Carolyn Andrews 30004857 Sustainable Urban Housing Prof. Sasha Tsenkova
Catalyzing Sustainable Urban Densification in Waterloo, Ontario
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Sustainable Urban Housing Carolyn Andrews 3000 4857 Prof. Sasha Tsenkova March 29, 2017 Final Research Paper Catalyzing Urban Densification in Waterloo, Ontario
Table of Contents: Introduction: Objectives + Methodology: Chapter 1: Addressing Cultural Perceptions of Livability Chapter 2: Social Consequences of Transit-Oriented Design Chapter 3: Implementation of Planning Principles and Strategies Chapter 4: Proposal for Catalyzing Urban Densification in Waterloo, Ontario Conclusion:
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Introduction: Objectives + Methodology: Waterloo is a blossoming city, with economic diversity and continual growth, it is a technological and education rich area that is slowly transforming into an urban centre outside of the Greater Toronto Area. With the construction of the new Light Rail Transit System connecting key commercial centres through Kitchener and Waterloo, it has the potential to become a denser, more sustainable urban city. This paper explores the complex social drivers and consequences associated with urban densification, and proposes a course of actions to be taken to create more sustainable urban nodes along Kitchener-Waterloo’s new Light Rail Transit line. Using the existing zoning as a base map for future densification types, strategies are proposed that respect the existing urban and suburban fabric, while concentrating development around transit stations and diversifying existing uses. This paper looks at the cultural perceptions of a livable city and the social consequences of transit-oriented design, as well as investigating the implementation of different planning principles and strategies. In response to the new avenues of transit and the growing university population, extensive high-density developments have been going up along the King St. Corridor, and extending down University Ave. and Columbia Ave. Many of these structures address the housing shortages brought on by the students of the University of Waterloo, Wilfred Laurier University and Conestoga College, and are mono-use, serving primarily residential programs. A few clustered near the intersection of University Ave and King St. contain some commercial use on the ground floors, however the extent of mixed-use in the area is still staggeringly low. It is also important to note that the LRT connects areas of the city that were previously inaccessible other than by car (or a very long and circuitous bus route) and it is in these relatively suburban and industrial areas that the most potential for urban densification lies. The specific area that will be focused on is the area that surrounds the last stop on the LRT line in Waterloo, Conestoga Mall. Other commercial shopping plazas surround the mall, interspersed with some medium density apartment complexes, low density industrial areas and low density residential neighbourhoods. It is in the areas of medium density that the most rapid and useful densification could take place. The multiple residential zoning area just north of Conestoga Mall sits between commercial and industrial areas, and is also a gateway to the singlefamily residential zoning to the east. Here, there is opportunity to create a denser concentration of residential uses which can take advantage of the surrounding commercial areas and proximity to industrial workplaces, as well as having the opportunity to introduce new and needed commercial uses to the area. There are three apartment buildings that currently exist on this site, as well as two affordable housing apartment buildings in the South-Western corner. All five of these buildings sit in a sea of parking that acts as a buffer to the street. By relocating this parking to underground spaces or a single multi-level parking garage away from the street, it would be possible to infill the area with mixed-use developments that interact with the street, having close access to bus and light rail transit. The activation of this area, a cornerstone on Northfield Drive and Davenport Road, could act as a catalyst and example for other medium-density zoning in the area to densify and create a more connected node of urban life. There are a wide range of concepts and issues to address when looking at best practices for urban densification and creating a more livable city. This paper will focus on the social issues and benefits, which in turn influence both the environmental and economic aspects of
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sustainability. Three main categories will be investigated, looking at the cultural perceptions of livability, the social consequences of transit-oriented design strategies, and the implementation of various planning principles for more sustainable cities. Finally, a proposal for the catalyzation of urban densification in Waterloo, Ontario will be presented, based on the categories discussed.
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Chapter 1: Addressing Cultural Perceptions of Livability Perhaps the biggest hurdle to sustainable city design is the citizens themselves. The social construct of the ‘American Dream,’ which has permeated North American and even aspects of global culture, advocates for the single-family home, where each family has their own private space, a garage and a yard. Ideas that suburban developments, far from commercial centres and places of work, providing a haven for the family that is safe, clean and healthy, remain the dominant thought among homebuyers. From the perspective of sustainability, citizens in general understand the environmental benefits of more compact cities, and people often make sustainable choices in regard to their personal travel behaviours by choosing to “minimize the distance between where they live and their key travel locations.” 1 However, people also seem to choose where they live based more on social factors such as social interaction and feelings of community, as well as house sizes and aesthetics, and opinions about personal security. 2 A concept known as “residential self-selection” explores the notions that households choose locations to live based on their personal travel needs, including proximity to their desired key activities and their willingness to be car-dependent. 3 Importantly, the main consideration in residential location selection is based on household income 4, meaning that the price of owning a car is often outweighed by the savings from living in a car-dependent neighbourhood. The concept of livability in a compact environment is prevalent in current conversations of sustainability in the western world. As Howley, Scott & Redmond point out, “there is a perception that high-density development poses too great a cost on individual’s quality of life.” 5 They also suggest that it is not high-density itself that affects that quality of life, but rather related factors perceived to go along with high-density, such as noise, traffic, lack of community or facilities, and environmental quality. 6 The idea that quality of life is not included in a sustainable future is, by definition, unsustainable. If people do not enjoy their living situation, they will attempt to change it. If compact cities do not offer the breadth of lifestyle choices that a society needs, suburban alternatives will present themselves. This, realistically, is the condition cities face today, where the suburbs seem to offer better choices than the inner-city. The “urban quality of life is crucial in developing livable, stable and vibrant communities,” 7 and so strategies need to address not just residential density, but mixed-use developments that provide an optimal number of jobs and services per resident. Locating facilities, shops, cultural areas and recreation areas in proximity to mixed residential units, while promoting community involvement and creating integrated social circles, can result in a densely mixed urban fabric that is both desirable to the public and creates a more environmentally and socially sustainable city.
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Thomas, J.A., Walton, D. & Lamb, S. Soc Indic Res (2011) 104: 253. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9742-0 Ibid. 3 Olaru, D., Smith, B., & Taplin, J. H. E. (2011). Residential location and transit-oriented development in a new rail corridor. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45(3), 219-237. doi://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/j.tra.2010.12.007 4 Ibid. 5 Howley, P., Scott, M., & Redmond, D. (2009). Sustainability versus liveability: An investigation of neighbourhood satisfaction. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 52(6), 847-864. doi:10.1080/09640560903083798 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 2
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It is not up to planners to change human behaviour, however it is within their power to shape the physical environment to encourage change in the social and economic environment. It is not enough to densify with new development. Adequate supporting infrastructure must be considered in conjunction with new tenancies. By creating a compact city environment that has the same or better perception in regards to quality of life, people’s tendencies will shift to making decisions that not only benefit their immediate lifestyle, but also have positive impacts on creating a more sustainable environment. However, this does not happen overnight, and being aware of the cultural perceptions that drive a society’s decisions and attitudes is important for planners to keep in mind. Figure 5 Illustrates the convoluted nature of sustainability, and shows how one perception can be influenced by many other symptoms within the framework of a livable city.
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Chapter 2: Social Consequences of Transit-Oriented Design It is a point of debate amongst planners that changes in the built environment can have a direct effect in modifying travel behaviours, however, proof of concept for utilizing “mixed-land use, residential and employment density, good street connectivity and high transit accessibility,” to reduce automobile usage has been extensively shown. 8 It is generally agreed that increased transit availability reduces automobile dependence and usage, reducing number and length of car trips, directly reducing traffic congestion, and indirectly reducing noise levels, pollution, energyuse and even improving physical and mental health. As illustrated in Figure 6, the benefits of Transit-Oriented Design are rather cyclical, where one action (introducing better transit options) creates a chain reaction. Reducing the need to travel, reducing number of car trips and the length of car trips can be achieved by concentrating a diversity of activities within residential areas, striking the appropriate balance between people and activities in any given place, and ensuring adequate options for transit between such places. 9 The concept of Transit-Oriented Design involves integrating land-uses and transport functions in order to prevent or remedy urban sprawl. 10 Moderate and high-density developments encompassing residential, commercial and recreational activities - within walking distance of major public transit - act as the cornerstone for this strategy. It is aimed at promoting pedestrians, cyclists and public forms of transportation. Ideally, residents would “be collocated with public and private services that meet a majority of their social, physical, community and economic needs.” 11 There are many ways to approach transit oriented design, from infilling vacant lots and surface parking without drastically changing zoning bylways, to redeveloping single-family homes into the maximum high density mixed-use that the city allows. A range of strategies, from passive to intensive, were explored by Kimball et al. when studying the potential that transit-oriented design has for reducing life-cycle environmental impacts. All strategies explored in that paper show a reduction in car usage, to varying degrees, and each prove that higher-density proposals have a wide range on benefits on social, environmental and economic factors of sustainability. 12 Some of these benefits are derived directly from the introduction of more accessible public transport options, such as the reduction in car use. It is assumed that many households in the catchment areas will “reduce, but not eliminate, automobile travel and switch to LRT,” 13 which, as mentioned, can have dramatic effects on many factors influencing sustainable cities.
Olaru, D., Smith, B., & Taplin, J. H. E. (2011). Residential location and transit-oriented development in a new rail corridor. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45(3), 219-237. doi://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/j.tra.2010.12.007 9 Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environ Plann B Plann Des, 24(3), 437-449. doi:10.1068/b240437 10 Olaru, D., Smith, B., & Taplin, J. H. E. (2011). Residential location and transit-oriented development in a new rail corridor. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45(3), 219-237. doi://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/j.tra.2010.12.007 11 Kimball, M., Chester, M., Gino, C., & Reyna, J. (2013). Assessing the potential for reducing life-cycle environmental impacts through transit-oriented development infill along existing light rail in phoenix. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 33(4), 395-410. doi:10.1177/0739456X13507485 12 Kimball, M., Chester, M., Gino, C., & Reyna, J. (2013). Assessing the potential for reducing life-cycle environmental impacts through transit-oriented development infill along existing light rail in phoenix. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 33(4), 395-410. doi:10.1177/0739456X13507485 13 Ibid. 8
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One of the largest issues currently facing North America is the health epidemic. From obesity to heart disease to asthma and mental health, the well-being of North America’s populations are in jeopardy. Sedentary jobs, sedentary leisure activities and sedentary transportation mean that a majority of people, as reported by Statistics Canada, would not even classify themselves as “moderately active.” 14 By commuting by foot or bike rather than car, activity increases by an average of 30 minutes per day, and each kilometer walked decreases the chance of being obese by about 5%. 15 Furthermore, the pollutants emitted by car exhaust are “partially to blame for increased cases of cardiovascular and respiratory illness,” 16 such as asthma, lung cancer and heart disease. In Hamilton, Ontario, it was estimated that a 30-50% reduction in car usage caused by the introduction of an LRT system could save 200 lives and $900 million per year due to reduced emission rates 17. In addition to physical health (and certainly related) environmental health is, of course, a huge part of creating a sustainable city. Not only do fewer pollutants enter the atmosphere when fewer cars are driven, and for shorter periods of time, but the impact of not sprawling into existing agricultural and natural land is a major consideration. From an economic perspective, “sustainable development is no longer just the right thing to do, it is a business decision motivated by financial interests and the need for community wellbeing.” 18 Real estate values can be boosted by 10-20% in transit-connected areas, creating an economically sound investment opportunity for businesses to participate in urban densification. Compact development also has the economic benefit of reducing need for sprawling infrastructure, from roads to water and sewage systems to electrical grids. The public service cost savings compound on the transportation cost savings, not to mention the economic development possible from improved workplace efficiency that follows reduced traffic congestion and increased health of the population 19. Another interesting economic advantage that results from transit-oriented high-density development, is that due to the smaller size of units in a high-density area, as well as lower demand for units not in single-family neighbourhoods, housing prices often reduce, “possibly resulting in more affordable units for low-income households.” 20 Aurand draws the conclusion that more “balanced distribution between population-serving employment and residential land uses was associated with a greater percentage of affordable rental units in a neighbourhood,” and also notes how the variety of available housing types influence amount of affordable units 21. Commuting costs also act as a factor to affordability, and the accessibility of public transport to affordable units can allow low-income households to avoid car dependence and ownership.
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Topalovic, P., Carter, J., Topalovic, M., & Krantzberg, G. (2012). Light rail transit in Hamilton: Health, environmental and economic impact analysis. Social Indicators Research, 108(2), 329-350. doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0069-x 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 20 Aurand, A. (2010). Density, housing types and mixed land use: Smart tools for affordable housing? Urban Studies, 47(5), 1015-1036. doi:10.1177/0042098009353076 21 Aurand, A. (2010). Density, housing types and mixed land use: Smart tools for affordable housing? Urban Studies, 47(5), 1015-1036. doi:10.1177/0042098009353076
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Chapter 3: Implementation of Planning Principles and Strategies It has now been established that high-density mixed-use development surrounding transit stations is an effective model for creating a more sustainable city from social, economic and environmental perspectives. The question remains of how to go about implementing such a model into the developed sprawl of North American cities. Financial and governmental barriers remain the biggest hurdles to realizing urban densification. It is for these reasons that reimagining landuse designations while promoting financial incentives and investing in infrastructural upgrades, such as transit systems, must be instigated concurrently with each other. The concepts of “Smart Growth” strategies are prevalent amongst urban planners today. Simply put, smart growth is a broad term that involves any level of economic and community development targeted at reducing or reversing urban sprawl and the environmental impact of cities. 22 Popular goals for smart growth can be divided into three main categories: increasing land use intensity (ie. mix of forms of housing, apartment, townhouse, detached); increasing diversity of uses (ie. Adding high-density residential on top of commercial and office uses); integrating segregated uses (ie. Changing or dismantling of zoning regulations). Within these main categories are many strategies for achieving the desired mix of uses and intensities, including financial and governmental incentives or tax breaks, such as encouraging development in certain areas like brownfield sites, designing high-density developments, or instigating neighbourhood revitalization funds and organizations. The planning principles touted in smart growth policies must be designed with the proper infrastructural forethought, or they could have the result of worsening traffic congestion and pollution problems in sprawling suburban areas. 23 This can be avoided with efficient public transit systems like light rail transit, if they are developed concurrently with new land use policies. Some first steps to take in affecting smart growth strategies is to establish a containment policy, or growth limits, for a city, curbing sprawl past certain boundaries. Minimum density thresholds can then be implemented, emphasizing the concept of “growing up” rather than “growing out,” as was done successfully in Portland, Oregon. Using this concept, Portland saw a jump in multifamily housing units from 25% to 49% in just five years (1992-1997). 24 Another strategy, which works well with transit-oriented design, is to concentrate mixed-use, high-density development along certain transit corridors or nodes, while “preserving existing residential neighbourhoods and open space.” 25 This allows for existing residential areas to remain, and the portion of the population that values the low-density style of neighbourhood to be appeased. In addition to this, instigating
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What is Smart Growth? Smart Growth Online. March 16, 2015. Retrieved from www.smartgrowth.org on March 19, 2017. 23 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 24 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 25 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397
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mandatory limits on the number and sizes of lots that can be developed into new single-family homes can curb continued sprawl and low-density development. 26 De-regulation or loosening of zoning bylaws can have a dramatic effect on development. The UN Habitat III Issue Paper 8 focuses on Urban and Spatial Planning and Design, and advocates for looser restrictions on land-uses, providing guidelines rather than strict mono-use delineations of zoning. 27 An interesting point in traditionally accepted mixed-use development is the provision for residential mixed with various forms of commercial – office, retail, institutional – and ignores industrial uses in the mix. Many light-industrial uses are no longer loud or toxic, and maker-space type manufacturing can easily be incorporated into traditional mixed-uses, allowing for a greater mix of land-uses and increased access by residential uses to employment opportunities. Many of the strategies discussed are instigated at the governmental level, through bylaw reform and policy shifts. Similarly to the discussion regarding perceptions of livability, the implementation of planning principles requires some cultural shift of desires. As with all aspects of sustainable design, there is a certain amount of circuity, where an interruption in the cycle of supply and demand must be instigated to introduce a new framework for that demand. Determining the best principles and strategies to be implemented should be forefront to this discussion, and the government agencies responsible for instigating changes and funding them must involve the public in active engagement processes, in order to create a city that is desirable and livable for all segments of the population. Some examples of this can be seen in Figure 7, which illustrates the symptoms and perceptions that different strategies can influence and change.
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Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 27 UN-HABITAT (2015) HABITAT III Issue Papers. New York: UN-HABITAT, 31 May 2015. http://unhabitat.org/issue-papers-and-policy-units/, accessed March 10, 2017
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Chapter 4: Proposal for the Catalyzation of Urban Densification in Waterloo, Ontario As mentioned, the area of Waterloo that this paper focuses on is the area surrounding Conestoga Mall, at the end of the line. This area has a diverse mix of land-uses, although no actual mixed-use land zoning. Light industrial areas border single-family residential with pockets of commercial, and a few small areas of medium-density apartments. Based on the studies and information gathered regarding residential self-selection and the attitudes and perceptions regarding high-density, this paper will propose controlled densification in areas of the zoning already shown to be more open to mixed-use. The medium-density lot on the corner of Davenport Road and Northfield Drive provides an excellent focal point for densification. The residents of this area are already used to more dense living, and are aware of the benefits of having commercial areas in close proximity. Further densification of residential uses, as well as the introduction of street-level commercial uses and pockets of public space would create vibrancy on this block, while also acting as a connective tissue with the low-density commercial spaces surrounding this residential area. Furthermore, the site already contains both market-value and affordable developments, which have both been integrated seamlessly into the community, allowing for more mix of social classes. The parking lots surrounding the existing buildings are underused, and could easily be relocated to a parking structure near the back of the site, giving precedence to the pedestrian and utilizing the increased transit accessibility brought on by the new LRT. There are three other medium-density apartment and townhouse developments within the catchment area of the LRT station. It is in these areas that higher density can be instigated first. Following these developments, rezoning of commercial areas to be mixed-use and building up residential above existing retail could be pursued. The extensive single-family residential areas surrounding these newly dense pockets would be left to ordinary redevelopment practices, allowing for residents to retain their chosen community. The suburban developments would benefit from the proximity of new dense uses and increased walkability in their surrounding neighbourhoods, without a forced change in lifestyle before their perceptions of desirability can be altered. It is important to avoid reducing the attractiveness of the area for those people who still desire to live in low-density areas, in order to avoid out-migration of the population. 28 Ideally, by locating employment opportunities closer to existing low-density residential, the population will develop less of a reliance on the car, and begin to cycle or walk, taking advantage of the transit available to them. Despite the benefits mentioned in Chapter 2, “critics have argued that sprawl reflects the preferences of community dwellers and that smart growth contradicts market demand.� 29 From Chapter 1, this view seems to have some merit at this point, and steps must be taken to allow for these preferences without permanently damaging the sustainable prospects of the city. The tactic used in Arlington, Virginia, to preserve existing residential neighbourhoods while focusing development on specific transit-oriented areas, seems a good strategy for a culture that still embraces the single-family home as the optimal living condition. For Waterloo, there is an opportunity to invest in infill and adaptive reuse developments of commercial and industrial Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environ Plann B Plann Des, 24(3), 437-449. doi:10.1068/b240437 29 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 28
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areas surrounding the new transit stations, rather than converting existing low-density residential areas to high-density mixed-use. For example, the area surrounding Conestoga Mall to the north is widely light industrial uses, in one-or-two-storey warehouse buildings amidst vast arrays of surface parking, and no sidewalks or provisions for pedestrians at all. Following a de-regulation of zoning bylaws, these warehouses can be supplemented by residential and commercial developments, that will help to drive development of pedestrian and bike-friendly infrastructure. Ultimately, more integration of places of employment, leisure, culture and living will result in a node of sustainable, desirable urban life within Waterloo. Using the information studied in this paper, these proposals for Waterloo’s Conestoga Mall catchment area could be applied to many of the other stations throughout Kitchener, Waterloo and eventually, Cambridge. Figure 9 illustrates some of the proposals mentioned above, while Figure 10 gives an example of what the area might look like once urban densification begins to permeate the city’s policies.
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Conclusion: The areas targeted in Waterloo, Ontario bear resemblance to many suburban neighbourhoods in North American cities, and if the prevalent issue of how to modify cities to allow for sustainable growth and development can be solved in such an area, similar strategies could be applied to a wide range of city morphologies. Ultimately, the social, environmental, and economic issues that plague suburban sprawl and low-density development are some of the biggest hurdles that North American cities face in creating sustainable centres, and the concepts and methodology addressed in this paper prove that it is both feasible and desirable to create a more walkable, livable city by focusing on mixed-use urban infill surrounding transit stations. As becomes evident through this paper, the three categories of theoretical issues are tightly linked to the cultural ideals and traditional intentions of a place. It seems clear that the social aspect of sustainable development, rather than the technological, remains the biggest hurdle to the creation of truly sustainable cities. By understanding the current cultural perceptions of livability and high-density, smart growth strategies can be implemented that work with, rather than against, the population’s ideals of optimal living conditions, resulting in an all-around healthier city, from the social, economic and environmental perspectives.
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References Aurand, A. (2010). Density, Housing Types and Mixed Land Use: Smart tools for affordable housing? Urban Studies, 47(5), 1015-1036. doi:10.1177/0042098009353076 Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environ Plann B Plann Des, 24(3), 437-449. doi:10.1068/b240437 Canada, City of Waterloo, Integrated Planning and Public Works. (n.d.). Appendix B: Transit Oriented
Development in Waterloo. Retrieved February 1, 2017, from
http://www.waterloo.ca/en/contentresources/resources/government/Rapid_transit_phase1_appendixB.pdf Grant, J. (2002). Mixed use in theory and practice: Canadian experience with implementing a planning principle. American Planning Association.Journal of the American Planning Association, 68(1), 71-84. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/229655695?accountid=9838 Howley, P., Scott, M., & Redmond, D. (2009). Sustainability versus liveability: An investigation of neighbourhood satisfaction. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 52(6), 847-864. doi:10.1080/09640560903083798 Kimball, M., Chester, M., Gino, C., & Reyna, J. (2013). Assessing the potential for reducing life-cycle environmental impacts through transit-oriented development infill along existing light rail in phoenix. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 33(4), 395-410. doi:10.1177/0739456X13507485 Millward, H. (2006). Urban containment strategies: A case-study appraisal of plans and policies in japanese, british, and canadian cities. Land use Policy, 23(4), 473-485. doi://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.02.004 Mohammed, I., Alshuwaikhat, H., & Adenle, Y. (2016). An Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Smart Growth in Achieving Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 8(4), 397. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su8040397 Olaru, D., Smith, B., & Taplin, J. H. E. (2011). Residential location and transit-oriented development in a new rail corridor. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45(3), 219-237. doi://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/j.tra.2010.12.007 Thomas, J. A., Walton, D., & Lamb, S. (2011). The influence of simulated home and neighbourhood densification on perceived liveability. Social Indicators Research, 104(2), 253-269. doi:10.1007/s11205-0109742-0 Topalovic, P., Carter, J., Topalovic, M., & Krantzberg, G. (2012). Light Rail Transit in Hamilton: Health, Environmental and Economic Impact Analysis. Social Indicators Research, 108(2), 329-350. doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0069-x UN-HABITAT (2015) HABITAT III Issue Papers. New York: UN-HABITAT, 31 May 2015. http://unhabitat.org/issue-papers-and-policy-units/, accessed March 10, 2017 What is Smart Growth? Smart Growth Online. March 16, 2015. Retrieved from www.smartgrowth.org on March 19, 2017.