry sheeters are used as alternatives to pastry brakes for some goods on large-scale production. All brakes are designed to produce continuous sheets of dough of predetermined thickness by passing bulk dough from the mixer backwards and forwards through a pair of rollers, without stopping the motion, by the use of a simple reversing movement, altering the setting of the rollers until the required thickness is obtained. All machines are fitted with an index wheel for gauging the thickness of the sheets of dough. In some types of brakes the platforms on which the dough

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

is extended consist of moving belts, the speed of which can be varied so that the take-off belt runs at a faster speed than the feed in, to take into account the reduction in thickness which has taken place, so that the speed of dough can be manipulated at once by being fully extended. All machines must be fitted with safety guards to prevent the operator getting his arms and hands in the rollers. Pastry sheeters are designed to deal with short pastes and pie pastes, as well as marzipan. These produce the layers of doughs in one operation, but are not capable of producing laminated doughs, such as is accomplished by means of the pastry brake. The most outstanding new machine, however, is the Florida puff-pastry machine, of Continental design, and marketed by the Atlas Co. in this country. This machine is capable of producing the necessary laminations in dough so that the final paste will rise with even layer formation during baking. First of all the basic dough must be of the correct consistency and extensibility and the fat of the correct plasticity. The dough is extended, and on to it the fat is layered by extrusion and a final layer of dough is extended on the top of the fat. These three layers then go forward, where they are reduced to a predetermined thickness, after which the dough sheet is layered by a looping technique on to a cross conveyor, where it is passed through further rollers and finally emerges as a continuous sheet of paste. The machine has an hourly capacity of 1,600 lb. of puff paste. The sequence of operations are all photo-electrically controlled at each stage, and air blasts ate used to remove as much as possible the need for dusting flour. This machine calls for a high degree of technical proficiency for satisfactory working. It is linked up with a production line so that all types of puff-paste goods can be produced. It can also be used for the production of Danish pastries with suitable modifications of techniques. The successful operation of this machine depends on the following factors: (1) Having the machine in an air-conditioned room so that a constant temperature is maintained all the year round and extremes of atmospheric temperatures avoided, since the fat must be maintained at a constant temperature to ensure regular layer formation. (2) The fat must be consistent in composition and

297

Puff Pastry Machine

CAKE MAKING

physical constants to ensure continuous plastic-film formation in the paste. ~ (3) The flour used must be consistent so that it will have a regular gluten content and quality. The water absorption must also be consistent, since the dough consistency must pe.related to the physical properties of the fat to ensure continuous layering of dough and fat through the feed rollers. Fruit Cleaning Machines

When dried fruit reaches the confectioner it is in a compressed form. It contains dirt and stalks, and so requires washing. There are a number of machines which do this most efficiently. In most machines the fruit is emptied into a hopper, from which it passes to a vibratory or static grid, which breaks up the lumps and so permits the individual fruits to meet the water which will wash it. The manner in which the water impinges on the fruit varies according to the design of the machine, but the aim is to float the fruit and cause the dirt and stones to settle. Rotary sieves or some similar device may be used for destalking, followed by spin driers to remove surplus water, after which the fruit passes on to a magnetic table for final inspection, when it can also be hand picked. It can then be passed through a Gintel metal detector before being transferred to the fruit bins.

Enrobers

Enrobers for chocolate work have been in use for many years, but these have mainly been machines suitable for large-scale production. Of recent years, many machines have been introduced suitable for smaller units, while machines suitable for fondant-work are now available and are most efficient and economical. These machines have made it possible to produce fondant-dipped fancies and gateaux at more competitive prices with the limited skilled labour available. Some of these machines are all-purpose machines suitable for covering cakes, biscuits, and confectionery centres, or for bottoming biscuits or cakes only. They are thermostatically controlled and fitted with multispeed gear-boxes. The Nielson enrober is one type which is proving popular in confectionery bakeries because it can be used for fondant, icing, and chocolate work. The Oddy and Mono machines are particularly useful where only small batches have to be dealt with. The Walden enrober is particularly useful for all chocolate work, as it is fitted with a refrigerator tunnel. The J ahn Princess enrober is an alternative type of chocolate enrober which can be used for

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

biscuits, wafers, fondants, caramels, etc., and for bottoming only. This is supplied with either wire-mesh trays or a wire- The Nielson mesh conveyor on which the articles to be coated are placed. Enrober A tray is placed on the slide and pushed gently forward under the curtain of fondant flowing down from the distributor, until it is free of the curtain. It is followed by a further tray, and during the time this tray is passing through, the surplus fondant from the first tray will have dripped into the tank. Another tray is now pushed through the curtain, and by the time this tray is through, the first tray will be in position over the waste tray at the take-off end of the machine and ready to be removed or transferred for decoration. This machine covers tops and sides only. For fondant work, the white fondant should always be done first, as with hand dipping, and colours, from pale shades to stronger shades, should be added as required, starting the colouring at a point dependent on the number of pieces to be covered. The machine consists of a large tank with heater thermostatically controlled and a pump conveyor which brings the mass from the tank to the distributor, which can be adjusted for a single or double curtain. There is also a blower which equalizes the spread. A vibrator can also be used. Puree pre-coating or spraying equipment can also be attached, as well as infra-red drying tunnels for fondant work. Electrically heated scrapers can also be used to trim off the surplus fondant drippings. For cleaning, the conveyor and distributor can easily be removed, and the whole machine washed without difficulty. Emulsifiers and homogenizers are almost a necessity in a bakehouse of any size today. Many machines are available for emulsifying oils, fats, and milk in the production of ordinary aerated goods, custards, ices, and cheap slab cakes. The action of the emulsifier is to reduce the particles of butter or fat to approximately the same size as those of water, as a result of which they remain distributed with the water and so produce an emulsion. When a perfect emulsion is obtained no separation takes place, and in order to produce such emulsions, a third substance, known as a stabilizer, is required. For this purpose, milk powder is generally employed with agar-agar or gelatine solutions, lecithin, or promulsin. On these machines cream of a definite butter-fat content can be produced.

299

Emulsifiers

CAKE MAKING

Pie-making Machines

Travelling Ovens for Pies '

There are many varieties of these machines, all of which work on the same principle. The new Errcsson 'O-Matic' is a machine designed for the automatic raising and moulding of pies, tarts, custards, etc. It can be supplied with filling attachments to deposit viscous fillings so that a series of operat~o~s can be carried out for the production of any particular article. It has a capacity up to 2,000 articles per hour, and is fitted with a safety clutch to avoid accidents. The dies are interchangeable and can be used cold or electrically heated. The machine will raise paste in tins for articles of any shape up to 6 in. in diameter by 3 in. high, moulding, gimping, and cutting a clean edge all in a single operation. There are many other varieties of machines, small and large ones; hand- and power-operated, for the small and large trader. Some have gas-heated dies, while others function in the cold. The object of all types, however, is greater production of articles which are uniform in appearance and which have not been touched by hand during the manufacture. The use of such machines means more hygienic production offoods, a very necessary factor, especially where large-scale production and distribution demands perfect keeping qualities. With the different types of machines, the kind of paste used must be altered to suit the machine, but guidance is always obtainable when such machines are purchased. The 'Zenith' meat scaling-off machine is capable of scaling off meat and depositing it in the cases at a rate of 2,000 portions per hour. Its use results in a regular distribution of meat. In factories it is customary to work two multiple machines and a meat scaler in series, the first machine putting in the lining, the Zenith meat scaler filling this, and a further multiple machine putting the lid on and notching them. Various gas-fired ovens with wire bands have been installed for the specific purpose of baking jam tarts and pies with either pork, steak and kidney, fruit, or other filling. The variable baking time of these ovens can usually be adjusted from 20 minutes to I j hours, to suit the baking of any type of pie. Some of these ovens have been constructed with two bands, one above the other, in two separate baking chambers, each deck having both top and bottom gas burners for accurate heat control. The pies are shaped on an automatic pie-moulding machine which lines the tins with paste. The tins are then 300

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

conveyed to a scaling-off machine, where the meat or other filling is deposited into the paste linings. From here the tins travel to an automatic lidding machine before being fed to the oven on a conveyor band, from which they are automatically spaced directly on to the steel band of the oven. The pies are baked in the oven and then pass, on the same steel band, into the cooler with its cool, conditioned air. The air is washed and purified and its temperature controlled before it is blown into the discharge end of the cooler, so that it travels both over and under the pies, which have already been considerably cooled down, the draught then blowing towards the feed end of the cooler, gathering heat as it goes, until it reaches the hottest pies coming straight from the oven. The stream of conditioned air absorbs as much heat as possible, cooling the pies to a temperature at which they can be handled without d'l;maging the crust, and which also allows jellying. After cooling, the pies can be automatically demoulded and conveyed to the jellying and dispatch departments. The empty pie tins can be conveyed to the feed of the oven on the returning steel band on the top of the oven. The output of this type of plant can be as much as 10,000 units per hour. The latest machine of Continental design, marketed by Automatic Atlas Equipment Ltd., is not only one of tremendous Jam-tart potential, with an output of 6,000-9,000 per hour but is also Machine capable of producing a very high class product with the minimum of labour costs. Foil cups or patty pans are automatically delivered from a multiple-column stacker on to the transport table; a multiple piece divider simultaneously drops dough pieces into the centres of the containers, after which the containers move forward and the multi-block turret-type stamping head accurately shapes the dough pieces within the foil cups. The ingenuity of the design prevents any surplus dough escaping from the die, so that there is no scrap, no waste, and no dirt. A special valve in the top die, in conjunction with additional air pressure, ensures the release of the moulded pieces and eliminates stick ups. The upper die is electrically heated. The paste in the foil cases now travels on to the twin filling depositor, which deposits the requisite amount of jam, from one spot to 4 oz. The unit can be arranged so that for the production of jam tarts, three different-coloured jams can be delivered at 301

CAKE MAKING

the same time through three different nozzltfi, and the cases then proceed to the panning station, wbere they are automatically placed in rows in the oven. After baking, the tarts can be packed straight from the conveyor, three colours in one case, and finally sealed in film wrapping. The same unit can be used for tarts in which a topping mixture is used, while mince pies and fruit tarts can be made by the use of a lidder which incorporates a dough sheeter, lid stamper, and scrap return.

Bun-making Machinery

Bun making has been subjected to mass production, and automatic units similar to those used for rolls are in use for this purpose, with travelling ovens for the baking of the products. This results in a standardized article being produced not only as regards quality but also shape. As there is a large potential market for buns and teacakes, and a standard shape is required, these plants can be very efficient. In Scotland they turn out the morning bap or soft roll, as well as buns. These units are the same in principle as those for roll making, but scaled down to the size of the article being produced. They are only practicable when the daily output is of the order of hundreds of thousands. Where smaller outputs are considered, semi-automatic units are now being used. For large-scale production the 'Winkler' unit is now widely used, as well as the Baker Perkin. With bun and teacake making, dough-room control is most important, and a separate dough-room is desirable in which dough temperature can be controlled, since cool doughs must be produced and maintained at a suitable temperature all the time ofbuik fermentation if satisfactory results are to be obtained, :parti_cularly as the dough passes through the various machines. Hot doughs will not stand up to machine working; cool doughs are essential. There are some modifications of the 'Integra' moulding mechanism which tend to give a better finished mould. For smaller production, the combined divider and moulder is useful when there is a very considerable output. These machines are used either for producing round pieces or for handing-up pieces prior to further processing by such machines as the Collins' finger moulder for Swiss buns. The 'Dopin Minor' is a very valuable machine for pinning out teacakes from the rounded pieces which have been produced from one of the normal moulder type of machine. The secret of success with this machine is correct resting of the dough after handing-up.

302

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

The Baker Perkin units are seven- or eight-pocket plants designed to handle soft, hard, and fruited doughs that fall within the accepted levels of consistency (25-45 seconds extrusion) at an output of from 5,000 to 10,000 per hour, depending on pan loading and baking time. Each complete plant consists of:

Universal Bun and Roll Plant

(I) Seven- or eight-pocket divider with the respective weight ranges of 1-4 or 1-3 oz.; (2) Multi-stage moulder. (3) first prover and distributor. (4) sheeting and curling unit. (5) units for shaping, pinning, and panning. Dough is normally fed into the drawer-type safety hopper in pieces of approximately 7 lb. The reciprocating head division box is designed to give low dough pressure and good volume. The main variable-speed drive (with 5-h.P. motor) can be altered manually to give outputs within the range stated. Vibrating chutes deliver the dough pieces from the divider to the correct position on the moulder band; this method allows relaxing periods between dividing and moulding. These can be arranged to give proof times to suit the goods at agreed outputs (maximum 10,000 per hour). Pieces not requiring first proof can be made to by-pass the prover. Proved pieces leave the prover via distributor cups, which deposit them across the band, which takes-them through the remainder of the plant. There is a secondary discharge from the distributor, where any dough pieces requiring special treatment can be collected. Situated below the distributor, it automatically receives the pieces via timing flaps and chutes. Chain mail does the curling, but this can be removed if not required. Pressure boards are provided as required, each with the proper number of channels to give the length of finger rolls required. This is mounted above the main moulding band. It consists of a web band which is synchronized with the speed of the main band. It can be raised or lowered by a handwheel to vary the degree of pinning and raised out of the way when not in use.

(I) DIVIDER

(2) MULTI-STAGE MOULDER

(3)

FIRST PROVER

AND DISTRIBUTOR

(4)

SHEETING

AND CURLING UNIT

(5)

FINGER

SHAPING BOARDS

(5)

PINNING

UNIT

CAKE MAKING

(5)

PANNING

UNIT

Automatic

Swiss-roll Plant

Pan feed can be manual or conveyor. Pans measuring 30 in. X 18 in. or 30 in. X 20 in. are prelfented at the setting point the 30-in. way across. The dough pieces are arranged on the setting web in numbers and positioned tc suit the size of the pan and the size of the dough piece being produced. Each pan is loaded in one operation. The number of rows to be panned the 18-in. or 20-in. way can vary from three to eight. Swiss roll was the first type of flour confectionery to be subÂˇ jected to automatic production, and today many plants ar. producing this article. The production of this product w, made possible by the use of steel band conveyors on whic . the batter could be deposited and baked. Baker Perkin Ltd. pioneered the plant in collaboration with Mr. E. G Ellis, who jointly evolved the process. With the development of conveyors it has been possible to carry out the complete process of making Swiss rolls, from the preparation of the sponge batter to the wrapping of the finished product, without the removal of it from the conveyor, the operation being one of continuous production. The sponge batter is produced by means of the Morton high-pressure whisk, or the Oakes mixer, the operation being completed in 3 minutes. With these machines a continuous supply can be produced. The batter from these machines is ejected by means of the compressed air which has assisted in the production of it; it is then transferred to the hoppers, from which the batter is deposited on to a travelling steel band. The bands pass underneath special burnishing machines, by means ..of which they are scrupulously cleaned and polished-a most necessary factor in the production of any sponge goods. -To each oven there is a conveyor steel band of 31t in. width of approximately 62-ft. centres. These travel at a speed of about 15 ft. per minute, but they can be regulated as required. After being burnished, the bands pass under a greasing machine, where a mixture of flour and fat is placed on them by means of special brushes designed so as to produce a continuous film. The batter is fed on to the pre-heated band in a measured uniform layer, which can be controlled, and to a width of 14-16 in. This forms a continuous layer which is baked in the oven for about 4 minutes at a temperature of from 4500 to 5000 F. As it emerges from the oven as a correctly baked piece of sponge, it is removed from the steel band by

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

a suitably designed mechanism attached to the terminal wheel of the conveyor. This transfers it to wire conveyors set at a decline so as to bring the two pieces of baked sponge ?n to the two main steel conveyors on the lower floor. During this process the sponge is reversed so that the baked surface is underneath and the spongy face is now ready to receive the jam or cream filling. These conveyors travel in the opposite direction to the oven conveyors. During its passage along these conveyors the sponge must be cooled down to a temperature suitable for spreading of jam or .y1eam fillings, which have a fairly low melting point. ~In order to obtain this cooling, which is essential for good 1ieping qualities and freedom from mould, the conveyor is ,~rtially enclosed and a cooling chamber is constructed. '.: After cooling comes the spreading of the jam or cream, yhich is carried out in a similar way to that used originally for depositing the sponge batter. After the jam (or filling) has been spread, the sponge ribbon is cut mechanically into pieces, using a suitable gauging tool, regulated to take into account the speed of the band. An attachment can now be used for rolling the sponge into shape. From here, by conveyor band, the rolls are conveyed to the wrapping machine and wrapped in cello.phane. At the same time the day of manufacture is recorded on them, so that in case of necessity each roll can be traced. The daily production of such a plant is about 25,000 rolls, and it is used for producing both large and small Swiss rolls of all varieties. The steel conveyor oven can also be used for baking small sponges, cakes and sponge sandwiches, and with its introduction into the bakery a most hygienic method of handling, free from all risk of taint, rancidity, contamination, or spoliation by rough handling, has been made available. Just as bread production has been completely automated, in a similar manner cake production has followed. The automatic operation of this plant is based on the use of tins strapped together in a frame. Incorporated in the strap are distance pieces and lugs which are necessary to make possible the automatic handling of these units. Any size, shape, and number of tins which can be accommodated within the overall strap size can be handled automatically on this plant. Full synchronization of this plant can be achieved by means of a Heenan & Froude Adjusto-Spede unit. L

Baker Perkins Automatic Cake Plant

CAKE MAKING

The cake batters are produced in the normal type of mixer or continuous mixer and passed to the depositor, which consists of two individually adjustable heads, with a common drive, which feed cake batter from the hopper through dies mounted over the line of cake tins. The tins pass beneath the depositor in two streams, each stroke of the machine depositi~g' batter in one tin of each stream. The depositor conveyor consists of intermittently moving chains fitted with dogs which engage the tin straps and position each tin in turn beneath the depositing head. From the depositor the tin straps pass through a rightangled transfer corner on to a grouping conveyor, from which the batch of tins is loaded on to the oven, by means of the oven feed pusher. This is a Baker Perkins Turbogas direct gas-fired wireband oven with turbulence and thermostatic zonal heat control. The tin straps are discharged from the oven band by means of rollers to a pre-cooler, which can be equipped with air-conditioning equipment. The cakes are transferred from the pre-cooling conveyor on to the detinner feed conveyor by means of an unloader, and transferred to an automatic detinner, which mechanically inverts the tin straps, dropping the cakes into a catcher and returning the tins to a return tin conveyor, which carries the empty tins back to the washer or, alternatively, directly to the depositor. The cakes pass from the detinner along an intermittently operating stainless-steel slat conveyor. This conveyor remains stationary until the cooler feed pusher transfers the batch of cakes to the cooler infeed comb plate. The cooler is of the swinging-tray elevated type, with a horizontal chamber and floor mounting legs. The cooler can be supplied either completely open, i.e., natural cooling, or can be fully air-conditioned. The cooler discharge conveyor can be arranged to feed to an automatic finishing and packaging line. The empty tins are fed to a tin washer which consists of a travelling grid with flights on to which the tin straps are placed, in an inverted position. The tin straps pass through washing, rinsing, drying, and cooling sections before reaching the discharge point of the machine. Prior to passing to the depositor, the washed tin straps are greased. The single tin plant utilizes loose tins instead of straps, and is limited to round tins. The plant is essentially similar

306

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

, to that for handling straps, but includes conveyors and transfer points designed to handle separate loose tins. The detinner used on this plant operates with the tins entering and leaving the machine at the same end, the cakes being delivered to the cooler from the other end. A batch of tins leaves the unloader and enters the upper part of the detinner. The cakes are removed from the tins and are conveyed back along the return tin conveyor to the tin washer. Automatic coolers for confectionery are used in some of the larger bakeries. These travelling coolers can be built to have either one- or two-tiered swings suspended from chains, and are driven by a small motor incorporating a variablespeed device to regulate the variations in cooling time for different articles. The output varies according to the size of the cooler, which is naturally based on the available oven capacity. 'Natural' or 'open-air' cooling is usually adopted, but 'conditioned air' can be used if the cooler has a totally enclosed main structure. These coolers are especially valuable for Swiss rolls, cakes, and pies when baked on trays-enabling the goods to cool off before going to the finishing and packing department, thus avoiding the congestions in the bakery which cooling racks so often cause. Further, they reduce the wear of the baking floor-a most important point. The cooler need not have its feed and delivery points at the same level, in fact the goods can be placed in the cooler on any floor where the ovens may be situated and delivered at the ground floor or suitable level of the dispatch department.

Confectionery Coolers

Machines for cutting and slicing are today becoming of greater importance, and the 'Segmenta' machine made by Messrs. J. Crollie & Son Ltd. is a hand-operated machine which will cut any size of round sponge sandwich up to 7 in. in diameter into eight equal segments. If required, only the top half of the sandwich need be cut. The same firm market the 'Multi-Secta' slab-cake slicer, which is a power-operated machine for dealing with all types of slab cake up to 22 in. X 8 in. X 3i in. in size; whether they are Madeira or fruit, they can be cut into 2-lb., I-lb., or i-lb. pieces according to requirements. Slicing the cake for spreading with jam or cream is done by the 'Auto-Slica', which can also be used for sponge sandwiches, but for slab-cake work there is an adjustable line top web, which makes it possible to hold these cakes while cutting them. This

Slicing Machines

CAKE MAKING

machine is extensively used for slicing Genoese and Angel ~ cake.

Wrapping Machines

With the advances which have taken place in the sale of prepacked cakes, mechanical methods of wrapping have advanced. The two most 'Popular types of machines used for wrapping cakes are Forgrove B.W.6 and B.W-6P. universal overwrapping machines and the Forgrove 84-H Flowpack machine. The B.W.6 and B.W-6P are simple adjustable machines, suitable for a wide range of cakes, cartons of cakes, biscuits, and crumpets. The principle feature is the self-measuring paper feed, which gives substantial savings in wrapping materials. In the 84-H Flowpack machine the wrapping material is formed into a tube around the article inside a folding box, the longitudinal seam on top of the pack being the fine-seal type. The cross seals are then formed by rotary crimpers, and integral knives separate the packages. These machines are versatile and utilize a wide range of wrapping materials by special attachments for sealing, printing, and type coding, and will deal with from 40 to roo packages per minute, depending on the nature of the product. Rose Brothers also produce wrapping machines and a range for wrapping round cakes, while for wrapping Swiss rolls the Senning 563/A/SO, with a capacity of 55-65 rolls per minute, is widely used.

Wrapping Materials

A wide range of materials is available today for wrapping confectionery products, and in general transparent film is used because of the attractive appearance it confers on the product, as well as its capacity to prevent drying out. The following types of film are available. This is produced from waste cotton fibres by the action of glacial acetic acid and acetic anhydride to form a solution of cellulose triacetate. This is then partially hydrolysed to give a product of greater stability, and from it the cellulose film is produced. This is a clear film which is hygroscopic and very permeable to water vapour but less permeable to odours. Polythene is produced by polimerization of ethylene in an autoclave under high temperature and pressure. It is readily formed as a film and can be heat-sealed. It possesses low permeability to water vapour, but one disadvantage from its

Cellulose Film

A~etate

308

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

â&#x20AC;˘ use in confectionery wrapping is its lack of transparency as compared with cellulose film. Polypropylene is now being developed as a wrapping material for confectionery packs. This is moistureproof and heat-sealable, and is available in three gauges (300,400,600). For most purposes 300 gauge is sufficient. It is in general use for wrapping cakes whose ingredients present no special problems. It is used for lowmoisture-content Swiss rolls to prevent drying out.

MSAT 'Cellophane'

This is copolymer-coated by an aqueous dispersion process. It is an excellent moisture barrier. It also has good dimensional stability and a sparkling surface brilliance, and is not affected by folding or creasing. Specially suitable for items of rough texture and when very high moisture protection is required, such as with biscuits. It is heat-sealable. Available in 300 and 400 gauge.

MXXTA 'Cellophane'

This is copolymer-coated by a solvent process and is more moistureproof than MSAT 'Cellophane', as it is not affected by normal creasing or folding.

MXXT/S 'Cellophane'

This is highly permeable to moisture, heat-sealable, and

QSAT 'Cellophane'

is used for wrapping high-ratio cakes, where heat-sealed

closures are required, also Swiss rolls containing more than 25 per cent moisture. Available in 300 gauge. This is non-moistureproof, not heat-sealable, and is for high-ratio cakes, also iced wedding and birthday cakes, where protection from dust and grease is required. It is available in 300 and 400 gauge.

PT 'Cellophane'

This is moistureproof and heat-sealable, and more flexible than MSAT 300 at normal temperatures; it retains flexibility at low temperatures and dry atmospheres. Used for packaging cakes that are to undergo freezing.

MSAT 300/30 'Cellophane'

Of a low-density type, it is also used for wrapping certain cakes. It is heat-sealable and available in various gauges. Both 'Cellophane' and BCL polythene films can be printed to a very high standard. Colour printing can incorporate the name of the firm and the name of the product in attractive designs (seasonal if desired), and can be a valuable advertising aid. British Cellophane Ltd. does not

BCL Polythene

30 9

CAKE MAKING

Mould Prevention

Electronic Metal Detector

supply printed film, but Colodense Ltd., of Bristol, and many other companies are specialists in su~ work. As one of the greatest problems involved from the wrap_ ping of confectionery is risk of mould spoilage, much research has been carried out on the incorporation of antimould agents on wrapping papers, but this has not yet become commercially practicable, since there are many technical difficulties involved. Likewise, the use of carbon dioxide in the packing of cake has been investigated by Mr. Seiler of the B.B.I.R. A., but this has not yet reached the stage of commercial application. The 'CinteI' industrial electronic metal detector is a scientifically designed fully automatic inspection device that will detect the presence of any metal, ferrous or non-ferrous, in any product of a non-metallic character, such as bread, cake, or biscuits. In view of the trouble which is experienced today by metal particles gaining access to food products, this device may prove of great value in all food factories, particularly in examining dried fruits after they have been washed for use. The equipment supplied consists essentially of two parts: (a) the search head; (b) the control units. The search head is so constructed that, when installed, it completely surrounds a section of the conveyor line, and the belt carrying the fruit or cake passes through a central aperture. The size of the search head is made to suit the product, the width of the aperture being governed by the width of the conveyor belt and the height by the maximum height of the product. In this way maximum efficiency is obtained in every case. A typical search head consists of a former on which are wound three coils, one known as an 'oscillator' coil and the remaining two as 'pick-up' coils. This coil system is then suspended in an all-metal casing which is strongly constructed. The search head 'screens' the sensitive area from metal objects it is not required to detect such as roof supports, nearby moving machinery, etc. This latter advantage considerably simplifies the problem of installation, for hitherto the conveyor on which the search head was mounted had to be constructed of entirely non-metallic materials for at least 3 ft. on either side of the head. This non-metallic section, while still necessary, has been considerably reduced and is now approximately 18 in. on either side. It should be emphasized that this metal screening in no way affects the high sensitivity of the instrument.

BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

The control unit is a standard item with all installations, and consists of the following separate units. A main amplifier detector controls the whole system. The valves and components are mounted on a cadmium-plated steel chassis mounted inside a solid, dust-proof casting which can be locked. The casting is fitted to the wooden panel with anti-vibration mountings, and thus the circuits are not affected by any knocks or vibrations that the casting may receive. The case also contains spare valves, fuses, and a special valve-pin straightening tool. To ensure a constant maximum sensitivity of the apparatus, it is essential that the variations in mains voltage, which always occur in factories, do not reach the amplifier. Special transformers 'iron out' all such variations and provide the apparatus with very stable supplies. The transformers are mounted in a small cast box which is sealed after installation. The search head, which is connected'to the control unit by a cable link, contains three coils, as previously described, and these coils are so arranged that an 'electrical balance, exists between them. The 'oscillator' coil is energized from the control unit with a high-frequency source, and this, in turn, provides an electro-magnetic field which completely covers the aperture in the search head. As the head is in a state of 'electrical balance', no voltage is transferred from the 'oscillator' coil to the 'pick-up' coils, but as soon as any metal particle enters the field existing in the aperture it upsets this balanced state, and a minute voltage is induced into the 'pick-up' coils. This voltage is fed back to the control unit, where it is amplified many times and finally used to operate a relay. The operation of this relay is used to control an alarm, and various systems are available. The simplest is the lighting of a red warning lamp which may be mounted in any convenient position. In some instances aural warning is preferable, and in these cases either bells or hooters can be fitted. Another system widely used is the stopping of the conveyor belt immediately metal is detected. The latest alarm system is automatic ejection, where the article containing the metal is automatically removed from the conveyor line. It is, of course, possible to use any combination of these systems.

The visual X-ray method of inspection of food products is now being employed by many branches of industry, and has in practice proved to be the most versatile type of equip-

311

Stabilizing Traniformers

X-ray Inspection of Bread for Foreign Objects

CAKE MAKING

ment for the detection of foreign inclusions, such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rubber, stones, gl:u~, etc., many of which cannot be detected by any other system. The unit consists of: (I) Protective cabinet (2) X-ray tube 0) Conveyor belt (4) Fluorescent screen (5) Mirror (6) Observation window of lead glass The intensity of the fluorescence of the screen is entirely due to the quantity and quality of the X-radiation which strikes it. The efficiency of the X-ray method of examination is due to the fact that it is extremely sensitive to any change of density in an otherwise homogeneous mass. For example, if a loaf of bread is being viewed it presents a uniform image on the fluorescent screen, but if a pin is embedded in the loaf the uniformity of the image is destroyed and the form of the pin is clearly seen as a black image due to the absorption of the X-radiation through the plane in which the pin lies. The remarks referring to the pin are, of course, applicable to any of the other foreign inclusions previously mentioned. The speed and ability of this method is clearly indicated by the following figures which the bakery itself prepared from the information gained on initial trials in a bakery: Typical examples of foreign body detection were:

i i i i

in. in. in. in.

glass in " " " " " "

5 in. 6 in. 4 in. 6 in.

flour. lard. sugar. loaf.

Insulating tape, glass, and metal were detected in packets of biscuits at a rate of inspection of 5,000 packets per hour. Tray-Washing Machines

In the interests of hygiene the use of tray-washing machines is recognized as a matter of the greatest importance, and today there are many compact machines designed for this purpose occupying little floor space yet having a capacity of up to 500 trays per hour. In these machines steam and suitable detergents are used for cleansing, and infra-red lamps for drying.

QI2

Nutritional Value of Flour Confectionery

FOOD may be defined as anything, either solid or liquid, which, when it is swallowed, can do one or more of three things:

(1) Provide the body with material from which it can produce heat and other forms of energy. (2) Provide material to enable growth, repair of bodily tissues, or reproduction to proceed. (3) Supply substances which normally regulate the production of energy or the process of growth, repair, or reproduction.

There are many substances which can be classed as foods according to the above definition. All foods must contain certain nutrients to give them a right to be classed as such. The nutrients of which foods are composed are as follows: (a) Carbohydrates-which include starches and sugar. These provide the body with heat and energy, and may produce body fat. (b) Fats-which provide heat and energy and may produce body fat. (c) Proteins-which provide energy and material for growth and repair of tissues. . (d) Mineral substances-which provide material for bone growth and repair, and for the regulation of the body to maintain normal vitality. (e) Vitamins and other accessory factors which regulate the body processes. In co-operation with these nutrients, water and oxygen playa fundamental part in the correct functioning of the human body. Although all foods do not contain all the desired nutrients, most foods are mixtures and contain several.

CAKE MAKING

Carbohydrates

Fats

Proteins

Use of Proteins in the Body

Flour confectionery, cakes, and biscuits, however, are almost unique, inasmuch as they contain ~l the nutrients, although not in the ideal proportions. However, combina_ tions of such foods eaten with milk, cheese, and fruit are as near the ideal as can possibly be prepared. Let us now consider the following groups individu_ ally: All types of sugars; glucose, lactose, maltose, sucrose. All types of starches. Dextrin is derived from starch-produced during baking and toasting. Glycogen is produced from glucose in the liver and stored in the muscles of living animals. Pectin, present in fruits, particularly apples and citrus fruits. Animal fats and oils. Vegetable fats and oils. Marine and fish oils. All oils and fats which are edible are glycerides, and when boiled with caustic soda produce soap and glycerine. This process is known as saponification. Mineral oils and greases cannot be saponified, and for this reason are not edible, and so must not be used as an ingredient in human food. It is not even advisable to use them for greasing tins in the preparation of food. Flour only contains a small percentage of natural fat, but in the case of cake, this is greatly augmented by the baker during manufacture, and in the case of fermented goods is usually appreciably supplemented when consumed. Oatmeal of all cereals contains a much higher proportion of fat, generally about 2'5 gm. per oz. These are essential constituents of plant and animal life. The muscular tissue of all animals is composed of protein. Likewise, the tissue or structure of a loaf also consists of protein, for without gluten no loaf could be made. Proteins differ from one another because of the different kind and different arrangement of amino acids in them. Thus, when a comparison with starches is made, whereas purified rice starch, potato starch, and corn starch are all very similar, since they are all composed of glucose units, beef protein, bean protein, and cheese protein are by no means similar, since the arrangements and kinds of amino acids in them are different. The human body can convert many of the amino acids it does not need for its own structure into others that it does. There are, however, ten amino acids which the body cannot

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

make, and which must therefore be supplied in the diet. These ten are called essential amino acids. Proteins from different foods can be graded, depending on whether or not they contain all ten of the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity to satisfy the needs of the body. In general, it can be said that animal proteins usually contain the essential amino acids in proportions reasonably appropriate for human needs, while vegetable proteins may be lacking in one or other of them. For this reason, animal proteins are often called first-class protein, and vegetable proteins second-class protein. There are, however, exceptions of the superiority of animal over vegetable proteins, and to the 'completeness' or 'incompleteness' of either, since some of the cereal protein and soya-bean proteins are almost first class. Gelatine, which is an animal protein derived from meat and is the principal ingredient in gristle, hoofs, horn, etc., is completely deficient in at least one essential amino acid, tryptophane. Gelatine has therefore little value as food unless supplemented by other proteins. On the other hand, certain of the proteins in cereal grains, soya beans, and Brazil nuts contain all ten essential amino acids. . Proteins are derived from both animal and vegetable sources, being present in all forms of animal and fish products in appreciable quantities. Proteins occur to a lesser extent in vegetables, particularly in green vegetables and root crops. Peas and beans are richer in protein, while nuts contain a high proportion. Of cereals, wheat contains the highest proportion, and the proportion in flour depends on the length of extraction. Wheat germ is rich in protein, so that any bread containing germ will have a higher protein content than ordinary bread. When the protein of food is derived from animal sources less is required than when vegetable protein is used, since the degree of difference between animal and human protein is less than between vegetable protein and human protein. The energy value of food is measured in terms of heat units called calories, and the calorie used in nutrition studies is what is known as the 'large calorie' and is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1,000 gm. of water 1Â° C. Thus: I

gm. of protein absorbed by and oxidized in the body produces 4 calories.

Energy Value of Foods

CAKE MAKING

1 I

gm. of carbohydrate absorbed by and oxidized in the body produces 4'10 calories. 'f:I gm. of fat absorbed by and oxidized in the body produces 9'30 calories.

From these figures the nutritive value of a food can be calculated, given its composition. For example, wheatmeal bread contains I 1'2 gm. of carbohydrate, 0Âˇ6 gm. of fat, and 3' 1 gm, protein per ounce, The energy value of one pound will therefore be: Carbohydrate Fat Protein

16 X 11"2 X 4 = 716.8 calories 16 X 0Âˇ6 X 9 = 86'4 " 16 X 3'1 4 = 198 '4 "

It must be remembered that everyone requires a basic number of colories for the maintenance of life, and this is averaged at 1,700 calories per day for men and 1,450 calories per day for women, In addition, they require extra calories according to the type of occupation they pursue or for movement and ordinary bodily exertions, This may add another 1,000-3,000 calories per day. At one time it was customary to give figures for children according to age group, but in addition one must also consider the size of the body and the degree of physical activity of the child. The following figures give an indication of the average daily requirements: Children 0-6 years 6-10 " " 10- 1 4" Females Males

Dietic Value of Cake

1,650 calories _ 2,3 00 " 2,75 0 " 2,300-2,750 calories 2,75 0 -5,000 "

Miners, blacksmiths, and wood-cutters carrying out very heavy muscular work require the highest calorie diet and may even exceed 5,000 calories per day, Cake is basically an energy producing food with a relatively high calorie value, in addition it has the advantages of possessing an attractive appearance, pleasing flavour and aroma also a richness of texture which has a distinct appeal to the palate, It adds variety to the diet and during times when egg and fats were in restricted supplies, provided an

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

excellent means of distributing these more uniformly to the public, and at the same time rendering a considerable amount of carbohydrate in cereal products more palatable. Cake occupies a place midway between bread and biscuits as a source of calories and this has been set out diagrammatically by C. H. F. Fuller in a paper in Chemistry and Industry (1949, 45, 771). Fig. 2 compares the calorie value of bread, cakes, and biscuits, the shaded portions in the columns indicating the limits of variation in the values .

.;,

300~------------------~

200~---4~~~.J-------------~~Âˇ~j-------------i

100~----I

o~--~~~------------~~------------~~~

BREAD

By Courtesy the Editor !if 'Chemistry and Industry' FIG. 2. Calorific values

Fig. 3 shows the fat-protein-carbohydrate relationship of some types of cake, bread, and biscuits. The carbohydrate content of all these foods is obviously relatively high, while the protein content of cake is lower than the other products; cake, however, has the highest fat content.

I-

LI.I

lJJ

c..

By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry' FIG. 3. Fat-protein-carbohydrate-water content

While the mineral content of cake has not been seriously

in the past, the calcium-phosphorus content is I', considered not inconsiderable and the iron content is of interest. M

CAKE MAKING

Fig. 4 shows a comparison of the calcium phosphorus content of cake, bread, eggs, and milk. Thellery large varia_ tion in the calcium and phosphorus content is due to the use of phosphate aerating powders containing both calcium and phosphorus as A.C.P. or phosphorus, combined with sodium as pyroph?sphate.

By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry'

FIG. 4. Calcium-phosphorus content

In the case of bread, the black portion represents the calcium content of bread made from flour to which there has been no addition of creta preparata. The calcium phosphorus contents of egg and milk are given as these are normal ingredients of cake; the better the cake the higher the egg content and, thus, the greater the calcium phosphorus content. 28

24 r-----

20 r-----

E 16 r----a. a.

12 I--

CAKE

BREAD

EGG

MILK

By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry'

FIG. 5. Iron content

Fig. 5 shows the relative iron content of the same products. In the case of cake and fruit bread, it is appreciably increased by the use of currants, sultanas, and raisins. While cake has not, in the past, been regarded as a source

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

of vitamins, it is, nevertheless, a means of supplying both vitamins A and B to the diet. The vitamin A content of cake is derived mainly from the egg and butter-fat content of the cake, where such is used, since manufacturers' margarine is not enriched with vitamins, and so bakery margarines and fats cannot contribute any vitamin A. In Fig. 6 the comparative thiamine, riboflavin, and nicotinic acid contents are given. In baking, a 10 to 20 per cent loss of thiamine normally occurs in both bread and cakes. The use of some types of baking powder results in an alkaline reaction in the crumb of the cake; this causes an increased destruction of thiamine during baking, and therefore care should be exercised to prevent this happening. The loss in the case of biscuits, however, may exceed 50 per cent mainly due to the higher temperature employed, as will the alkalinity of the product in certain cases. 3 . 0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - N _ _-.:.N.:.-_

2'5 f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

~·Ol--------------

0'4

C> C>

,;,

0'3

C> C>

=::.. OlE'

.1·51----------

=::.. ,;, E 0'2

.1·0

CAKE

BREAD

BISCUIT

EGG

MILK

By Courtesy the Editor of'Chemistry and Industry' FIG.

6. Thiamine-riboflavin-nicotinic acid content

The following analyses, given by Fuller, are of particular interest since they give a picture of how the composition of cakes changed during the war and afterwards, due to a shortage of enriching ingredients, and later to a change in the character of the products resulting from the necessity of producing cake at an economic price, which became possible due to the discovery of certain new products such as emulsifYing agents.

CAKE MAKING

Plain cake ->$

Pre-war Pre-order 1942 I94!)-On

Fat,

Sugar,

Protein,

17·4

30·8 22·8 28·2

6·6

13-5 14·8

6·8 5·9

Egg solids,

Flour solids,

4·2 2·0 2·7

30·2 36·7 35·7

Water,

-19·0 2+3 19·6

The above table presents the relevant analytical values for a plain (unfruited) cake. A distinct decrease in fat, sugar and egg contents is shown for the war-time cake and a corresponding increase in flour and water. The results for the present-day cake show that some improvement has occurred in its quality, but the continuing shortage of egg and fat is reflected in the relatively small increase in the content of these two ingredients. The results of analysis of pre-war, war-time, and presentday fruit cake are compared in the following table. At first FRUIT SLAB CAKE

Pre-war Pre-order 1942 1949

Egg solids,

Flour solids,

17·2

Fat,

Sugar, Protein,

13·2

44-0

4·7

15·l 18·6

32·0 34·3

5·3 4·8

3·6 3·4

24-8 2H

Water,

Fruit solids,

- - -- - 18·l

35·8

24·1 20·5

1704 18·9

glance these figures may be somewhat misleading, as they would seem to suggest a continuous increase in the fat content and a maintenance of the egg content throughout the war and post-war periods. This is due to the severe decrease in fruit content, caused by the shbrtage of supply of fruit ingredients. If the fruit is treated as a separate 'phase' and the crumb of the cake analysed separately a more correct picture of the changes taking place in the crumb ingredients is obtained, as is shown in the table below. The values now FRUIT SLAB: CRUMB ONLY (ALL PER CENT OF CRUMB)

Pre-war Pre-order £942 1949

320

Fat,

Sugar,

Protein,

23-6 19·5 24·3

26·7 22·8 24·8

7·0 6·4 5·7

Flour solids,

Egg solids,

30·8 31-6 28·0

6·2 4·6 4·5

Water,

% 17·0 25·0 20·7

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

show changes in fat, sugar, and egg contents similar to those for the plain cake. In this particular cake the post-war recovery in quality is more marked, especially in fat content, but the egg solids remain low. These two sets of results indicate the changes that have had to be made by reputable bakers during the war and post-war periods. The best use has been made of the available materials. Some unavoidable reduction in fat, sugar, and egg contents has occurred, and has resulted in an increase in the flour and water contents of the cake. The basic principles of cake manufacture have been adhered to throughout, and the incorporation of so-called substitutes for fat and egg, of doubtful or unproved nutritional value, has been avoided. McCance and Widdowson give the following figures for the products listed below made ,from certain specific recipes:

TABLE IX Gm. per 100 g. FOOD

Oatmeal biscuits Orange cake Pastry,jlaky (raw) Pastry,jlaky (baked) Pastry, short (raw) Pastry, short (baked) QJteen cakes Rock buns Rock cakes Scones (with egg) Scones (without egg) Shortbread Sponge cake Welsh cheese cake Cherry cake Chocolate cakes Coconut cakes Doughnuts Dundee cake Eccles cakes Ginger biscuits Lemon-curd tarts Apple tart Custard tart Treacle tart Sausage roll, flaky pastry Steak and kidney pie

Mg. per 100 g.

Fat

Available carbohydrate

Calories per 100 g.

9·5 6·3 4·9 5·9 6·0 7·3 6·4 6·0 6·4 9·2 8·4 6·6 9·5 5·0

23·9 25·5 29·4 35·8 24·7 30·4 22-4 16·8 16·0 10·5 13·2 27·2 7·0 18·9

62·0 52·6 35·8 43·5 44·5 54·8 57·1 63·8 64-7 59·5 57·1 64·1 53·5 60·2

516 478 440 535 437 537 469 442 441 380 391 543 323 444

35·8 20·6 9·7 11·7 11-4 14·0 32-4 48·9 42·3 47·2 63·1 15·7 34·9 17·5

204·5 2·15 87·5 0·98 49·4 0·52 60·0 0·63 59·8 0·60 0074 73·5 94·1 1·06 78,3- , 0·72 8% 1·09 117·5 0·97 109·5 0·66 69·2 0·62 1-61 144·5 61·5 0·99

4·9 6·8 7·4 6·6 H 5-l 6·3 2·3 5·5 3·9

24·0 23·3 23·4 15·8 15·0 29·3 16·7 8·7 14·4 13·5

55·5 54·3 54·0 48·8 62·3 51-4 70·4 32-6 27·7 62-6

471 468 469 374 412 504 469 224 272 398

32-1 22·3 35·0 21·3 50·3 24·8 21·3 5·9 72·7 1904-

70·6 103·0 101·5 55·0 78·5 57·3 75·9 29·2 96·9 46·3

1·22 1·28 1-09 1·62 2·02 0·82 1·26 0·36 0·56 1-03

7·3 1504-

36·0 18·9

35·5 16·7

409 308

13·4 10·1

80·0 213·0

1·30 5·57

Protein N X 6·25

32I

I Fe

CAKE MAKING

The above analyses of confectionery products show how they contribute to the food requirements of h:6man beings. In assessing the relative values, consideration must be given to the protein, fat, and carbohydrate values as well as the calorie value, while the proportions of calcium, phosphorus, and iron are not igsignificant. Variations in quality of rich. ness may not affect the overall calorie intake, but it is, of course, the differences in the proportions of the various nutrients which are important, since it is this which deter. mines the value of confectionery as an important article in the dietary.

322

Testing of Raw Materials

IN the Examinations for the Technicians' Certificates of the City and Guilds of London, candidates are required to have a working knowledge of certain tests which can be carried out to determine the nature and quality of the basic products they are using. These tests are more in the nature of an assay rather than a chemical analysis, bearing in mind that it is the performance of the product in bakery practice which is all important. They can be divided under two headings: Those which would normally be carried out in a laboratory. These should include tests on:

Laboratory Tests

I (a) Flours: moisture, protein, particle size, colour (brightness) . (b) Fats: slip point, dilatation curve. (c) Eggs: amylase, soluble solids, solubility of dried egg. (d) Sugar: identification of types in mixtures. (e) Baking powders and self raising flours: available and residual carbon dioxide. (D Jams, fondants, syrups: total dissolved solids (by refractometer), reducing and non-reducing sugars. (g) Chocolate, marzipan, etc.: fat, proteins, sugars, composition to comply with current codes of practice. I Those which would be carried out in a test bakery with standard test bakery equipment. The most common under this heading are: I

(a) Baking tests. (b) Creaming tests for fats. (c) Whipping tests for eggs, egg whites and creams.

The laboratory tests are fairly standard procedures used in laboratories, and it is not proposed to give details in a

Bakery Tests

CAKE MAKING

work of this nature. This chapter deals with the bakery tests only. Full details of the various tests on'lftour are given in Bread-making, Principles and Practice, by E. B. Bennion (Oxford University Press, Fourth Edition 1966), and so are not included in this volume.

Baking Powder Baking Test

Practical baking tests are based on a scone mix, as the only aeration in these goods is that due to the baking powder. To reduce variation due to manipulation and other ingredients an emulsion method is used, followed by pinning out to a standard thickness between gauging bars. The degree of aeration is assessed after baking by measuring the height of 6 scones and calculating the average.

BASIC RECIPE

Flour (patent grade) Oil Sugar Egg Milk Baking powder

Method

Notes (I) CONTROL

(2)

MANIPULA-

TION

(3)

EMULSION

(4) (5)

BAKING VOLUME

oz. 16 3 3 2 8

Store at 70Â° F. overnight.

Sieve together baking powder and flour-ensure that the sieve is no smaller than 16 mesh to avoid separation of the constituents of the baking powder-and mix well. Pass the oil, sugar, egg, and milk through an emulsifier or high-speed mixer after ensuring that the sugar is dissolved in the milk. Make into a smooth dough with the flour! baking powder. Allow the dough to rest 20 minutes (time from addition of emulsion), then pin out between! gauging bars. Cut out scones with 2t-in. cutter and place on lightly greased baking sheets. Rest for 20 minutes. Bake at 4400 F. for approx. 20 minutes, coolon wire racks, and-measure height when cold. For control baking powders use appropriate quantities of acid ingredient and sodium bicarbonate weighed for the test and sieved with the flour. Keep dough-making technique standard. A 5-qt. machine bowl and hook may be used to prepare the dough, using standard times according to the efficiency of the machine. If adequate precautions are taken to keep the ingredients intimately mixed, a bulk emulsion may be made up to supply the whole test series. Make 8 oz. more emulsion than will be required to ensure adequate supply. Arrange scones in staggered pattern on baking sheets and if possible alternate rows of control and test dough. This can be measured in the same way as for puff pastry.

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

This test is designed to measure the rate of increase of volume when a mixture of castor sugar and shortening are creamed together under controlled conditions. The test may be extended to cover the effect of additions of egg products and the quality of cake produced. 5-qt. bowl and beater, fitted to a Hobart* machine Scoop balance to weigh 500 gm. Gram weights Specific volume cup Stop clock Thermometer, scraper, palette knife Bain marie at 70° F.

IO-qt.

cake

Fats Creaming Tests on Bakery Shortenings and Margarines EQUIPMENT

For extended test to produce cakes, in addition: in. X 18 in. baking sheets cake hoops Greaseproof paper, circles, and bands 18

5l in.

BASIC RECIPE

Fat sample 320 gm. Castor sugar 320 gm. All utensils and equipment, samples, and raw materials should be stored at 70° F. before testing, preferably in a temperature-controlled room for 24 hours. If this is not possible the test should be carried out in a bakery at a temperature of 65-70° F. with the machine bowl, beater,_ and raw materials heated to 70° F. in a bain marie containing water at 70° F. Place bowl on machine and fit beater. Turn to slow speed and start machine and clock together. Beat for 30 seconds, stop machine, scrape down, beat for a further 30 seconds, and scrape down. This is done once only. Turn to second speed and beat for 2 minutes, stop, scrape down, and beat for a further 30 seconds. Fill specific cup with creamed material-avoiding air pockets or excessive pressure-and weigh. Note the batter and room temperature, and return cream to bowl. Repeat this procedure up to a total beating time of 10 minutes (4 weighings). After this scrape down at 4-minute intervals and weigh at 5 minutes up to a total of 40 minutes.

* Other table machines are equally suitable but various makes differ in speed for the three gears. Whatever machine is used the revs. per min. should be noted.

Method

CAKE MAKING

Tabulate the temperature, filled-cup weight, and calculated specific volume. Draw a graph of specific volume against time, and report on the suitability of the fat for creaming purposes.

Extended Test

Extra Ingredients (at 70Â° F.) for shortening

Egg (frozen or shell) Soft flour Water Salt (add first)

Method

Deternlination of Specific Volume ofa Cream or Batter (Standard Method) C.B.C.

IMethod

400 400

cake margarine

380 380

These quantities balance the fat/water ratio between compound fat and cake margarine. After the creaming test, add salt, then add egg in 5 equal portions, beating for I minute after each addition and scraping down after the second and fourth additions. The water should be added after this and beaten in for 30 seconds.) Determine the specific volume of the batter. Add flour, blend in on slow speed for 60 seconds, scrape down, beat on slow for 60 seconds, scrape down and determine the specific volume. Scale at 400 gm. into 5!-in. hoops and bake at 3800 F. for I hour. Score the next day.

! The specific volume is the ratio of the volume of I

gm. of material under test (fat/sugar, cream, cake patter, etc.) to the volume of I gm. of water at the same temperature, and is the reciprocal of the specific gravity of the product. I t is used as a measure of the increase in volume of a mixture of fat and sugar when creamed together as in the initial stages of cake making, or as a measure of the lightness of a cake batter before baking. I Messrs. Craigmillar & British Creameries Ltd. use a standard method for this determination. The creaming of the sugar and the fat is carried out under the same controlled conditions as already described. C.B.C. specify that the volume of the specific volume cup should be approximately 80 m!. and the size approximately 21 in. in diameter at the top, I ! in. diameter at the base, and I i in. deep. The method for filling the cup and the calculation is as follows: Fill the volume cup with the cream, or other product being examined, in four stages, using the palette knife. Fill down and round the cup in the three actions and fill the remaining hollows on the surface with the fourth actiol!, avoiding any air pockets.

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Carefully scrape the surface level with the special straightedge scraper. Weigh the cup plus the cream to an accuracy of I gm. The specific volume is calculated by using the following formula: Specific volume = Where V = a= b= c=

~b = ~c

capacity of cup, i.e. volume of cream, etc.; weight of cup plus cream; weight of cup alone; weight of cream.

The fonowing is a useful table: with a cup of 78 mls. capacity.

TABLE

Specific Volume Chart

Volume of Cup: 78 mls. Wt.ofmix: fat/sugar cream or batter,gm. 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78

76 75

Specific volume

Wt.ofmix: fat/sugar Specific cream or volume batter,gm.

0·78 0·79 0·80 0·80 0·&1 0·82 0·83 0·84 0·85 0·86 0·87 0·88 0·89 0·90 0·91 0·92 0·93 0·94 0·95 0·96 0·98 0·99 1·00 1-01 1-03 1·04

74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49

1-05 1·07 1·08 HO HI 1·13 1-15 1·16 H8 1·20 1·22 1·24 1·26 1·28 1·30 1·32 1·34 1·37 1·39 H2 1-44 1-47 1·50 1·53 1·56 I-59

Wt.ofmix: Specific fat/sugar cream or volume batter,gm. 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23

l-62 l-66 1·70 1·73 1·77 1·81 1·86 1·90 1·95 2·00 2·05 2·11 2·17 2·23 2·29 2·36 2-44 2·52 2·60 2·69 2-79 2·89 3·00 3·12 3·25 3·39

In practice, a cup or baker's patty pan of 78 mls. capacity is counterpoised on the balance and the weight of 78 mls.

Calculation

CAKE MAKING

of the cream determined. By using the prep짜ed chart, the 8 specific volume of the cream 7 is read off directly. c

Puff Pastry Test (Standard Method)

Preparation for Test

This test is designed to examine the suitability of a pastry fat or margarine"for making puff pastry when used under normal recommended conditions employing the French method. A general impression is gained on the way the product handles and whether it is suitable for usual bakery procedures. By holding the product at 70째 F. for 24 hours before use and using it in slices without any hand plasticizing, information is gained on its hardness, consistency, and plasticity, and hence on its suitability for immediate use at a temperature of 70째 F. This test takes approximately 5 hours with one operator carrying out one test. The pastry margarine should be held for 24 hours at 70째 F. before testing.

MATERIALS

Flour-breadmaking flour Salt Cake margarine Pastry margarine-sample under test

EQ,UIPMENT

scale 7-1b. capacity for weighing ingredients electric oven, thermostatically controlled I quart measure I pastry brake I rolling pin I French knife I board brush I wash brush I cutting board 3 in. wide by approx. 20 in. long Baking sheets I cloth for covering dough and paste I I

lb. oz.

Recipe

Method

Flour Salt Cake margarine Water Pastry margarine.

! 3 12-1 5 I 5

(I) Assess and record character of fat under test. (2) Sieve the flour and salt together. (3) Rub in the 3 oz. cake margarine until it is thoroughly dispersed throughout the flour.

3 28

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

(4) Add the water an~ dough up to give a clear, weIldeveloped dough. (5) Mould into a ball and allow to rest for 30 minutes covered with a damp cloth. (6) Now roll out the dough to a rectangle of approximately 18 in. X 9 in., using the minimum of dusting flour. (7) Meantime, examine the pastry margarine, which should have been held at 70Â° F. for 24 hours, for hardness, plasticity, stickiness, spottiness, and sheen, and record observations. (8) Cut the pastry margarine into slices approximately l in. thick, so that I lb. 5 oz. will cover two-thirds of the rolled-out dough. Weigh I lb. 5 oz. of the sliced margarine. (9) After brushing off excess flour cover two-thirds of the dough with the sliced pastry margarine and fold in three to give three layers of dough separated by two layers offat. (10) HandroIl this paste to a suitable thickness (approx. Ii in.) for passing through the pastry brake at the maximum setting. (I I) Machine roll the paste to approximately 9 in. X 25 in. or l in. in thickness and fold in three. This latter rolling and folding constitutes one half turn. (12) Give a second half turn in the same manner and allow the paste to rest for 20 minutes covered with a damp cloth. (13) A further two half turns are then given and the paste again allowed to rest for 20 minutes covered with a damp cloth. (14) At this stage a cross-section sample is taken from the folded paste by cutting approximately I in. off the end across the direction of the fold. By doing this carefully with a sharp knife the degree oflamination can be examined and observations regarding the definition and uniformity of the layers, and any lumpiness in the fat, can be noted and recorded. (15) Give the paste a further two half turns and rest 20 minutes covered with a damp cloth. (16) Roll the paste carefully to a uniform thickness of 0Âˇ3 cm. and use guide strips below the ends of the rolling pin to finally control the paste thickness. (17) From the paste, cut with a sharp knife, 20 X 3 in. squares, cutting longitudinally and then transversely using a wooden guide 18 in. long and 3 in. wide. (18) Convert 10 squares from each paste into crossover tarts. (19) Place the squares on one baking tray and the cross-

CAKE MAKING

overs on another and, after resting approximately I hour, bake at a temperature of 4800 F. * 11 (20) After baking (approximately 15 minutes) remove the trays from oven and coolon rack. (2 I) Measure heigh t of pastries. (22) If required, the pastries are photographed for record purposes. (23) When 24 hours old examine and assess the pastries using a standard report form.

DOUBLE SCALE GRADUATED

, 1037

i., ;..

22 21 20

19 18

19 18 17

_j_

-1

SCALE

FIG. 7. Frame for Measuring Puff Pastry

Reproduced by permission of C.B.C. Ltd. â&#x20AC;˘ It is usual to .test from two to six batches of margarine at one time, and therefore when placing the pastries on the trays one from each batch is placed consecutively in rows, each row starting with a different batch of pastry. This results in the pastries being in a staggered position when baking to avoid and overcome variations in baking due to position on the tray and protection from neighbouring pastries.

33 0

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Report form for Puff Pastry Test.

Recording of Results

BRAND DATE CODE FAT HANDLING

Softness Fracture Free water Aroma Colour Quickness in mouth (flex) Continuity of fat layers after half turns Softness of paste Rigidity of paste

CmING

Distortion Stickiness

BAKED PASTRIES

Shape Surface Condition Layer formation Translucence of flakes Oiliness between flakes Brightness of flakes Crispness of flakes Filming on palate

OTHER OBSERVATIONS

General quality of product and pastries. Preference for number of turns, etc.

HEIGHT

Squares

! Squares

33 1

CAKE MAKING

IDeternlination of Specific Volullle of Baked Goods

EQUIPMENT

Method

The determination of the specific volume of baked goods is carried out by the seed displacemenp method. Specific volume is used as a comparative measure of the volumes of goods under test-especially cakes-and one test takes only a matter of minutes. Preparation for the test only necessitates having the appropriate appa:r;atus or equipment available. I. One measuring box of a size such that when the article to be volumed is placed into it there is a clearance of approximately I in. around the sides of the article and I in. between the top of the article and the top of the box. For voluming the standard Madeira cake or half of the standard high-ratio slab cake a box with the following internal dimensions is suitable: 8 in. X 7 in. X 5 in. deep. 2. One tray approximately 18 in. X 14 in. X 3 in. on which to place the measuring box. 3. A supply of rape seed. 4. One scale sensitive to I gm. for weighing the rape seed and cakes. 5. One straight-edged scraper. 6. One container to hold the seed in use during the test. The box designed to hold the article to be volumed is placed on the tray and filled with rape seed delivered from its container in a steady stream and from a fixed height until the box is filled and the seed overflows into the tray. Care should be taken during filling to maintain an even flow of seed and to avoid any vibration. The seed is then levelled by removing the surplus, by placing the straightedged scraper across the centre of the box-resting on the edges-and pushing in a steady movement to the back of the box. The motion is then repeated pulling the scraper to the front of the box. A final sweep is then made by drawing the scraper steadily across the surface of the seed in a diagonal direction from one corner to the opposite corner. The surplus seed which falls into the tray is then removed. The seed in the box representing the volume of the box is then transferred to an empty container and the article to be volumed placed in the measuring box. ThC;! seed in the container is now filled into the box containing the cake until the box overflows. Levelling of the surface Qf the seed is carried out as already described and the excess seed in the tray and that left in the container is weighed. The seed represents the volume of the cake, and from its weight the specific volume of the cake is calculated, using the following formula: 33 2

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Weight of seed X 1'5 S 'fi I f k = peCI c vo ume . ht ocae W elg I' 5 is the specific gravity of the rape seed, but this should be checked with each batch and at regular intervals while a batch is being used. j The apparatus should be so designed as to enable the Note seed to be dropped at a steady rate of flow and from a fixed height, in order to remove the personal packing error consequent upon variations in rate offlow and height from which the seed is poured.

This test is designed to measure the height of five pastries, and only takes a few minutes. Preparation for the test only necessitates having a special measuring frame available, together with the test pastries. One measuring frame constructed of three sides mounted on a rectangular base with a measuring scale calibrated in centimetres fitted to the inner face of the central side (see Fig. 7). Select five of the most regular test pastries-open tarts or crossover tarts-and place them on top of each other in the measuring frame. Read off the total height on the scale provided. If th$! pastries are irregular, arrange them in the frame in such a manner that the high side of one pastry coincides in position with the low side of another pastry by inverting anyone of two irregular samples. This same apparatus and procedure can be used for measuring the height of scones.

Determination of height of Pastries or Scones

These tests are used to determine the whipping quality of whole egg, the suitability of flour for sponges, the selection of a particular method to suit the materials available (and vice versa), the effect of other ingredients and conditions, and so on.

Egg Sponge Whipping Tests

Whole egg Castor sugar Flour

oz. 10 8

EQ.UIPMENT

Method

Basic Recipe

Have all ingredients at 700 F. (21 0 C.). The sugar and flour are best kept overnight in a temperature-controlled room and the egg heated over warm water as required. Place the egg and sugar in a 5-quart machine bowl, set up on a machine fitted with a whisk. Whisk for 2 minutes

333

Method-Standard Traditional

CAKE MAKING

Report sheet for Baking Tests. TEST DATA

Basic recipe quality

'Fat, %

Sugar, %

Egg, %

Milk,%

Control

Test I

Test 2

Test 3

Control

Test I

Test 2

Test 3

Flour: 100% Method

Batter stage F/S temp.,

F/S sp. vol., c.c./gm.

F/S/E temp.,

F/S/E sp. vol., c.c./gm. Batter temp.,

Batter sp. vol., c.c./gm.

Cake characteristics Volume

Shapeliness

Crust character

Crumb colour

Brightness of crumb

Grain (texture)

Softness

Aroma

Eating qualities

Score

Cake wt., gm. Cake volume, c.c. Cake sp. vol., c.c./gm.

334

100

TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

(speed 2 on Hobart, speed 3 on Peerless). ~top the machine, carefully fill the 'specific volume' pan wIth batter, scrape level, and weigh: record weight and return batter to bowl. Continue whisking and checking specific volume until the pan plus batter weight remains significantly constant. Remove bowl from machine knock out whlsk, then blend flour in by hand, taking ca:e to adopt a standard technique for ~his operation. Check specific volume of batter before scahng off at 200 gm. Weigh directly and :arefully into tared pans on a gram balance. Note t~e c~ns~stency of the bat~er, e.g. lumpy/smooth, stiff/fluid, dry /stlcky. B~ke at 380 F. (193° C.) for 20 minutes: bake sponges untIl they are cooked and note any variation from the standard times and if possible the reason for this. :Knock sponges out on to wires, cool right side up, and make critical assessment 24 hours later. If the bakery temperature is below 70° F. ensure that batter temperature is maintained at 70° F., e.g. stand bowl in a bain marie at this temperature when checking specific volumes. Weigh as quickly as possible, but double check figures before returning batter to bowl. specifi?-v~lume pan must be washed and dried between each we1ghmg, and should be at room temperature before filling with batter. Prepare all ingredients before starting the test series and ark containers as weighing is completed. Use greaseproof clrc1:s in the bottom of the pan and m a: k these for identificatIOn of the finished goods. Mark bakm~ sheet to ensure easy location if other tests are being baked m the same oven.

Practical Notes (I) TEMPERATURE (2) WEIGHING

(3)

(4)

Weight of pan empty = WI gill. " " full of water = W2 gro" " " " full of batter = W3 gm.

IDENTIFICA-

TION

CALCULA-

TION OF SPECIFIC VOLUME

Then Volume of pan (ml.) = W2 - WI ml. Weight of this volume of batter = W3 - WI gm.

W2 - WI

Specific volume

= ~I

Castor sugar Frozen egg Flour Cream powder Sodium bicarbonate Water

Delayed Soda Recipe

8 oz. 10 oz. 7! oz.

10gm· 5 grn.

oz.

335

All-in

Recipe

Modifications

Whisk on top speed to maximum volume (12 minutes. Hobart, 15 minutes Peerless) checking specifi[4 volume at 2-minute intervals. Mix and add to the sponge on slow speed. Whisk on second speed for I minute. Check specific volume before dropping out at 200 gm. As for delayed soda, but all ingredients, including sodium bicarbonate, are whisked on top speed to maximum volume. Check as for delayed soda and drop out at 200 gm. when specific volume is at maximum. This method may also be used to study the effect of various modifications in formulae, e.g.:

( I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Acid ingredients. Use of G.M.S. emulsions (\- oz. of 1 '. 3 emulsion). Lower-quality recipe-effect of'Hymono' type G.M.S. Use of dried egg. Flour quality.

Index

Acetone, 78 dicarboxylic acid, 78 Acid-benzoic, 104 calcium phosphate, 89 pectic, 159 potassium sulphate, 81 sodium pyrophosphate, 95 sulphate, 86 Acidity of cake batters, 239 offlour, 15 of milk, 21 Acids, acetic, 27, 185 action on egg whites, 27 on sugar, 59 butyric,21 citric, 138 fatty, 40 in food, 87 lactic, 2 I succinic, 2 I tartaric, 80, 138 Adulterants of vanilla extract, 103 Adulteration of ground almonds, 118 of honey, 69 of spices, 108 Aerated goods, 207 Aeration by chemicals, 75, 207 by eggs, 25, 36 Agar-agar, 157 Agents, colouring, I 12 stabilizing, 245 Albumen, 27 action of heat on, 27 dried,33 Albumen substitute, 38 Alginates, 158 Alkalis, 75 Alkaloid, 110, 163 Allspice, I 10 Almond essence, 104

Almond (contd.) goods, 256 classification, 256 mixing methods, 257 wafer mixings, 263 Almonds, I 17 Alicante, I 17 Barbary, 117 composition of, I 17 flaked, 118 green, 121 ground, 118 Jordan, 117 method of blanching, I 18 nib, 117 preparation of, 118 substitutes of, I 18 split, 118 Valentia, 117 whole blanched, I 18 Alum, 86 Aluminium hydroxide, 87 in food, 87 sulphate, 77 Amaranth, 114 American icing, 186 lards,48 Ammonia alum, 86 Ammonium bicarbonate, 85 carbamate, 84 carbonate, 84 hydrogen carbonate, 84 sulphate, 84 Amygdalin, I 17 Angelica, 131 Animal charcoal, 62 oils, 42 Apples, dried, 128 Application of oils and fats, 42 Apricot, dried, 128 puree, 195 Arachis or groundnut oil, 52

337

INDEX

Argol,81 Aromatic seeds, I I I Arrowroot jelly, 147 Artificial essences, 101 Automatic Swiss-roll plant, 304 Babas, 203 syrup for, 204 Bakers' chocolate, 170 Baking, acids, effect of, 96 confectionery goods, 275 fats, 40 fermented goods, 278 powder, 207 temperatures, 278 tests for baking powder, 324 tests for egg, 333 tests for fats, 326 tests for puff pastry, 328 Balance in cake making, 235 Ball degree of sugar boiling, 65 Bath buns, 202 Beating up whites, 27 Beef fat, 49 Beet sugar, 61 Benzaldehyde, 104 Benzoic acid, 104 Bicarbonate of soda, 78 JBiscuits, Macaroon, 259 rout, 257 Blackcurrants, 137 jam, 137 Blanching almonds, I 18 Bleaching of sultanas, 125 Blood albumen, 38 Blow degree, 65 Boiling jams, 139 Bottled fruit, 131 Brazil nut paste, 121 Brazil nuts, 12 I composition of, 123 Brioche, 203 Bun glazes, 20 I Buns, aerated, 212 Bath,202 Chelsea, 202 currant, 202 doughnuts, 202 fermented, 197 washes, 201 Bun-making machinery, 302 Butter, Australian, 46

Butter (contd.) clarified, 47 cocoa, 165 composition of, 46 continental, 194 Danish,46 English,46 fat, 21 flavours, 106 in fermented buns, 200 New Zealand, 46 rancidity of, 47 sponges, 253 uses of, 47 Buttercream, 189 legal definition, 189 Buttermilk, 23 acidity of, 23 dried,24 Butyrin,47 Cacao beans, 163 composition, 164 degree of roasting, 164 nibs, 164 Cake, aeration of, 226 flour, 15, 240 machines, 292 margarine, 53 quality, factors governing, 234 Cake making, acidity of batters, 239 baking, 281 balance, 235 blending method, 229 continuous method, 232 egg/fat ratio, 235 fats in, 235 . / ' faults in, 242 flour batter systems, 228 flour/sugar batter" 228 fruit in, 236 high ratio, 236 high-speed, 233 metlIods, 227 mixing, objects of, 227 recipe construction, 235, 237 sugar batter system, 227 sugar in, 235 wedding, proportions, 242 Calcium biphosphate, 89 carbonate, 62, 84 phosphates, 89 sulphate, 89

INDEX

Chocolate (contd.) Calcium (contd.) unsweetened block, 165 tartrate, 8 I uses, 174 Candied Angelica, 13 1 vanilla, 167 peels, 129 Cholesterol, 28 Cane sugar, 61 Choux paste, 224 Canned fruit, 133 baking temperature, 225 Caramel colour, I IS Churning milk, 46 Caramel degree, 66 Cinnamic aldehyde, 109 Caraway extract, I I I Cinnamon, 109 seeds, I I I bark, 109 Carbohydrates, 59 extract, 109 Carbonate of ammonia, Citral, 103 of magnesia, 76 Citric acid, 77 of soda, 79, 76 Citron peel, 130 Carmine, I IS Citrus fruits, 129 Carmoisine, 114 Cloves, 109 Carotene, I IS Coagulation of eggs, 27 Casein, 21 Coated anhydrous monocalcium Cassia, 109 phosphate, 92 Castor sugar, 63 Cochineal, I 15 Catalyst, 50 Catalytic hydrogenlltion process, Cocoa, 163 analysis of powders, 179 50 butt6r, 164 Cellulose ethers, 38 low fat, 173 Chelsea buns, 200 legal standards, 179 Chemical aeration, 75 powder, 170 Chemically aerated goods, 207 powder composition, 179 baking temperatures, 212 powder in cakes, I 79 flour for, 13 quantity to use, 179 Cherries, 129 uses, 189 bottled, 132 Coconut, 120 Chlorophyll, I IS c~mposition, 1'l3 Chocolate, 16'2 macaroons, 264 as foodstuff, 163 oil, 52 bakers', 170 uses of, 120 buttercream, 177 Coffee buns, 2 I 3 colours, I 14 extracts, 106 couverture, 165 couverture, addition of oil or lard Colour mixing principles, I 13 Colouring matter, 112 to, 176 in jam, 138 coverings, 166, 170 permitted list, 114 dipping temperature, 167 regulations, 112 fat and sugar bloom, 169 testing of, I 16 fondant, 175 Colours, I 12 addition of butter to, 175 primary, 113 gateaux, 177 "oocondary, 113 Genoese, 178 tertiary, I 13 hints on using, 168 testing of, I 16 history of, 162 Compound fats, 50 manufacture, 163 Conching, 165 melting, 167 Confectioners' piping jelly, 145 milk, 165 Confectionery coolers, 307 moisture on, 168 nutritive value of, 313 special fats, 171 travelling ovens, 276 tempering for use, 166, 173 Congress tarts, 259 types of, 166

339

INDEX

Food value (contd.) of pistachio nuts, 123 of walnuts, 123 Frangipane, 262 using marzipan, 263 using macaroon paste, 263 Fructose, 68 Fruit, bottled, 131 canned, 133 cleaner 'Tornado', 298 dried and crystallized, 129 flavours, imitation, 105 frozen, 135 in cakes, 236 in confectionery, 124 in fermented buns, 200 jellies, 143 jelly with pectin, 145 juices, 106 preparation of, 127 pulp, 139 sinking in cakes, 241 sugar, 69 syrups, 106 Fruits for jams and jellies, 136, 137 Fruit standard, 141 Ganache, 195 preparation for use, 196 Gateaux, 265 bases, 265 decorative materials, 265 flavour blends, 266 large-scale production, 267 preparation of bases, 266 Torten and continental type, 268 Gelatine, 150 properties of" 151 uses of, 152 Genoese, boiled, 253, 255 German yeast, 76 Ginger, 131 cakes, baking temperature, 281 crystallized, 131 in syrup, 131 root, 131 starch of, 109 Glace cherries, 129 Glace royal icing, 185 Glazes, 194 Glazing buns, 201 Globulins, 27 Glucono-delta-Iactone, 78, 83 Glucose, 59, 67 composition of, 68

342

Glucose (contd.) use of, 68 tJ Glucosides, 104 Glue, 150 Glycerides, 40 Glycerine, 73 effect of, 73 in royal icing, 185 Glycerol mono-stearates, 54 Golden syrup, 73 Gooseberries, 137 Granularity of flour, 15 Granulated sugar, 63 Granulators, 63 Grape sugar, 59 Green almonds, I'll colours, I 15 Ground ginger, 109 almonds, I 18 rice, 17 Gulf currants, 126 Gum, 149 alginates, 158 animal, 150 arabic, 152 arabic solution, 195 benzoin, 195 carob, 155 classification, 149 ghatti, 155 karaya, 154 marine, 156 paste, 189 sandrach, 195 seaweed, 149 starch, 149 synthetic, 159 tragacanth, 153 vegetable, 152 Hard ball degree, 65 crack degree, 66 Hazelnuts, I'll composition of, 123 Heat treatment of eggs, 32, 33 Heavy gateaux, 265 High-ratio cakes, 236 high emulsifying shortenings, 240 mixing methods, 23 I, 232 Honey, 68 composition, 69 uses, 69 Hydrochloric acid, 82 Hydrocyanic acid, 104 ion concentration, 239

INDEX

Hydrogenated fats, 50 Hydrolysis of amygdalin, I 17 of starch, 67

Kernels, apricot, 118, 264 peach, 118 Knocking back a dough, 200

Icings, American or boiled, 186 basic ingredients, 182 classification, 182 dry fondant, 184 fondant, 183 fudge, 185 marshmallow, 187 meringue, 185 parfait, 184 royal, 185 soft, 184 water, 183 Imitation fruit flavours, 105 Imitation cream, 192 Indian corn, 17 Indigo carmine, 114 Invert sugars, 69 Irish Moss, 158 Iso-eugenol, 103

Lactic acid, 21, 23 action on aerated goods, 23 bacteria, 21 fermentation, 21 Lactose, 21 Laevulose, 68 Lard,48 American, 48 an addition to chocolate, 176 classification of, 48 compounds, 58 composition of, 48 European, 48 food value and uses, 49 methods of rendering, 48 oil, 42,49 processed, 49 Lauricin, 41 Leaf gelatine, 150 Lecithin, 55 Lemon curd, 142 essences, 103 oil, 103 peel, 129 terpeneless oil, 103 yellow, 114 Lime water, 30 Lilac petals, 131 Lipases,44Liqueurs, 102, 106 Loaf sugar, 62 Lutein, 28

Jam, raspberry, 136 solids content, 141 standards for, 141 strawberry, 137 sugar for, 138 use of acid, 138 Jams andjellies, 136 boiling, 139 colouring matter, 138 fruits for, 136, 137 Jamaica pepper, 116 rum, 69 . Japonaise, 260 using ground almonds, 26 I using macaroon paste, 261 using marzipan, 261 Jellies, 143 fruit, 143 piping, 145 Jelly, arrowroot, 147 cornflour, 147 gooseberry, 159 lower cost, 145 sugar content, 144Jocolatte, 163 Jordan almonds, I 17

Macaroon biscuits, 259 Macaroon goods, baking temperatures, 280 Macaroon paste, 258 in almond goods, 259 Mace, 110 Machinery, 291 automatic cake plant, 305 bun-making, 302 cake depositors, 295 cake mixers, 291 confectionery coolers, 307 continuous mixers, 294, 295 enrobers, 298 for puff pastry, 297 fruit cleaning, 298 high-speed mixers, 294

343

INDEX

Machinery (contd.) horizontal mixers, 292 jam tart, automatic, 30 I metal detectors, 3 iO pie-making, 300 pressure whisks, 293 raw materials intake, 291 slicing, 307 Swiss roll plant, 304tray washing, 312 universal bun and roll plant, 303 vertical mixers, 292 wrapping, 308 Maize, 17 Margarine, 53 cake, 53 composition of, 54 manufacture, 54 pastry, 53 fat content, 54 Marshmallow, 187 using agar-agar, 187 using gelatine, 188 using boiling starch, 188 Marzipan, 119 cake, 257 in almond goods, 258 uses of, 119 Maw seed, I I I Melanguer machines, 165 Meringue buttercream, 194 Meringues, 186 baking temperatures, 280 icings, 185 Metaphosphoric acid, 89 Mexican cocoa beans, 164 Milk,20 bacteria in, 2 I butter, 23 chemical composition, 2 I effects in cakes, 21 P9wders, 22 separated, 22 skim, 22 sugar, 21 uses of, 21 Mincemeat, 142 Mixed spice, I I I Morton pressure whisk, 293 Natural essences, 101 fruit jellies, 143 Neutral lard, 48 New Zealand butter, 46 Nib sugar, 63

344

Non-drying oils, 41 11 Nutmegs, 110 oil of, 110 . Nutritional value of confectIOnery, 3 13 Nuts used in confectionery, II7 Oat flour, 17 . Oil arachis or peanut 011, 52, 122 coconut, 52, 120 cotton seed, 52 essential, I 0 I ground-nut, 52, 122 lard, 42, 49 of bitter almonds, 104 of cinnamon, 109 of lemons, 103 of nutmeg, 110 of oranges, 104 of peppermint, 104 palm kernel, 50, 52 sesame, 52 Oils and fats, 40 in margarine, 53 Oils, drying, 41 extraction of, 52 fish marine and animal, 42 hydrogenation of, 50 non-drying, 41 semi-drying, 41 Olein, 41 Oleo oil, 49 Olive oil, 41 Orange colour, I 14 essence, 104 oil, 104peel, 130 Orthophosphates, 87 Orthophosphoric acid, 87 Othellos, 247, 273 Ovens, 275 electric, 275 multi-deck, 275 temperatures, 277 travelling, 276, 300 turbo-radiant, 277 Palmitin, 41 Palm kernel oil, 42, 52 Pancakes, Scotch, 212 Parisian routs, 257 Paste, choux, 224 method of making, 224

INDEX

Paste (contd.) gum, 189 macaroon, 258 pUff, 21 9 short, 215 sugar, 188 sweet, 215 Pastry brakes, 296 margarine, 53 sheeters, 296 Patras currants, 126 Pears, dried, 128 Peanut oil, 122 Peanuts, 122 composition, 123 Pearl ashes, 75 degree, 65 Pectic acid, 159 Pectin, 138, 159 fruit jelly with, 145 powder, 138 Peel, candied, 129 citron, 130 lemon, 129 orange, 130 Pepper, 110 black, 110 white, 110 Peppermint oil, 102 pH of cake batters, 239 of cake flour, 15 of egg albumen, 27 Phosphates, 87 coated,92 Phosphatides, 56 Phosphoric acids, 87 Pie-making machines, 300 ovens, 300 Pimento, 110 Pine nuts, 122 Piping jellies, 145 Pistachio nuts, 121 composition, 123 Plum jam, 137 Plums, bottled, 132 crystallized, 129 Ponceau MX, I 14 Ponceau 4R, 114 Poppy seed, I I I Potash,75 alum, 86 Potassium bisulphate, 8 I acid sulphate, 81 bitartrate, 79 hydrogen tartrate, 79

Potassium (contd.) sodium tartrate, 80 Potato flour, 17 Premier jus, 49 Preservation of eggs, 29 Preservatives in fruit pulp, 133 in sultanas, 126 Preserved ginger, 109 Primary colours, I 13 Proving buns, 20 I Prussic acid, 104 Puff paste, 2 I 9 flour for, 20 goods, baking temperature, 279 methods of making, 220 reason for lift, 220 utilization of cuttings, 22 I Pulverized sugar, 63 Puree, apricot, 195 Pyrgos currants, 126 Pyrophosphates, 97 Pyrophosphoric acid, 88 Quality standards of jam, 141 Queen cakes, baking temperature, 279 Raisins, 124 Rancidity in butter, 47 in fats, 43 in margarine, 54 in milk powder, 23 Raspberries, 136 Raspberry buns, 212 colour, 114 jam, 136 Raw sugar, 61 Reconstitution of dried albumen, 34 of dried eggs, 33 of dried yolks, 34 of full-cream milk powder, 22 of separated milk powder, 22 Recipe balance, 235 Recipes for, aerated buns, 2 I 2 almond goods, 259 cakes, 230 chocolate buttercream, 177 chocolate gateaux, 177 chocolate Genoese, 178 chocolate rolls, 179, 180 fermented goods, 202

345

INDEX

Recipes (contd.) high-ratio cakes, 231 icings, fillings and creams, 182 marshmallow, 187 meringues, 186 pancakes, 2 I 2 pastes, 218 piping jelly, 146 scones, 209 sponge products, 247 Reconstituted cream, 192 Refiner's chocolate, 165 Refrigeration in bakery, 284 deep freeze, 286 temperatures, 287 Residual salts, effect on flour, 96 Retardation, dough, 284 for buns, 284 points to observe, 285 Rice, flour, 17, 257 Rochelle salts, 80 Rock cakes, 2 I 3 Rolls, Swiss, baking temperature, 280 Saffron, I 15 Salicylic acid, 133 Salmonella, 8, 31 Salveratus, 78 S.A.S.,86 Saturated solution of sugar, 64 Savarins, 203 Scone flour, 18 Scones, cream, 210 hot-plate, 2 I 1 milk,211 soda, 211 Victoria, 2 10 Scotch pancakes, 21 I Secondary colours, I 13 Seeds, caraway, 1 I I coriander, I I I Self-raising flour, 18, 208 Separated milk, 22 milk powder, 22 Sesame oil, 52 Sesquiterpeneless oil, 103 Setting a ferment, 198 Shade-dried currants, 126 Shea butter, 53 Shell eggs, 26 Shortbread, baking temperature, 281

Shortening agents, 4:y high emulsifying, 240 Short paste, 215 baking temperature, 279 flour for, 14,216 methods of making, 216 with potato flour, 216 Silicate of soda, 30 Sinking of cakes, 241 of fruit in cakes, 241 Skimmed milk, 22 Slicing machines, 307 Soda alum, 86 scones, 21 I Sodium aluminium sulphate, 86 bicarbonate, 78 biphosphate, 94 bisulphate, 82 chloride, 82 pyrophosphate, 95 sulphate, 86 tartrate, 81 Soft ball degree, 65 crack degree, 66 flour, 15 Soya beans, 122 flour, 122 flour composition, 123 flour uses, 122 specific volume, determination of, 3 26,33 2 Spice flavours, 105 mixed, I I I Spices, 108 classification of, 108 Sponge goods, 244 aeration of, 244 butter sponge, 253 effect of emulsifying agents, 246 effect of extra yolk, 246 effect of fat, 246 effect of glycerine, 246 effect of machine speeds, 245 effect of salt, 246 effect of temperature, 246 enriched sponge, 253 Sponges, methods of making, 246 all-in, 250 continuous, 251 delayed soda, 248 high-speed, 252 orthodox, 247 pressure whisk, 250 separated, 247 Staphylococci, 8 Starch, 161

INDEX

Stabilizing agents, 245 Standards for jam, 141 Stearin, 41, 50 Strawberries, 137 Strong flour, 14 Sucroses, 59 Sugar ash content, 64 batter system, 2'207 dried egg, 35, 36 for jams, 138 in cakes, 235 in fermented buns, 199 preserved eggs, 32 Sugars and sweetening power, 69 beet, 61 cane, 61 degree of hoiled sugar solutions of, 65 Demarara, 62 evaluation, 63 extraction of, 6r fruit, 59 grape, 59, 67 icing, 63 invert, 69 maple, 59 milling of, 63 of honey, 69 palm,59 raw, 61 refining of, 62 relative sweetness of, 69 simple, 67 solutions, 64 standards, 74 uses of, 66 Sultana scones, 'log Sultanas, I 25 Summary of cake faults, '2041 Supersaturated solutions of sugar, 64 Sweet paste goods-recipes, 2 18 baking temperatme, Q79 Swiss buns, 202 roll plant, 304 rolls, chocolate, 179 I Synthetic gums, 159 vanillin, J03 Syrup, 73 for babas, 204 for bottled fruit, 133 golden, 73 stock, 183 Tartar, cream of, 79 Tartaric acid, 80

Tartrates, 80 Tartrazine lemon yellow, 126 Tea cakes, 200 Tempering chocolate, 178 Tennis cakes, flour for, 21 Terpeneless oil, 103 Tertiary colours, 121 Testing of raw materials, 323 bakery, 323 laboratory, list of tests, 323 Tests, baking, 323 creaming, 333 for baking powder, 324 for egg, 333 for fats, 326 for puff pastry, 328 whipping, 333 Theobroma cacao, 173 Theobromine, 173 Thermometers, oven, 252 Thread degree, 74 Toluene, 110 Torten Gateaux, 268 bases, 271 Black Forest Torte, 270 classification, 268 correct balance, base and fillings, 269

hazel nougat Torte, 270 rum and chocolate Torte, 270 strawberry Torte, 270 typical formulae, 272 dobos, 272 roulade, 272 Vienna sponge, 272 Travelling ovens, 276, 300 Treacles, 73 Tricalcium phosphate, 87 Tray-washing machines, 312 Unsweetened block chocolate, 165 Use of acid calcium phosphate,

89 Vacuum bottles, 131 Valentia almonds, 117 Vanilla beans, 102 extract, 102 adulterants, 103 preparation of, 102 Vanillin, 103 Victoria scones, 2 I 0 Violet petals, 13 I

347

INDEX

Vol, volatile, 84 Vostizza currants, 126 Walnut oil, 120 Walnuts, 120' Washes, bun, 201 Water, 20 glass, 30 icing, 183 Wedding cake proportions, 242 cake baking temperature, 281 dimensions of, 242, 243

Whey powder, 24 Whisking machines, 192, 293 Whites of eggs, 27 Winter wheats, 19 Wrapping machines, 308 materials, 308, 309 X-ray inspection unit, 31 I Yeast, 197 Yolks, egg, 28 dried egg, 35

(

Checked 201 0

Cbecked-Of4 11

-'+ 1fL

____ .