Figure 1: Marilyn Monroe (Catawiki 2018)
INFLUENCES OF FASHION World Events
Technological Advancements Demographic and Economic Data
DECEMBER 2018
1945-1959 Fashion in Context
CATHERINE BELCHER CHRISTIAN DIOR’S NEW LOOK
Marilyn Monroe Marlon Brando James Dean
FIGURE 1
DESN 1375
WORD COUNT: 2548 1
Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
C O N T E N T S DRIVING FORCES OF FASHION
WORLD EVENTS, POLITICS AND SOCIETY THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Ready to wear scheme. Rationing. “Britain can make it” exhibition. Demob suit. Cocktail Dresses.
6 INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE CHRISTIAN DIOR
Corolle Collection 1947 and its effects.
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TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
MEDIA, MUSIC, CINEMA AND TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
Tight T-shirts
Lycra. Screen printing. Swimwear.
Marlon Brando James Dean
Elvis Presley Rock and Roll
Abstract Expressionism Action Painting
DEMOGRPAHIC AND ECONOMIC DATA Post-war Babyboom. New attitudes. Teddy Boys.
FIGURE 2: CHRISTIAN DIOR’S ‘NEW LOOK’ (HOSCHEK 2011)
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2
1945-1959
Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
Between 1945 and 1959, womenswear and menswear were heavily influenced through different driving social, economic and technological forces. This point in time was extremely important in terms of post-war fashion as it has been described as the ‘Golden Age’ therefore, celebrating the “end of war and the birth of a new era” (V&A 2018). T H E S E C O N D W O R L D W A R
T
he Second World War influenced fashion itself and the designers at the time, as well as changing “every aspect of civilian life in Britain” (Ewing. 1974:139). This caused men and womenswear to change drastically due to the many limitations presented by the war itself. For example, the war caused the western world to cut of materials from other countries, forcing Britain to develop a grand ready-towear scheme (Cawthorne 1996:13). These shortages of materials meant that styles were “conservative and drab” (Cawthorne 1996:13) during the war causing a fashion freeze. This stimulated a need for change after the end of the war, following the Utility Scheme that was put in place due to the rationing of materials which put a great constraint on fashion. However, it is thought that “The geniuses who invented the Utility Scheme had a great say in the development of the fashion industry” (Ewing 1974:145). In 1946, the “Britain Can Make It” exhibition presents society’s enthusiasm for colour and materials as thousands of people lined up just to see the new materials coming into existence after the war. (Dorner 1975:51) This exhibition “formed an excuse to produce
luxury goods and lavish decorations that had not been seen at home since before the war” (Dorner 1975:51) emphasising the need for change. In 1949, rationing controls were lifted for the majority of garments. This relaxation stimulated men’s post war fashions, likewise with women, they were ready for a distinctive change (Ginsburg 1984:71). On leaving the forces, every British serviceman was given a two-piece suit shown in figure 3. This was to be “worn with a pullover, shirt, two collars, a tie, one pair of cufflinks, two pairs of socks, a hat and a pair of shoes” (Cawthorne 1996:99). Usually the suits were a light colour due to the shortages of dye from the war, however they were generally ill-fitting and out of date. When rationing officially ended in April 1949, men celebrated through the double-breasted suits that were popular before the war (Cawthorne 1996:99). Ex-servicemen were tired of their tightly tailored uniform. instead they favoured a broad-shouldered drape suit, containing a large amount of fabric in the jacket shown in figure 5. This looser fit and accentuated shoulder helped to present a more masculine look (Ginsburg 1984:71). In addition to this, ‘Loafer’ jackets and sports
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1945-1959
Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
coats became fashionable. “Never before had a mass of British people been so welldressed, giving them a taste for quality clothes lasting long after the war” (Cawthorne 1996:13). When rationing ended, men who were getting back to a normal life celebrated with the double broad-breasted suit that were popular before the war, which again follows the idea of creating a more masculine silhouette. Likewise, with men leaving the military service, the women leaving were given an allocation of coupons rather than a new outfit. This gave women more freedom to choose what clothes they wanted, which complemented the idea of the role of the women changing in society after the war. For women, the long years of deprivation due to the fashion freeze brought a yearning for luxurious and fashionable items (Ewing 1974:69). Therefore, women began to make an effort to dress appropriately for most occasions. Following the idea of luxurious clothing, dresses began to be named after Cocktails shown in figure
4, for example, “Shady Lady”, “Pink Rose” and “Fallen Angel”. These evoke images of chiffon draped over the bosom, with short bolero jackets and silk corsages, paired with a small feathered evening hat (Ewing 1974:69). This followed the change the role of women had in society, due to the withdrawal of men, therefore after the war, Christian Dior made a collection to help women get back into the routine of being the perfect housewife. This caused mass production stores and firms began to start supplying to women’s ordinary needs (Dorner 1975:52). Consequently, the Second World War is a driving force of fashion due to it signalling the beginning of an international attitude to fashion (Watson 1999:74)
FIGURE 3: WW2 US ARMY UNIFROM (DECUERS 2017)
4 FIGURE 4: COCKTAIL DRESS (MET MUSEUM 2009)
FIGURE 5: DEMOB SUIT (IWM 2018)
I N F L U E N T I A L
P E O P L E 1945-1959
“Slim-waisted with a pronounced, high bust, round, neat shoulders, and full blown hips” (Buxbaum 1999:63 ) 5 FIGURE 6: DIOR’S ‘NEW LOOK’ (La Maison Dior 2018)
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
C H R I S T I A N D I O R ’ S N E W L O O K
A
“IT WAS LIKE A
Christian Dior revealed an entire new image for women. The ‘Corolle’
CHRIS TIAN DIOR collection was made with the intention to bring back the femininity
women had been denied for nearly half a decade (Dorner 1975:27).
Although this ‘new’ look resembled fashion dating back to the
“indolent and wealthy years before the 1914 war” (Munich
1996:106)
NEW LOVE AFFAIR, THE FIRST SIGHT OF VENICE, A NEW CHANCE, IN FACT A NEW LOOK AT LIFE”(Cawthorne
fter the Second World War, on the 12th February 1945
2011:162), he dressed women in “luxurious finery and abundant fabrics” (Buxbaum 1999:63) due to the oppression through utility clothing and a masculine look, Dior described as “women-soldiers
built like boxers” (Cawthorne 1996:109). He wanted to give women back their taste for light-heartedness, the art of seduction” (La Maison Dior 2018). The New Look was only seen to be successful,
portrayed as “a new look at life” (Cawthorne 1996:106) because it
reflected the mood of the time, returning society to tradition and enduring values (Martin. R and Koda. H. 1996:13). Dior then became the face of creating the foundation of post-war fashion in
FIGURE 7: DIOR’S ‘NEW LOOK’, COROLLE COLLECTION, 1945 (LA MAISON DIOR 2018)
the mid 1940s (Cawthorne 1996:2). The New Look brought high fashion to ordinary women with the ultra-feminine hourglass silhouette created through “slim-waisted with a pronounced, high bust, round, neat shoulders, and full-blown hips” (Buxbaum 1999:62) shown in figure 7. This corresponds with post war
directives to get women out of work and back into the home with “financial security and economic prosperity” (Munich 2011:161). Post war society was seen to be in an atmosphere 6 6
Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
1947
of oppression up until the New Look is said to of “seized the world’s imagination” (Cawthorne 1996:2) as well as making the whole community forget about the mundanity of their ordinary lives (Buxbaum 1999:63). FIGURE 8: CHRISTIAN DIOR The sinuous silhouette was created using a “taffeta underbodice with rose ruffles at the breasts and a ruffled hip” (Watson 1999:74) bringing back the pleasure in fashion. The collection was originally intended to be aimed at the older women, but the result of this fashion revolution caused younger girls to be attracted to this new style of clothing. Therefore, causing Dior’s New Look to become “symbolic of youth and the future” (Ewing 1974:155). Dior originally began his campaign for the new look as giving back women their natural shape, accentuating their breasts, rounding their hips and making their shoulders look slender and feminine (Cawthorne 1996:111). Although Dior had a lot of positive publicity, it is said that Dior’s clothes also revived the idea that a woman should suffer to be beautiful (Buck 1987). As well as the amount of fabric used for each dress, Britain and other European countries had been bankrupted by the war. Due to this, prices were high, material inferior and sales were disappointing,
therefore young women who wanted to follow this fashion trend made New Look FIGURE 9: DIOR’S ‘NEW LOOK’, THE BAR SUIT (HARPER’S BAZAAR 2015)
skirts out of blackout curtains. It became so popular that Butterick Paper Patterns published their own method for making New Look dresses from old ones. This mirrors the abstract expressionism movement at the time through the use of multiple fabrics being used, in comparison to the different brush strokes and marks made in action paintings at the time. In 1954, Dior finally moved away from his New Look, however his designs still have an impact on the whole post war design, for example Dior’s designs were fed into many forms of three-dimensional design such as ceramics, glass and furniture (Cawthorne 1996:169). Consequently, Christian Dior was highly influential throughout his life in menswear and womenswear as he made fashion sensational again (Martin. R and Koda. H. 1996:14). 7
7 c
FIGURE 10: 1950S GINGHAM DRESS (PINTEREST 2018)
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
O
ver time, the development of new fabrics and mass-producing goods inevitably changed the whole fashion industry (Dorner 1975:54). For example, in 1945, Europe began to replicate America’s efficient production methods.
L Y C R A A new American style emerged with the emphasis on casual and interchange separates shown in Figure 8. For consumers, this meant a greater access to clothing, and as the middle classes were gaining more disposable income it meant they were interested in buying more clothing. The creation of cotton-acrylic mixes in the 1950s was made up of the first drip dry fabric as well as polyester which helped to ensure that colours did not run in the wash. Lycra also known as spandex or elastane “replaces rubber for a more natural, comfortable look” (Lycra 2018). Garments FIGURE 11: VINTAGE – 50S LYCRA SWIMSUIT (MILLESIME 2018)
1945-1959
“BRIGHT, BREEZY AND OPTIMISTIC PRINTS TOOK OFF” (WORSLEY 2011)
“incorporating Lycra fibres would stretch and bounce without losing their shape and dry out quickly” (Worsley 2011:127). In addition to this, they could be dyed, and machine washed without deteriorating. This as well as the development of the casual style in Europe. This has had a great effect on beachwear and leisurewear shown in Figure 11 as swimwear was fitted to a woman’s body, following the feminine hourglass figure shown in Dior’s garments. In addition to this, the use of ruching was used on swimsuits to help create maximum body shaping, causing garment designs to not have been the same since.
S C R E E N
P R I N T I N G
th
At the end of the 19 century, soft and delicate pastel shades were seen as a sign of affluence, taste and gentility. However, the development of screen printing revolutionised the textile printing industry as it allowed for fabrics to be printed on quickly and efficiently. During the 1950s, “bright, breezy and optimistic prints took off” (Worsley 2011:33) for example gingham, printed onto skirts and dresses shown in Figure 10. From this point, Women’s clothing could differentiated between occasional wear and housework. This burst of colour reflects the abstract expressionism art movement during the time as the range of optimistic prints could reflect the spontaneous mark making of an action painter in this time period.
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
D E M O G R A P H I C
A N D
E C O N O M I C
D A T A
FIGURE 12: TEDDY BOYS (EDWARDIAN TEDDY BOY 2018)
O
ne major catalyst of the change in attitudes throughout England and America was the Postwar Babyboom. This was instigated after the Second World War in 1946, causing countries to experience “substantial economic growth” (Scholastic 2018). This growth, the constant widening generational gap, and affluence brought materialism into a society which had been oppressed and filled with rationing. This
presented ordinary families and teenagers with increased spending power and leisure time (Worsley 2011:114). Teenagers became a distinctive group creating their own attitudes, looks and styles based on the idea of differentiating from their socio-economic group (Worsley 2011:114) with the idea of rejecting the “establishment and of the clothing mandated by their parents generation” (Buxbaum 1999:77). A few years before this fully began, Vogue
FIGURE 12: TEDDY BOYS
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
defined America’s new age group which therefore dominated the market forces. Allowing fashion change to start from the bottom with the trickle up effect. (Dallabona 2018). With womenswear, it could be argued that the change in social attitudes could be influenced by the contraceptive pill and the feminist movement. Together, working alongside the end of the Second World War changed a woman’s role in society, allowing women to gain self assertiveness. This was shown through women going back to their conventional roles, for example a gray flannel suit or sweater dress (Buxbaum 1999:75). A few years later, in the mid to late 1950s, fashion saw the death of formality through a woman’s accessories. For example, hats and gloved lost their
importance as part of an elegant woman’s look, instead fashion inspirations had altered irrevocably (McDowell 1984:36). With menswear, a group called the “Teddy Boys”, “characterised by a style of dress loosely inspired by fashion of the Edwardian Era” (Subculture List 2018) were the first group of teenagers who flaunted their different clothes and attitudes (Subculture List 2018) shown in figure 13. Originally, the Edwardian style suit shown in figure 14 was created by a group of Saville Row tailors in 1950, attempting to initiate a new style initially for young aristocratic men (Edwardian teddy Boy 2018). This put sexuality back into menswear for the first time since the early 19th century through its definite mating appeal. This was deemed necessary after the war due to the uneven ratio of boys to girls (Dorner 1975:104). However, the meaning of this style changed throughout the 50s as this style quickly spread to young working-class males in 1952. The middle
FIGURE 13: EDWARDIAN STYLE (EDWARDIAN TEDDY BOY 2018)
11 FIGURE 14: NEO-EDWARDIAN LOOK (EDWARDIAN TEDDY BOY 2018)
Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
class felt that they could no longer share the style with the working class, exhibiting the snob effect. After this, those who wore this Edwardian style were defined as “Zootsuiters”, “hooligans” and “spivs”.(Edwardian
Teddy Boy 2018). Therefore, through the examples shown, demographic data is a driving force of fashion as the increase in economic power helped fuel a new identity in the younger demographic.
FIGURE 16: TEDDY BOYS (EDWARDIAN TEDDY BOY 2018)
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
MEDIA, MUSIC, CINEMA AND TELEVISION
C
FIGURE 16: MARLON BRANDO (FARFETCH 2017)
inematic performances are known to disseminate fashion as they allow spectators to be exposed to the trends for a long period of time (Dallabona 2018). In 1951, for men, the tight t-shirt became a popular trend due to young Hollywood actors. For example, Marlon Brando’s dramatic screen presence in A Streetcar Named Desire shown in figure 18. This shocked viewers of the time as his character, Stanley Kowalski, wore a tight, “ripped, sweat-soaked t-shirt” exposing his muscles (Worsley. 2011). This may have been because t-shirts were commonly seen as underwear for men.
Another example of this is James Dean in Rebel Without a Cause shown in figure 17. Between them, their characters “embodied the image of the rebellious teenagers” (Buxbaum.1999:76), reflecting the shared attitudes of the younger generation. With the idea of teenagers contrasting with their parents’ socio-economic values, American teenage rebels in the 1950s also began to wear jeans, infiltrated through a number of western films. For example; Marylin Monroe in Clash by Night. Many designers such as Lee, Wrangler and Levi further pushed this trend further, giving teenagers the taste of “post-war prosperity and youthful identity” (Worsley. 2011:123). Similarly, to the popularity of James Dean and Marlon Brando, Elvis Presley contributed to the immortalising the image of the rebellious teenager in the 1950s as Rock and Roll became the new dance form (English 2013:86). Elvis had an extraordinary effect on clothes, causing formality and
clean-cut lines to be swept away overnight, allowing individual flair to become the key to fashion at this time. (Dorner 1975: 105). With his first album release in 1956, Elvis made his mark on both menswear and womenswear in the late fifties (Leaper. 2017). Similar to the change in attitudes of the younger generation, Elvis’s music contained sexual connotations and vulgar remarks which obviously parents did not approve of. In the very same year that Dior produced his ‘New Look’, American action painter, Jackson Pollock created his first large scale action paintings. As part of abstract expressionism movement in the late 40s, it could be argued that his paintings symbolise the dramatic change in society, shown through the spontaneous and gestural brush strokes and mark making (Tate 2018).
FIGURE 17: JAMES DEAN (ANTHONY GLOBAL 2016)
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FIGURE 18: MARLON BRANDO IN A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE (PRENDERGAST 2017)
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Driving Forces of Fashion in 1945 - 1959
It could be argued that the use of primary colours used in the paintings correspond to the re-introduction of brighter colours used in clothing after people had been starved of it during the long years of the war (Cawthorne 1996:172). Therefore, art can be seen as a driving force of fashion through the similarities in the demand selfexpressionism, for example, the Teddy Boys wanting to differentiate themselves from society, and Pollock’s extravagant brush strokes exhibited in his paintings.
C O N C L U S I O N
F
or these reasons, it can be argued that all of these drivers all work in conjunction with each other to affect the trends in fashion over time. For example, the effect of technological advancements in fashion as well has media has disseminated fashion trends to the consumer. However, one
could say that the Second World War was the main catalyst to the developing trends due the political outburst. For example, the end of the war caused designers like Christian Dior the freedom of expression through their clothing. From this point, all fashion trends have developed rapidly through time.
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List of References Buck. J.J. 1987. Fashion: Dior’s New Look: Then and Now. [Online]. [Accessed 12 November 2018]. Available from: https://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/904341486/374C3D9AB6184462PQ/2?accoun tid=14664 Buxbaum. G. 1999. Icons of Fashion: The 20th Century. Munich; London: Prestel Cawthorne, N. 1996. The New Look: The Dior Revolution. London: Hamlyn, 1996 Dallabona. A. 2018. Fashion in Context. [PowerPoint presentation accessed through Minerva]. DESN 1375. Fashion in Context. University of Leeds Dorner. J. 1975. Fashion in the Forties & Fifties. London: Allan. Edwardian Teddy Boy. 2018. History of the British Teddy Boy and Culture. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.edwardianteddyboy.com/page2.htm English. B. 2013. A Cultural History of Fashion in the 20th and 21st centuries from Catwalk to Sidewalk. Second edition. London: Bloomsbury. Ewing. E. 1974. History of Twentieth Century Fashion. Second Edition. London: Batsford. Ginsburg. M. et al. 1984. Four Hundred Years of Fashion. Rothstein. N. London: V&A Publications. La Maison Dior. 2018. The New Look Revolution. [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.dior.com/couture/en_gb/the-house-of-dior/the-story-ofdior/the-new-look-revolution Leaper. C. 2017. The Biggest 1950s fashion style moments that defined the decade. [Online]. [Accessed 30 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.marieclaire.co.uk/fashion/1950s-fashion-icons-fifties-style-moments-inpictures-81397 Martin. R and Koda. H. 1996. Christian Dior. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art McDowell. C. 1984. McDowell’s Directory of Twentieth Century Fashion. London: F. Muller Munich. A. 2011. Fashion in Film. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press Scholastic. 2018. Postwar Life and the Baby Boom. [Online]. [Accessed 30 November 2018]. Available from: http://www.scholastic.com/browse/subarticle.jsp?id=1662 Subcultures List. 2018. Teddy Boys. [Online]. [Accessed 27 November 2018]. Available from: http://subcultureslist.com/teddy-boys/
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Tate. 2018. Abstract Expressionism. [Online]. [Accessed 1 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/abstract-expressionism V&A. 2018. The Golden Age of Couture. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-golden-age-of-couture Watson. L. 1999. Vogue Twentieth Century Fashion. London: Carlton, 1999 Worsley. H. 2011. 100 Ideas That Changed Fashion. London: Laurence King Pub.
Figures 17
Anthony Global. 2016. James Dean White T-Shirt Rebel Without A Cause. [Online]. [Accessed 20 November 2018]. Available from: http://anthonyglobal.com/2016/04/15/how-to-findthe-classic-mens-white-t-shirt/james-dean-white-t-shirt-rebel-without-a-cause/ Catawiki. 2018. Marilyn Monroe. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December]. Available from: https://auction.catawiki.com/kavels/11808785-donaldson-collection-getty-images-marilynmonroe-1950 Decuers. L. 2017. Pink and Greens. [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/pinks-and-greens Edwardian Teddy Boy. 2018. History of the British Teddy Boy and Culture. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.edwardianteddyboy.com/page2.htm Farfetch. 2017. Marlon Brando Style Icon: Timeless and Rebel Outfit Ideas. [Online]. [Accessed 20 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.farfetch.com/au/styleguide/icons-influencers/marlon-brando-style-icon-timeless-and-rebel-outfit-ideas/ Harper’s Bazaar. 2015. Dior’s New Look Revolution. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashionnews/news/g34837/diors-new-look-revolution/ Hoschek. L. 2011. Christian Dior’s ‘New Look’ of the 1940s and 1950s. [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://ladyjojosboutique.wordpress.com/2011/07/13/christian-diors-new-look-of-the1940s-and-1950s/ IWM. 2018. Jacket, Civilian (Demob Suit). [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30095029 La Maison Dior. 2018. The New Look Revolution. [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.dior.com/couture/en_gb/the-house-of-dior/the-story-ofdior/the-new-look-revolution Millesime Collection. 2018. Vintage- 50s Lycra Swimsuit. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.millesimestory.com/en/shop/Swimsuits-andbodysuits_200/Vintage---50s-lycra-swimsuit--DVC5-0012_1879.html Pinterest. 2018. 1950s Full Skirt Gingham. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/153263193541655058/ Prendergast. A. 2017. Style Heroes: Marlon Brando. [Online]. [Accessed 12 November 2018]. Available from: https://therake.com/stories/icons/style-heroes-marlon-brando/
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The Met Museum. 2009. Cocktail Dress. [Online]. [Accessed 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/174570?searchField=All&sortBy=r elevance&what=Cocktail+dresses&ft=*&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1 The Perfume Store. 2018. Dior. [Online]. [Accessed 12 December 2018]. Available from: https://perfumesociety.org/perfume-house/dior/
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