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THE IMPORTANCE OF GROWING: Agriculture in Communities
DR. CHRIS QUATTRO
Dr. Chris Quattro is an Assistant Professor of Community and Regional Planning at Appalachian State University. They received their doctorate in City and Regional Planning, focusing on land use planning and planning law, from the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Quattro’s research looks at the implications of regulatory systems on planning objectives and community outcomes. They also currently work as the Lead Land Development Researcher for a private law firm and previously served as the Director of City Planning and Development for San Antonio City Council District 1.
ABSTRACT
Concerns over the sustainability of the global food market have highlighted the problem of people’s disassociation from their food in the United States. Meanwhile, underutilized open space across U.S. communities perpetuates the Urban Heat Island created by sprawling lawns and parking lots that occupy land that could be used for food production. This article discusses the importance of incorporating urban agricultural practices into underutilized spaces, the small changes individuals can make to become more acquainted with their food, regulatory shifts to support these efforts, and how households can incorporate food production from food waste into everyday living.
INTRODUCTION
Planners worldwide recognize the importance of incorporating urban agricultural practices as infill into existing community spaces. By engaging in small changes, publicly and privately, individuals can become more acquainted with their food and involved in urban ecology. With minimal allocations of land for growing, households can incorporate food production from food waste into everyday living. While small efforts for food production are unlikely to meet complete nutrition demand, they can provide supplementary produce and diet education for communities. Both are important for manifesting a sense of place through the development of third spaces, fostering an awareness of our food systems, building relationships with natural resources, and reclaiming the rights of residents to grow food within their communities.
Throughout history, cities across cultures engaged in small-scale horticulture incorporated into existing urban fabrics. Historic examples can be observed by studying allotment gardens in Europe, use of fruit or nut trees as street-scaping in ancient North Africa, Xuanhua vineyard gardening in China, Aztec floating gardens, U.S. war-time victory gardens, and terrace farms in the Incan Empire. Through policy and planning, these communities purposely integrated these practices into ancient urban areas.
Today, much of the land area not occupied by buildings in existing towns and cities becomes parking lots or grassy areas (Fransen 2023, Jordan 2023). This is largely because of regulatory systems like zoning that discourage farming within urbanized areas and mandate high parking requirements (Gray 2022, Shoup 2018, Speck 2018). Green spaces comprising solely of grass have no benefit for reducing the urban heat island (Armson et al 2012). Parking uses extensive hardscaping and concentrates air pollution from cars in ways that impact environmental quality.
Instead, cities can capitalize on the productivity opportunities offered by green spaces that extend beyond being mere open areas. Research shows that community members, particularly in low-income and underserved areas, are more likely to utilize green spaces with a structured purpose, more amenities, and landscaping beyond lawns (Fransen 2023). Supporting communities’ right to use public spaces for important activities, like agriculture, reinforces the significance of individuals’ right to work, live, play, and produce.
Regulatory and cultural shifts could support urban agricultural development in both public and private spaces. Existing regulatory systems do not support food production within city and town limits. For example, some regulations require that certain sex or species of trees be planted to avoid fruit and food production. Reasons for these regulations link to concerns about additional sanitation needs from rotting or un-maintained growth. However, capturing these opportunities to support food growth and ensuring the product makes its way into the hands of those who need it would be a higher use of land with a more urgent public purpose.
HIGHEST AND BEST USE OF LAND
The goal of most land use planners is to encourage and regulate development of the land throughout their jurisdiction for the highest and best use (Berke and Godschalk 2006; Levine 2005; Hirt 2014). What could be a more important land use than food production? Humans rely on food every day, and unlike most other land uses, we could not survive without it. Yet, agricultural land uses and food production are often excluded from city footprints altogether by land use regulations, and are instead relegated to exterior rural areas (Gray 2022; Mees and Stone 2012).
The current use of open space in built environments across the U.S. is predominately for parking, which contributes to the Urban Heat Island (UHI) and is not the highest and best use of that land. The UHI effect is when the ambient air temperature in an area is higher than what is typical for other surrounding areas. The UHI is one of the leading concerns for sustainability and human health, and perpetuated by exclusion of plant growth from cities in favor of flat surfaces like lawns and pavement (Estoque et al 2017; Heaviside et al 2017; Li et al 2023; Shahmohammadi et al 2011; Zhao 2018). Using those spaces for urban growth can be much more effective at reducing UHI island effects (Loughner et al 2012), while also improving land productivity. Table 1 lists policy and regulatory changes for planners that support transferring the use of land away from hardscaping or lawns to food production.
Table 1: Potential Strategies for Planners to Support Community Agriculture
Include support for agricultural practices communitywide in comprehensive and strategic planning documents
Reassess zoning codes to allow for community gardens, greenhouses, and livestock
Public land leasing programs for private and community garden space
Revise building codes to allow for green roofs and rooftop gardens
Offer stormwater fee or property tax waivers for food producing land or buildings
Reduce restrictions on individuals’ rights to access publicly available land
Offer grant programs to community organizations that engage in agriculture
Underused city land for food producing landscaping
Transfer sheriff-sale abandoned or vacant property to community land trusts focused on agriculture
1) Many cities are enacting planning documents that support urban agriculture practices, such as Philadelphia’s Greenworks Plan (2009). Food-based policies are recommendations that form the legal framework in which urban agriculture regulation may exist, but local governments must be proactive about effectuating those policies through implementation (Berg 2014).
2) Implementation mechanisms include relaxing zoning regulations to allow community gardens and other urban agriculture land uses. In Philadelphia, this took the form of adding Urban Agriculture land uses to the permitted use table, adopted in 2012, that include “Community Garden,” “Market or Community Supported Farms,” “Animal Husbandry,” and “Horticulture, Nurseries, and Greenhouses,” (City of Philadelphia Unified Development Code, Section 14-602). The scale of these land uses is reflected by which zoning districts they are permitted in, with community gardens permitted by-right across residential, commercial, and special districts but more intense Animal Husbandry and Horticulture focused in industrial areas. Additional regulations include items like required fencing for community garden spaces and appropriate storage of compost material.
3) Park departments are also beginning to create garden-leasing programs to allow private individuals use of otherwise unproductive parkland for gardening. Minneapolis, St. Louis, St. Paul, and Fairfax County are among the jurisdictions offering opportunities for residents to lease unused or designated public lands for gardening purposes.
4) Relaxing regulations to allow green roofs supports mitigation of urban heat, while also employing otherwise underutilized space for food production and growth. Boston, for example, allowed rooftop gardens by-right in residential, commercial, and industrial zones beginning in 2009 (Good and Moccia 2009). They are also permitted as a conditional use in other zoning districts. For a city like Boston with limited open space, this maximizes land use potential while improving environmental outcomes.
5) Some cities waive stormwater impact fees for gardening or green roofs, motivating property owners to repurpose their buildings or lots. Landowners are capitalizing on the potential of their rooftops or lawns by leasing for agricultural uses, thus taking advantage of fee relief programs.
6) While some areas are supporting regulatory change to allow agricultural practices on private land, they may continue to maintain restrictions that prevent a more productive use of public lands through urban agriculture. Take, for example, the City of Boston’s Code Section 16-19.1: Use of Public Grounds prohibits occupying grassy public areas at all. Focusing efforts on how to increase access and utilization of public lands by amending codes such as these, and engaging in community-organized efforts for urban agriculture, can revolutionize the role of public space for a lasting positive impact on community access to food and land.
7) Grassroots efforts that engage in large programmatic efforts to repurpose vacant or underutilized parcels operate almost exclusively with volunteer labor and grant funding. A legal review issued by Duke School of Law argues that urban agriculture programs, like that in Detroit, require federal financial support similar to what is available for rural farming in order to modernize our food production systems for sustainability and availability (Mersol-Barg 2013). Detroit Future City, a non-profit city planning organization, drafted a strategic plan in 2013 that includes recommendations for increasing the already growing number of urban farming enterprises within the city. Their efforts produced a Field Guide, available for anyone looking to maximize land use on a lot through agriculture, as well as an interactive map on their website indicating the locations and details of existing community farms.
8) Cities often landscape along city-owned right-of-way’s, storm water features, or other easements. However, selections of landscaping and trees rarely include those which are food producing. Choosing food-producing plants like berry bushes and fruit trees can be a simple way to transition the space for food production (Figure 1). Engaging with non-profits and other community organizations can reassure individuals of their right to this food to reduce waste.
9) In addition to public lands, unused private land can also be repurposed for food production. Allowing temporary use of abandoned property by community garden group returns this land to productive use while legal standing of the property is in flux. Depending on the property’s legal status, this can lead to permanent transfer of land to entities like a community land trust through mechanisms such as Pennsylvania’s squatter’s rights laws which grant legal ownership to 501c3 stewards of land after 21 years of abandonment by the property owner.
Combined, these approaches would allow planners to transform the landscape in their jurisdictions to ensure the highest and best use of land. By repurposing vacant or underutilized spaces for food-producing infill, planners would support improvements to the health and wellbeing of their constituency. Increasing plant growth in developed areas, particularly that which is food-producing, will have long-term improvements on urban heat, air quality, access to fresh produce, and community knowledge of food systems. To expand on these benefits, planners can also work with legislators and policymakers to dismantle other barriers to agricultural development, such as HOA deed restrictions and brownfield sites.
PEOPLE AND THEIR FOOD
With growing concerns about environmental sustainability and a globalized food market, the disassociation between people and their food is an issue within the United States. An annual survey conducted by Michigan State University shows that Americans are interested in improving their food consumption practices, but struggle with understanding their food and what is best practice (Food@MSU 2023). Learning about food production and systems through active participation is a primary way to improve the relationship between people and their food.
Engaging in hands-on food growth is a fundamental way that individuals can better understand the food production process. There are many small ways that individuals can engage in this, including home gardening of food-producing plants (Figure 2). Additionally, supporting CSAs (Community-Supported Agriculture) can provide a household with with produce while also learning about what foods are in-season and grown locally. Taking part in community gardens and local planting initiatives can further the appreciation of the grown environment. Learning the history of food products is also important to understanding the intricacies of our current food markets and the climate adaptations of plant life.
Planners possess a unique advantage in enabling activities that enhance the community’s comprehension of the effort, process, and risk related to our current food systems. Cities can generate policies that relax regulatory restrictions and financially support community-based efforts for urban agriculture. Effective programmatic efforts would provide opportunities for residents to answer the questions: How does our food grow? How does our food get from the producers to our plate? How do risks and impacts vary between products on supermarket shelves?
FOOD FROM FOOD WASTE
80 million tons of food is wasted in the United States annually (Feeding America 2023). One of the most effective ways individuals can contribute to reducing food waste is by constructively utilizing unused food products. The availability of food supply today is far superior to what was available to our ancestors, thanks to technological advances in refrigeration, transportation, and food preservation. However, the seemingly endless supply available at grocery stores today may be a major contributor to the lack of resourcefulness for the various components of produce in U.S. culture. Food that touches the floor is thrown away. Seeds, stems, and peels are considered useless. However, these cultural norms disregard the value of food, are disassociated with the reality of the food production process, and ultimately lead to an increase in food waste. Instead, portions of food not utilized immediately in cooking can be repurposed productively.
Food that drops on the floor, begins to overripen, or waste (stems, peels) that would otherwise be thrown away can be repurposed in recipes, germinated for growth, or as compost. Some food products, like bananas and peaches, are ideal for baking once they overripen. Many other plants, like pumpkins and tomatoes, are more likely to have fertile seeds if the fruit itself can overripen beyond what is typically used in cooking. As a last resort, unusable portions of food can be composted to produce rich soil for additional growth. Small portions of food can be composted easily by baking it for a short time, then mixing it into the bottom soil of pots. Compost bins come in various sizes for different living situations, and can be offered as a city service. Dropped produce can still be used for seeds or compost (Figure 3).
Seeds from produce are often fertile, particularly if they are locally grown. The fertility of a seed can be tested by placing it in a clean container with a moist paper towel for 3-5 days. Using containers with a clear lid, boiling the water used inside, and placing them in a sunny location (like a window) will help prevent mold. Most everyday produce, like peppers, tomatoes, legumes, and citrus will quickly germinate in this environment if the seeds are viable. If seedlings begin to develop, they can be transferred into the soil for home gardening. Plants like peppers also self-pollinate, making them ideal for food-producing house plants. Growing from seeds in small spaces or indoors is possible by using large pots with a hole and rocks at the bottom for drainage, and placing these pots near a sunny window or on a porch (Figure 4).
Many other food products, beyond fresh produce, can also be used productively to support food growth. Coffee grounds and tea leaves are excellent pest deterrents while supporting the growth of citrus or other acidic foods. Egg shells contain high protein and calcium stores valuable for vegetable and legume growth. Brown paper bags or unpainted cardboard from food storage can also be shredded and mixed in with soil. Small portions of purchased garlic, onions, and potatoes can be placed into soil to grow (Figure 5).
CONCLUSION
Many jurisdictions recognize the challenge of ensuring that all land within their boundaries is utilized for the highest and best use. While infill for housing and services is certainly necessary to reduce sprawl, some land must be left unoccupied by structures to generate urban design with satisfactory light and air flow. Open spaces throughout cities can be better utilized by repurposing land use away from lawns and parking to food production.
The UN Office of the High Council for Human Rights (2010) recognizes the right to access and grow food as a fundamental human right. Planners looking to support the rights of communities through food growth from food waste should collaborate with municipal departments to facilitate largescale programs for composting and community gardening. This would offer opportunities for individuals, particularly in high-density housing, to use saved seeds and move organic waste for productive use.
Small scale food production throughout cities has many benefits for its residents. This includes better engagement with their food, and access to fresh produce. Maximizing the growth potential in cities through land, rooftops, and household gardening significantly improves air quality and reduces urban heat island. Limited access to land for urban gardening is a justice concern when those least likely to have access to open space for personal food production live in higher density housing or on smaller lots. Planning programs can directly, or through supporting the work of individuals and community organizations, improve opportunities for small scale food production throughout their jurisdictions.
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