Notes on Guardians of the Revolution Introduction: What is Iran? How is it shaped by its geography? Iran is an intact, ancient nation that has sought for centuries to define its place in the Middle East. Successive dynasties perceived that by virtue of its advanced civilization, location, and demography Iran had the right to dominate the region. The notion that Iran’s hegemonic claims began with the revolution is a misreading of history. The shahs were just as adamant about pursuing Iran’s national aspirations as the mullahs who displaced the monarchy. To the hubris of preeminence one must add the insecurity of isolation. As a Persian, Shiite nation struggling in an Arab, Sunni Middle East, Iran has always lived with the fear of being surrounded by foes, and it is justified in thinking so because it has been the subject of numerous invasions and whose boundaries have shrunk over the centuries. At the same time, its international orientation has been shaped by a presumption of greatness, an undiminished sense of superiority over its neighbors, and an acute concern about foreigns' intentions. What was the problem after Khomeni came into power? The critical debate was whether Iran should export the revolution or try to realize its objectives within the existing state system. Iran, however, was left an isolated pariah. Furthermore, they had to decide what happens when he’s out: Khomeini's charisma was the theocracy holding this together, and Iran would have to offer a practical justification for the continuation for its rule afterwards. (Back to theory): They needed more normal relationships with the international community because of the need to economically reconstruct and national rehabit. Why was Muhammad Khatami so important? Who is he? President of Iran from 1997-2005. He was important because it seemed, for a brief moment, that Iran would relinquish its revolutionary past and join the community of nations. He launched the "Good Neighbor" Policy, and it might have been more successful if the U.S released sanctions on Iran, but they were skeptical. What is the “Good Neighbor” Policy? Iran’s President Muhammad Khatami’s policy that sought to repair relations with the Gulf states by acknowledging the legitimacy of the rule.
How did Khatami fail? The Bush administration's unrelenting hostility toward Iran allowed the conservatives to denigrate the reformers for allegedly enabling U.S plots. In the meantime, the international community sanctioned and pressured Iran for its nuclear infractions. An exhausted reform movement, besiged by its domestic detractors and American animus, would cede to a hardline government. Why was Khomeni different? Unlike the clerical elite, he did study philosophy and even myticism, subjects abjured by said class, and he made pointed political commentary before he reached the status of Ayotallah. Before he called for the direct assumption of power by clerics, he implied that the monarchy should behave as an agent of the religious sector and that Islam should condition the political order and cultural norms. Refused to placate the monarchy because of their “capitualiation laws” He reconceptualized Islam as an ideology focused on class cleavages and division of the international system between cpaitalist powers and the larger developing bloc. To such thinkers, the traditional clergy with their indifference to social change were ossified agents agents of reaction, and Khomeini used this sentiment to arrest power. Who are the Mustaz’afi? (the downtrodden) as an oppressed economic class became one of Khomeni’s typical references. What/Who is Hukumat-i Islami (Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist)? Book by Kohmeni: Hukumat-i Islami (Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist), with its call for direct rule by the clerics, was not only a revision of Shiite thought but also a denunciation of alternative political organizations, whether monarchical or republican forms of government. The purpose of government would be the realization of God's will on Earth, and any deviation from that constituted not just dissent but sin as well. Blueprint for the Iranian state Why was Khomeni successful in Iran? Because the Iranin people had a sense of history whereby they liked to see themselves in the center of the world and as cartakers to the benighted
Arabs. Negative equilibrium: what is this, who came up with it? concept that said Iran could best protect its interests by exempting itself from the superpower conflict (Russia-US), espoused by Prime Minister Muhammad Musaddiq, who was overthrown by the CIA Was Khomeini's revolution a Shi'ite one? No, it was an Islamic one, but Iraq under Saddam and the House of Saud denounced the Islamic Republic as a Shiite, Persian enclave as a means of containment.
Who was Mahdi Bazargan? The Prime Minister of Iran who was forced by Khomeni to resign through the Iran Hostage Crisis Who is Abu al Hasan Bani-Sadr? The first President of Iran after the Iranian Revolution whose ideas diverged from those of the clerical powerbrokers. His preference for a more tolerantIslamist regime with a limied clerical represtnations would cause irreparable damage between the president and the mullahs. How did Saddam transform Iran? He shifted the debates from despotism vs. freedom to loyalty to the revolution vs. resistance to external invaers.a Who was Grand Ayatollah Shari'atmadari? He was the most strenuous challenge to Khomeini's rule, as he consisted invoked terms like "nationalism" and "democratic sovereignty." The existance of democratically elected offices, to him, negated the need for instutitions for instutions that were unaccountable to popular will. He was sentenced to house arrest, and was part of a movement where the traditional clerical establishment was silenced (as opposed to giving Khomeini their alleigance). What is a characterize for revoltuionary regimes? THey are born out of a paranoia, sensing conspiracies and plots where none exist. They deviate from their declared precepts, moderate their objectives, and even adjust to the prevailing order. Iran could not maintain its hostility to both superpowers and its commitment to overthrow its neighbors. It existed within an international arena dominated by the U.S and a political economy that made iran vulnerable to economic pressure. Internal dissent, economic hardship, and divisions among the
governing elite would crystallize the impractialities of his vision. Why was the Iran hostage sitaution important? 1. Charactized Iran by the general American problem 2. Selectively released documents that made America seem shady 3. Illy shaded any foreign policy with Iran 4. Was a result of the division of the radical cleric’s skpeticism of America and the Presidential want for reconcilitaion What led to the Iran hostage situation? 1. U.S Senate condemned executions in Iran (sponsored by the Shah’s friend: Jacob Javits) 2. President Carter admitted the deposed Shah for medical treatment 3. Khomeni directed his anti-Americanness to the embassy, and called for demonstrations outside of it What were the various power coalitions when Khomeini returned to Iran? Liberal elements of the middle class (represented by National Front and the Liberation Movement of Iran): Pressed for a parliamentary system of government and even a return to secularism and the rule of law. The radical left, led by organizations such as the Mujahidin-i Kahlq (MEK): Discurive mixture of Marxism and Islam, was popular among students. Called for nationalization, redistribution of wealth, and an anti-American foreign policy. Communist party, despite being so repressed by the shah, was still strong within universities and the labor force. The clerical class, too, was divided, where some ayatollahs wanted to relinquish power and return to the quiet ways of the seminary. How did Khomeini take power? The vast and varied nature of the revolutionary coaliation that overthrew the monarchy meant that Khomeini had to proceed with cauation and elimniate his rivals by exploiting their differences and generating exteranl crises to galvanize the population. He made the Guardian Council and ostensibly put Bazargan (first Iranian PM after the revolution) on it, but the show was run by the clerics. This served as his parallel government, that, when the current government shook, could swiftly take over. Iran hostage situation shook the govenrment enough to give the government to Khomeini. Why was the Iran hostage crisis an aesthetic justice?
Throughout their long struggle, Iran’s revolutionaries often complained that the United States denied Iran its sovereign rights and manipulated its internal affairs to its advantage. The 1953 coup and, even more important for the clerical cohort, the 1963–1964 uprisings refl ected America’s sense of superiority over Iran. In 1953 the United States arrogated to itself the right to directly interfere in Iranian politics and depose an elected prime minis-ter because he was insuffi ciently deferential to its own anti-Communist agenda. Furthermore, in the early 1960s Washington demanded the exemp-tion of its personnel from Iranian law, thereby humiliating a country with a rich history and a well-developed system of justice. The hostage crisis was designed to avenge both of these episodes. By capturing and parading the diplomats for 444 days, Tehran injected itself in America’s domestic poli-tics the way Washington had intervened in Iran’s affairs in 1953. In a sense, the mullahs pulled off their own coup, as the turmoil in Iran torpedoed the reelection of the Carter administration. In addition to humiliating the United States, the hostage crisis was analogous to the sense of degradation that Iranians had felt in 1963, when Washington deemed Iran’s laws as too primitive to judge its personnel. As with nearly every aspect of U.S.-Iranian relations, the hostage crisis played itself out in an emotional context. What was strategic nonalighnment? concept that said Iran could best protect its interests by exempting itself from the superpower conflict (Russia-US), espoused by Prime Minister Muhammad Musaddiq, who was overthrown by the CIA (AKA negative equilibrium) Also the position of prime minister baragazan International and domestic ation as a result of the hostage crisis:
President Carter imposed economic sanctions on Iran, including the freezing of its considerable assets in the United States, built an international consensus against the Islamic Republic, patiently guided the various diplomatic moves, and more important, did not yield to popular passions that could have led the country on an illadvised course of action. A lessprincipled politician might have been tempted to exploit the confrontation with an indisputably unsavory adversary for personal advantage, but Carter chose to place the hostages’ welfare above his own political viability. To be sure, the United States had limited options: A military attack would have endangered the hostages’ lives, and measures such as embargos and mining of the harbors would have inflicted damage on Iran without necessarily ending the confl ict. For all of these reasons, the administration opted for diplomacy, economic sanctions, and international pressure, which succeeded in isolating Iran among the community of nations.18In the meantime, the clerical state was taking full advantage of the hostage
crisis to inflame the domestic situation and discredit its rivals. It selectively released the embassy’s records in order to purge and intimidate its political opponents. Operation Eagle Claw? Attempt to rescue Iranian hostages, but it failed at an early stage and killed Americans. Its failure was celerbrated as an indication of God's approbation. What was Iran-Contra (basic) and its modern implications? the disastrous trading of arms for hostages. However, the centrality of that episode lies not in its sordid details but in its continued impact on the bureaucracy. After the damage that it infl icted on the Reagan administration, few in the national security establishment have been prone to use daring and creative approaches with the Islamic Republic. Although fl awed in both its conception and assumptions, the secret opening to Iran constituted the last time that senior U.S. offi cials were inclined to think outside the box. More than two decades after its revelation, the IranContra affair still haunts the bureaucracy, and the trail of scandal and terminated careers has had a stul-tifying impact on American deliberations, making caution the currency of the debate. How did Iran-Contra start, with LITTLE respect to Americans? The arms merchant noted that moderate elements within the theocracy were battling the radi-cals and seeking to establish better relations with the United States. The contours of the deal began taking shape. Israel wanted to sustain its periph-ery doctrine, Iran needed arms, and the unsavory weapons dealers were looking for profi ts.
periphery doctrine: what is it and evaluate it? Israel should develop ties with Turkey and Iran (non-Arab Middle Eastern states) as a means not only of escaping its isolation but also of pressuring the the Arab governments into ceasing their belligerence. However, the Iranian revolution was partly (but still strongly) motivated by antiZionism, but Israel still thought they should maintain ties with Iran because they hated Iraq. The other facet of Israel’s arms sales was the notion that the Islamic revolution was an aberration and that, in due time, Persian nationalism would reassert itself and even lead to the displacement of the mullah regime. USS Vincennes' significance? US sunk Iranian ships in retaliation for their attempting to shoot down U.S helicopters b/c US tried to support the gulf states while Iran tried to punish them for supporting Iraq. A civilian airship appeared ont he Vincennes' radar screen, and it killed all 290 passengers on board :)
Satanic Verses: Significance? Book by Salman Rushdie that painted Muhammad unfavorably. Khomeini, in fear that his theocracy would decline with his death, used it to further fan the flames, and offered a bounty for his execution via fatwa. Iran's actual foreign policy towards Isreal? Despite its incendiary rhetoric, Iran always preferred to work through surrogates as a means of shileding itself from Irsaeli retribution (especially via Hezbollah, which was one of the most efficient tools that Iran used to export its revolution) Why was Lebanon ripe for Iranian influence? The Shiite Muslims constituted a minority sect throughout much of the Middle East, and where they constituted a majority, they were usually ruled by Sunni tyrants. In Lebanon, the Shiite community suffered from the twin forces of a raging civil war and the Israeli invasion. By 1975, the delicate confessional order that had balanced the various ethnic and reli-gious sects had broken down into a vicious civil war. In addition, Lebanon’s problems were compounded by the PLO’s decision to use its territory as a sanctuary for attacking Israel. A virtual Palestinian state was created in southern Lebanon, leading to persistent Israeli incursions.
The Shiite community, which was frequently left out of power and omitted from the distribution of economic wealth, suffered most as Lebanon’s political order collapsed and Israel extracted its revenge against the unfortunate state. Lebanon's Shiites have been experimenting with the idea that they should political and economic power commensurate with their demographic plurality via IMPORTANT CLERICAL FORCES WHICH DISCARDED THE TRADITION OF QUIETISM FOR ONE OF MILITANCY AND ACTIVISM(which is what triggered the debate, not Iran). Iran merely put gasoline on the fire. Camp David Accords significance? Egypt defected from the struggle agianst Israel and left syria to face a strenghtened Jewish state on its periphery, which coincided with the Iranian Revolution, which distnaced Iran from other conservative Arab states and the U.S because of Iran's anti-Americanism and these countries were already wary of Syria. Therefore, Syria and Iran bonded over this, and their bond made Syria willing to restock Iran's depleting arsenal (which was depleting b/c of the US) and it also fractured the wall of Arab solidary and diminished Saddam's ability to portray his war as a contest between Arabs and Persians. What was weird about Syria-Iran? The Shia government partnering with the secular Bathist state (aka arab nationalist, secular)
Weird on both fronts, since Iran was not Arab. Initial justification for Iran: Iraq's invasion diverted resources away from fighting Israel. Furthermore: Its close ties to Iran let i tmediate the conflict and even impose restraint on theocracy. HOWEVER: Iran was pretty dogmatic in its pursuit of the war and seemed to want to support it, but stopping it (and focusing the effort on Israel) was the justification they gave in going in. How did Syria-Iran affect the gulf states? Some gulf states (NOT SAUDIA ARABIA) and UAE used Syria as a way to just hedge and sever their ties to Iran. Iran - Syria on Lebanon? For Syria, Lebanon could not fall under the American-Israeli sphere of influence because it would threaten its security, and Iran wanted to spread its revolution into Lebanon. However, for Iran, Lebanon was a site for the export of the revolution and a base from which to infiltrate Israel, but Asad (Syria) was like no we have to use Lebanon more for a geo-political gem, wehre we can extrac concessions from the Jewish state. Syria was more realistic and dismissed the impractical notion of obliteating Israel. Hezbollah kept taking hostages, which Asad at first approved because it put pressure on the Western power to leave, but Asad wanted to project a better image of itself to the West, and the hostages were making them ugly. How did Iran-Iraq war transform Iran? Khomeini hoped it would realize his ideological values ended up undermining the transnational mission of the state. After an inconclusive but costly struggle, Iran failed to defeat Iraq, transform the Middle East, and even project its Islamist template beyond its borders. It had become yet another state that was preoccupied with providing services to its constituents and achiveving its objectives within the prevailing international system. In other words, it would have to rest its legitimacy on factors other than its religious imperatives or revolutionary aspirations. What were the Gulf State vulnerabilities and why did that matter with respect to Iran? All of these nations contained sizeable Shiite populations, which had histori-cally been left out of the spoils of power. The blatant discrimination of the Sunni rulers had confi ned the Shiites to second-class status, in which they were deprived of both political standing and an important share in the national economy. By providing sanctuary to the opposition forces, work-ing through the network of mosques, and misusing its diplomatic missions for political agitation, Tehran made itself a source of animosity. how did the iran iraq war start?
Iran's message of Shiite empowerment was heard the loudest in the Baathist Iraq, where Sadam executed a popular Ayatollah for supporting Khomeni. Saddam started to blame for Iraq's domestic issues, and was resentful o fisgning the 1975 Algiers agreement (which "resolved" their border disputes), and thus anxiousoly waited for retribution because of his deep Baathism/aka Arab nationalism. What is Shatt al-Arab? It was the place that was supposed to be resolved by the 1975 Algiers agreement and was source of border dispute between Iran and Iraq. Saddam eventually renounced the 1975 treaty, and eventually invaded Iran, which started a war. Why was Iran-Iraq not like a regular war? Takeyh compellingly presents how the Iranian regime assimilated this territorial war into its rhetoric of struggle between the forces of righteousness and the forces of irreligious secularism: "In the clerical cosmology, the defense of the nation and the propagation of the revolution were seen as part of the same continuum" (p. 89). He suggests that this way of presenting the war to the Iranian people had the effect of forcing the regime to prolong the war, even after Iraq, the original aggressor, had been driven out of Iranian territory. Therefore, even after Iraq was drive out, it went INTO Iraq in order to transplant the Iran Islamic template onto Iraq. Iran was winning so Iraq was like okay bitch: Attacked cities then oil facilities And then Iran was baited into attacking things that affected other Middle Eastern nations more general (oil), so Iraq got mower power The West's reluctance to condemn Saddam's extensive use of chemical weapons in this conflict receives strong criticism from the author: "For the United States to‌condone the use of weapons of mass destruction remains one of the more shameful episodes in its history" (p. 99). America's turning a blind eye to these infringements of the rules of war, along with the USS Vincennes tragedy, sowed a lasting mistrust that only compounded the effect of the earlier hostage crisis.
Not only was it unusual w/ respect to just the parties in the war but the response from the international community in not condemning the war. What were the tensions between the pragmatists? led by Rafsanjani, and the conservatives, led by the new supreme leader, Ali Khamenei. The period was characterized by a to-and-fro between pragmatic measures to liberalize and reactionary calls to uphold the tenets of the revolution. Through their control of the unelected branches of government, the conservatives got the better of these exchanges. In international terms, this meant that the president's desire to integrate Iran into the global economy and re-open economic relations with America were outweighed by the conservatives' fear that such moves would expose Iran to Western cultural contamination.
What was Rafsanjani’s goal for the Iranian state? Did it succeed? "The imperatives of economic reconstruction" following the Iran-Iraq War required normalization of economic relations with other countries, but, given "the contentious nature of relations with the United States, [Rafsanjani] hoped that reconciliation with the European community and the Gulf states and the forging of constructive ties with Russia and China would be sufficient to meet Iran's requirements" (p. 129). Takeyh goes on to indicate how these efforts, despite some tentative successes, were ultimately undermined — at least in the case of the Gulf states and Europe — by Iran's continued militancy and support of terrorism.
What were the goals of Khatami? How much did he succeed (not fail) in them? There were three facets to Khatami's foreign-policy aims: reconciliation with Saudi Arabia, normalization with Europe and overtures to the United States. Having gone some way toward achieving the first two, for which he had the conservatives' support, Khatami's boldest move came in an interview with CNN in January 1998, in which he dropped all rhetoric of the "Great Satan," acknowledged America's achievements and expressed regret for the hostage crisis. The United States waited for good deeds to back up these good words. The author conveys effectively the sense of an opportunity missed for a degree of reconciliation between the two countries: "Khatami had hoped for measurable concessions from the United States to disarm his domestic critics, while the Clinton team hoped for important adjustments from Iran before embracing Khatami"
How did 9/11 affect U.S - Iran relations? Both countries cooperated on removing their mutual enemy, the Taliban, in Afghanistan. Any hopes that this could lead to renewed relations, however, were quickly dashed by the hardening rhetoric of the Bush administration, which reached its peak in Bush's January 2002 speech in which the president named Iran part of an "axis of evil." Despite some subsequent cooperation over the removal of Saddam, this indictment set the tone for U.S.-Iranian relations for the foreseeable future. 1990s: What were the young conservatives of Iran doing? group of young conservatives, many of whom had fought in the Iran-Iraq War and saw calls for reform as yet another Western plot to undermine the revolutionary ideals of the regime. Who was Mahmoud Ahmadinejad? 6th President of Iran. GC messed with elections so much (even disqualifying candidates already in office) that the Iranians were just pissed.
Formerly he was the archconsrevative mayor of Tehran, whose candidacy was largely ignored. He was pressued into resigning in order to not split the vote, but no right-wing association or media group backed him, so he wasn't seen as that harmful. Hashemi Rafsanjani, the pinnacle of the establishment (and yet still a reformist) candidate, was seen as the sure winner, but it and down to the two since neither candidate could initially win a majority it came to a runoff, and Khamenei transferred his support from Qalibaf to Ahmadinejad. He perhaps won because of:
• • • • • •
Electoral law Positions, personality and experience? Failure of Rafsanjani? Breakdown of relations with the West. Strength of supporters? Failure of reformers?
What happened during the The Ahmadinejad Era? The stage was set for a "mixture of Islamist ideology and ultranationalism" to shape foreign policy. three key issues of the last four years:
1) the nuclear issue, a. roots of Iran's continued desire to acquire nuclear weapons in the technological imbalance of the Iran-Iraq War (although the program was begun under the shah). He dismisses arguments that Iran's preoccupation with acquiring nuclear weapons is due to concerns over a nuclear-armed Pakistan and Israel. 2) civil strife in post-war Iraq a.
The policies of both the reformist government and its hawkish successors were more pragmatic than ideological. Given that Iraq’s complex sectarian makeup militates against theocratic rule, Iran has recoiled from exporting its revolution next door. Despite routine accusations by the United States, Iran is interested in defusing the existing civil war and sustaining Iraq as a unitary state.
3) the Arab-Israeli conflict.
a. The theocracy’s hostility toward the Jewish state became even more alarming, as he not only pledged the destruction of Israel but also denied the historical reality of the Holocaust Takeyh's ultimate policy rec? Engaging Iran and regulating its rising power within an inclusive regional-security architecture and institutions will present the best way of addressing the concerns of America’s Arab allies, stabilizing Iraq, and even giving a new direction to negotiations over Iran’s nuclear program.
What was Khomeini’s actual feelings toward Israel?
Takeyh considers whether Khomeini's periodic calls for the eradication of Israel were merely "incendiary rhetoric" and a "symbolic gesture without practical relevance" (p. 61) or a deeply held ideological conviction. The author cites Khomeini's own writings from before the revolution, as well as perceptions in Iran of Israel's being an agent of American imperialism, in support of the latter position.
What was the backdrop to “great Satan”? Form the Iranian perspective, the US is the country that mounted a coup overthrowing a popular nationalist leader, Muhammad Musaddiq, and thereafter supported an increasingly despotic shah. It backed the enemy: Iraq, during the brutal war. It has been the principal outside power seeking to rein in, if not overthrow, its Islamic Republic.
What is the Kashf al-Asrar? Secrets Unveiled. Khomeni published it after the UK and USSR forced Riza Shah into exile and replaced him with his son: Murammad Riza Shah. Kohmeini published this which was both an attack of Riza Shah and an advocacy of a new conception of government based in Islam, since it is comprehensive and the only valid legislation therefore. Asserted the right and responsibility fo the ulama to monitor govenrmen tin order ot aassure conformity with Islam.
Who is Nouri
alMaliki ? Why is he relevant?
The former Shiite prime minister of Iraq and current VP. ISIS invaded mosul b/c they didn’t like him. Maliki's critics assert that he did his
utmost to limit the power of both Kurds and Sunnis between 2006 and 2014. Their view is that Maliki worked to further centralise governance and amass greater controls and power—from militarily to legislative—for his party. Instead of strengthening and securing Iraq, Maliki's actions have led to a rise in both Kurdish nationalism and Sunni insurgency, which has resulted in civil war and the effective failure of the Iraqi state.
Who is AlAbadi? Prime minister of Iraq. Promised Mosul liberation by 2016. He
has hedged on Kurdish independence, which is opposed by most of the Shiite majority. (The US government has repeatedly said it supports a united Iraq.)
What are the odds of the Iraq easily retaking Mosul? The Iraqi military was decimated by the Islamic State, and the US military, which brought some five thousand soldiers to Iraq, is rushing to train thousands of raw recruits. Much of the Iraqis’ equipment—consisting mainly of Sovietera and American weapons—is in desperate need of repair or replacement. The Islamic State has had two years to prepare for the assault, and according to Iraqi intelligence it has created formidable defenses against any attack. Rasoul told me, “The Iraqi army left behind many heavy weapons that can now be used against it, and the militants have laid booby traps and built a network of tunnels and defensive lines.” Between six and nine thousand ISIS fighters are inside the city, few of whom, presumably, would be prepared to surrender. “In Mosul,” the US diplomat predicted, “it will be a fight to the death.”
Feeling of the Shiite @ Sunni Terrorism/Mosul? There is a sense among Shiites that each time the government ratchets up its war against the Islamic State in the Sunni areas of the country such as Mosul, the consequence is revenge attacks against the predominantly Shiite population of Baghdad.
But in view of the violent record of the Shiite Islamist militias and of the Sunni fighters, restraining the Kurds’ ambitions is just one challenge that Iraq is certain to face before it can overcome the conquests of the Islamic State.
Arguments against parties in MENA: Ideas of a parliamentary Morroco: genuine compeitive elections, but there had to be stage mangement to secure an altnerance of power from one party to another. Tribalism = idea of unity Ideas of a parliamentary democracy and a multiparty system continue to bear the stigma of the colonial period Colonialism itself sparked the idea of a unifed national movement that can stand against the continued exercise of Western power in the postcolonial situation. Parties, which naturally emphasive rather than minimize potentially divisive forces are further looked down upon. Colonialism categorized people (or put people into parties), and the natural impulse is to get out of that mindset Tension b/t 2 equally problematic formations: unity of the oneparty state and the factionalism of a multipartyism shaped by sectarian and ethnic identities. Parties also imply standing apart from one’s fellow citizens (in Arabic), in the sense that I am right and you are wrong. Negative historic examples: Oneparty state and the fractionalization in the very idea of hizb (aka party) The organizational home and epitome of the political classa suspicious class that is borne from power seeking. And to oppose a oneparty system is to be able to have the imaginative capacity to think beyond a system in which you have lived for a long time! What is the Lebanese national pact of 1943? Unwritten but fundamental agreement regulating intercommunal relations in the mlti confessional Labense Republic agreement that the Maronite Christians would cease to seek integration or permant affiliation with a French political entity while the Muslims would renounce their aspirations to be part of “Greater Syria” However, Syria has always been a part of Lebanon, and, after its intenvention in the civil war
from 1975, it is unable to function without Syrian graces. What is the Cedar Revoultion? Hariri was seen as a savior of Beirut, Lebanon (by some), and he was assisnated. As a result, Lebanese people were tinged with antiSyrianness, and demonstrated against the Syrian prescence in Lebanon. The revolution is named after the Syrian national smbol.
Who is Bashar alAsad? Controversial president of Syria. Was thought to be nicer and more liberal than his ruthless father b/c of his eye doctor raining. The party as party dictatorship forms (not a verb)? Liberation movement that takes exlcuisve power: Algeria, Yemen Neofacist apparatus (Iraq, Syria) Establishment beuraracy with military backing (Egypt, Yemen (post unification)) Ba'ath party: why is it so shitty? Once it seized power in 1963 in Syria, it used patronage, violence, and indoctrination to build the mass movement it never was. Became paranoid and kicked out members, in an attempt to consolidate power, but then killed its entire base off (figuratively) Became a ward of a power: obtaining influence (looking up) or maintain control (looking ddown) The fact that it was grounded in political pluralism and transformed into a violent machine for
exclusive power made MENA very wary of parties Lebanese seats are distributed how?: strict equal distribution of political office between Christians, Sunni, and Shia, but gerrymandering has underrepresented Muslims and particularly Shia (although they are the majority) Shia say this is undemocratic and the marjoity shuodl be allowed to take power, but there is in fact no majority and if the Shia get power under that system, there wouold be a lot of secrtarian violence. What are the Lebanses parties organized into? Characterizd by? Elite, confessional, ideological, military Usually leadership stays in the faily Elite: Characterized through cult of personality (or family personality) Ideological: e.g., ultranationalist
While they operate freely, they are not the dominant players in theh political system. The only party that can claim a mass following is Hizbollah b/c is provides welfare services and demonstrated a lhigh level of organizational capacity Albeit it is said that all national elections are a part of the joint ticket with the Amal Movement ( party associatedwith the Shia movement), so it unclear if Hezbollah is the leading Shia party Lebanese award political credibility to those who have military experience rather than democratic political experience Problem with Hezbollah?
Unlike Amal, it has not disarmed itself.
Hezbollah presents itself as a potential force for replacing the system entirely:. While it retains its protected status as a military organization, this will probably continue to be the case, since many Lebanese will refuse to trust Hizballah's participation while it retains the weapons and the foreign support that constitute its alternative sources of power. Again, as with Lebanese parties and militia in general, problem is not the party as such, so much as its dependency on power beyond Lebanon itself. Al Qaeda vs. ISIS:
at ideology should be understood on two levels. The first is JihadiSali sm, the school of Islamic political thought to which the group belongs. The second level is the Islamic State’s hardline orienta tion within this school, which is to a large degree what separates it from alQaeda today. Abu Mus‘ab al Zarqawi ? Radicalized thug and founder of ISIS. Zarqawi articulated a strategy of deliberately target ing the Iraqi Shi’ite community with the intention of stoking civil war. Keep provoking the Shia until they hit back and then make the Sunni coagulate around the Sunni extremist groups Faqih? Trained jurist in Islam. The sight of emulation in government until the 13th imam arrive. Recognized by the people. Iran used this justificaiton to implement the GC. What led to religiopoliticla radicalism? Population, increase and mobility, education then shortfalls in eocnoimc performance + military defeats (esp. Israel of Egypt and the other nations) and massive disoritentation, a serach for certantties, and a sense of vunerability in facing hostile forces More sustinctly: Quantifiable material changes and seer expectation shortfalls led the groundwrork for systemchallenging reliiopolitical movemntes
Who is Hasan alBanna? Founder of the Muslim Brethern Religious movement that Embraced but transcended nationalism Envisioned a Muslim nation free of any political struggle Who is Abu alA’la Mawdudui? Spread Islam and Islamism in the India Promoted literalist readings of scripture Who is Sayyid Qutb? Islamist who promoted Muslims excommunicating other Muslims and making them targets of jihad Engaged in populism: he was hung by Egypt and became a martyr What led to the expansin of the Wahhabi project in Egypt? 1) Many of the Egyptian lower class went to Saudi Arabia, which housed it, and Saudi culture eventually found its way into Cairo 2) 1970s: Presidnet of Egypt released thousands of the Muslim Brotherhood’s leaders and members from Jail 3) Economic situation of the 70s and 80s: Open economic Policies put pressure on the middle class, which saw an eorision in its purchasing power and its relative standing in society Who was President Sadat? 70 and 80s president of Egypt Released the Muslim Brotehrood Instiutted Open Economic Prolicies
Why was the diaspora benefitcial to the Brotherhood? What was most beneficial to it? Saudi Arabia: Built vortunes Europe (esp Swizerland): new branches were created and operated freely
Its efficient services infrastructure: Targeted students, poor. ORIGINS OF HONOR CULTURE?: (for Southerners: Resourcepoor community originates an honor cultures because you don’t bitches stealing your shit.) #1 most important job of the Sheikh is? Mediate disputes between members of the tribe and between the tribe and other groups What is Sulh? How is it performed? Sulh: Process of Tribal Settlmeent This process is meant to restore the honor of the society, so every step in the process is meant to make them feel honored. Your payment is the cost of repaying their honor, so every step is to lower this cost, and the more you honor them through this process, the less FINANCIAL cost there is. Strongly encouraged NOT to retaliate because you have to pay quadruple the fassell. SOMETIMES they cannot take blood money: intentional killings or rape. What is the relationship between state and tribe? When the state is strong, tribal law is weaker because, while it does not restore your honor, it will arrest or kill people who enact tribal law, so there’s an incentive not to. SOME overlap because judges ask you whether or not you payed blood money. Sheikhs need to investigate WHAT happened, so there is needs to be a certain level of security. Too much chaos makes this impossible. What is the structure of the Shiite community? Thre’s a hierarchy of clerics, with each stage being less populated than the last. Absolute source of emlation is the highest rank nad has been unoccupied since the 60s. Quietist vs. Activist? Quietism has a long tradition in Shi’a Islam. Do NOT get involved in politics unless certain
broad parameters are transgressed by the political leaders. Maintain a tradition of scholarship, of training new generations of clerics and of helping the poor. Provide spiritual and moral guidance to the community and do not sully yourself with politics! Activism was rare prior to the Iranian Revolution. Top clerics can issue distinctly political guidance or can even be political leaders/integrated into the political system themselves, as in Iran. Do not shirk the responsibility to use every avenue possible to promote justice, even entry into the political realm Sources of Shi’a Clerical Power in Iraq? •
Zakat (almsgiving to the poor – one of the 5 pillars of Islam)
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Khums (payments to the Hidden Imam to one’s own marja’a – 1/5th of income) •
Currying the favor of the poor
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Revenues from pilgrimage to the five sites in Iraq.
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Control over the development of the next generation of clerics (religious students).
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Control of religious endowments (“waqf”).
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The devotion of followers
Describe the 6 part of the Iranian political system?
Whati s the Green Movement? •
1979 rigging the election: Largest protests seen since 1979
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Journalists prohibited, covered by social networks
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Protests continued throughout the fall, especially on religiously significant days
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Led by Moussavi, Khatami, Karroubi (all regime insiders from the Islamic Left)
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Demands, civil rights and liberties, some radicalization but generally not demanding the overthrow of the regime.
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Accomplishments?
What are the arguments for prodemocracy in Islam? Tied to Muslim Brotherhood
Controversial because he’s a modernist sometimes: Hijab ismanatory. Palestine can use violence. BUT In favor in democracy (although not initally because it was viewed as a Western import)
Without freedom, you cannot have sariah. You cannot impose sariah on people.What and why are the rules. You need to meet people’s needs. Freedom is a prerequiste for sariah law. You must willingly adopt sariah law to truly follow it. Argumetns for democracy: 1) Political authority is granted by the community. God passed his commandpower to not any inidividual but the community. Certain things are absolutely required and cannot be breached by the community, but anything else is good to go. The rightly guided caliphs were chosen by consultation. 2) Democracy is a way to stop tyranny. It is more likely that people voting in a parliament would enact the right sharia because of 1) Political representation (my community will not agree on an error) 2) Collective knowledge (interrealted) CAVEAT: The President needs to be muslim as head of state; England has the same thing (Queen must be protestant) Rests fundamental on the rule of law Sariah: Normative guidelines about how we should leave Equal rights for all citizens’ Suffrage: All believers are equal before God. Separation of powers: Sariah is in the community, not in the ruler.
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Neither the Quran nor the Hadith specify a form of government
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Shariah law leaves open many areas in which Muslims may regulate themselves: ”The Intederminate Sphere” Any decision about Islamic law is your decision, not Sariah. Sariah is something you strive you achieve.
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Not a Western imitation: There is a long history of democracy in Islamic governance.
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Strong focus on constitutionalisma nd negotiated agreements.
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Consultations (shura and ijma ) look very democratic.
1990 Treaty Ends Lebanese Civil War and elections begin again. Hizbollah’s response? They decide very quickly to participate. Initially, didn’t accept positions of power, just gave the option of voting for them. It rationalizes this by: Any Islamic state would have to be imposed on Lebanon by force. And, in posing It by force, it would no longer be a Islamic state. Why does wealth does not translate into democracy? If 40% of state resources comes not from taxation (which requires consent) but through the sale of oil, then that state does not transition into Democracy (or is less likely)? Therefore, the gulf states have not transitioned. Who is Abu Muhammad AlMaqdisi? He is the predominant scholar of Al Quadea. Selftaught scholar of Salafist jihad DEMOCRACY IS RELIGION, AND THEREFORE YOU CANNOT BE MUSLIM AND A DEMOCRAT. YOU ARE A POLYTHEIST! MAJOR POINT: IT IS THE GREATEST Sin because: This idea that behavior matters. To behavior in a certain way is to be a good Muslim. You obey
Shariah law to the best of your ability, and this is how you exercise your devotion. But, in a tangent, you are worshiping when you are following law. Not only problem of the people making the laws but also the ones who follow it. Arguments against democracy, rooted in equality? •
Democracy leads to unjust outcomes
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Democracy will lead to fitna (disunity)
Tactic vs. strategy? A strategy is a larger, overall plan that can comprise several tactics, which are smaller, focused, less impactful plans that are part of the overall plan. While the original usage of the terms strategy and tactic was in a military context, they are now used in a wide variety of everyday settings, including business. What is ISIS’ strategy? To Establish a caliphate int he Middle East that will expand over time ISIS vs. AlQueada? Strategy differs from Al Qaeda: not only take and hold strategy but they also want to establish a caliphate in that region. In other words, Al Queada wanted to do the topple governments then establish an Islamic State, but ISIS started an Islamic State in Iraq. 1) It gives a positive vision of what they want as opposed to a Negative vision: A western government 1) Leads to greater recruitment to waround the world 2) War in Iraq and Syria opened a stateless place where they can take terrirotyr 1) Theory: You have to make it possible to hold territory Who is Abu Bakr Naji? Streategist for alQuaeda and toher extremists via The Management of Savegery
You must focus on statebuilding in order to gain popular support. You must tie your actions back to shariah law. Ythis way you can win them over, win them over, and establish a base in which to atack or defend against your enemies. 1st stage: Attack across moultiple stages (vexing and weaking of the enemy states; cause the govenrment to fall apart) Instituting repeated terror attacks Seek to create an environment in which nothing can be secure Distrust in government leads to savagary/chaos: Kinda like Syria, i.e., state of stateslessness If our military is too costly, we will retreat in ourself? Create a schism between the Muslims and the nonMuslims, thus we can make the Muslims fall back into Caliphate. But why did Militant jihadism emerge in the Middle East and not the West? 2nd: Make arguments of why your actions are Islamic (and why your opponents are not) How has ISIS revolutionized warfare? ISIS revolutionzed the use of the IED: ISIS used them as a defensive rather than offensive weapon. The reason why it takes so long to take ISIS territory is because you have to dismantle the IED one by one What is the SaudiLibyan effect? Saudi Arabia awashed in cash and channeled their cash into Islam, funding the Muslim brotherhood. Oil wealth funded the idea that “Islam has a role in the poltiical process” Libya: People who were too crazy for Saudi Arabia went to Libya. Funded with Libyan oil money. How was Muslim Brotherhood affected by Khomeini?
An Iranian revolution overthrew a Western state!!! OMGOMOMGOMG!! But it was Shia. L We don’t know what a Sunni state would look like. This is deeply suited in the idea of the scholarShia model. Both an inspiration and problem. Impact of ISIS as an AlQeada affiliate? Gave him brand recognition Locus where the foreign fighters went to fight. Foreigners are more willing to be brutal to Iraqis. So dedicated to the cause! Driven by religious motivation to fight the infidel. The Awakening Movement? U.S promised tribal leaders protection, tribal leaders give us Al Queada members. How and why do Middle Eastern regimes control democratic outcomes? No parties = harder to run for Islamists, since there’s no immediate identification with Islam UAE Egypt: can’t have one with religion Jordan: You can’t have one without a tie without a nonordianian group Emergency laws: Used to oppress Islamists Jordan: Press censorship: Currency requirement to make it hard to start up a newspaper •
Gerrymandering
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Political party laws
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Constitutional interpretations
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Control of the judiciary
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Election timing
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Election oversight
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Limiting the powers of parliament (and thus the arm of the populist part of govt)
Overall did two decades of “elections” weaken the authoritarian regimes of the Middle East? No. The Authoritatian regimes legtimized themselves to the Western World Elections are kinda like a public policy poll You can target your enemies These regimes playing twitht heir elections radicalized Islamists further. Young Secularists and Muslims Brotherhood mallied becase Egypian elections showed a clear preference for them. Effect on 9/11: Regime and effort to crush Islamic parties: