Anth 397 A01 by Cecilia Coles

Anomalies Anomalies

Beyond the Bones

RED BORDERS

Created By:

Sarah Stephens Cecilia Coles Kate Turner

Bog Bodies

Witchcraft and Papua New Guinea

Neolithic Shaman

Woodabe Clans

Case Study

Chinchorro Mummies

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Letter from the Editor

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Bog Bodies

General statement of ethics:

Throughout time, cultures have established guidelines they generally adhere to when it comes to the disposal of their dead. This may include where the body is placed after death, what kind of treatment they receive, how the body is processed, the grave goods placed with them, or the position of their body in its final resting place. However, anomalous practices have been recorded in the archaeological record cross-culturally. The articles in our issue look at cases where gender, and its role in society, often influences the way the individual was treated after death. The mortuary practices that are analyzed lie outside the criteria of traditional methods used by each given culture. The following articles include some graphic information and images about death and mortuary rituals. Some of the cultures included are still active today and may have living descendants. The information given is meant to be delivered in a purely academic context, with no personal opinion or biases from the authors. With this in mind, please enjoy this issue of Anomalies: Beyond the Bones.

Hundreds of bodies have been found preserved after being buried in peat bogs centuries earlier, yet the burial techniques which have been observed do not all follow the same process. The bog bodies that have been discovered quite often are those of murder victims as this was seen as an efficient and reasonable way of disposing of the bodies. This method differs from the more common burial tendency within their communities of cremation. Thanks to new technology is it now possible to prevent the bog bodies from shriveling and decaying as they once did after they were dug up. This makes it possible for more information to be found out about these bodies as well as learn more about their lives. In the case of the Tollund man who was discovered in Denmark, he had been hung, had his head smashed in as well as his abdomen sliced open. He was obviously the victim of a murder yet he was seemingly tossed into the peat bog. He was not â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;buriedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; but rather he was tossed into the bog and forgotten about. In County Meath in Ireland, Clonycavan Man was discovered and he had also been brutally murdered. He had been killed with a blow to the head by an axe and then had his torso severed and was disemboweled. Like Tollund man, Clonycavan Man had not been buried in a ceremonial or respectful manner. He had also simply been tossed into the bog. Oldcroghan Man who was discovered a mere 25 miles from Clonycavan Man, had been treated differently. He was killed from a stab wound to the chest however rather than simply being thrown into the bog after his death, those who killed him proceeded to continue to harm his body. There were other cuts to his chest made and he was decapitated as well as partially dismembered. Instead of being tossed into the bog, holes were made in his upper arms and rods were inserted into these holes to keep him in place in the bog. He was also stripped of his clothes and personal effects except for a leather armband. Many other bog bodies were found to still be wearing clothes yet Oldcroghan Man was purposefully stripped of his clothes before being secured into place in the peat bog. Tollund Man, Clonycavan Man, and Oldcroghan Man all lived around the same time in similar parts of the world yet they were disposed of in different ways. After being brutally murdered, Tollund Man and Clonycavan Man were seemingly tossed away and disposed of in a quick and efficient manner. Oldcroghan Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s murderers seemed to take time in making sure that his body was disposed of in a very particular manner. Precautions were taken in making sure that his body would stay exactly where they placed it. The reasoning behind these different burials methods will never be known for sure however by examining different methods used for the burial of both men and women who were murdered, anthropologists will come closer to a conclusion.

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Bog Bodies

In the past couple of centuries, hundreds of murdered individuals have been found preserved in peat bogs, and the vast majority of them were middle aged men. These men were buried in various different ways – some burials took time and effort and others simply involved tossing the bodies into the bog. Women who were murdered were seemingly buried with more respect than the men who were killed in nearly the same fashion as them. In Denmark, Tollund Man was discovered to have been hung and then tossed into the bog and it seemed as though he was then forgotten about. A mere 80 meters from him, Elling Woman was discovered. Elling woman was approximately 25 years old at the time of her death. She was hung by the neck and then buried in the peat bog. Rather than being thrown carelessly in the bog like Tollund Man, she was buried carefully. She was placed on her left side in a hole that had been dug for her, and a cowhide cloak was wrapped around her feet. Her hair was perfectly plaited and it was even tied in a way that meant that it would be out of the way for the noose. There was evidence that a large amount of effort and care was put into the burial of this woman. Borremose in Himmerland, Denmark told different stories of burial than the bog in which Elling Woman was discovered. There were three bog bodies discovered in the bog – two of which were female. Borremose woman II was found lying face down buried

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nearly two feet deep. Her skull had been fractured so that brain matter was showing and her right leg was broken below the knee, however the object that had been used is still unknown. She was naked from the waist up, and had a cloak covering her lower body. Her body was held in place by birch tree branches – several of them were lying on her body weighing it down. These branches were placed in such a way to prevent her body from floating up in the bog and becoming exposed. While time was taken to ensure that her body would remain buried, there was minimal if any care taken in the placement of her body in the bog. The third individual buried in Borremose, Borremose Woman or Borremose III, was between 20 and 35 at the age of her death. She was found face down in the dirt like Borremose Woman II was however her body was not secured in place with tree branches. She had extensive head trauma and it is unsure as to what injury it was that killed her. She was wearing a large skirt, which seemed to envelope her entire body. Her burial was quick and did not involve much effort from those who buried her – she was not placed in the ground nor was she secured. When looking at the burial of murdered individuals in peat bogs, there is no clear pattern between genders. One gender was not treated with more respect than the other nor was one gender treated with less respect. The burial technique of these individuals depended entirely on the person or group of people who buried them rather than the gender of the victim.

Tollund Man, hung before being thrown in the peat bogs, still wears his noose.

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Witchcraft and Papua New Guinea

Cross-culturally, individuals who are accused of witchcraft are feared and segregated from society. They are thought to be the embodiment of evil and representative of any negativity a culture may experience. It is usually not accepted to generalize something as universal, but in the case of witchcraft, it is never something that is celebrated. Witches can be both men and women, and are seen as malevolent beings who live amongst a society in order to terrorize and cause harm to its members. The people of Papua New Guinea (PNG) generally follow the distinctions between sorcery and witchcraft defined by E. E. Evans-Pritchard. He said that sorcery was conscious, and could lead the sorcerer to either help or harm others, and that witchcraft was unconscious, taking over a person’s body without their knowledge. Before Christian contact, the people of PNG practiced many different methods of corpse disposal. These include – but are not limited to – cannibalism, corpse exposure, and disposal in rivers. One group from PNG, the Asabano, saved river disposal for individuals accused of witchcraft because it was believed that their soul would be destroyed in this manner. There is a common belief that everyone in Asabano culture possesses

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two souls: a big soul, which accounts for the good inside them, and the little soul, which is responsible for greed and selfishness. It is believed that by disposing of the body in a river, both souls are destroyed, and therefore the relationship between the living and the deceased witch is severed. The idea that witches inhabit a person’s body without their knowledge leads to the scapegoating of people who are accused of witchcraft. If someone dies from unknown causes, or they are in the prime of their life, it is usually interpreted that some form of witchcraft has killed them. This will lead to an extensive investigation to find out who the witch is. Ceremonies are conducted in order to determine whether a person has been taken over by an evil spirit. If it is concluded that they have been, then that person will be killed, which is supposed to kill the evil inside them too. Many cultures will either burn or brutally mutilate the body of a witch in order to destroy not only the body, but the soul. In most cases, an accused witch is a woman. This discourse is set in place to reify gender hierarchies and further perpetuate the myth that women are dangerous beings, put on earth to disrupt the peace and seduce men with their evil femininity.

Witches are seen as malevolent beings, who enjoy spreading terror and causing harm.

Whats the Secret Message?

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Neolithic Shaman The earliest female shaman was discovered in Israel, and has aged to perfection over the last 12 000 years. With her lay the remains of a feast, 50 carefully opened tortoise shells, broken basalt bowls, arroch tail, eagle wing, leopard pelvis, the heads of stone martin, a boarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s long bone, and a large human foot. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unknown if these suggest her trade, as a shaman focusing on animal spirits, or her status as someone who would be sent to the afterlife with a great feast. What we can see is that she was highly respected, the time and energy poured into this singular grave tell us a great deal about how this woman was viewed, Be it a sense of respect, or a slight fear, we can see from her bones that it would not be her size that commanded power, she was a tiny woman, though she lived to 45 years of age, she would have limped with a twisted spine, with one leg that dragged beside her. As an attempt to keep such a powerful woman contained ten large white stones were placed across her head, arms and pelvis, disarticulating her bones over time. Uncharacteristically folded, much like a position now used for meditation, she was laid into the grave on one side, with her back and pelvis pressed into the hard oval of her grave, the animal goods, and feast items arrayed in front of her. miniat. Illa con utet nulput

An artists rendering of how the grave looked before being filled. The tortoises show signs of being eaten, a fairwell feast?

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Woodabe Clans

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A Woman Laughs while watching her husband perform. It’s considered strange for these men to be without a mirror

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Woodabe men exist in a fairly stereotypical herdsman roll, seemingly average in comparison to other desert dwelling clans. They established a herd of cattle, and sought to pass on more cattle to their sons than their father had passed to them. The currently follow Islamic burials, carried out in a Muslim idiom without ritual. The difference between them and many other tribes, is that they do not know if their sons are genetically linked to them. Their lineage is based mainly on the status of having a wife, an unmarried man can not inherit cattle, or speak in camp conferences. His wife holds all of the power, she chooses the fathers of their offspring and grants her husband a higher status. First wives can claim a higher portion of a man’s “milking rights” than his later wives. Though this hinges on the number of children produced while they were together. The Woodabe, aside from focusing a great deal of power on the wife, also are

one of the only examples of male beauty. It is rare to see one of these men without a mirror to check on his appearance, they are toted as the vainest in the world. The Woodabe wife stealing festival is an opportunity for men and women to leave their partners, either permanently, or for a short period. Festivities revolve around a male beauty pageant, where contestants spend up to 6 hours to apply makeup, painting the face, lining the eyes, brows, and lips in black. The men try to enhance their smiles, teeth and symmetry to impress the judges, three women who may choose them as a new husband, aside from a new wife the men gain years of acclaim. The three judges are chosen because their fathers have previously won the Yaake (Wife stealing festival) and they are considered the most beautiful women.

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The most popular

Nulputetum amcorero conseqau amcommy niatet, quat gait la faci esenibh eugait, susto dign. in sent gave feel will

Case Study

In Iron Age Veneto, Italy, bodies were most commonly disposed of through cremation. They were burned using a funeral pyre, and the bone remains would be collected in a ceramic urn and then buried. Oftentimes, earthen mounds were constructed on top of the buried urns, and grave goods would be placed inside the mound. The cemeteries themselves were very formal. They were always located just outside of a settlement, and had boundaries and streets running throughout. The mounds were grouped based on hierarchy, and the grave goods placed

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inside were a means of continuing social ties, even in death. While inhumation was also practiced, it was much more rare than cremation, and often indicated some kind of social marginalization. The body would have been buried in a rectangular pit in various positions. There is evidence of supine, prone, crouched, and flexed burials. In the case of inhumation, supine burial was the norm, while the others were most likely reserved for social outcasts. Inhumation graves could be either single or multiple burial. Some graves appear to include

of burial. It appears that how they were perceived socially was the predominant authority on the method in which they were disposed.

Beyond the Bones: Wordsearch SXCVDVTHDTLAWGE NOITACIFIMMUMOG EOHDRRUDDQFSAJF NATFARCHCTIWRSE MSINAMAHSLLKHEM EELINHUMATIONII AROQUPABNEAKNDN REEXCHINCHORROI WDNDCNJCOYKLIBN RBEINKMUTMRTOOI

ANOMALY ARCHAEOLOGY BODIES BOG CANNIBALISM CHINCHORRO CREMATION CULTURE DEATH DENMARK FEMININITY GENDER GUINEA INHUMATION MUMMIFICATION NEOLITHIC NEW PAPUA SHAMANISM VENETO WITCHCRAFT WOODABE

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Abnormal Mortuary Practices in Italy

disarticulated or dismembered fragments of a skeleton. Although the meaning behind this is unclear, it is most likely representative of people who experienced social exclusion. The absence of grave goods and evidence of malicious treatment of the remains suggests these individuals did not hold much respect within their community. One individual was found in a circular pit containing charcoal. It is thought that the body was burned before interment, since the size of the grave would not have been big enough to fit an entire skeleton. Only the torso and the pelvis are present in the grave, which suggests the body was also disarticulated before burial. The precise reason for this is unknown. The presence of both human and animal bone disarticulation hints at some sort of sacrificial ritual taking place. A few graves include bits of charcoal, evidence of feasting, and both human and animal bones, which could be indicative of ritualistic death and burial. Some of the bodies that were buried in this manner would have been dismembered before burial since most of their leg bones are found under their back. The analysis of over 2000 bodies at Veneto, Italy clearly shows that the people living there during the Iron Age had established a normative method of disposal of their dead. Based on the number and uniform practices, this method was cremation. This method is then followed by inhumation, which was not practiced as regularly. The evidence shows that people who were not fully integrated into society, or were deemed less than human based on disease or handicap, were not awarded the same treatment as others. These individuals would not have been buried with grave goods, and their bodies would have been manipulated in some way to reflect their social position. The gender or sex of the deceased does not seem to play an influential role in the style

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Chinchorro

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In a more stereotypical modern gender role you can examine the Chinchorro mummies, better known for their children, referred to as Devils Puppets. Observing their parents however stands as a far more interesting endeavour. Living in relative ease as a fishing, hunter-gather society along the Atacama coast of Southern Peru, the Chinchorro enjoyed a life rich in seafood, and religious devotion. 2000

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years before the first mummy laid wrapped by the Nile, the Chinchorro were practicing their art. Showing many different styles of mummification, from delicate forms involving clay masks and wigs of long black hair, to methods relying on the harsh environment. Though living close to the dead posed serious health risks, the Chinchorro delicately cared for their dead, even the smallest fetus was treated with the same level of respect. Sadly the loss

Adornment Sculpting a human form: We cannot know why the Chinchorro chose to preserve their dead, but it is clear that they took great pride in sending those whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve passed onward with a great deal of care.

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Besides a clay face, and reconstructed body, the dead were ornamented with a long beautiful wig. These differ in style depending on the Artisan, and the time period.

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of children was all too common, a high infant mortality rate is why we ordinarily hear only of their haunting preserved children. Women led lives closer to the village, while men risked fractured backs foraging on the dangerous cliff sides. Chinchorro females faced a much more sinister demise. Perpetual pregnancy from puberty onwards decreased bone density and leached away at the

girls bones, they never had a chance to replenish minerals with the calcium

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deficient lifestyle. Compression fractures plagued older women. Many suf-

Found by a fishermans dog, this mummy was propped into a “meditation” position.

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of their obsession with the dead may have tied in with the loss of their children. Women working closely with corpses easily and regularly introduced their offspring to a condition called Yaws, usually caused by contact with human flesh. Infections on the legs were so severe that they are visible on the leg bones of 40% of Chinchorro’s. Women appear to be the main creators of the mummies; who else would focus the delicate time and care into preserving a fetus aside from the mother who loved it, sadly this yet again added to infant mortality with the grievous infections caused by Yaws,

easily transferred by a woman practicing mummification while caring for her surviving children. Yaws eventually may have led to the practices of natural mummification as they ventured away from more involved process.

Escape the Maze, or Become a Mummy!

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The delicate care required to preserve this tiny newborn is what has triggered the idea that it was actually the women creating these ornate miniscule mummies.

fered spinal damage during birth, due mainly to the fact that their bones showed the weakness of advanced age, in bodies that rarely made thirty. Deficiencies also play into the circle of infant deaths, weakened children dying meant that women would have more children, inadvertently causing their children to become more weakened, and their bones more damaged. The downfall

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Bibliography Articles: Bog Bodies: Giles, M. (2009). Iron Age bog bodies of north-western Europe. Representingthedead.ArchaeologicalDialogues,V.16(Issue1),75-75. Retrieved October 31, 2015. Lange, K. (2007, September 1). Tales from the Bog. Retrieved November 18, 2015, from http://ngm.nationalgeographic. com/2007/09/bog-bodies/bog-bodies-text Lynnerup, N. (2015). Bog Bodies. Anat. Rec. The Anatomical Record, V. 298(Issue 6), 1007-1012. Retrieved October 31, 2015. Munksgaard, E. (1984). Bog Bodies - A Brief Survey of Interpretations.JournalofDanishArchaeology,3(1),120-123.RetrievedNovember 20, 2015.

Witchcraft and Papua New Guinea: Hermkens, A. (2015). The Gendered Politics of Witchcraft and Sorcery Accusations among the Maisin of Papua New Guinea. The Asia Pacific Journal Of Anthropology, 16(1), 36-54. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/14442213.2014.986191 Lohmann, R. (2005). The Afterlife of Asabano Corpses: Relationships with the Deceased in Papua New Guinea. Ethnology, 44(2), 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3773996 Strathern, A. (1994). Between Body and Mind: Shamans and Politics among the Anga, Baktaman and Gebusi in Papua New Guinea. Oceania, 64(4), 288-301. http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1994.tb02473.x

Case Study: Perego, E. (2014). Anomalous Mortuary Behaviour and Social Exclusion in Iron Age Italy: A Case Study from the Veneto Region. Journal Of Mediterranean Archaeology, 27(2), 161-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/jmea.v27i2.161

Neolithic Shaman: Bryner, J. (2008, November 3). Female Shaman’s Grave Loaded with Goodies. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.livescience. com/5179-female-shaman-grave-loaded-goodies.html Skeleton Of 12,000 Year Old Shaman Discovered. (2008, November 8). Retrieved November 27, 2015, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2008/11/081105083721.htm

Woodabe Tribes: Mailonline, F. (2015, July 7). The Wodaabe wife-stealing festival: Stunning images from the world’s vainest tribe where men dress up to take each other’s women - and the women have as many husbands as they please. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/ article-3149684/The-Wodaabe-wife-stealing-festival-Stunning-imagesworld-s-vainest-tribe-men-dress-s-women-women-husbands-please. html Stenning, D. (n.d.). Savannah Nomads. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from https://books.google.ca/books?id=vx8t8M2Px9YC&p g=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=woodabe burials&source=bl&ots=tBV_ qL84Xd&sig=DfXG3ePBC2Z-H_jq6VScqayoA8E&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CC UQ6AEwAGoVChMIwcins6SYyQIVh1mICh04IQVg#v=onepage&q=wood abe burials&f=false

Chinchorro Mummies: Arriaza, B. (1995). Chinchorro Bioarchaeology: Chronology and Mummy Seriation. Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6(Issue 1), 35-55. Retrieved October 31, 2015. Arriaza, B. (1995, March 1). Chile’s Chinchorro Mummies. Retrieved November 27, 2015, from http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/1995/03/ chinchorro-mummies/arriaza-text Pictures: Death-Cult Mummies Inspired by Desert Conditions? (2012, August 14). Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/08/pictures/120813-mummies-chinchorroproceedings-desert-driest-chile/

Images:s: MacLean, D. (n.d.). Papua New Guinea’s Tragic Witch-Hunts. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://thediplomat.com/2014/10/papua-new-guineas-tragic-witch-hunts/ Mailonline, F. (2015, July 7). The Wodaabe wife-stealing festival: Stunning images from the world’s vainest tribe where men dress up to take each other’s women - and the women have as many husbands as they please. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www. dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3149684/The-Wodaabe-wife-stealing-festival-Stunningimages-world-s-vainest-tribe-men-dress-s-women-women-husbands-please.html Perego, E. (n.d.). Papers from the Institute of Archaeology. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.pia-journal.co.uk/articles/10.5334/pia.342/ Stone Age. (n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.ancientcraft.co.uk/ reenactment/prehistoric_shamans.html The Perfect Corpse. (n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ nova/bog/iron-11.html The White Gods. (2013, March 26). Retrieved November 24, 2015, from https://genetiker. wordpress.com/2013/03/26/the-white-gods/