Revisiting the Promise of ICT for Skill Development: A Scoping Study by Center for Women's Empowerment and Gender Equality

Revisiting the Promise of ICT for Skill Development in the Construction Industry among the Subsistent Informal Sector in South Africa and India A Scoping Study October 2018

Acknowledgement This Scoping Study is the result of a South-South collaboration between AMMACHI Labs (Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham) in India, and REAL, the Center for Researching Education and Labor (University of the Witwatersrand) in South Africa. The study was facilitated by the Network for International Policies and Cooperation in Education and Training (NORRAG) in Geneva. It was authored by the Indian team, composed of Prof. Bhavani R Rao and Srividya Sheshadri from AMMACHI Labs, in collaboration with the South African team, composed of Prof. Peliwe Lolwana and Marloes de Munnik from REAL. Valuable input and advice was provided by Dr. Sidney Strauss, Professor Emeritus of Research in Child Development and Education from the School of Education, Tel Aviv University, and by Prof. Michel Carton and Dr. Joost Monks from NORRAG, assisted by Phoebe Shambaugh. The layout of the report was done by Sooraj Subrahmanyan from AMMACHI Labs. The study is about learning from each other, rather than making comparisons. It offers original preliminary insights and assessments on subsistence informality, focusing on individuals working informally in the construction sector in India and South Africa. It looks at the potential and the use of ICT by some organisations as a way of reaching informal workers for skill development and, finally, it offers perspectives aiming at informing future research, programmes, policy and practice. We would also like to express our gratitude and appreciation to the following vocational training providers and organizations for sharing their valuable time, knowledge and experiences with skill development, informality and ICT, which greatly contributed to the development of this study: Larson & Tubro CSTI (Kanchipuram), Skill Pro and the Mahila Housing SEWA Trust's Karmika Construction School for Women (Jharkhand) from India and IQETD from South Africa.

Contents Introduction

The people, the context and the study The scoping study

5 8

Part I: Informal Construction and Skill Development: Entry Points for ICT Use

Informality: Key issues

Types of informality

Transitions between the types

Informality and participation in the economy

Informality in the construction sector

Economic and employment trends in the two countries

The construction sector in South Africa

The construction sector in India

Policies and practices on skills development for the unemployed

Skills policies and instruments for informality in construction

Summary 22

What does the informality in the construction sector look like?

Who are the people?

Employment experiences and recognition of work based skills

Skills development, desires and challenges

South Africa

India 36 Access and use of information and communication devices

Summary

Conclusion Part I: A complex story of informality and skills development

Page 1 of 116

INTERMEZZO 43 PART II: Perspectives on ICT-integrated Skill Development Practices in Teaching and Learning of Construction Trades

Introduction 46 Vocational training provider profile

VTP selection criteria

India 49 Larson & Tubro Construction Skills Training Institute (L&T CSTI) Kanchipuram

AMMACHI Labs

SkillPro 56

South Africa

Institute for Quality Collegiate (IQETD)

Summary

Construction skills and entry for blended learning

Definitions of ICT and blended learning

Summary

Perspectives on ICT integrated teaching and learning

Quality and accessibility of education

Teaching-learning process

Learning motivation

Enabling and constraining factors

Summary 74

Policy and regulatory frameworks for ICT use in skills development

India 75 Gender equality

Summary 80

Page 2 of 116

PART III: Main Issues, Perspectives and Ways Forward

Appendices 84 Part I

Appendix 1: Skills development initiatives, India

Appendix 2: Interview guide used with construction workers in the informal sector, India and South Africa

Part II

Appendix 1: Applications of ICT in skills development, India

Appendix 2: Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector, India

Appendix 3: Formal vs. non-formal education

103

Appendix 4: Forms of training delivery observed in the field

106

Appendix 5: AMMACHI Labsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; pilot phase

108

References 110 Part I Part II

110 113

Page 3 of 116

Page 4 of 116

Introduction The people, the context and the study We would like to introduce you to the man below, whom we’ll call Reason Nyashumba1. We met Reason near a large hardware store called Builder’s Warehouse in Johannesburg, South Africa. He and his mates were sitting right at the gate of the hardware store, with two security guys guarding the gate so that they would not step inside the parking lot and harass the customers. Reason and his mates were actually there to court customers – for themselves. The men are labourers in the informal construction sector. They wake up every morning and come to this same place in the hope that someone will give them a chance “to do the job.” Many of them have been working like this for years and they make their living through customers found at “the gate” with rare repeat customers. At first glance, we might guess that Reason is unemployed, has some experience or skill as a carpenter and is looking for a job. He might have a family and is looking for work to help put food on the table. He is probably poor.

For the purposes of this study, names have been replaced with pseudonyms for confidentiality unless otherwise indicated.

Page 5 of 116

This woman here, carrying a bag of cement on her head, is also a member of the informal construction sector, this time in India. We’ll call her Kasturi Bhen. While capable of carrying out skilled tasks, she and the other women in her crew were probably not given a chance to demonstrate their abilities when they were hired. They are assigned the job of moving material, which rarely (if ever) evolves into jobs of increased skill or pay. Her load is heavy, even for a much younger woman. Still, though the job earns her less than what she could receive as a man or as an independent contractor, the wage is consistent and dependable. She probably has a family for whom her work provides vital income that allows the family to keep their noses above water, financially.

If we were to speak with both of them, we

is unregulated, leaving them to the whims

would learn of their life stories, their aspira-

of temporary employers and unstable jobs.

tions when they were young and how they have changed. We will learn that they are people who are seeking out a living so as to survive. They work in what is called the informal sector2, in which their employment The term “informal sector” can refer to those who have created their employment informally or those who work in enterprises but have informal arrangements for their work. In other words, the former refers to employment and production that takes place in unincorporated, small or unregistered enterprises. The latter refers to employment without social protection though in formal enterprises. According to Statistics South Africa (International Labour Organisation, 2002, p5), the informal sector encompasses “ Employees working in establishments that employ fewer than five employees, who do not deduct income tax from their salaries/ wages; and ii) Employers, own-account workers and persons helping unpaid in their household business who are not registered for either income tax or value added tax.’ (Stats SA, 2015:xxi) 2

Page 6 of 116

Over 400 million people3 work in the informal sector in India and South Africa combined. At the heart of this report is an attempt to describe the people who find paid work in the informal construction, the economic and social forces that lead people there, the nature of governmental policies which regulate it (or not), the nature of training available for people in this sector through vocational programs, and the potential role of Information Approximately 420 million in India and 2.6 million in SA (according to WEIGO (2016) for SA and ILO India Labour Market Update (2017) – http://www.ilo.org/newdelhi/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_568701/lang--en/index.htm 3

and Communications Technology (ICT) in

financial stress. It is incumbent on govern-

skill development interventions for informal

ments, education and training institutions,

workers.

and the private sector to find economically

The story we tell is complex and diverse, but it is an important one to convey because people in the informal sector are in acute

and socially sound interventions that are justifiably both helpful and sound solutions to relieve the distress for these individuals.

Page 7 of 116

The scoping study

tween Parts I and II serves to highlight the

This study is composed of three parts. The

main trends encompassed in Part I and open

first part studies individuals who could be

the path toward the issues to be raised in

considered to fall under the category of sub-

Part II. Part III, recognizing the limited na-

sistence informality, focusing on individuals

ture of the scoping study, proposes action

working informally in the construction sec-

and research perspectives as ways to build

tor in both India and South Africa. We were

on this preliminary study.

particularly interested in understanding who these individuals are, how their skills have been developed, and what their aspirations are. Part 2 focuses on institutions involved in skills development for construction trades using ICT. This section was predicated on assumptions about the ability of traditional forms of skill development to reach and assist informal labourers, namely that it was ineffective4. It therefore focuses on the possibilities offered by ICT as a way of reaching informal workers with skill development, though a study of institutions which adopt this approach.

Before sketching the results, we present a brief account of involvement in the informal economy in both countries, particularly focusing on the construction sector. While on the surface an analysis of India and South Africa might look like a study of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;un-equalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, there is much that is shared by the two countries. Despite their size and population differences, they share a common history of British colonisation which has invariably shaped their educational and economic trajectories. Both belong to that group of countries called BRICS, who are trying to shape their economic agenda together as a block.

We therefore positioned these two parts as

And, significantly, they have a long history

two sides of the same coin, addressing the

of fighting injustices together and human

question of skill development for the infor-

rights remain at the top of their priorities for

mal construction sector. The Intermezzo be-

redress.

This assumption is based on the researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experience with AMMACHI Labs, where ICT is increasingly being used to deliver technical and vocational programmes to under-served and remote populations. It is not based on a systematic study. 4

Page 8 of 116

This study is about learning from each other, rather than making comparisons.

Part I: Informal Construction and Skill Development: Entry Points for ICT Use Informality: Key issues

workers; e.g. street light vendors.

Literature shows that the key debates about informality revolve around three major issues:

iii. Voluntary informality: where there is a preference for informal work and pro-cyclicality between formality and informality is an option. This might in-

i. Types of informality;

clude professionals who opt for inforii. Transition or mobility between informality and formality or between the

mal employment or secondary contributors to household income.

various types of informality; Induced informality speaks to the experiiii. Informality and the economy.

ence of workers who are “forced” to be in the informal labour market due to the high

Types of informality One of the most debated issues around the concept of informality is the degree to which informal employment is assumed to be freely “chosen.” In their work on the subject, Fernandez et al. (2016) have laid out the following typology of informality:

burden of regulations in the formal economy. For example, regulations that could act as a barrier to formal employment include: company registration, taxes, health regulations, and stipulation of minimum wages. The second type, subsistence informality, is generally composed of workers with low

i. Induced informality: where workers are

levels of education and skill, and is also as-

forced to be in the informal labour mar-

sociated with age in some countries where

ket due to the high cost of regulations

the incidence is higher with younger work-

in the formal economy. These regula-

ers. This group has also been found to earn

tions are either purposefully avoided or

less than the minimum legal wage in most

present difficult barriers to formal work;

countries (Fernandez, et al., 2016). In the

e.g.

third type of informality, voluntary, workers

unregistered/unlicensed

skilled

workers. ii. Subsistence informality: where the primary barrier to formal employment is that individuals are unskilled and therefore offer low productivity. Wages in this type of informality are usually low and there is a higher incidence of younger

are able to move freely from informality to formality. This pro-cyclicality of informality suggests that a growing economy provides opportunities to voluntary informal workers and informality is “chosen” as an alternate form of working (Heintz, 2012; Fernandez, et. al., 2016).

Page 9 of 116

Transitions between the types Workers in voluntary type informality are

Informality and participation in the economy

able to transition between the formal and

Informal labour contributes significantly to

informal labour markets. Because these

the formal economy and is therefore valued

workers are likely to be better educated

highly, to the point of being seen as co-de-

and better skilled, this transition is easier

pendant with the formal economy. For ex-

for them than for workers in other types,

ample, in agriculture, it is already an accept-

namely induced and subsistence informality.

ed wisdom that the labour market in this

Workers in induced informality face differen-

sector is made up of both formal and the in-

tiated barriers to employment which keep

formal components and the two co-exist in a

them from transitioning to formal employ-

co-dependence system for the effectiveness

ment, as levels of bureaucracy, visibility, and

and efficiency of the sector.

size are associated with difficulty of access for those who face legal restrictions on work (Heintz, 2012). In other words, those sectors of the economy with stringent requirements for practising will be hard to penetrate, e.g. construction trades as opposed to trading. Enterprise size is also associated with differences in barriers to entry. Overall, workers in subsistence informality are least likely to be able to move from informality to formal employment, or even between the various types of informality. The most important constraint on individuals in subsistence informality is a lack of education and skills, though finances are a source of constraint for many with respect to mobility. Individuals working at subsistence level cannot move easily to take advantage of better opportunities somewhere else and they do not have access to classes to improve their skills and knowledge. This is a group that seems trapped in their informality.

Informality of all types can be regarded as an alternative to unemployment, and unemployment rates tend to be lower in low-income countries where there is a high rate of informal employment. In middle-income countries, even though the formal economy is larger, it cannot absorb everyone, leaving a section of the workforce employed informally. In order to have an economically healthy society, then, the formal and informal sectors must reach a sort of balance. Employment is one of the most direct ways of participating in the economy and through which economic benefits are distributed to individuals and households. However, these benefits are not always extended to those employed in the informal sector. For example, while those in voluntary informality are likely to enjoy similar economic benefits as those who are formally employed, subsistence informality often represents a group of workers who are extremely under-em-

Page 10 of 116

ployed and therefore lack the economic

mal retail sector are likely to employ other

benefits which might be available to them

people, creating a context in which both

as formal employees. Individuals in induced

owners and workers are informal. For exam-

informality may not be under-employed, but

ple, in a study conducted by Ligthelm (2004)

they remain in a relationship of dependency,

on the retail informal sector in South Africa,

as they rely on the social protection of work-

he found that there is a correlation between

ers in formal employment.

the level of education of the owner and the

Informality is more prevalent in some sectors than others. For example, in the retail sector, there is a range of sophistication, from hawkers, to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;spaza5â&#x20AC;&#x2122; shops to general dealers. Individual enterprises in the infor-

level of sophistication and size of an informal enterprise. Additionally, the bottom tier of workers in the informal retail sector were found to be negatively motivated by the possibility of unemployment, while the general dealerships workers were motivated positively by the idea of entrepreneurship.

A common term used for an informal shop trading in the South African townships and rural areas 5

Page 11 of 116

Informality in the construction sector

tion of 70.9% in 2015. Various sources quote

Economic and employment trends in the two countries

economy at 28.4%. Stats SA (2015) esti-

different statistics on the informal sector. For example, Schneider (2002) puts the informal mated the informal sector at 15.5%. These

At a glance, there are seismic differences

estimates might be a gross under-represen-

between India and South Africa. To start

tation of the actual numbers as formal em-

with, the population of India is over a billion

ployment has been declining in recent years

people, with a workforce of over 500 mil-

and an increasing number of individuals see

lion, while that of South Africa is just over

informal employment as the best alternative

35 million people in employment out of the

to a lack of employment in the formal sec-

57 million population. In recent years, India

tor. In India, the informal sector is very large,

has been noted as one of the fastest grow-

and often reported to be close to 90% (ILO

ing economies of the world, with an aver-

India Labour Market Update, 2016). This

age gross domestic product (GDP) growth

suggests that only about 10% of the labour

rate of 6.9% between 2011 and 2017 (IMF,

force is made up of those employed in the

2017). However, as the growth rate has re-

formal economy. Therefore, one country is

cently been declining this has limited impact

characterised by a large informal economy,

on solving Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s long standing problems

with under-employment, and the other by a

of unemployment, under-employment and

high unemployment rate. In both countries,

poverty. South Africa, on the other hand,

this is a significant cause of the inequalities

has long been labelled an under-performing

that characterise both societies.

economy with growth rates of less than 1%, making it one of the most under-performing economies in Africa. Even at the height of its last economic boom (2005-2008), South Africa experienced jobless growth (Stats SA, 2010, 2017). One of the results of this lacklustre economic performance is the high unemployment rate, standing at 28% in 2017, the highest in Sub-Sahara Africa, and most probably in the world6.

This scoping study specifically focuses on the construction sector due to its inclusion of both the informal and formal workers and within both formal and informal economies. Therefore, we will turn now to focus more specifically on the characteristics and trends of employment in this sector. Construction is an important economic sector in every country as it provides the stimulus for economic growth in many other sectors. For ex-

The formal sector in South Africa is relatively

ample, large-scale housing projects, roads,

large, with Statistics South Africa (Stats SA)

water and sewage infrastructure projects are

reporting a formal employment participa-

often central to the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s investments in infrastructure. The construction industry plays

Because South Africa does not consider Informality as employment, the figure of those considered unemployed is very high. 28 -30% is a reported figure by Statistics South Africa (2016). 6

Page 12 of 116

a central role in building physical infrastructure and is associated strongly with urban-

ization since the structural features of the

dominated by a large number of small firms,

modern city have been developed by the

many of which are dependent on the gov-

construction sector. This makes construction

ernment for work of various kinds. There-

one of the largest employers in both coun-

fore, economic downturns or recessions im-

tries’ labour markets. Currently, the con-

pact these small firms significantly.

struction sector contributes 5.3% of the total turnover to the South African economy, and this is down from 8.9% in periods of high

Comparing formal and informal employment

infrastructure development (Statistics South

Figure 1: Formal and Informal Sectors in

Africa, 2017).

Construction (South Africa )

Construction is also an economic sector that easily reproduces structural inequalities in the labour market. Those with a higher social status often occupy a position of skill

800 000 700 000 600 000

Informal

400 000 300 000

and influence and the lower strata occupy

200 000

largely unskilled positions in the industry.

100 000

While South Africa’s history of apartheid has

Formal

500 000

0 Apr-Jun 2011

Apr-Jun 2012

Apr-Jun 2013

resulted in inequality and racial preferences, with the black male population primarily restricted to low-skill positions and women filling occupations like cleaners and office attendants, in India these unskilled positions in the construction sector are often occupied by women.

The construction sector in South Africa In South Africa, the construction sector accounts for 1,182,000 formal employees, which amounts to about 8 percent of total employment in the labour market (Stats SA, 2014). Construction has a large informal sector, which contributes significantly to South African employment (See Figure 1) The informal sector contributes to private projects, housing renovations, community initiatives and other general, small-scale infrastructural requirements in society. The sector is

Source: CETA SSP 2012/13

Historically, the construction industry has been highly racially segregated, with whites occupying positions of skill and influence while blacks picked up the pieces in the largely unskilled areas of the industry. It has also been male-dominated, with women generally occupying positions as cleaners and office attendants (See Figure 2). Post-Apartheid, economic production in the country underwent a process of democratization and previously disadvantaged groups began to enter the highly protected industrial development sector. The CETA Sector Skills Development Plan (2013/2014) is one example of this democratization process – it was developed to correct inequality linked to race, gender, disability and to provide support to any other previously marginalized groups in the sector. In order to meet

Page 13 of 116

needs to produce enough skilled labour in

Gender Dynamics of Employment in the Sector

the Science, Engineering and Technology

Figure 2: Gender Employment Trends in Construction

(SET) area within the construction sector

(South Africa7)

the goals of the CETA Plan, South Africa

to meet its developmental objectives. The development of skilled, artisanal workers in

1000

the national sector has only just begun to in-

800

900

700

crease in recent years, after it had dropped

600

dramatically between 1985 and 2005. CETA therefore has a crucial role to play in feeding

expenditure through the development of social housing, hostels, schools and hospitals. However, the investment has moved away from new developments and has started focusing on servicing and renovating existing sites. Health sector developments have taken some priority, with government understanding that the implementation of the National Health Insurance requires major transformation within the sector. Of total construction expenditure that took place in the first quarter of 2012, according to the Databuild/Industry Insight Database, the health sector received the largest portion of 29% (or USD 210.75 million) in construction expenditure (CETA, 2013).

Men

200 100

other related skills.

continues to focus on social infrastructure

Women

400 300

into the supply of artisanal, engineering and

From a policy perspective, the government

500

Oct-Dec Oct-Dec Jan-Mar Apr-Jun Jul-Sep Oct-Dec Jan-Mar Apr-Jun 2010 2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 2013 2013

The South African construction industry has also been looking north. At the beginning of 2012, South African hotel operators reported l,208 hotels (with just over 38,000 rooms), for planned future development in other African countries, outside of South Africa. There has been a massive increase in planned work in Africa, with a 31% increase in hotels and a 21% increase in rooms. This is just one sector providing more opportunities for South African contractors looking to increase their African footprint, but other sectors such as energy, road and water services are also active (CETA, 2013). However, the construction industry remains a turbulent economic sector as illustrated by the following quote: â&#x20AC;&#x153;When there are economic hardships, demand for construction activities are put on hold, particularly in the private household sector. As such, when the economy is depressed, those working in the building subsector, particularly, including This information is also presented in the study conducted between Argentina and South Africa: Understanding barriers to accessing skills development and employment for youth in Argentina and South Africa (2015). 7

Page 14 of 116

builders, electrical contractors and materials

gun to pay off, as India jumped from 54th

suppliers, are negatively affected” (CETA,

to 35th among 160 countries ranked in the

2013:13).

World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index

Due to the project-oriented workflow in construction, the industry by default generates significant casualisation and turn-over in the labour pool, potentially contributing to the high rates of informality in the sector.

The construction sector in India The construction sector8 is a key driver of the Indian economy. The sector is predominantly responsible for propelling India’s overall economic development and receives intense focus from the Government through policies to ensure time-bound construction of world-class infrastructure in the country. The infrastructure sector includes power, bridges, dams, roads and urban infrastructure development. According to the National Sample Industry Organization (NSSO), the growth of employment in the sector has been noteworthy and is considered one of the most important industries for national development in Asia. The GoI has made a concerted investment in the country’s infrastructural development, with an announced investment of USD 33.07 billion towards infrastructure development in the 2016-2017 Union Budget (IBEF, 2017). Prior to that, India’s 11th Five-Year Plan (the period from 2008 to 2012) announced an investment of nearly USD 500 billion towards infrastructure development (Gupta, Gupta and Netzer, 2009). This investment has be“The construction sector is broadly divided into Civil Engineering or Engineering and Infrastructure construction, and Construction of Buildings or Construction and Real Estate” (Srivastava and Jha, 2016). 8

(LPI) 2016. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) received in the construction development sector (townships, housing, built up infrastructure and construction development projects) is also substantial, with FDI from April 2000 to March 2017 estimated at a cumulative US$ 24.3 billion, according to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) (India Brand Equity Foundation, 2017). Currently, the construction sector contributes to 11% of India’s GDP and is expected to hire over 80 million additional skilled workers by 2022 (www.labournet.in). The Government of India’s (hereafter GoI) 12th Five-Year Plan, published in 2011, announced plans to increase the percentage of skilled manpower in the country by 2017, to meet the growing demand: “We should aim to increase the percentage of the workforce which has received formal skills through vocational education and training from 12.0 per cent at present to 25.0 per cent by the end of the Twelfth Plan.” The GoI identified 22 sectors that represented substantial opportunity for growth over the next 10 years, and by extension the need for skilled employment – specifically 100 million new jobs by 2022 (Ernsberger, 2016). Out of these 22 sectors, the infrastructure, building and construction sector was second in terms of expected growth and demand for skilled employment. Among the various forms of informality described in this study, subsistent informality is

Page 15 of 116

distinct in its characterization as labour that

which relate directly to workers involvement

is unskilled. While India’s human resource re-

in involuntary informality. The fact that the

quirement calls for 45 million unskilled con-

construction industry is dependent on such

struction workers to be hired by 20229 (ac-

a large proportion of unskilled labour calls

cording to the sector’s 12th Five-Year Plan),

for a re-examination of policies in place to

official recognition of the informal construc-

protect and uphold the dignity of this pop-

tion labour force appears to be lacking a

ulation.

framework or system to identify and track participation of informal workers in the construction sector’s workforce (NSDC, 2015). Consequently, while extrapolations could potentially be made on the size of the informal construction labour force (from what is known i.e. the overall size of informal labour, labour force participation of the construction sector relative to other sectors, etc.), there is a significant gap in knowledge on the extent and patterns of informality within the construction sector specifically. The NSDC (KPMG, 2016) 10This figure refers to the unskilled workers requirement alone, while the larger employment requirement for construction (as per India’s 12th Five-Year Plan) was projected to be 15 percent of the entire employment sector. echoes the need for a framework to recognize and incorporate the informal construction workforce. Until such a framework is in place, efforts to identify and support the particular needs of informal labour force workers remain unrealized. Additionally, a focus on the construction sector brings into the picture certain key issues related to work conditions, recruitment patterns, migration, and cycles of exploitation This figure refers to the unskilled workers requirement alone, while the larger employment requirement for construction (as per India’s 12th Five-Year Plan) was projected to be 15 percent of the entire employment sector. 10 http://www.nsda.gov.in/skill%20gap%20report/sector%20 skill%20gap%20report/Construction_Material_Building_ Hardware.pdf 9

Page 16 of 116

According to Praveen (2013), the construction sector is particular because it offers an example of the intermingling of formal and informal relations in the economy. For example, medium to large-scale projects require legal procedures – such as tenders from the government, legal contracts and monitoring – but at the same time employ labour on a completely casual basis. In big cities, one comes across two kinds of labour recruitment: one for medium to large-scale projects through a long chain of middlemen, and another through labour “chowks,”11 which fulfil the same need for small construction sites. This intermingling is institutionalized within public works in a manner that retains the facade of formality and at the same time perpetuates informality.

The gender dimension Rahul (2014) reports that the construction sector in India absorbs a significant proportion of informal employment from female workers. Since 1971, the proportion of unskilled female workers in the construction sector is on the rise, surpassing the rate at which unskilled male workers have entered the construction sector labour force. Female construction workers are predominantly tasked with secondary labour role such as literally, “roadside squares,” where labourers gather in the morning to be hired for various projects 11

lifting and moving materials and digging

in, namely subsistence informality, is drawn

(often manually), and often characterized

primarily from the unemployed. We also dis-

by poor earning and low skill levels. Female

cuss two programs that exist in both coun-

workers are employed in both the public and

tries and are used extensively in construc-

private construction sector; although public

tion to recognize skills learned informally or

sector growth has been substantial and gen-

to engage the unemployed in some form of

erally provides more employment for female

gainful employment. As a consequence of

workers than the private sector. The public

these policies, a number of programs have

sector also has less disparity in wages in the

been implemented in an attempt to address

construction industries than the private sec-

the informal sector. As we shall see, there

tor. Nevertheless, Rahulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work shows that

has been considerable activity in both coun-

female employment has been increasing in

tries aimed at providing employment in the

both public and private sectors from 1990

informal sector, but this employment is still

to 2011.

at the subsistence levels.

Rahulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s study shows that in 1993-94, the construction sector provided employment

Skills development and the informal labour market in South Africa

to 6 per cent (5.9 million) of all employed

In the last 23 years, South Africa has expe-

women in comparison to 10.3 per cent (23.1

rienced a series of transformations and re-

million) of all employed men. Thus women

structuring activities in its entire education

constituted about 20 per cent of the total

and training system, and skills development

workforce in the construction industry. Ac-

has not been left untouched. Technical and

cording to the NSSO survey (1993-94), 4.17

Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

per cent of all female workers were engaged

has received a lot of reform attention, more

in construction activity. Among female con-

than any other sub-system in education. The

struction workers more than 98 percent

National Qualifications Framework (NQF)

are casual workers, and therefore informal,

was the first reform policy, and promised

whereas the proportion of casual workers

sweeping changes to improve vocational

among women workers in all industries to-

qualifications. The appeal of reforming the

gether is far less at about 75 per cent.

vocational sector was enormous as the NQF

Policies and practices on skills development for the unemployed In the following section, we present an outline of current policies and practice for the skill development of those who are unemployed. This is done with the understanding that the informal category we are interested

promised solutions to most of the areas that bedevilled this sub-education system, such as the portability and transferability of qualifications and overcoming of skills shortages (Young, 2006). However, some would not hesitate to say that the NQF has pre-occupied the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s minds and resources for too long and taken away from dealing the

Page 17 of 116

real problems in the skills development system, such as training in the informal sector or the weakness of the TVET system in general.

primary mission for these institutions. The result of these serial restructuring efforts in the education and training system is

The TVET colleges, as the main vehicle for

that important elements have been lost in

skills development, have also undergone nu-

the turmoil. For example, when the skills de-

merous structural and programmatic chang-

velopment portfolio was in the Department

es in the past two decades. Originally, they

of Labour, training ‘unemployed’ was a sig-

were known as Technical Colleges and were

nificant activity and was funded generous-

used primarily to support the apprenticeship

ly. However, since the Skills Development

system in which only whites were allowed to

Levy was established in 1996, 20 percent of

participate under apartheid. The technical

the funds are retained by the government

college education, which had its roots in the

with the responsibility of skills development

industrial and Apartheid economic boom of

and is supposed to be used for training

the 1950s and ‘60s, has been affected neg-

the unemployed. This fund is known as the

atively by the de-racialisation of the employ-

National Skills Fund (NSF) and numbers in

ment statutes as well as the social conditions

millions of USD. While under the Depart-

that underpinned the apprenticeship system

ment of Labour, the NSF offered training

(Kraak, 2004; McGrath, 2003; Gamble, 2003).

for the informal sector and small economy

In the period since statutory de-racialisation

entrepreneurs. When the skills development

(1981), and more recently with the rapid

function was transferred to the DHET, train-

de-racialisation of technical colleges (since

ing for the informal sector was a casualty,

1994), these social conditions have been dra-

as ‘the unemployed’ was largely translated

matically inverted as more and more young

in practice as young people who wanted to

people undertook their theoretical training

access some form of training. To this end,

without any links to industry training. The

the fund supported TVET college projects,

new government attempted to turn these

research projects considering employabili-

colleges into institutions similar to those in

ty, building projects and now most recently

the United Kingdom and renamed them Fur-

the ‘fees must fall’ project. As a result, with

ther Education and Training Colleges. The

the exception of two large government pro-

establishment of the Department of Higher

grams, namely the Extended Public Works

Education and Training (DHET) in 2009 to

Program (EPWP) and Agri-Parks, there are

take care of all post-school provision was also

no programmes or funding for training in

a significant intervention in the skills devel-

the informal sector as only programmes as-

opment area. This administration has since

sociated with the formal sector are funded.

renamed these colleges as TVET colleges

We will discuss the EPWP program later in

and prioritized artisan12 development as the

this section.

This refers to qualified trades people who have undergone off the job and on-the job regulated apprenticeship programme. 12

Page 18 of 116

Skills development and the informal labour market in India India’s Skill Development Mission from 2009 to the present (as articulated in the 11th and 12th Year Plans) has focused on improving the inclusivity of vocational training and skill development, as well as supporting the growth of decent and productive employment (IHD, 2014). The formation of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) in 2014 signified an important paradigm shift that strived to unify the skills development effort (Ernsberger, 2016). Under the establishment of the MSDE, the GoI also re-branded its definition of skills development as follows:

velopment to serve as a gateway to formal labour sector employment. The MSDE, among its various functions, oversees and supports the delivery of skills development through Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), which are the formal institutions for the delivery of training. The latest estimates put their number at 13,000, of which approximately 18 percent were government financed and over 80% were privately supported (Open Government Data Platform India, 2017)

. The National Skills

Development Corporation (NSDC), as an implementation agency of the MSDE, is a public-private partnership established to facilitate interaction between skills devel-

“Skill Development, for the pur-

opment and industry. The NSDC is currently

pose of any Government scheme,

affiliated with over 300 training partners and

is defined as any domain-specific

is predominantly supported by funding from

demand-led skill training activity

the World Bank, the National Skills Develop-

leading to employment or any out-

ment Fund and private investments14.

come oriented activity that enables a participant to acquire a skill, duly assessed and certified by an independent third party agency, and which enables him/her to get wage/ self-employment

leading

in-

creased earnings, and/or improved working conditions, such as getting formal certification for hitherto informal skills, and/or moving from informal to formal sector jobs or pursue higher education/training and shall fall in the categories as per below…” While broadly stated, evident within this definition is the priority placed on skills de-

Until 2015 and the formation of the MSDE, the task of skills development was dispersed among 20 different ministries and departments, which collectively supported different skills development initiatives. While the establishment of the MSDE and its accompanying National Policy and Common Core Standards has helped to streamline efforts, funding for skills development continues to reflect traces of complexity from the former landscape as the system continues to transition. There are numerous skills development initiatives that continue to operate through https://community.data.gov.in/industrial-training-institutes-itis-as-on-april-2016/ 14 http://www.livemint.com/Politics/1JSR787IalbtbW1almKQdP/World-Bank-plans-to-fund-skill-development-in-India. html 13

Page 19 of 116

other ministries15, the two most significant

against the high standards demanded of

here being the Ministry of Rural Develop-

the different professions of the period. RPL

ment (MoRD) and the Ministry of Housing

is stronger in areas where the trades have a

and Urban Poverty (MoHUP). The MoRDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

longer history, such as construction trades.

Rural Livelihood Mission promotes skills de-

The program is based on the assumption

velopment linked to employment among

that those in the informal sector will be able

rural youth (aged of 15 and 35) from poor

to make easier transitions to the formal sec-

households, and mandates a 75 percent

tor of the labour market should their skills be

placement rate into waged labour. Funding

recognised and they receive further training.

for the program is shared by the central and

We know, however, that these are erroneous

state government a ratio of 75:25 for a ma-

assumptions about informality. In both India

jority of the states. The National Urban Live-

and South Africa, there is very little evidence

lihoods Mission under the MoHUP focuses

to show that that those plying their skills in

on promoting skills development among

the informal sector are able and keen to ex-

poor urban youth.

ploit this policy discourse (Marock, 2006).

Skills policies and instruments for informality in construction

Public Works Programs

Despite their key contextual and policy dif-

model for a very extensive public works pro-

ferences, there are two common policy tools

gram. In South Africa it is known as the Ex-

between the countries which target infor-

tended Public Works Program (EPWP), and

mality and (specifically) the construction sec-

in India it is known as the Mahatma Gand-

tor: the Recognition of Prior Learning and

hi National Rural Guaranteed Employment

Public Works Programs.

Act16 (MGNREGA). The main objective of

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) The main vehicle for assisting those who are outside of formal TVET institutions to get their skills recognized in both countries is Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL). RPL has been the mainstay of all assessments

South Africa has borrowed from India the

the program in both countries is to enhance livelihood security by providing a guaranteed minimum number of days of waged employment in a given financial year to poor households. How this program has evolved, however, is different in each country.

conducted under national vocational edu-

In India, for example, the minimum num-

cation and training systems since the late

ber of guaranteed days is 100 and the pro-

1980s and continues to evolve as different

gramme is applied mainly in rural areas. The

VET systems evolve. The concept of RPL can

governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s objective is to facilitate the

be traced back to the guild system, when

development of infrastructural assets (i.e.

master craftsmen inspected the work of ap-

roads and water works). The program has

prentices to determine their competence

also come under harsh criticism. One comThe Program is interchangeably referred to as MGNREGS (the S stands for scheme) NREGA). 16

Appendix 1

Page 20 of 116

mon critique is that because the program is

There are various types of workers who can

dependent on the availability of infrastruc-

be found in the EPWP programmes, with the

tural development projects, which are in

Community Works and Public Social Pro-

turn dependent on local administrative pro-

grammes attracting primarily young people

cesses, public work is not always available

with at least a high school certificate. Late-

everywhere, leading to disparate outcomes.

ly, there has been more focus on providing

The Act stipulates that work must be provid-

training to workers and coordinators in skills

ed within a 5 km radius of the participating

such as computer use; first aid, and oth-

individual’s home, and compensates work-

er skills required to manage site activities.

ers on a time or piece rate basis. The guar-

Work areas requiring specific skills – such as

anteed income for MGNREGA work ranges

early childhood development – were also

between of 1.50 to 3.00 USD per day.

identified. At least 10% of participants in

In South Africa, there is no prescribed number of working wage days. The work can last a few days or a few years, as long as it is not permanent employment. Additionally, South Africa’s Public Works programme is

CWP participate in some kind of skills development but the training is intended to support their work at a particular site, it is not training for general skill in the labour market.

not confined to rural areas but is implement-

Generally, there are limited exit opportu-

ed in poor communities throughout the

nities from CWP. For example, it has been

country. It has also been extended beyond

found that in cases where technical trainers

construction and creates work opportunities

have been provided, for example in plumb-

through:

ing, a number of people will start to take on

• Increasing the labour intensity of government-funded infrastructure projects under the infrastructure sector; • Creating work opportunities through the Non-Profit Organisation Programme and Community Work Programme (CWP) under the non-state sector;

small jobs on the days they are not working in the program. In economically active areas however it seems there is a higher rate of exit to “better” jobs. The EPWP is also linked to the country’s Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF). Since the UIF is linked to formal employment, those working informally are not able to access this support funding. It has also been noted that people

• Creating work opportunities in public en-

frequently leave the CWP to go find work

vironment and culture programmes un-

elsewhere (though the highest “exit” group

der the environment and culture sector;

is the CWP Coordinators).

• Creating work opportunities in public social programmes under the social sector

Page 21 of 116

Summary In both India and South Africa, policies

system. Policies that are directed towards

for TVET primarily target the young and

them, such as the Recognition of Prior

the pre-employed. In other words, they

Learning and Public Works Programmes,

are geared toward those who are about

are tangential to their developmental

to enter the labour market, or to workers

needs at best. Both countries have experi-

already in formal employment. This policy

enced a series of transformation initiatives

orientation leaves a large group of people

in the area of skills development, and this

who toil in the informal sector without di-

is evidence of an ineffective skills develop-

rect support from their governments for

ment system in both countries. It is clear

skills development. This group is excluded

that informal workers in both countries

by default as their particular circumstances

continue to exist with very little support

are not addressed through the prevailing

in skills development from their govern-

policies. In India, there are signs of con-

ments. The Indian case is quite complex

solidation and coordination of the various

because of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s size and diversity,

skills development policies that used to

as it is difficult to come to a single con-

operate through various ministries, but it

clusion about the impact of the various

is still at an early stage. In South Africa,

initiatives happening at various levels of

the Skills Development Policy is more cen-

the system. In South Africa, the funding

tralised, but since 1996 it has moved from

that was established to support their eco-

the Department of Labour to the Depart-

nomic efforts has been directed to other

ment of Higher Education and Training,

areas completely, with the restructuring

consequently losing its historical focus on

and transformation of the education and

the informal sector.

training system in the country. A reorien-

We have also seen that in both countries, the informal sector is a group that has been left behind in the skills development

Page 22 of 116

tation of policy on skills development and funding is needed as informality provides real alternative economic spaces for many individuals and their families.

What does the informality in the construction sector look like?

In India, construction site supervisors were

The first part of this study seeks to under-

in identifying participants that they deter-

stand the characteristics of individuals who

mined as semi-skilled workers. A total of

participate in the informal construction

20 participants were identified among the

sector, specifically workers categorized as

three sites, in the three states. A common

subsistence informality, and how their skills

questionnaire, nearly identical17 to the sur-

are developed. Although this study was

vey used in South Africa, was translated into

conducted in both India and South Africa,

Malayalam, Odiya and Hindi (the respec-

it is not designed as comparative but rath-

tive state languages of Kerala, Odisha and

er intends to draw lessons to improve skills

Jharkhand), and administered verbally, while

development for the informal sector. We

field researchers recorded the responses. All

were interested here in finding out who par-

of the survey participants, as identified by

ticipates in construction informality and how

the site supervisors, were men.

they do so. In South Africa, twenty male participants were interviewed for this study. The participants were approached near two separate major hardware stores in Johannesburg, where they were â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;marketingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; their services to customers who come to the store (see the introduction to this report). Two field workers conducted the interviews, using a common questionnaire (see Annex 2). First, a group

approached in three states (Kerala, Odisha, and Jharkhand) for permission to survey workers on site, as well as their assistance

While women were present at each of the construction sites visited, men were observed to predominantly perform skilled or semi-skilled tasks. Women were observed to carry out unskilled tasks such as movement of sand, cement, bricks, etc., with some assistance from male workers. This observation of a rigid gendered division of labour is consistent with the literature on womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in construction in India (WEIGO, 2017).

of possible participants were gathered to

In addition to the 20 participants surveyed

explain the nature and purpose of this study

on construction sites in India, an opportu-

and then asked for volunteers. When volun-

nity arose to conduct a focus group discus-

teers were identified, each participant was

sion (FGD) with women who had received

interviewed separately. The field researchers

training in construction in India. Amidst the

recorded their responses. Each participant

dearth in semi-skilled female construction

was compensated with a small voucher that

workers (despite the great extent to which

could be used in a supermarket. The inter-

the sector operates informally and thereby

views were conducted over a period of 4

un-regulated), some efforts are in place to

days. Then, the responses were collated and

train women in construction. The Karmika

analysed for the purpose of describing how informality looks in the construction sector.

The questionnaire was customized to account for differences in the local context. 17

Page 23 of 116

Construction School for Women located in

ticipants surveyed as semi-skilled labourers

Jharkhand (an initiative of the Mahila Hous-

on the construction sites were also all men

ing SEWA Trust ) is one such organization

(though findings from the focus group discus-

that provides training to women in construc-

sion with female construction workers will be

tion. One of their newest training branches

included in the analysis, as outlined above).

located in Ranchi, Jharkhand trained approximately 346 women in masonry and plumbing in one year. Moderated and recorded by 2 field researchers, the FGD consisted of two trained women working as semi-skilled workers in construction, two women currently enrolled in the training program and four staff members of the training team at the Karmika School. Findings from the discussion will be included in the following analysis, where relevant.

While women comprise over half of the construction labour force in India, men often exclusively perform the skilled construction jobs (Chen, 2007). Women’s tasks are usually restricted to passing materials for construction, effectively serving as a human conveyor belt. Opportunities for upward skill development and mobility in the construction industry are rarely, if ever, extended to women (Barnabas, et al., 2009). As trends towards automation and mechanization of

There were five primary areas of investiga-

construction processes develop, unskilled

tion, namely:

jobs such as the ones female workers in con-

• Who is involved

struction industry predominantly rely upon

• Types of informality

are on the verge of depletion (Chen, 2007).

• Employment experiences • Skills development • Access to and use of ICT

Who are the people? We were interested here in finding out who

Encouraging access to TVET opportunities for women is one way to counter the deeply ingrained bias against hiring women for semi-skilled tasks in the industry and to address the threat posed by automation to an unskilled workforce

participates in construction informality. In

Age distribution

South Africa, all twenty participants were

Figure 3: Age Profile of Participants in

black males. The gender component is im-

Both Countries.

portant in that it reflects participation in this economic sector in general. The race issue is equally important as it shows that, within the

South African historical context, it is the African Blacks who are still heavily involved at the lowest levels of the labour market, namely the informal sector. In India, the 20 par-

India South Africa

0 18

http://mahilahousingtrust.org/#Skill

Page 24 of 116

20-29

30-39

40-49

50+

The figure above suggests that those who

be regarded as19 â&#x20AC;&#x153;internal migrantsâ&#x20AC;? as they

participated in this survey from the informal

came to Johannesburg from predominantly

construction sector were primarily young.

rural provinces, namely Eastern Cape, Free

However, the Indian participants are young-

State, Limpopo and Mpumalanga. by the

er than the South African counterparts,

low levels of informality by the low levels of

which perhaps suggest an earlier entry to

informality Two of these migrants indicated

the labour market. In the case of the South

that they came originally to look for jobs.

African cohort, most participants are in the

These internal migration patterns represent

30 and 39 age bracket, indicating substan-

a special type of migration as compared to

tial experience in the labour market.

the out-of-country migrants.

Place of origin

Figure 4: Place of Origin of Participants in

The survey also raised the issue of migrant

South Africa.

labourers and the barriers which restrict access to formal employment. In South Africa,

Lesotho

this refers to the significant portion of foreign nationals operating as migrant labour

South Africa

in the country, and which was visible in our

Zimbawe

interviews. In India, while foreign labour out-migration can be a factor, in the informal construction sector mobility between the states is a much more frequent occurrence.

In the case of India, the importance of migration emerged in the context of labour-

Earlier on, we established that South Africa

ers relocating from one state to another.

has the lowest informality in Sub-Saharan

The survey was implemented at 3 sites in

Africa. Even though the numbers involved

the states of Kerala, Odisha and Jharkhand.

in this study were small, the individuals sur-

At the Kerala site, 13 participants were sur-

veyed for this study align with reports of low

veyed, of which 7 reported they were native

participation by South African nationals in

to Kerala, 3 migrated from Bihar, 2 migrated

the informal sector. While the high numbers

from Tamil Nadu and 1 from West Bengal.

of Zimbabweans was initially surprising, it

The remaining participants from Odisha and

could speak to a trend of foreign nationals

Jharkhand were surveyed in their respective

migrating to South Africa in search not for

states (see Figure 6). This finding is consis-

formal jobs, but to find opportunities in the

tent with the national trend, which indicates

informal sector, as it currently has low partic-

ipation levels. Beyond the transnational migrants, all four South African nationals can

Since the onset of the new democracy, South Africa has adopted a less stringent border policy, especially for the South African Development Community citizens. SADC citizens do not need visas to enter South Africa. In addition, many other citizens from a range of countries are able to get into the country reasonably easy.

Page 25 of 116

Kerala receives more migrant labour than

tween 7 and 9 years of education (20%). It

any other state in India (Unnithan, 2016).

should be noted that the requirement for

Those that migrate from other states usual-

accessing TVET in South Africa is Grade 9

ly work in agriculture during the sowing and

and therefore this group would be consid-

harvest seasons and travel to Kerala for con-

ered literate and numerate.

struction work in the off seasons for approxFigure 7: Educational Levels of Participants in India

imately 2 to 3 months of the year.

Educational levels

Figure 5: State of Origin of Participants in India

8 6

7 2

5th to 8th Grade

10th to 12th Grade

Vocational training

4 2 0

In India, over 50 percent of those surveyed Bihar

Jharkhand

Kerala

Odisha

Tamil Nadu West Bengal

reported having completed an education at the primary level, between 5th and 8th

The educational levels are an important

grade. A majority of those that stopped ed-

characteristic when considering the academ-

ucation at the primary/basic education level

ic and technical skills of individuals working

did so due to financial reasons. Most of those

in the informal sector have as well as spec-

reporting a high school or secondary educa-

ulating about opportunities and capacity for

tion reported dropping out before comple-

future training.

tion and did not receive a diploma due to financial difficulties. The Industrial Training

Figure 6: Educational Levels of Participants in

Institute (ITI) graduates reported difficulty in

South Africa

finding a direct link to employment follow-

ing their training and subsequently found

themselves looking for work in the informal

construction sector.

8 6 4

The Focus Group Discussion organized at

the Karmika School with female participants

No Education

Grade 1-3

Grade 3-6

Grade 7-9

Grade 10-12

Skills Training

In South Africa, we can see that the bulk of the participants (60 %) have either attempted or passed upper secondary schooling, with the second largest group claiming be-

Page 26 of 116

revealed similar outcomes in education, where the four women reported discontinuing formal education by 4th, 7th, 8th and 9th grades respectively. The women shared that they didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t find anything in the training course particularly difficult, perhaps due to their prior exposure to the construction en-

vironment, but that their discontinued edu-

“The stipend was important be-

cation had some impact on non-construc-

cause at least we had some mon-

tion aspects. One woman clarified:

ey for that day. This [attending the

"Yes there were difficulties-we used to make spelling mistakes; didn’t know how to write some wordsthose kinds of things we would practice-sometimes during the training time when it rains, we take the time to practice. Writing our signature is very important-these things were difficult." In discussion with the training team at the Karmika School Construction School for Women20, an initiative of SEWA, they shared

training] is a negotiation with the family-the family sacrifices something with the lady not being there for so many hours. The stipend gives her bargaining power to come away for that. My kids also told me to go learn something and up-skill myself. ” The women’s’ statements indicate the criticality of family and community support in training women in supposedly non-traditional trades.

that while many of the women are not liter-

Acquired and used trades

ate, the greatest challenge they face in en-

In South Africa, the individuals interviewed

rolling women for training is:

possessed a range of skills in different

"Convincing them that this [a career in construction] is possible for women. Self-confidence is a common issue for women, but they are comfortable in the construction environment and as they interact more with masons, they become more confident; they are already familiar with the tools. Their confidence also increases by training them on actual projects for their community." To help incentivize the training, the Karmika School offered each trainee a daily stipend. In hindsight, one woman said, “We [Karmika School trainees] would have come for the training even if there was no stipend.” However, another shared: 20

(http://mahilahousingtrust.org/#Skill)

trades. However, it seems that the more educated the interviewee , the more diverse the skills he had acquired. In other words, those with a higher level of education were also likely to have skills in plumbing, bricklaying, painting, welding, carpentry, etc. On the other hand, the interviewees with low levels of education tended to have a narrow range of skills, and mostly confined to painting. In India, the most common trades among the participants surveyed were welder, carpenter and plumber respectively, and only about half the participants reported knowledge or experience of a second trade. Three participants reported secondary trades that fell outside the construction industry. An association was observed between the age of participants and the number of trades

Page 27 of 116

acquired, where construction workers older

sweeping jobs, sharing that their limited

in age were more likely to report a second

education and economic circumstances pre-

trade. About 80 per cent of the respondents

vented them from pursuing stable, salaried

reported that they did not have any formal

jobs.

certification of the skills they possessed. It should be noted that the higher concentration of welders and carpenters (Figure 10) reflects the stage of building construction that was in progress at the time the survey was conducted.

Types of informality The participants surveyed for this study fell into two of the typological categories identified by Fernandez et al. (2016): induced informality and subsistent informality. Those identified as belonging to induced infor-

Figure 8: Number of Participants in Trades

mality were forced into the informal labour

(South Africa)

market due to the high cost of regulations in the formal economy (Heintz, 2012; Kucera

Trades DSTV installer Carpenter

& Roncolato, 2008). In South Africa, most

Plumber

of the Zimbabweans surveyed belonged to

Glass Electrician Tiling

# of Surveyed Participants

Bricklaying Welding

this group. They had higher levels of education and claimed more skills, but it can

Plastering Rhinolite

be inferred that because they are foreign

Painting Paving 0

nationals, it was difficult for them to obtain

While all four women in the FGD identified masonry as their primary skill, only two of the women had completed the training, assessment and certification process in alignment with NSDC and the Construction Skill Development Council.

formal employment in South Africa. Further, even if they wanted to establish their own formal enterprises, regulations that govern businesses might be acting as barriers to formal employment, e.g. company registration, taxes, health regulations, stipulations for minimum wages, etc. A few of these for-

Figure 9: Number of Participants in Trades (India)

eign migrants indicated that they are trying to register their own companies. Howev-

Trades

er, those with more education and a wider

ETP Cleaner Driving

# of Surveyed Participants that Identified a Primary Trade

Wood Carving Painter Fitter Electrician

# of Surveyed Participants that Identified a Secondary Trade

Welder Polisher Plumber Mason Carpenter 0

range of skills expressed no desire to be employed by someone else. In fact, one of them had his own pickup van and indicated that he had established credit with the hardware store so that he can take up jobs for customers who do not want to be bothered

When manual labour jobs were not avail-

with buying materials. This individual fits the

able, these women reported earning mon-

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;voluntaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; category of informality.

ey through domestic housework and street

Page 28 of 116

The second group could be characterised

for paid work. Unni and Rani (2003) describe

as belonging to the subsistence informality.

the distinction between formal and informal

Fernandez et.al. (2016), have characterised

employment in India as daily wage vs. salary

this group as those with less education and

employment, but it should be noted that the

coming from places with relatively stagnant

quality of employment in the informal econ-

labour markets or low labour market de-

omy is determined by the income earned.

mand. The men from Lesotho fit this characterisation perfectly. For example, these respondents had the lowest education and are included in the group of individuals with only one trade. They earn less than the minimum legal wage; hence they could hardly afford even a place to stay. As foreign nationals, they are neither protected by the labour laws of the country, nor provided the social welfare benefits enjoyed by indigent South Africans. For example, one of the South African participants in this study lived in a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;social welfareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; house, which is a proper house given by government to the indigent population â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an option not available to non-nationals who lack basic social protections. Therefore, being a foreign national in the informal sector can further expose individuals to severe economic frailty, as foreigners do not qualify for social houses and other protections available to indigent South Africans. In congruence with the findings on informality in South Africa, the participants in India fell into two types of informality: subsistence and induced. This characterization is based on a combination of factors such as low educational attainment, low productivity (in terms of the production processes and limited technology) and the fact that employment in the informal sector was not only involuntarily, but perceived as the sole option

Discussion with the female construction workers in the FGD confirmed that their primary requirement for employment was a daily wage, with no expectation of other benefits that accompany formal sector employment (i.e. social protection, salary payment, etc.).

Employment experiences and recognition of work based skills South Africa

During the process of approaching workers and conducting interviews at the hardware store locations in Johannesburg, we were struck by how organised the men working near the hardware stores were. First, there was a tight group of people who were either related or knew each other from the home country. Nobody just comes and stands near the gate, as the group would give them a cold shoulder. This was the case with two of the South Africans we met, it was their first day on the job, and they stood separately from the other labourers. At another venue, where there were groups from Lesotho and Zimbabwe, the two groups were clearly physically separated in where they marketed themselves. One South African, who was with the Lesotho group, came from the border of Lesotho in the Free State and could have been related to the other men or known them. Secondly, it was made clear

Page 29 of 116

that the group members regard the group

“You have to look at customers

as a useful network and support system for

when they come in if they may be

the work they do. When they get large as-

interested in your skills. You cannot

signments, they have other group members

afford to be looking at a newspaper

to help them. When they need technical as-

or a phone as the customer comes

sistance in their job, members of the group

in."

are the first people to be consulted.

“You cannot stand at the gate where

We also found that the group functions as

contractors hire and you do not

a source of capital support. In other words,

know what your chances for being

they lend each other money and tools. To

hired are."

the outside observer these individuals look unorganised, pursuing individual interests, and are labelled as ‘unorganised labour’ yet there seems to be some level of group cohesion. The cohesion in the lends not only a sense of belonging, but is a source of strength for the needs of group members. They are in competition with each other for getting jobs, and yet there is still a solidarity that exists within the group. The main method for getting work described by the participants was to market themselves near a particular hardware store. This way, they can attract regular customers who come to buy materials to fix their homes. The participants also described using personal connections to find work, either through referrals by old customers (the second most frequently cited method) or to assist other members of the group when they get large jobs (third most frequently cited method) Individuals report that they do not use any media like print, Internet, radio, etc. to look for jobs. In fact, when asked, they would often dismiss other sources as not being helpful in their work.

Most of the participants reported finding work between 1 to 6 times in a month, which suggests an average of 3 jobs per month. While determining income received from these jobs would have been interesting, the questions were not asked as it was considered as an invasion of privacy. The interviews conducted in this study suggest that workers primarily transition from the formal economy to the informal. All men surveyed who moved from formal employment to informality have never moved back to formal employment. There did appear to be some flexibility among informality contexts in that the men surveyed find it easy to move from informal enterprises owned by others to working alone. Working informally for and with others seems to be a step situated in between formal employment and complete informality for most participants. Most of those interviewed indicated that they do not have a desire to go back to being employed by others in a formal or informal setting, though this position was usually adopted by those who possessed more skills rather than those with a narrow range of skills.

Page 30 of 116

India

get from construction jobs is more

In attempting to understand how workers

than what we would get in Odis-

were organized on the construction site,

ha. We came here [to Kerala] after

participants appeared hesitant in discussing

being called by our friend from our

anything that indicated their involvement in

village. First one or two from our vil-

unions (formal or informal). Union activity

lage came, and then the rest of us

is socially discouraged in India, and is per-

joined.

ceived by employers as a risk to investment and infrastructure development due to the fact that unions are often integrated and driven by political agendas. Construction projects usually purposefully distance themselves from unions and organized labour to avoid threats of political pressure. On the topic of organization, survey participants on the Odisha worksite shared, “On the worksite we are like a family – everyone takes care of one another. But there is also clear hierarchy that everyone understands and follows.”

This narrative resonated with that of the other migrant workers, where the combination of “word of mouth” and trust in existing social relationships served as the primary mode by which participants obtained jobs both within and out of state. The extent to which opportunities for construction labour are available in Kerala for out of state workers is an indication of the consistent foreign migration trends of Kerala labourers to the Gulf countries (Buckley, et al., 2016). According to the ILO (2016) report entitled “Migrant Work and Employment in the Construction Sector,” nearly half

The process through which participants ob-

of the construction workforce in the United

tain construction jobs is telling of underlying

Arab Emirates consists of workers from Ker-

social networks that help facilitate the sup-

ala.

ply and movement of labour in the unorganized21 construction sector. Surveyed participants who migrated for work described their motivations for seeking work in Kerala and information networks are also primarily social. A worker in Kerala that migrated from Odisha shared the following:

participants surveyed were originally from rural or semi-urban areas, construction work was not often the sole source of income, with agriculture fieldwork also listed. This was particularly true for the migrant workers, who reported working 6 days per week and

We now come every year for a few

sometimes 7 without a break for months at

months of the year-in between har-

a stretch, during the cultivation off seasons.

vest seasons. The money that we In India, ‘unorganised’ labour means those individuals who do not belong to a labour union, whereas in South Africa it means those people working outside of formal employment. 21

In line with the fact that a majority of the

The vast majority of participants surveyed expressed confidence that they knew where to look for jobs when necessary. Their respons-

Page 31 of 116

es primarily consisted of the labour chowks

tent or reliable. It depends on luck.

and connections with friends they worked

About 40 percent of women go

with or prior supervisors. Labour chowks

home without any job. Once they

where workers solicit construction work are

get work on a construction site-they

seemingly voluntary given that individuals

go there directly. We do have issues

who find themselves in such a circumstance

[with safety]. But don’t always re-

do not recognize or have access to an al-

port it-because we will never get a

ternate choice of employment. Participants

job.”

in Odisha and Jharkhand expanded further on labour chowks, which were utilized when contracted jobs were not available:

When questioned on how the surveyed participants identified contract construction jobs similar to the one in which they were

“We get more money through jobs

currently employed, participants shared an

at the labour chowks; sometimes

experience that was consistent with sever-

400 to 600 INR (6 to 12 USD) for the

al respondents to the broader survey. For

same work on the construction site,

example, one of the women described the

which pays at the most 350 INR (5

process by which she obtains work:

USD) per day. But the work and payment are not reliable-sometimes we go there and don’t get anything”. - Odisha Construction Worker “Even though we get less money on the construction sites, the work is consistent, usually lasts longer and more easily leads to more work opportunities.” - Jharkhand Construction Worker The FGD revealed that women in construc-

“Near our village, there was a lot of new construction happening. A sir [recruiter] came to our village one day and offered all of us jobs-whoever wanted or needed one. After we finished that job, the contractor called us for other jobs. My friends tell me about jobs also and based on that I get other work. I don’t need to go to the labour chowks because even if I don’t get work every day, I usually get called for jobs.”

tion shared a similar opinion with respect to

Other participants described walking onto

labour chowks as a source of employment,

active construction sites where their friends

adding that safety was something women

or co-villagers already worked and asking

had to consider as well:

the supervisor for work.

“While salaries are higher through the labour chowks, it is not usually preferred over jobs obtained through a contractor. Jobs through the labour “chowks” are not consis-

Page 32 of 116

Given that 80 per cent of the participants did not have any certification documenting the skills they possessed, we spoke with the construction site supervisors to ask how

they hired and determined the skill level of

edge, but the supervisors are only

their workers. One site supervisor in Odisha

interested in seeing whether and

offered the following narrative, which was

how well we can work.”

consistent with the experience shared by construction site supervisors and workers in Jharkhand and in Kerala:

Another woman trained in construction shared, “when it is not possible for us to get skilled work, we still have to do unskilled

“Whenever workers approach me

labour, but it is much less.” Despite the ir-

for a job for the first time, I give

regularity in semi-skilled work, the women

them a task to see how much well

reported that prior to undergoing training

and fast they work. Based on that,

they earned less (at approximately 3.15 USD

I assign their work. And we change

a day versus 5.50 USD as semi-skilled work-

the work based on how they prog-

ers) and work was inconsistent. One of the

ress.”

trained women working as an assistant ma-

This process not only indicated the insignificant role certification plays in the hiring process but also demonstrated the lack of recognition for skills development and training in the informal sector. Discussion with the women trained in construction confirmed the above process in hiring workers as well as the biases women face in obtaining anything beyond unskilled jobs in construction (Chen, 2007; Barnabas et al., 2009). The two women who had received training shared that despite their proof of certification, supervisors were hesitant to hire them at a skilled position: “It was only because we had a previous relationship with the supervisor that we felt confident in asserting ourselves. After a lot of insistence, the supervisor allowed us to demonstrate our abilities. We knew this supervisor from prior jobs, when we were unskilled labourers. The certificate is official proof of our knowl-

son added, “When I heard about the training, I wanted skills because I never had a chance to learn. Now, I have respect in the community, and from contractors. I am only home 1 or 2 days a month, and don’t need to go to the labour chowks anymore, since contractors call me for jobs.” With regard to gender dynamics between the semi-skilled women and others on site, the women shared, “Women come and check to see my work. After seeing me work skilled jobs, they express an interest, but are not able to make it to the training. I also told them that I had to make time for training – if you want to learn, you have to make time for training.” Field researchers observed that in the case of the Odisha construction site, while women almost exclusively performed unskilled tasks (i.e. transporting materials such as cement, sand, bricks, etc.), at least two male workers were assigned at a time, to support the women in heavy lifting. The workers on the site (men and women) compared their working dynamic to that of a family, wherein

Page 33 of 116

members have mutual respect for one another and help each other out. These observations and comments however, are not claimed to be homogenous or representative of female construction workers throughout India. As described earlier in this study, the trained women in Jharkhand shared that they experience (and in fact, have come to accept) unsafe behaviour in the workplace at times. This dynamic is potentially indicative of a power imbalance in gender relations. However, as the scope of the current study is limited, further exploration and understanding is required to confirm the extent to which trends observed among this studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s small population in terms of gender constraints, translate to the larger population.

Page 34 of 116

Skills development, desires and challenges

be able to offer a variety of services. Oth-

South Africa

such as plumber and electrician. Marketing

ers recognised that there are trades that are more in demand than those they possess,

Most of the survey participants indicated

was mentioned by a few respondents as a

that they had originally started working in

skill that would improve their ability to ac-

the formal sector, entering the workforce in

cess work. However, no respondents indi-

small construction businesses where they

cated knowledge of where and how they

were employed as labourers. They worked

would be able to access further training, and

alongside experienced master craftsmen

what it would cost. While respondents indi-

who trained them, watching and providing

cated enthusiasm for further training, they

feedback as they worked. A few worked in

were explicit that training would need to be

firms, mainly in glass manufacturing, where

free and outside of normal working hours,

they picked up some skills. Even fewer

as they needed to continue to earn a living.

worked with and for other members of the

Individuals were also not interested in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;read-

informal sector when starting their careers.

ing books,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; as they have a practical orien-

While this shows a diversity of routes to-

tation to the skills development and would

wards informality among workers, it was ev-

like to continue in this direction.

ident in the interviews that those who started working with formal building contractors possessed a higher level and a wider range of skills than those who entered the workforce with a firm that manufactures or sells construction materials or another informal situation.

The main challenge expressed by these workers was not having enough work, followed by lack of capital and then skills. Even though they wake up every day to come and look out for work near the hardware stores, there does not seem to be enough work to sustain a decent living."Some months you

Only three participants reported having un-

just cannot meet your financial commitments

dergone at least one formal training course

because you have not earned enough."

in any of the skills they used to obtain jobs. In fact, the majority of respondents, when asked about their aspirations for skills development, indicated that they felt a need for more training and it was highly desirable that they could acquire a trade certificate: "It would be good to have a certificate, so that customers can trust us more."

In addition to the quantity of available work, some individuals identified their informal regulation status as a challenge, reporting stories of being harassed by Metro police who chase them away as they stand near the gate to the hardware store. This illustrates Heintzâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (2012) discussion of regulations as a hindrance to working and earning a living.

Many individuals reported wanting to be

The South African nationals in the group

trained in other trades so that they would

were clear that they want their government

Page 35 of 116

to help with employment as well as help in

training through a government-run ITI re-

helping them to sell their skills or ‘market’

ported their training was practical.

themselves.

India

Several participants expressed a desire for further skill development as a means for

While surveyed participants in India did not

earning higher wages or becoming self-em-

have the vocabulary to categorize their em-

ployed23 (see Figure 11). While nearly every

ployment using the official terms of formal

respondent reported a desire for self-em-

or informal, all those surveyed in India de-

ployment motivated as a perception that it

scribed work experiences which indicated

was the easiest way to make money, none

that they had only considered or were fa-

of the participants had any immediate plans

miliar with the informal sector as a place of

or sense of how to pursue self-employment.

employment. As described earlier, factors such as poor educational attainment and

Figure 10: Skills Training Aspirations of Participants

low social and economic status (where near-

in India

ly all of the participants straddled the pov-

erty line and 85 percent self-identified as

either Schedule Caste or Scheduled Tribe22),

obstructed access to and awareness of em-

ployment in the formal sector.

Approximately 85 percent of the participants surveyed reported that they learned skills while on the job under a building contractor or master craftsmen. These observations align with larger population trends that report approximately 2.3 percent of India’s workforce has received formal skill training (World Bank, 2017). With the exception of one participant, all respondents reported that their training was practical and applied rather than book-based. Even two out of the three participants who had received formal Analogous to how race at a point in time served as a system of social stratification, the caste system served the same purpose in India. Presently, just as race is one of the metrics by which the nation’s population is measured in South Africa, caste similarly serves as a population indicator in India. Social welfare benefits and pro-poor services are often based on economic status (i.e. below poverty or above poverty lines) and caste category. Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe are official caste categories, which according to the Indian Planning Commission, are also regarded as the most socially disadvantaged in the country. 22

Page 36 of 116

More Practical Training

Trade Certificate

More Theoretical Training

Training is Sufficient

It was surprising to find that trade certificates were the second most prevalent aspiration reported with respect to skill development, given the minimal value awarded to certification in the hiring process. For example, a few participants shared that a trade certificate would be important in helping to start their own business. Participants from Kerala said that they aspired to work abroad and needed the certificate to formally recognize their skills. A few reported that they heard that the government now required all workers to have a certificate in order to stay employed, even in the informal sector. While over half of the respondents

shared that they wanted more training, they

cause they often work 8 to 12 hour days,

were unable to identify a specific plan for

and 6 to 7 days a week24, there is no time

skill development or demonstrate knowl-

for skill development unless it was part of

edge of resources and methods to access

the normal working day. As one participant

this training. One participant shared that

described, “The construction site doesn’t

“the way to improve skills is through work-

make it easy to learn in a formal way – out-

ing on bigger projects,” indicating the value

side of the work. If we miss one day, we lose

associated with practical training or learning

pay and we also might lose our job. So our

on the job. Many respondents volunteered

supervisors have to allow it [learning more

information on specific skills they hoped to

trades]”.

improve upon within their respective trade. For example, some carpenters said that they wanted to learn to build tables and doors, a task that was often taken on by their supervisors. Some plumbing participants said that they were interested in learning tiling.

With respect to training women in construction, the Karmika training team shared that the biggest challenge they continue to face is in securing employment in the construction sector for trained and certified women. However, given the institutionalized

Interestingly, even though a majority of the

bias against hiring and training women on

respondents reported that they worked 30

the job, training programs like the Karmi-

days per month, many said that their main

ka School appear to be the only forum for

challenge was “not enough work.” When

women to develop skills.

pressed further, respondents said that they felt there was not enough diversity in their work or opportunity to try other tasks. Several participants reported finding the time required to undergo more training a major obstacle towards skill development. A majority of the participants reported that be-

Self-employment in this usage refers to working directly for clients as an independent actor rather than being employed by or receiving wages from a third party contractor. Self-employment in the informal sector implies that the individual’s business is independent but not a formally registered enterprise. 24

Participants shared that they would prefer working without a break, so that they could then take some time off between jobs. 24

Page 37 of 116

Access and use of information and communication devices

their phones, followed by limited capability to use the technology. The technology itself

As outlined in the introduction, a primary

was not seen as being connected to the job

concern of this scoping study is how ICT

they were doing, besides potentially con-

technology could be used to address the

necting them with customers. For example,

skills gap for informal workers, particularly in

no respondent reported using the technolo-

the construction sector. A major challenge

gy for keeping records of their jobs and cus-

to the effective use of ICTs in education and

tomers. Respondents shared that sometimes

training is access to ICT tools and connec-

the calculator function on a phone might be

tivity. In particular, Paryono & Quito (2010)

used, but mostly the participants reported

indicated that the gap between urban and

relying on small books to write notes, record

rural areas is of concern as rural areas often

information and store details of their busi-

do not have sufficient ICT facilities and the

nesses. These findings from South Africa are

population also lack ownership of the devic-

in contrast with those in India, where it was

es. Therefore, the aspect of access to ICT

found that most of participants in the study

technology among the participants of the

possessed smartphones.

study was accordingly explored.

65 per cent of the 20 participants surveyed

In South Africa, all participants were in pos-

across the 3 Indian states reported that they

session of an ordinary phone, which they

own and use a smartphone (Figure 12). The

used often to send messages and take calls.

prevalence of smartphone users potentially

TV and Radio were also common to all par-

reflects the higher proportion of participants

ticipants. Few (40%) participants possessed

aged between 19 and 35, and the general

a smart phone; fewer (25%) had access to a

comfort this age demographic is known to

computer; and only one had a tablet. The

have with technology. The observed trend

limited usage of data or smartphones with

might also be reflective of the generally ob-

data may be a consequence of the fact

served increase in Internet users in India (a

that Johannesburg, South Africa (where the

28% increase from 2015 to 2016), attributed

study was conducted) has the second costli-

to rapidly declining prices in data (Kleiner

est data among its BRIC nation counterparts

Perkins, 2017). As in South Africa, the most

(ICASA, 2017). The most common use of

commonly reported use for the smartphone

social media was WhatsApp and Facebook.

was for accessing social media and network-

Social media was accessed after work as par-

ing sites such as Facebook and messaging

ticipants indicated that the nature of their

through WhatsApp, followed by making

jobs does not allow them to be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;working the

calls and reading the news. Most of the re-

phoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; during the day. They must either be

spondents felt their phone was limited in

on the lookout for customers or be working.

what it could do, mainly due to limitations

The major constraint referenced by partic-

in data and features. Those who reported

ipants was not having enough data to use

access to a computer indicated that usage

Page 38 of 116

was between 2 to 3 times per week. When asked about the possibility of learning skills through technology, all but one respondent

Figure 11: Technology Access and Use-India 14

said they would be interested in learning

through this medium. The one respondent

that did not want to learn skills using ICT as

a medium, as the individual felt the best way

to learn was by performing tasks directly.

Ordinary Phone

Smart Phone

Radio

Computer

Internet

Summary In both countries, we found that the par-

Most of the workers in this study, in both

ticipants have formed very strong social

countries, were not formally trained, but

networks with fellow workers (India) or fel-

rather received training on the job. The

low job-seekers (South Africa). They enter

respondents in South Africa who had

working spaces primarily through word-

received training indicated that they

of-mouth, where they recruit each other

had had been trained in Zimbabwe and

to jobs and opportunities. They take care

migrated to South Africa to ply these

of each other further at the working site.

skills. They all expressed a desire for

In South Africa, there does not appear

further training, though it is not clear if

to be significant transition between the

they would have the time and resources

formal and informal sectors. Those sur-

to undertake such training should it be

veyed working informally do not seem to

made available to them. In addition, all

have the ability or desire to return to the

complained of not having enough work

formal sector once they have exited. In

which suggests that even though these

India, respondents who work informally

individuals spend much of their time on

at the construction sites also seem to re-

the working sites, they do not consider

main in the informal sector. This suggests

it sufficient work or income to support

a lack of mobility and access between the

themselves and their families.

formal and informal sectors for construction workers falling under subsistence informality.

Page 39 of 116

Conclusion to Part I: A complex story of informality and skills development

that the participants were generally poor

At the beginning of this report, we intro-

considered to be in ‘induced’ informality

duced you to Reason and Kasturi Bhen, who

due to regulations restricting their ability to

work in the informal construction sector in

work in the formal sector, and who might

South Africa and India, respectively. We

have higher levels of skill or training.

asked a few questions about these two individuals and offered a few assumptions we might make about those who work in this sector.

and making a living at the poverty level in both countries. There were some exceptions in South Africa among workers who can be

At the core, informality is defined as the employment sector that is unorganised (ILO, 2015; Stats SA, 2014). Our study contradicted this position, in that we found the infor-

A strong link exists between informality and

mal sector differed in its organisation from

poverty. Most of the working poor in the

the formal sector, rather than lacking or-

world work informally, either in self-employ-

ganisation. This study found that there was

ment or as wage earners. Many of these

a strong social network among the groups

people lack basic protection and are locked

working informally, making the participants

in low productivity activities, with very few

highly dependent on each other for resourc-

opportunities for economic mobility. How-

es, skills, and even for jobs and families. This

ever, as Huitfeldt & Jütting (2009) are quick

suggests potential directions to be explored

to point out, being informally employed

for the purposes of further training, such as

does not automatically mean being poor.

‘learning circles’. The social network is often

Our small sample illustrated that poverty

the source of strength for family businesses

is not necessarily a generalisation we can

and there is no reason why it cannot be sim-

make easily, even if it is true for many. Nei-

ilarly used to support informal employment

ther can we generalise about low produc-

and business networks as well. It might also

tivity of informal participants or exclusion

be envisioned that these solidarity networks

from services and social security. In India,

may slowly evolve towards semi-formal or

the range of informality is so wide that it

formal associations and become interlocu-

would be an oversimplification to general-

tors for public authorities – for instance with

ly equate poverty with informality. However,

regard to accreditation of self-organised

among those surveyed employed by the in-

training activities for their members. While

formal construction sector, individuals pre-

India’s national policies and formal labour

dominantly cited a lack of access to higher

environment does not currently support

education resources and the need for daily

unionization, there is potential in effective-

wage as reasons for taking up informal em-

ly leveraging the strength of existing social

ployment in construction. Although there

networks to enhance a dominant informal

were some exceptions to the rule, we found

economy.

Page 40 of 116

We found areas of similarity as well as disso-

enjoy the appropriate social benefits as

nance between the Indian and South African

employment is highly regulated in South

informal economies. In South Africa, sur-

Africa, and labour unions are very active. In

veyed informal workers tend to be ‘self-em-

India, participation in unions is socially dis-

ployed’ while in India, respondents tended

couraged due to their political affiliations.

to be employed informally by others25. While

In their stead, word-of-mouth and person-

a fascination with the notion of self-employ-

al social networks were observed to be the

ment was observed among those surveyed

main mechanism by which informal workers

in India, such aspirations seemed to lack a

shared information about jobs.

concrete understanding of the processes involved in entering and sustaining self-employment.

In the interviews conducted in both countries, our data indicates that the informal construction sector is frequently composed

In India, women are primarily found to be

of ‘immigrant’ and out-of-state labourers. In

carrying out unskilled forms of labour in con-

the case of South Africa, the respondents

struction. The same can be said about wom-

are predominantly from different neighbour-

en in the South African formal construction

ing countries, with Zimbabwe representing

sites; the few women who are employed

the majority. In India, interviewees who were

there carry out menial jobs, like directing

internal migrants indicated they came from

construction trucks. In India, the study found

other Indian states to where the construc-

that the biggest challenge women continue

tion economy is booming. This demon-

to face is in accessing skilled positions on

strates the frequent transience of work in the

construction sites despite their training and

informal sector. The respondents illustrate

certification. While we advocate for women

an informal workforce that is made up large-

to be trained in supposedly non-traditional

ly of younger workers: India (under 30) and

trades to increase their capacity for better

in South Africa (under 40). The differences

income generation opportunities, a simulta-

in age between informants from South Af-

neous effort needs to take place in sensitiz-

rica and India can be explained in part by

ing and preparing the industry to effectively

the fact that in South Africa, many of the

support and sustain the inclusion of a skilled

interviewees were employed in the formal

female workforce.

sector before entering the informal sector.

In South Africa, while women may be employed in menial jobs in the sector, they It should be noted that this is at least partially attributed to the methods adopted in each case, where participants in South Africa were identified from a pool analogous to independent construction contractors, while in India the participants were identified by supervisors on existing construction sites. Therefore, while conclusions cannot be drawn based on this study, the notion of self-employment deserves further consideration as a point of comparison in informal labour relations. 25

In South Africa, respondents also frequently had an upper secondary education, whilst in India the interviewees generally entered the workforce after primary school education. What became clear from this study is the fact that the policies in place for skills development hardly touch the informal sector. The

Page 41 of 116

skills development policies in both countries

prepared to occupy interchangeable roles

are similar, evidence of a global environ-

as employees, work assistants and bosses,

ment of policy borrowing. Further, policies

and therefore would require a broader type

such as the National Qualifications Frame-

of training than the traditional training in

work, the Apprenticeship system, and Rec-

trades.

ognition of Prior Learning are not that different from those found in countries that aspire to full formal employment. In our meetings with selected policy makers in New Delhi26 , we encountered admissions that the policy discourse is not quite working as intended. For example, at the International Labour Organisation, it was indicated to us that the apprenticeship system has not taken off. In South Africa, one would get the same admission. And yet, the government continues to pour huge amounts of money into this program despite its lack of success.

Our main interest in this study was to explore the informal construction sector in the two contexts of India and South Africa, and particularly how the sector relates to skills development and accreditation processes. We found that there is a significant lack of knowledge and understanding about the informal sector, and in this case the informal construction sector, in both countries. This study, and others like it, begins to contribute to our specific knowledge of informal employment, rather than seeking to apply knowledge of the formal sector to informal-

Interviews with the informal workers also

ity. Some proposals for further research will

indicated that they want to acquire skills

be made in the General Conclusion of the

in many areas in construction, rather than

study.

specializing in one particular area of the trade, as one might gain in apprenticeship or other forms of specialised training. The informal sector in both countries seems to have moved away from a Taylorist approach in construction, where one is trained in one type of skill. Individual respondents are Meetings were held between Dr. Michel Carton, Prof. Peliwe, Prof. Rao, and Srividya and Dr. Sher Singh Verick (Verick) Deputy Director ILO, Delhi Office; Dr. Onkar Sharma, Regional Labour Commissioner at Ministry of Labour and Employment; Jayant Krishna, COO NSDC. The intention of the meetings was to share initial observations/findings from the scoping study with these key stakeholders and also to confirm our understanding of GoIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy on TVET and ICT for TVET by gaining current/real-time information. 26

Page 42 of 116

We have seen that reaching the population employed informally poses enormous challenges for the skills development system. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) could offer some promise for expanding the reach of skills development programs beyond the reach of conventional methods, and which deserves further exploration. This possibility will subsequently be explored in Part Two of the study, following a short bridging exercise.

INTERMEZZO As we have seen in Part I; Part II and Part

Informality

III, the demand for skilled construction la-

Enterprises in the informal sector are small,

bour is rising amid an industry dominated

geographically located in areas often with

by informality. The construction industry is

poor infrastructure; individuals working in

anticipated to account for nearly 15% of the

the informal sector are barely making ends

world’s GDP by 2030 (Perspectives & Oxford

meet financially and therefore not as con-

Economics, 2015). Implicit within this pro-

cerned with skills development. Their ed-

jection is the need for skilled, human capi-

ucational levels also tend to be lower than

tal. Expected growth within the Indian and

those in the formal labour markets. Informal

South African construction sectors appear to

enterprise owners most likely do not have

echo this global trajectory. India was antici-

the time or resources to access training de-

pated to become the third largest construc-

signed for formal sector employment.

tion market in the world by 2017 and South Africa’s construction sector was expected to grow by over 300% by 2030. Chances that this potential will actually be met, however, are rather discouraging. Among the various factors cited to hinder progress towards the stated forecast, is an unskilled labour force that is disproportionately large in comparison to the working age population in both

Employment trends Unemployment within South Africa is on the rise and informality in the construction sector is largely composed of pan-African migrant labourers. Informal labour in South Africa more frequently manifests as self-employment than in India, where underemployment is dominant – characteristics which

India and South Africa (Srija & Shirke, 2014).

are evident in the execution of this scoping

What follows is a brief recap of the findings

workforce in India and the fact that unskilled

from Part 1, in dialogue with the existing lit-

construction labour is an official category

erature on informality in the two countries,

within the sector’s labour hierarchy, the ex-

to set the stage for the second and final

tent to which informality exists within India’s

chapters in this scoping study. These will ex-

construction sector remains unknown due

plore the use of ICT in construction sector

to the absence of a framework to recognize

skill development among the informal pop-

and track informal construction workers.

ulation.

study. Despite the recognition of an informal

Skill development

In general, Part I of this scoping study high-

Construction workers in India and South Afri-

lighted the inherent challenges that sur-

ca to a large extent reported obtaining skills

round the integration of skills development

while on the job, emphasizing the urgent

in the informal sector, as summarized here:

need for strengthened recognition of prior learning efforts along with work-based inte-

Page 43 of 116

grated training programs in both nations.

Social networks A “word of mouth” social network of informal construction workers was identified to be the main mechanism by which individuals in both Indian and South African informality receive employment opportunities. The

the blatant gender inequity. In South Africa, hardware store fronts, such as those where participants for this study were identified, are dominated by male construction workers. Female construction workers can more commonly be found participating in South Africa’s Public Works programmes.

findings from both South Africa and India re-

Skill certification and accreditation

iterated the great extent to which individu-

Despite the presence of a national skills

als within the informal sector rely on internal

qualification framework and accreditation

solidarity to mobilize and leverage employ-

system in India, certification is rarely re-

ment opportunities.

quired nor regarded as an indication of

Technology access In line with the aforementioned, the survey on personalized technology access among informally employed construction workers in South Africa and India revealed that mobile technology use is pervasive among construction workers in India and South Africa, and predominantly used for social networking.

Gender disparities In India, informally employed women represent half of the construction workforce, and rarely, if at all, receive opportunities for vertical mobility within the workplace due to deep-rooted cultural, social and political factors. In contrast, informally employed male construction workers surveyed were found to receive opportunities for skilled labour and upward mobility with little to no pre-requisite knowledge or training. Vocational training dedicated towards ensuring women receive opportunities for skilled labour and better payment within the construction sector was accordingly found to be particularly critical in beginning to address

Page 44 of 116

one’s skill by on-site construction supervisors. The described hiring process not only indicated the insignificant role certification plays in the hiring process but also demonstrated the lack of recognition for skills development and training among employers in the informal sector. In South Africa, only qualified artisans27 are recognised in construction, and the majority of workers are considered unskilled labourers regardless of past experiences or credentials. In both India and South Africa, labour is hired at the ‘gate’ with no skill requirements. Both countries demonstrate need for an improved and inclusive skill development strategy that targets the subsistent, informal labour population. Concurrently, the growing requirement for scale and standardization of skill development has propelled practitioners and academics alike to explore the role that information and communication technology (ICT) could potentially play in engendering a more socially inclusive and industry-relevant technical vocational edu27

Cf Note 9 Part I

cation and training (TVET) system (Richard-

informal labour populations in India and

son, A., & Herd, G., 2015; Marope, et al.,

South Africa. In Part One, informally em-

2015).

ployed construction workers, the skills that

Exploration of this topic however, often takes place at a macro level without a nuanced and grounded understanding of how blended learning frameworks translate into teaching practice of specific trades such as construction, and among the informal sector â&#x20AC;&#x201C; where the need for skill development is acknowledged by skill development policy makers and experts to be the most critical.

they possess and the possibility of supporting their endeavours through skills development stood at the centre of the study. Part Two shifts attention to vocational training providers (VTPs) that integrate ICT in teaching and learning of construction trades, targeting learners within the informality of South Africa and Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction sectors, respectively.

It is against this backdrop that Part Two of the study seeks to revisit the potential of ICT for skill development, maintaining focus on the construction industry and subsistent

Page 45 of 116

PART II: Perspectives on ICT-integrated Skill Development Practices in Teaching and Learning of Construction Trades Introduction

lation through the integration of ICT into

Part Two of this study will adopt the follow-

the teaching and learning of construction

ing structure:

trades.

i. A description of the vocational training

In the process of selecting training providers

providers (VTPs) that will be referenced

to participate in Part 2 of the study, a pre-

throughout this study and their use of

liminary investigation was conducted to de-

ICT to support vocational training;

termine how ICT tools are being used in the practice of teaching and learning construc-

ii. A brief review of construction sector

tion trades by VTPs that target the subsis-

work based skill frameworks to con-

tent informal population in India and South

textualize the subsequent discussion

Africa, respectively. This initial exercise of

on entry points for ICT in teaching and

identifying training providers revealed im-

learning and blended learning;

portant themes that will be elaborated in

iii. A presentation of the associated benefits and challenges of ICT integration in teaching and learning; iv. A discussion of current and existing frameworks at the policy level to explore governmental support of ICT-integrated skill development practices and attention towards the informal subsistent population; v. Concluding thoughts on observations and lessons learned gathered through this exploratory study. Field studies were conducted in both South Africa and India to capture the experiences and lessons learned of VTPs that target learners of the subsistent informal popu-

Page 46 of 116

the following pages: i. The limited extent to which construction trades are formally taught in vocational training schools, and the scant representation of ICT-integrated teaching and learning practices where construction trades are formally offered; ii. The additional leverage ICT lends to instruction taught in low-resource settings given adequate support from stakeholders in the industry and government; iii. The significant variation in dependency and use of ICT in training according to the form of skill development delivery (formal versus non-formal);

iv. The potential for ICT-integrated prac-

criteria were considered and approached

tices to positively impact aspirations

for selection in the study.

for learning skills and dignity in labour

VTP selection criteria

among a population characterized by

i. VTPs that target learners of subsistence

non-voluntary informal labour;

informal worker profile (low education,

v. Finally, in response to the aforemen-

socio-economically disadvantaged, ob-

tioned themes, the critical needs for a

structed from entry into formal employ-

knowledge network on the use of ICT

ment, etc.);

by training providers to share lessons

ii. VTPs that provide technical and/or life

learned and develop best practices.

skills training for construction trades;

Vocational training provider profile

iii. VTPs that demonstrate ICT use in teaching and learning for construction

The objective of this exploratory study was

trades.

to investigate the practices of VTPs in India and South Africa that integrate ICT for

Initial phone interviews were held with VTPs

teaching and learning trades within the con-

to confirm that they met the aforemen-

struction sector. An initial list of VTPs was

tioned criteria and obtain their verbal agree-

compiled (using secondary resources, name-

ment to voluntarily participate in the study

ly prior literature and Internet searches) to

(See Appendix 2 for the Interview Guide).

identify organizations that reported use of

The following report is based upon find-

blended teaching and learning (see Appen-

ings gathered through in-depth interviews

dix 1). A subsequent selection of VTPs was

with teachers, students and observations

made to hone in on the target population

of training in session at 4 VTPs in India and

for this study. VTPs that met the following

South Africa, respectively (Table 1).

Table 1: Part II-field Study Participants

Training Provider

Manager

Teachers/ Instructors

Students

Site Visit/ Observation

L&T CSTI

2 days

AMMACHI Labs

Skill Pro

Phone Interview

Institute for Quality

Phone Interview

Collegiate- IQETD

Page 47 of 116

This initial section presents profiles on the

is that interviews were conducted by tele-

VTPs included within this scoping study and

phone and lasted approximately 45 min-

their use of ICT to enhance curriculum and

utes. In contrast, site visits and interviews

programming. Sections that follow will en-

with instructors and administrators at L&T

gage with the possibilities and limitations

CSTI were conducted over the course of 2

offered by ICT use in the context of each

days over a period of 12 hours. This pres-

VTP. In-depth, semi-structured interviews

ents a limitation on the comparative study

were conducted with managers, instructors,

as there is significantly less detail present-

facilitators and students of the selected

ed on SkillPro and IQETD. The information

VTPs. Site visits were also carried out where

presented in the subsequent sections was

possible. Evidence from SkillPro and IQETD

gathered during site visits and interviews

in the following study is less frequent than

conducted with representatives (detailed in

the other VTPs included in this study. The

Table 1) at the respective VTPs.

main reason for this, as indicated in Table 1,

Page 48 of 116

India

Larson & Tubro Construction Skills Training Institute (L&T CSTI) Kanchipuram Larson & Tubro (L&T), one of India’s largest construction companies, launched the Construction Skills Training Institute (CSTI) in 1997 (now in 8 locations throughout India) to address the company’s requirement for skilled labour. “We saw an immense lack of skilled labour in the industry. Today skilled labour is not available in the market. We are changing the culture [of the industry] and taking on the training,” said the Manager of Training and Hiring at the CSTI Kanchipuram site, where the field exploration was conducted.

Courses offered

and willingness to learn a construction trade.

Teaching and learning practices The CSTI training curricula is structured and certified by the Construction Skill Development Council (CSDC) and National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), and accordingly based upon the prescribed National Occupational Standards (NOS) set for each trade. Course instruction follows a 20:80 (Theory to Practical) ratio. At CSTI, every course begins with approximately 12 days of full-time live-classroom sessions, which are designed to orient students on the trade they’re learning. Preliminary sessions focus on theoretical content encompassing fundamental trade vocabulary, basic math requirements, etc. Safety practices are also heavily emphasized through animated

CSTI Kanchipuram currently offers courses

videos displayed on a projector, operated

in the following trades (at NSQF levels be-

by the instructor. Following the introductory

tween 1 and 3): Formwork Carpentry, Bar

period, the focus of the classroom sessions

Bending, Steel Fixing, Masonry (Brick and

shifts to preparing students for practical,

Block Work), Plumbing and Sanitary, Electri-

hands-on skills development.

cal, Welding, and Concrete Laboratory and Field Testing.

Students are required to practice each skill competency 5 times before they are con-

Free training and food and accommodation

sidered proficient in a particular task. Mid-

are made possible through a combination of

term progress and final reports track stu-

the parent company’s CSR funds and gov-

dent progress and are sent to the student’s

ernment funding through initiatives such as

homes. External evaluators from the accred-

the GOI’s PMKVY program, which reimburs-

itation board (CDSC and NSDC) conduct

es training costs for every student, trained

the final assessment and certification pro-

and certified. A general aptitude exam is

cess. Following course completion, train-

administered to all students, regardless of

ees are fast-tracked to work on an L&T con-

their prior education qualification, to assess

struction site. Jobs at L&T are guaranteed

the student’s numerical skills, spatial and

for students who pass the training courses

shape recognition, and time calculations.

satisfactorily.

Admission is heavily weighted by interest

Page 49 of 116

Student body

career in construction let alone further ed-

At CSTI Kanchipuram, the average age of

ucation or formalized vocational training,

students is between 20 and 25 years old,

outreach videos are used to raise awareness

with approximately 60 to 70 percent of the

on the benefits of formal vocational training

student population originating from rural

in construction, and specifically encourage a

areas with a 5th to 8th grade level of edu-

career in the formal sector at L&T.

cation. Approximately 30 percent are graduates of Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), and approximately 75 percent of the student population are of below poverty line (BPL) status. CSTI Kanchipuram trains and graduates approximately 1,200 to 1,300 students per year with a 95 per cent placement rate in L&T construction sites. While enrolment varies seasonally according to climactic conditions, (as a large percentage of the students are from rural, agrarian areas), batch sizes can fluctuate between 100 to 500 students, a 1:20 or 1:30 teacher to student ratio is maintained. While female students are currently not admitted to the CSTI, interviews with members of senior management indicated plans to address the question of gender and access in the near future. The absence of gender sensitive working conditions throughout the industry, and processes to safeguard women workers on-site, as reported by administrators at CSTI Kanchipuram as well as site supervisors in the first part of study, were cited as some of the main reasons why CSTI did not, at present, accept female trainees. CSTI students are recruited throughout India via outreach programs held in rural communities and placement events at ITIs. As L&T CSTI expands out into rural communities that may have never considered a

Page 50 of 116

Nature of ICT integration and blending learning CSTI Kanchipuram began integrating ICT into its teaching and learning processes in 2012, by replacing live or ad-hoc teaching instruction with e-content-led classroom instruction through a customized learning management system (LMS). More recently, simulator technology was also introduced into the training regimen for the welding and bar bending trades, to augment the teaching of practical skills development. In line with the organization’s mission stated above, L&T CSTI’s main motivation to integrate ICT into its teaching process was to standardize and raise the quality of the training, while also addressing the company’s demand for skilled labour.

E-learning and learning management system for teaching and learning The primary function of the CSTI’s LMS, developed by L&T’s Curriculum Development Centre, is to facilitate the preparation or introduction session to practical skills development in the classroom. After receiving the LMS based lecture in the classroom delivered by the course instructor, students head out to the “yard” (termed to by the CSTI) or practical training ground, for hands-on skill development practice.

The CSTI LMS is designed to guide the

iii. Productivity and quality standards are

instructor in the dissemination of content

instilled early on, as the LMS informs

through a projector delivery format, effec-

students (through the video and on-

tively standardizing the content and teach-

line assessments) on how their practical

ing experience. Even though these sessions

skills will be assessed in terms of quali-

take place in a classroom environment, the

ty, consistency, accuracy and speed.

e-content and LMS are considered part of practical portion of the course, since the purpose of the LMS is to prepare students for practical training. The training team’s feedback on the ICT tool and e-content, confirms the technology’s effectiveness in bridging the gap and inconsistences in content delivery that would often otherwise emerge between the live classroom session and practical session. Given that a majority of demonstrators developed their skills informally or experientially, it appears that the usage of ICT in teaching not only links theory to practical, but fuses any gaps that might persist between informal and formal practices. A demonstration of the CSTI’s LMS yielded the following observations of the ICT tool: i. The LMS is currently available in multiple languages: English, Tamil, Odiya and Hindi to cater to its multi-lingual teacher and student population.

iv. The instructional videos can be played by the instructor step-by-step or as a whole process. The videos can be shown repeatedly as required or requested by the student. v. Each module contains an online test before conducting the hands-on session, and is delivered through a class discussion format. vi. Access to the LMS and e-content is highly restricted. Students do not have direct access to the technology or e-content, as yet. The instructor displays the course to the student as and when requested. Each e-learning module, which corresponds to a practical skill competency, is completed in one day’s session, directly followed by the respective practical, hands-on session in the “yard” or practical training space. While instructors reported that decisions regarding the development and implementation of

ii. Enables standardized end-to-end in-

ICT are first carried out centrally by the L&T

struction as the entire lesson plan is

Curriculum Development Centre, instruc-

provided through the LMS. The LMS

tors at the CSTI are able to control the fre-

guides the instructor to follow a struc-

quency of integration or the number times

tured and ordered lesson plan that en-

e-content is used, based on the student’s

compasses video demonstrations, dis-

performance in the practical session. As the

cussion questions, quizzes, etc.

following instructor explains:

Page 51 of 116

“Usually students don’t get it right the first time, so we show the e-learning content again and again, in between the practical sessions. Since every student must successfully perform a practical task 3 out of 5 times in a row, usually the same lesson is repeated through the week – the students usually ask to see the lesson again. Instructors determine the number of times the e-content is utilized, after the first lesson.”

Simulators for teaching and learning More recently, in the last 2 years, L&T CSTI implemented simulator and haptic technology to augment the teaching of Welding and Bar-Bending practical skill development. The motivation to incorporate simulator technology in the teaching and learning of these trades was driven by the requirement to accelerate the rate of teaching and learning, and reduce the wastage of raw material, ultimately contributing to reductions in the cost of training. Through the simulators, students receive visual and haptic (a sense of touch and force) feedback akin to the real-world experience in performing practical procedures. Following the e-learning session, students practice tasks on the welding or bar-bending simulators, are accordingly evaluated and then proceed to practice with actual tools and materials.

Page 52 of 116

AMMACHI Labs AMMACHI

Labs28

develops

vocational

e-content and delivers computerized vocational education to illiterate and digitally illiterate29 learners in remote and rural populations throughout India. Established in 2009, AMMACHI Labs has focused on leveraging skill development for women’s empowerment, leading to training over 6,000 women in various trades from tailoring to plumbing and rural toilet building throughout India30. A concerted effort is made to target women learners in rural communities who have not had the chance to complete their formal education, but present the need and aspiration for skills development. The Director of AMMACHI Labs described their motivation to focus on rural and subsistent informal populations as follows: “The one critical way to survive a changing environment is to make sure you have the skills to survive the changing environment. So we either need to continuously update our skills or acquire new skills to survive.” AMMACHI Labs’ ICT tools evolved and continue to develop through an iterative process. Over a two-year period starting in 2009 (Appendix 5), AMMACHI Labs conIt should be noted that the authors are affiliated with and employed by AMMACHI Labs, which significantly affected aspects of access to interviewees and other material and may bias the findings laid out below. 29 American Library Association’s digital-literacy task force (2016) defines Digital Literacy as “the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information defines digital Literacy requiring both cognitive and technical skills." 30 https://unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=PP_Ammachi 28

ducted trials in rural areas throughout In-

independency, the cVET tool and courses

dia (training women of low socioeconomic

are available in most major Indian languag-

status and varied education backgrounds,

es (Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, Telu-

from illiterate to primary or basic education

gu, Odiya, Guajarati, Marathi and Bengali).

achievement) to assess a variety of factors

Starting in 2015, AMMACHI Labs created

pertaining to the usability and efficacy of

and delivered a cVET course in rural toilet

computerized vocational education and

building that trained women in rural villages

training (or cVET) in teaching and learning31.

in the requisite masonry and plumbing skills

A training model emerged that combined a

to build and maintain their own toilets. The

blend of ICT based lessons (cVET), hands-

programme was designed to simultaneously

on practical activity and life-skills sessions.

address the issue of open defecation in In-

The trial period (2009 – 2011) confirmed that women living in poverty face a series of social deprivations (i.e. lack of access to

dia and to provide women with an opportunity to receive training in construction trade skills.

resources, social mobility, confidence, etc.)

AMMACHI Labs’ cVET tool is composed

that go beyond the issue of skill develop-

of four major components instructionally

ment, hindering their ability to effectively

designed to stand alone as a student-led

transform learned skills into a livelihood or

learning experience (see Diagram 1): Video

income generating activity (Kabeer et al,

classrooms (a combination of lecture, live

2013). Life enrichment education (LEE) was

and animated videos), Interactive exercises

accordingly developed and integrated into

and immersive learning scenarios, Virtual

the AMMACHI Labs’ cVET approach, to ad-

skill development workshops that simulate

dress dimensions of personal and social em-

practical hands on learning through haptic

powerment: confidence, self-esteem, inter-

and simulation technology, and lastly, an

and intrapersonal development.

assessment component where the learner

The need to update, create and instruc-

self-evaluates their own progress.

tionally design relevant content evolved or-

AMMACHI Labs designed custom haptic

ganically. In collaboration with industry cer-

devices and software tools to simulate the

tified and pedagogic experts, AMMACHI

use of the vocational tools. The simulators

Labs has developed 15 different courses for

provide audio, visual and haptic cues that

mobile learning, as well as engineered an

can help the novice master the use of the

end-to-end vocational training model that

tools in the absence of a human trainer.

encompasses an online e-Learning portal,

While traditional methods lack accuracy,

simulator technology, and mobile delivery

cause wastage of materials and present safe-

systems. To address India’s diverse lan-

ty hazards, AMMACHI Labs’ haptic solutions

guage requirement and achieve language

have demonstrated increases in productivity

See Appendix 3 for more details on AMMACHI Labs’ trial period 31

and provide trainees with innumerable op-

Page 53 of 116

portunities to perfect their skill in a safe and

lack of training/education, responsibilities at

controlled way.

home, and the distance to travel or trans-

To reach remote populations and commu-

portation.

nities, AMMACHI Labs developed and de-

The cVET tool was deployed using desktop

ployed mobile classrooms using vans, called

and laptop computer systems. A majority of

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mobile Vocational Educationâ&#x20AC;? (MoVE), in

the students were apprehensive about using

response to the challenges experienced in

the computer for the first time. A group com-

reaching remote regions of India especial-

puter tutorial session introduced students to

ly where reliable electricity, infrastructure,

the basic and necessary computer functions.

transportation and travel facilities were inad-

The group setting also helped dissipate ini-

equate. MoVE is equipped with solar-pow-

tial fears students felt in using the technol-

ered laptops and tablet computers that are

ogy. While students were able to navigate

installed with the cVET training modules and

through the cVET tool independently by the

connected to a broadband Internet system.

second day of the course, students were en-

The MoVEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mobility and capacity to operate

couraged to learn in pairs to facilitate peer

off of the power grid, allows for the deploy-

learning.

ment of multiple courses in multiple centres.

The MES model recommended a theory to

Nature of ICT integration and blending learning

practical ratio of 30:70. Students according-

MES Assistant Plumbing Course

cVET, in-class activities (such as role plays),

The MES Assistant Plumbing course, imple-

group discussions with resource experts and

mented during the pilot phase at Amrita

facilitators, site visits, and practical (hands-

University, provided AMMACHI Labs with

on) learning. LEE sessions were integrated

an understanding of how and when to use

into the course on various topics such as

ICT in a relatively controlled environment in

professional development, communication

terms of infrastructural and human resource

skills, recognizing and dealing with work

inputs.

place harassment, etc. The AMMACHI Labs

The student cohort consisted of 7 women with education levels between the 9th and the 11th grade. Six out seven of the students were first time computer users. Students cited desires to increase income and financial

ly received a combination of theory through

training team worked closely with the e-content and ICT development teams to report feedback on the training content and usability experience, which were accordingly incorporated into the cVET tool.

independence as their main motivations for

The AMMACHI Labs training team took on

attending the course. The most common

the role of course facilitator, and set the

challenges that prevented the women from

agenda for each day. A member of the train-

pursuing skill development opportunities

ing team shared her observations of the

prior to this experience were: a perceived

classroom experience:

Page 54 of 116

“Each day would typically start with the

could possibly address the issue of open

cVET session, which lasted approximately

defecation and access to sanitation in rural

a half hour to hour, with intermittent facili-

India. The Women Empowerment: Sanita-

tator-led discussion and reflection between

tion (WE: Sanitation) project proposed that

the students. Training through the comput-

skilling women in masonry and basic plumb-

er allowed students to self-start, without

ing to build and maintain their own toilets

having to wait for the teacher or other stu-

could address the issue of inadequate san-

dents to arrive. If a student finished the les-

itation. cVET-LEE as a means towards end-

son before others, she would spend time in

ing open defecation was initially piloted in

reviewing older lessons. The computerized

the village of Bhoi Sahi, Odisha. 20 women

course provided for this flexibility. Practical

were trained to build toilets for their house-

hands-on sessions typically followed the

holds and demonstrated improvements in

cVET classroom.”

their daily sanitation and hygiene practices

In addition to the chapter quizzes integrated into the cVET tool, periodical assessments (theory and practical) were also incorporated into the course. These exams were

over a 3-month period. Following the successful completion of the pilot study in Bhoi Sahi, WE: Sanitation expanded to 21 states throughout India.

developed, administered and evaluated by

Over 200 women were trained to build toi-

the resource expert and an external review-

lets throughout rural India in a period of one

er from the local Industrial Training Centre

year. A student’s enrolment in the training

(government vocational training school).

course was usually contingent upon her

Students were also monitored and evaluat-

family’s approval. As the family caretaker,

ed on: participation in discussion and prac-

trainees were still expected to carry out

tical sessions, attitude, attendance, effort,

their household and field duties. Generally,

teamwork,

orderliness,

women were able to dedicate an average

problem solving and communication. After

of 3 to 4 hours per day to the course, which

successfully completing the 300 hour long

allowed them to continue their personal and

course (spread over a period of 6 months),

household duties.

professionalism,

external assessment and apprenticeship period, the trained cohort transitioned into full-time employment and continues to work in the construction industry, as independent plumbing contractors.

Course enrolment was prioritized by a student’s desire for a toilet and her willingness to learn and work with other women in the community to build toilets. Educational qualifications (or lack thereof) were not con-

Rural Toilet Building

sidered in the selection criteria, and accord-

Following completion of the WE: Project

ingly ranged from students with no formal

in 2014, AMMACHI Labs began to explore

educational experience to a low-primary

whether the cVET-LEE training approach

level of education attainment, at best.

Page 55 of 116

The cVET tool encapsulated the end-to-end

ery (starting with the practical instead of the

process of building a toilet, through a blend

classroom session) helped retain students’

of video demonstrations, 2-D and 3-D mul-

interest and engagement in the course.

timedia representations, etc.), once again

While the cVET tool was available through

designed to cater to illiterate and digitally

tablets (on and offline modes), conducting

illiterate learners. The integrated LEE curric-

projector style-group sessions were found

ulum offered a platform for raising aware-

to be practical in situations where time was

ness and discussion on sanitation, hygiene,

a critical constraint.

and female health concerns associated with open defecation.

“Determining the appropriate blend

As the pilot phase revealed that students

the day-to-day operations, and flex-

unfamiliar with formal learning environ-

ible with our training approach,”

ments preferred learning in groups, peer learning was facilitated to help mitigate the learning curve for learners that lacked basic education such as numeric literacy. Students with some numerical literacy helped others with no literacy, which helped with student confidence and community bonding. Collaborative learning took place through group tasks, problem solving and discussion-based activities in the practical skill development and life skill discussion sessions. With the objective to bring construction trade skill development training to settings that fundamentally lacked basic sanitation infrastructure, let alone dependable electricity, the WE: Sanitation Project provided AMMACHI Labs with new lessons on how and when to use ICT (with reference to Majumdar’s 2009 Stages of ICT Integration), in settings characterized by varying degrees of resource support, among student groups that were far more removed from formal education. For example, in some scenarios, the AMMACHI Labs field team found that flipping the typical approach to cVET deliv-

Page 56 of 116

required our team to be vigilant of

shared a member of AMMACHI Labs’ training team.

SkillPro SkillPro is a formal VTP that targets lower socioeconomic segments of the population in rural and urban areas across India. In addition to training in construction trades, SkillPro provides courses across a wide range of sectors from health care, hospitality and automotive repair to agriculture, information technology and information technology enabled services, and telecom. The Manager of Technology and Education shared in a phone interview: “We are trying to figure where we might not have the best teachers-and based on that, explore augmenting teaching with ICT. The blend of virtual learning and live class sessions has been something we’ve been experimenting with for approximately 4 years, when we first implemented our learning management system (LMS). We select-

ed 4 courses to focus on to develop

ic and found that 85 per cent of stu-

ICT-blended strategies: electrical,

dents (representing tribal and rural

hospitality, IT and IT enabled ser-

areas from Kerala, Hyderabad, etc.)

vices. "

are smart phone users. They [stu-

The individual also emphasized that use of technology has been an on-going experiment to find the best use of technology infrastructure, in a balance between the comfort of the trainers and the added value of technology in the classroom. Some potentially valuable materials, such as SMART boards, were found to be less effective than basic materials utilised effectively by an in-person trainer. The organisation is also beginning to exper-

dents] are more comfortable with smartphone and mobile technologies like smart phones and tablets, than computers. The app will not replace the current approach. The same LMS for the classroom will be extended to the app. But we think that this could help balance out the various IQ levels of the students in one classroom. The app will be used to refer to material later, for internal and external assessments.â&#x20AC;?

iment with other forms of ICT that focus on students outside the classroom setting, such as mobile technology: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We are now experimenting with extending our LMS content to a mobile map. We have been piloting this for the last 9 months. We conducted a survey of our student demograph-

Page 57 of 116

South Africa

Institute for Quality Collegiate (IQETD)

courses, namely carpentry and plumbing. The training courses offered are certified by a Sector Education and Training Author-

This VTP began integrating ICT into all as-

ity (SETA) and available multiples times per

pects of the training process (with the ex-

year. This VTP caters to unemployed youth

ception of assessment) in 2013. This institute

in urban Johannesburg with a high school

specialises in domestic construction trade

level of education, as reflected in the demographics of the student population.

Summary This section presented profiles of the VTPs

became apparent that the extent to which

included within this scoping study-a total

construction trades are formally taught

of three VTPs in India and one in South Af-

in vocational training schools is limited,

rica, that integrate ICT into teaching and

as well as the limited evidence of ICT-in-

learning of construction trades through

tegrated teaching and learning practices

programs which target the subsistent in-

where construction trades were formally

formal population. The selected train-

offered32. In South Africa, formal training

ing providers represent a combination of

in construction is generally restricted to

formal and non-formal training environ-

Technical High Schools and TVET Col-

ments, a distinction that the study found

leges. With this overview of VTPs that par-

to have bearing on the nature and extent

ticipated in the exploratory scoping study,

and to which ICT is integrated, but is gen-

we next turn to a brief review of the skills

erally unexplored in literature (Appen-

required by the accreditation frameworks

dices 1 and 2). The process of selecting

that have to a great extent determined the

training providers to participate in the

curriculum taught and the nature of ICT in-

study revealed important themes that will

tegration in teaching and learning.

be expanded upon in the following sections. For instance, in India it immediately

Page 58 of 116

See Appendix 3 for a list of training providers identified in India that claim to teach construction trades and integrate ICT in teaching and learning. 32

Construction skills and entry for blended learning

The following example (Figure 12) of an occupational profile outlined by the Europe-

The subject of occupational standards and

an Union34 illustrates that construction skills

learning outcomes is beyond the scope of

profiles are generally composed of generic

the current work. Therefore, these frame-

hard skills, specific hard skills and soft skills.

works are only briefly mentioned here to

This tripartite framework in turn reflects how

introduce the multiple skill requirements in-

skills required of vocational training pro-

volved in construction trade training. Occu-

grams are classified – as “knowledge, atti-

pational standards prescribed by the various

tude, and skills,”35 or as “cognitive, techni-

accreditation bodies, such as Construction

cal and behavioural.”36

Sector Education and Training Authority (CSETA) in South Africa and the Construction Skill Development Council (CSDC) in India, determine the skills taught per trade as well as the standards that VTPs are expected to supply the industry with formally skilled workers33.

The VTPs explored in this study illustrate the use of ICT in teaching all three components listed in the figure above through e-content tools such as learning management systems (LMS) and simulation technology. The following testimonial shared by AMMA-

Figure 12: Occupational Skill profile

Civil engineering and construction Sector Generic hard skills: Basic competencies in science and technology Specific hard skills: Orientation in technical documentation; Appraisal and control of quality of raw materials, semiproducts and products; Technical drawing; Waste disposal; Handling of machine for metal processing; Control meaPlumber

surements in operational and manufacturing processes; Maintenance of buildings; Elaborating of project documents; installation, operation, maintenance and optimizing of energy equipment; Mounting, Compounding and installation of piping. Soft skills: Co-operation with others; Communication; Achievement orientation, efficiency; Concern for order, quality and accuracy; Problem solving; Autonomy: Analytical thinking.

Source: European Union, 2011, page 11 (copyright: 'Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.')

While both South Africa and India have their own occupational standard frameworks, which are drafted in collaboration with construction industry council bodies, the European Union’s framework is intentionally presented here to provide a neutral international framework that is applicable to South Africa and India. 34

Federal funding for skill development is often contingent upon satisfaction of these formal national occupational standards. VTPs that structure training programs to satisfy these requirements are recognized as formal training providers. Refer to Appendix 2 33

35 36

Yasak & Alias, 2014 Mounier, 2001

Page 59 of 116

CHI Labs illustrates the influence accredi-

ogy.38 “With technology” refers to learning

tation frameworks have had on curriculum

activities enhanced by technology with the

design in their program:

intention of enriching the teaching-learning

“The MES [Modular Employable Skills37] Assistant Plumbing model recommended a theory to practical ratio of 30:70. Students accordingly received a combination of theory

objectives, while “teaching through technology” refers to technology-based system by which curriculum is delivered. This study restricts its focus to applications of teaching with technology.

through cVET, in-class activities (such

Shyamal Majumdar (2008) suggests that

as role plays), group discussions

practically, skill-training providers imple-

with resource experts and facilita-

ment a range of blends of ICT and live-class-

tors, site visits, and practical (hands-

room based lessons. The blend is based on

on) learning. Life skill sessions were

various factors such as the trainer and learn-

integrated into the course on vari-

er’s comfort with and access to technology,

ous topics such as professional de-

availability of resources, infrastructural in-

velopment, communication skills,

puts, etc. Majumdar (2008) offers a schema

recognizing and dealing with work-

to help map an institution’s stage of ICT de-

place harassment, etc.”

velopment and usage (Figure 13). The stag-

Definitions of ICT and blended learning Before delving deeper into the discussion on ICT integrated skills development, we take a moment to review the term “ICT” within the

es consist of: a. Emerging and Becoming Aware of ICT; b. Applying and Learning How to Use ICT; c. Infusing and Learning How and When to Use ICT; and d. Transforming and Specializing in the Use of ICT.

context of this study. Technology, in its vari-

The VTPs included in this review suggest

ous forms, can be used to deliver curriculum

that the use of ICT takes place on a continu-

to learners either ‘with’ or ‘through’ technol-

um, as opposed to in defined stages, reflect-

Figure 13: Modified Framework (Majumdar, 2008): Stages of ICT use and Pedagogic Application Learning how to

Knowing when & how

Aware of ICT

use ICT

10 use ICT

Specializing in ICT use

Emerging

Applying

Infusing

Transforming

Supporting work

Enhancing traditional

Facilitating Learning

Innovative Learning

perfomance

teaching

Modular Employable Skills were demand driven, shortterm courses prescribed by the Directorate General of Training, Government of India until 2012.

1, 3

Envisonmants

Page 60 of 116

Chienen, 2003

ing the needs of the learner and resources

be practical in situations where time

available. According to the British Council’s

was a critical constraint or the sub-

(2016) “Overview of Blended Learning in

ject material was difficult to grasp,

the UK and India,” blended learning models

and required extra explanation. We

are a function of the association between a

are able to experiment with differ-

provider and trainee’s comfort with and ac-

ent ways of displaying the material.

cess to technology (see Figure 14 ).

Determining the appropriate com-

Testimonials shared by the VTPs in India illustrate how the process in identifying the appropriate learning blend to suit the

bination requires our field team to be aware of the learner’s needs and flexible with the training approach.”

learning context, yielded variations in the delivery model between face-to-face, rotation and self-blended modes. In this study, methods of technology integrated teaching and learning was found to range from projector-assisted lecture delivery, to hand-held technologies such as mobile, tablets and laptops that reduce dependency on live resource experts, to simulator technology to enhance practical skill development. AMMACHI Labs Training Coordinator: “While our courses are usually delivered through tablets (on and offline modes), conducting projector style-group sessions were found to Figure 14: Blended Learning Schema (British Council, 2016) Trainee segment Online driver

Advanced learner

Labs, self-blend

Rotation

Flex

Face-to-face Early learner

driver

Trainer driven

Usage

Trainer enabled

Trainer Independent

Ernsberger, L., 2016

Page 61 of 116

SkillPro Manager: “We’ve been cautious of the fact that ICT requires infrastructure. We didn’t have much success with the SMART board40. It was not found to be logistically comfortable or convenient for trainers, and ultimately

to standardize instruction between our various resource experts as well as respond to the need for faster teaching and learning to meet the demand for skilled labour within the company.”

not effective. It is about giving tools

AMMACHI Labs and SkillPro both work in

that the trainers are comfortable

circumstances where resources (human and

with. What have been more effec-

material) are limited. As a result, the VTPs

tive – a projector, an LMS system,

were found to rely more heavily upon e-con-

e-content, digital library, and live

tent tools to serve as the “subject matter ex-

trainer.”

pert” and individuals not necessarily skilled

L&T CSTI instructor with over 15 years of experience: “Previously (in construction training in general) there used to be one teacher for both theory and practical sessions. I used to do both. As the number of students increased, the training duties separated and distributed among instructors specialized for training in theory and practical. So, another level of trainers was introduced called “demonstrators.” Once demonstrators were introduced, they started to handle the practical. Since demonstrators are people with practical work experience, and do not necessarily have teaching experience, the

welding and bar-bending simulators

in any one particular trade to facilitate the learning. AMMACHI Labs’ training coordinators described the role of the facilitator in low resource settings as follows: “The trial period [2009-2011] confirmed the necessary human resource requirements to implement the cVET approach: the presence of a facilitator (ideally a member of the trainee’s own community), who functions as the centre owner, coach and mentor to students was found essential; Subject matter experts or instructors for the periodical handson practical training and assessment was monitored and found to be required intermittently (and varied according to the trade).”

e-content helps provide a consis-

SkillPro’s Manager of Technology and Brand-

tent link between theory and practi-

ing expanded on benefits ICT lends to oper-

cal. At L&T CSTI, we use a LMS and

ating in low-resource settings:

SMART Board – A digitally interactive whiteboard

Page 62 of 116

“The solution [ICT blended teaching

These comments illustrate some of the fac-

and learning] came about due to the

tors, which influence how ICT is integrat-

low quality of trainers when we also

ed into vocational teaching and learning,

needed to scale. Dependency on

as well as some of the perceived benefits,

trainers is high and ever growing –

which will be elaborated on in the next sec-

the moment I have solution like this,

tions.

I’m less dependent on the trainer. I can still deliver quality training.”

Summary This section provided a general overview

in practice were based on various factors

of construction sector skills training, and

such as the trainer and learner’s comfort

entry points for ICT integrated teaching

with and access to technology, availabil-

and learning, to set the stage for the larg-

ity of resources, infrastructural inputs,

er discussion at hand. In focusing on appli-

etc. The field explorations additionally

cations of technology leveraged to enrich

revealed that the use of ICT takes place

or enhance the teaching-learning experi-

on a continuum, as opposed to defined

ence, the field explorations revealed that

stages, in response to the needs of the

the degree to which ICT is integrated var-

learner and resources available, which are

ies considerably. The blends of technol-

often dynamic.

ogy and conventional methods observed

Page 63 of 116

Perspectives on ICT integrated teaching and learning The following categorization (adopted from Latchem, 2017 and Noor-Ul-Amin, n.d.) will guide the discussion on perceived benefits of ICT integrated teaching and learning by VTPs that provide skills development for the

accessibility through ICT. Distance to vocational training centres is one of the main reasons skill development has remained inaccessible in rural areas.41 AMMACHI Labs’ training coordinators shared their observations on how the use of ICT has helped address this particular barrier: “Since our vocational education

construction trade.

courses are accessible through com-

i. Quality and accessibility of education

puter tablets or laptops [cVET], skill

ii. Teaching-learning process

development centres were set-up

iii. Learning motivation

space of a student’s home as in the

directly in the villages-in the open case of Byse, Karnataka, a rented

Quality and accessibility of education

space as in Nani Borwai, Gujarat or in a community hall in Malcopon, Goa.

Pappas (2013) asserts that ICT is key to

Placing the skill development “cen-

achieving accessible training delivery and

tre” directly in the village allowed

improves teaching and learning outcomes.

for greater inclusiveness and trans-

Table 2 summarizes the impacts identified

parency, which carried important

by other authors of ICT on quality and ac-

implications for how the community

cessibility, particularly relevant to workers in

at large perceived skill development

subsistent informality. The following discus-

and the sanitation intervention. The

sion highlights how the profiled VTPs contribute to addressing issues of quality and

Gupta et al., 2014.

Table 2: Quality and Accessibility

Quality and Accessibility Easy access to educational materials2, 3, 4 Remove constraints for learners with special needs2 Cost reduction1, 3 Wider availability of best practices in education and new approaches in education1, 3 Allows institutions to reach disadvantaged groups1, 3 Developing higher order thinking skills (problem-solving, critical thinking) 1, 3, 4 1

UNESCO, 2013; 2 Noor-Ul-Amin (n.d.); 3 Clarke & Palmer, 2011’ 4Swarts et al, 2011

Page 64 of 116

practical sessions involved building

“We continue to explore differ-

of actual toilets in the village-which

ent ways life skills can be taught

family members would often assist

through ICT-combination of videos

with and in turn acquire some skills.

and live classroom discussions, se-

Community members from the vil-

rious computer-based games and

lage would also join the life skills

non-computer based games. We’ve

sessions, and help brainstorm solu-

found that computer based tools

tions to community issues being

such as videos help introduce sen-

discussed.”

sitive topics that are often not dis-

Leveraging ICT to teach soft skills (life, attitudinal or behavioural skills as described in some frameworks) is a comparatively emergent area of practice and research. Ved Goel, Former Director and Professor of Ed-

cussed in public. It [ICT] helps start the conversation, and the follow-up discussion or debrief allows the student to reflect and process the knowledge or information.”

ucation at India’s largest open and distant

The benefits of reduced training cost iden-

learning institution Indira Gandhi National

tified by authors also appeared to resonate

Open University asserted in Skills Develop-

strongly with the VTPs in the study. L&T

ment Through Distance Education (Mishra

CSTI confirmed that reduced dependency

and Bartam, 2002), “It is no longer enough

on live subject matter experts and reduced

to have traditionally literate (or illiterate)

material wastage ultimately led to savings

people earning their living from subsistence

on training cost as a result of ICT-integrated

farming. What is needed is a large base of

teaching and learning. L&T CSTI’s Manager

skilled people capable not only of perform-

of Training and Hiring offered the following

ing at a given time, but also of continual-

testimony:

ly upgrading their capabilities to meet the changing demands of future.” Skill development, when linked with transferrable or life skills (i.e. critical thinking, communication, teamwork, negotiation, adaptability, etc.) is thought to facilitate transformative learning outcomes (Marope et al., 2015). AMMACHI Labs’ field coordinator elaborated on the incorporation of life skills in the training curriculum, while also illustrating how ICT has been utilized to develop higher order thinking:

“Recently, we implemented simulator and haptic technology to augment the teaching of welding and bar-bending practical skill development. The motivation to incorporate simulator technology in the teaching and learning of these trades was driven by the requirement to accelerate the rate of teaching and learning, and reduce the wastage of raw material, ultimately contributing to reductions in the cost of

Page 65 of 116

training. Through the simulators,

ically – become critical to the development

students receive visual and haptic (a

and implementation of quality e-content for

sense of touch and force) feedback

the construction trades if targets cited in the

akin to the real-world experience in

part one of this study are to be met.

performing practical procedures. Following the e-learning session, students practice tasks on the welding or bar-bending simulators, are accordingly evaluated and then proceed to practice with actual tools materials.”

Teaching-learning process Findings from the field (observations and interviews) revealed that benefits related to quality and accessibility are a function of the teaching and learning model in practice. Latchem’s (2017), “Using ICTs and Blended Learning in Transforming TVET,” asserts,

The South African VTP added that while

“The quality and usefulness of ICT-enabled

start-up costs are comparatively high, one

teaching and learning depend upon careful

advantage to incorporating ICT-based con-

attention to the issues of accessibility and

tent is that it is possible to deliver industry

equitability, principles of adult learning and

relevant content. VTPs in India agreed that

instructional design and appropriateness of

one challenge they face is recovering from

the delivery and support services.” The ex-

the high costs associated with developing

ploratory studies also demonstrated the crit-

and delivering effective e-content for con-

icality of effective monitoring and evaluation

struction trade skills, particularly when de-

to ensure ICT tools remain useful and rele-

mand for formal training is lower than other

vant in the teaching and learning process.

more sought after trades such as the Tele-

The AMMACHI Labs training team shared

com, IT and IT-enabled trades. Stakeholder

that they worked closely with the e-content

support – government and industry, specif-

development teams to report feedback on

Table 3: Teaching and Learning

Benefits to Teaching and Learning Helps provide curricular support in difficult subject areas1, 2 Prepares next generation for future lives and careers1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Allows for flexibility in time-space and improve interaction and reception of information2, 3 Encourages and supports independent learning1, 2, 3 Facilitates constructivist learning approaches (resource-based, student centred settings and by enabling learning to be related to context and practice)5 Training skills for the workplace1, 3, 4 1

UNESCO, 2013; 2 Noor-Ul-Amin (n.d.); 3 Clarke & Palmer, 2011’ 4Swarts et al, 2011; 5Wheeler, 2001

Page 66 of 116

the training content and usability experi-

through a customized learning man-

ence, which were accordingly incorporated

agement system (LMS). The prima-

into the cVET tool. SkillPro similarly report-

ry function of the CSTI’s LMS is to

ed discovering effective ICT blends (based

facilitate the preparation or intro-

on the comfort level of trainers) through the

duction session to practical skills

process of monitoring and feedback ses-

development in the classroom. The

sions with trainers.

CSTI’s LMS is designed to guide the

Table 3 compiles some of the benefits, which have been identified by authors working on ICT integration, with the following discussion providing illustration of salient points raised by the exploratory field studies in India and South Africa. The South African VTP tracked the impact of ICT-integrated skills development on student learning factors and found significant improvements in student performance, motivation to learn and reduced dropout rates. While improvements in student performance and motivation were found to be associated with the integration of ICT-based teaching, reduced dropout rates appear to be a result of a combination of confounding factors which warrant further study. Information gathered through observations of the training site and interviews with training manager and instructors at L&T CSTI illustrate how ICT can provide curricular support. An L&T CSTI instructor with over 10 years of experience in teaching described in detail how ICT complements the instruction process: "We began integrating ICT into teaching in 2012, by replacing live or ad-hoc teaching instruction with e-content-led classroom instruction

instructor in the dissemination of content through a projector delivery format, effectively standardizing the content and teaching experience, and prepare students for practical training. After receiving the LMS based lecture in the classroom delivered by the course instructor, students head out to the “yard” or practical training ground, for handson skill development practice." These comments indicate the value ICT adds to the teaching process at L&T in standardizing instruction between theoretical and practical sessions. The following example from AMMACHI Labs shows how integration of technology in teaching led to flexibility in timing and space, which seemed to be particularly important in addressing the specific needs of the students: "In our early exploration of optimal learning scenarios with computerized vocational training, we quickly learned that the training model needed to be flexible enough to respond to the distinct characteristics of each village. Even without the skill development course, women led busy lives – responsible for the entire care of their families, home,

Page 67 of 116

livestock, and fieldwork. One of

repeat the classes unlimited what

the main advantages to ICT based

could be of benefit for their success,

teaching is that instead of schedul-

as well they stay motivated as they

ing and structuring the class around

do not have to sit in traditional class-

the availability of the teacher, we

rooms. They use Whatsapp groups

schedule around the student, who

to collaborate and their skills have

in our case are women in the village.

improved and they can learn more

Courses are run through the tablets

independently.”

– which the women usually view in pairs.

A theme of independent learning also

Training through the computer al-

L&T CSTI and AMMACHI Labs. A bar-bend-

lowed students to self-start, with-

ing student at L&T CSTI shared how his ex-

out having to wait for the teacher or

perience of learning through simulator tech-

other students to arrive. If a student

nology helped him learn independently:

emerged from the interviews conducted at

finished the lesson before others, she would spend time in reviewing older lessons. The computerized course helped us be flexible and accommodating to the students’ needs. Practical hands-on sessions typically followed the cVET classroom." Comments shared by the Academic Director of the South African VTP echoed the experience of ICT-based teaching and the subsequent impact on student performance:

"I’ve noticed improvement in my skill. Videos are shown approximately once per week. Using the simulator, I feel I can improve my skill on my own – without the help of a live teacher; I don’t need to depend on anyone else."

Learning motivation There are two aspects to consider with respect to learner’s motivation in skills development for construction trades: the overall motivation to learn construction trades, and

“Students’ overall performance has

the supposed capacity of ICT-integrated

significantly improved as they can

skills development to instil and maintain

Table 4: Learning Motivation

Learning Motivation People have to access knowledge via ICT to keep pace with the latest developments1, 3, 4 Facilitates in learner engagement1, 3, 4 Enhancing teacher training1, 3, 4 1

UNESCO, 2013; 2 Noor-Ul-Amin (n.d.); 3 Clarke & Palmer, 2011’ 4Swarts et al, 2011

Page 68 of 116

motivation within learners. Table 3 high-

that unskilled jobs will not. Part of

lights some of the perceived benefits of ICT

this message is communicating that

integration on learning motivation as docu-

our training program is free, and of-

mented in the literature.

fers a stipend, which reassures them

Low motivation to enrol in formal skill development programs, particularly in construction, was described by VTPs in India as one of the biggest challenges faced in their role as training providers. Field studies in India revealed that while construction is the second largest sector of informal employment following agriculture, the extent to which formal training in construction trades is of-

that the training will not lead to a loss in income. We use visual media – a short film, which our head office created to help us communicate our message. The video is designed to relate to the challenges that working-age men without a complete education face in rural India, and their need to make a decent living.”

fered through VTPs is disproportionately

In India, formal training in construction is

low compared to the demand for skilled

rarely a requirement for entry in the labour

construction workers required. An L&T CSTI

market due in part to the lack of formalized

instructor and “sourcing” officer (referring

training available to unskilled and unedu-

to the process by which students are en-

cated communities, and in part to a widely

rolled into the training program) elaborated

recognized lack of aspiration for vocational

on this paradox and the aforementioned

training (Chenoy, 2013). Similarly in South

barriers to skill development access with re-

Africa, access to formalized training beyond

spect to the construction industry:

TVET colleges and Technical High Schools is

“When we travel to villages as part

unavailable to informal sector workers.

of our sourcing events [student re-

A construction site supervisor in Odisha, In-

cruitment], and meet the young

dia shared his experience with typical hiring

men we target for our training pro-

practices within the informal construction

gram [men aged 18 to 35 years

sector, illustrating the sort of informal, on

old], we find that the vast majority

the job learning in the construction industry,

are not aware of why it would be

which was described in the first part of this

important to develop formal skills

study:

in construction, when so many of their counterparts get jobs without any training or certification so easily. So, our first objective becomes instil a sense of aspiration for training, convince them that the CSTI will add value to their lives in a way

"Whenever men approach me for a job for the first time, I give them a task to see how much well and fast they work. Based on that, I assign their work. And we change the work based on how they progress."

Page 69 of 116

Shamim et al. (2011) claim that the use of

"Many of the women in Kerala who

ICT in teaching can motivate students to

enrolled in the plumbing course

participate in learning processes. However,

did so because they thought they

the exploratory field studies delivered con-

would learn computers– the tech-

flicting results in this regard. At L&T CSTI,

nology was the attraction or hook.

the aspect of ICT-based learning is not be-

However, when we asked them

lieved to be the primary reason students en-

why they continued to stay in the

rol, as the following passage reflects:

course even after they knew it was

"The impact of technology in teaching has been tremendous. Once we tell them how to do, showing them how to do will give them a better impact. Learning is easier due to the visual effect. But people [students] do not come here knowing about technology or how they are going to learn through technology. They come here to get a job – that is the main reason. Technology in teaching makes learning more attractive – students are able to remember more and thus [technology is] more effective for training. But students don’t know about the use of technology for learning." AMMACHI Labs field staff, on the other hand, reported that the use of ICT-based teaching tools did, in fact, attract some learners that would not have otherwise considered skills development. They were attracted to the course not necessarily because of the “flashy technology,” but because the course was made accessible through ICT, as the following excerpt from an interview with an AMMACHI Labs field staff indicates:

Page 70 of 116

not about computers, they said that they enjoyed the process of learning through computers without depending on someone else, and the sense of community that developed around them. In the more remote areas where the rural toilet-building course was taught, technology did not seem as important as a reason for students to enrol. Instead, the incentive was that the skill development program could be delivered around the availability of the community. Of course, this was only possible because our ICT based course helped us be less dependent on live resource experts." The South African VTP similarly revealed how they arranged the program’s curriculum to ensure the ICT components were effective in maintaining learner motivation. The Academic Director of the South African VTP reported that as they found construction trade learners to be more practically oriented, as opposed to academic, and indicated that the following structure was used a way to maintain the learners’ motivation: Practical video, Tutorial, Lecture, and Personal Explanation.

The AMMACHI Labs field team similarly

opment. First, the comments by L&T and

found that flipping the typical approach to

AMMACHI Labs challenge the common-

computerized delivery – starting with the

ly held notion that ICT alone attracts new

practical instead of the classroom session –

learners to skill development. Second, what

helped retain students’ interest and engage-

may be more important to learners is not the

ment in the course. An AMMACHI Labs field

technology itself, but the fact that ICT-inte-

officer explains this further:

grated training can help prioritize the needs

"This

was

particularly

common

during deployment of the rural toilet-building course, where students of various educational backgrounds

of informal subsistent learners, such as flexible training delivery and accessibility outside of formal education structures, which are often otherwise overlooked.

(from illiterate and no education to

Another factor related to maintaining learn-

an average of about a 6th grade)

er motivation, discussed in the context of

preferred watching the instruction-

ICT-integrated training, was ICT-facilitated

al course videos after trying the

peer-to-peer and collaborative learning:

practical session first. Most of the students were not used to sitting in a classroom and learning. They learned by doing. They also needed a point of reference to appreciate what was being shown to them in the course videos. It was not easy for them to understand based on the video alone why a certain approach was taken. They needed to try out something for themselves first and were then able to better understand how the method demonstrated in the video made sense. We found that in some places, showing the video after the practical session was far more effective in teaching new concepts and methods – and adjusted our model accordingly."

"Our pilot phase [2009-2011] revealed that students unfamiliar with formal learning environments preferred learning in groups. The group learning approach is utilized from day one – learning how to use the technology tools (tablets). The ICT tools help facilitate peer-to-peer and group learning helped mitigate the learning curve for learners that lacked basic education such as numeric literacy. Students with some numerical literacy helped others with no literacy, which helped with student confidence and community

bonding.

Collaborative

learning took place through group tasks, problem solving and discussion-based activities in the practical

The testimony shared by the field staff sug-

skill development and life skill dis-

gests important implications for the imple-

cussion sessions."

mentation of ICT-integrated skills devel-

Page 71 of 116

Enabling and constraining factors Alongside the reported benefits to ICT integrated skill development, the exploratory field studies also revealed the practical challenges involved in implementing ICT-based solutions. Kentaro Toyama (2014) declares that ICT for development, particularly for education, is effective only when coupled with adequate program staff training and capacity building. Technology leaders for sustainable development write in the “SDG ICT Playbook on Innovation to Impact” (Bothwell, 2015, Pg. 18,) state, “despite the growing ubiquity, availability and affordability of technology, there are often challenges in adoption, adaptation and deployment.” Blignaut et al. (2010) assert that access to technology and the required infrastructural support (bandwidth, electricity, etc.) constrain the utilization of ICT in skills development. The field explorations in India and South Africa supported this assertion that bandwidth and electrical support can determine the extent to which technology is relied upon as an instructional tool.

is an issue. All live sessions have been recorded; however live engagement is intentionally structured into the course plan." SkillPro’s testimony alludes to two other factors that the literature often discusses as constraints to ICT integration – support to educators and educator’s professional development. Blignaut et al. (2010) likewise draw attention to the importance of capacity building and professional development in effective integration of ICT. The above testimony aligns with the notion that the attitude of staff and teachers can significantly influence the extent to which technology is integrated in instruction. Blignaut et al. (2010) assert that continuous technical and pedagogical supports are critical towards effective and sustained integration of ICT in education. Discussions with L&T CSTI and AMMACHI Labs agreed that significant effort was required in training teachers and instructors in the use of ICT tools, to support successful adoption. Instructors at L&T CSTI described an initial

For example, SkillPro in India shared their

adjustment period with the migration pro-

experience with tackling the constraint of

cess to LMS-based class delivery, given their

connectivity and electrical resource depen-

own limited exposure to technology:

dency, which resonate with Blignaut et al. (2010)’s argument: "While 100 per cent of the course has been recorded in video lectures, 70 to 80 per cent is usually shown as pre-recorded, and 20 to 30 % through live classroom. That might be a generous estimate. In some places, connectivity and bandwidth Page 72 of 116

"Initially, we were a bit nervous to handle the system on our own – only a few designated personnel would operate the system. We received training and now it’s very easy." The limited extent to which electricity and internet connectivity are available in some areas has also motivated the innovation

of ICT enhanced vocational training delivery systems that operate independently of these constraints. For example, mobile classrooms, through the Mobile Vocational Education (MoVE) program, were developed and deployed by AMMACHI Labs in response to the challenges experienced in reaching remote regions of India with vocational education, especially where reliable electricity, infrastructure, transportation and travel facilities were inadequate (Akshay N., et al, 2012). MoVE is equipped with solar powered laptops and tablet computers that are installed with the computerized training modules and connected to a broadband Internet system. The MoVEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mobility and capacity to operate off the power grid allows for the deployment of multiple courses in multiple centres. Along similar lines, MySangham is a portal developed by AMMACHI Labs that operates on and offline to host and deliver computerized vocational education content. The portal is a LMS and

lingual vocational education content. However, the ability to innovate and operate off the power grid is not a ubiquitous experience and is contingent upon the unique vision of the management in place and financial resources available.42 This is apparent in the wide range of ICT tools utilized by the VTPs included in this scoping study. As indicated earlier, VTPs require cooperation from skills development stakeholders â&#x20AC;&#x201C; from both public and private sectors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to support e-content development and training delivery. Local government support is necessary to supply essential resources such as electricity and Internet connectivity to enable ICT-integrated training. Government initiatives such as the Prandhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) program in India enable and incentivize VTPs to provide training free of cost, by reimbursing the training cost for every student certified.

Content Management System, which facilitate the creation and dissemination of multi-

Blignaut et al. (2010)

Page 73 of 116

Summary This section briefly reviewed challenges

support training providers in designing

to ICT adoption in teaching and learning

and delivering more flexible teaching and

of construction trades. Despite apparent

learning environments. Additionally, ben-

constraints faced in ICT integration, par-

efits related to quality and accessibility

ticularly in remote and resource-restricted

are functions of the teaching and learning

regions, the presence of a pedagogical

model in practice. The exploratory study

foundation and supports was found to be

also suggested the criticality of effective

critical in effectively integrating ICT (Blig-

monitoring and evaluation to ensure ICT

naut et al. 2010). Having reviewed the po-

tools remain useful and relevant in the

tential benefits from and limitations to the

teaching and learning process. While ICT

use of ICT, the following section will re-

integration has been argued to positively

view regulatory frameworks in place with-

impact the learner's motivation to pursue

in India and South Africa to understand

skill development, the exploratory field

the extent to which VTPs receive govern-

studies indicated that learners pursuing

ment support for ICT-integrated training.

jobs within the construction industry tend

Perspectives from VTPs on integrating ICT in teaching and learning were discussed, guided by a framework based on the following aspects identified in the literature: quality and accessibility of education, teaching-learning processes, and learning motivation. The testimonies

to draw greater aspiration from the promise of employment following training. Finally, despite the high start-up costs associated with ICT integrated teaching, providers reported net savings in reduced resource dependency and excess waste in materials.

shared by representatives of the VTPs il-

Having explored the more salient bene-

lustrated how ICT has enabled outreach

fits of ICT integrated skills development

and accessibility of construction skill de-

reported by VTPs in this study, we now

velopment to remote and rural popula-

turn to a discussion on the enabling and

tions. Specifically, ICT integrated training

constraining factors that can challenge ef-

demonstrated an enhanced capacity to

fective ICT-integrated training delivery.

Page 74 of 116

Policy and regulatory frameworks for ICT use in skills development

SDG 4.4: By 2030, substantially increase the

As ICT gains momentum among the skills de-

entrepreneurship.

velopment community as a method that can

SDG 4.5: By 2030, eliminate gender dispari-

facilitate progress towards the mandate for accessible and inclusive skills development, the following sections now turn to a discussion of the policy environments in India and South Africa to better understand the extent to which the respective governments regu-

number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and

ties in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations.

late or provide a guiding framework for the

SDG 5.1: End all forms of discrimination

use of ICT in skills development.

against all women and girls everywhere

The 2009 UNESCO Education for All Report

SDG 8.5: By 2030, achieve full and produc-

found ICT to be essential in the empow-

tive employment and decent work for all

erment of underserved populations (Basu,

women and men, including for young peo-

C.K. & Majumdar S., 2009). Likewise, the

ple and persons with disabilities, and equal

2012 Shanghai Consensus of the Third Inter-

pay for work of equal value

national Congress on TVET recommended expanded access and improvements in the

It is clear that ICT, particularly for teaching

quality, and equity of skill development, as

and learning, has received mounting expec-

conveyed in this recommendation: “Take in-

tation among the international skills devel-

novative measures to provide quality and in-

opment community as an element that can

clusive skill development, especially to dis-

facilitate and support progress towards the

advantaged groups,” (UNESCO, 2012). The

global mandate for accessible and inclusive

United Nations Sustainable Development

vocational education and skills development

Goals (SDGs) reiterated the urgent need for

(Chinien, 2003, Chinien & Boutin, 2005; Ma-

improved inclusion in skills development

jumdar, 2008).

among socially and economically vulnerable

India

groups to effectively strengthen the prospect of decent employment and income generation, as indicated in the following sub-goals of SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls, and SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth (United Nations, 2015):

In 2009, the Government of India (GoI) announced a mandate to train and skill 500 million people over a period of 20 years. A comprehensive assessment of India’s skill development landscape, entitled “The Skill Development Landscape in India and Implementing Quality Skills Training,” (FICCI,

Page 75 of 116

2010) at the time revealed challenges at ev-

and skill development motivated the ur-

ery stage of the skill value chain that would

gent need for effective and scalable inter-

prevent the country from reaching the set

ventions. In the process of addressing the

targets. These challenges included inade-

entire gamut of the education continuum,

quate infrastructure and funding, the need

the NMEICT initiative also included political

for capacity building among skill trainers,

and financial support for the development

standardized curriculum development of

of technological solutions for vocational ed-

quality and industry relevance, supply bot-

ucation and skill development.

tlenecks (i.e. sourcing students), training delivery, certification and placement (FICCI, 2010). The report concluded with recommendations that the integration of ICT along the skill value chain would help address each of the identified challenges.

When the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) formed in 2015, the revised national skills development agenda reflected lessons learned from implementation of the 2009 NMEICT initiative. The 2015 National Policy for Skill

The emerging inter-governmental position

Development and Entrepreneurship out-

on ICT for skills development in conjunction

lines targets and expected outcomes to be

with the practical resource and infrastructur-

achieved along with recommendations on

al limitations to meet with the challenge of

the approach and infrastructure required.

needing to train 500 million people by 2030,

Eleven “enablers” are identified as critical

motivated the GoI to look to ICT and other

for achieving the set objectives; ICT is listed

innovative instructional strategies to cope

as one of these 11 enablers (MSDE, 2015).

with evolving skill requirement (The Economist, 2015). India’s vision for an ICT-enhanced TVET system began in 2009, when the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD, 2009) launched the National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT). An analysis of India’s developmental targets related to literacy, educational attainment

Page 76 of 116

The following table lays out the numerous functions ICT is expected to play in advancing the provision of TVET, as described in the 2015 National Skill Development Policy (MSDE, 2015). Content in the last column is an analysis of the extent to which the respective policy considers the needs of the informal sector.

Table 5: Role of ICT and Informality in India’s National Skill Development Policy

Skill Development Challenge*

Policy Vision and Role of ICT*

Relevance to Informal Subsistent Population

TVET Content Accessibility

Improved accessibility is envisaged through e-content. TVET Stakeholders will be supported in the development and delivery of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), virtual classrooms, and blended learning environments, and in regional languages for the purpose of reaching “under-served regions.”

Direct: Targets informality via ICT

Gap between Training Seekers, Providers, and Employers

A Learning Management Information System (LMIS) that is “agile and responsive” is proposed to serve as the national repository of information for students, providers and employers. The objective of the LMIS is to more easily and directly connect potential students to training providers and trainees to employers.

Indirect: Robust information repository system that is responsive to diverse learner and training population

Leveraging Technology Access for TVET

Given the pervasiveness of cell phone technology in society, smartphones are prescribed as a viable means of skill development in more informal sector settings through alternate training models. Additionally mentioned, is the Government’s commitment to explore the use of mobile technology for data collection and intelligent coordination between the supply and demand of skilled labour.

Direct: Leveraging technology to provide alternate forms of training to enhance inclusivity and suit diverse needs of trainer/trainee population

E-governance and TVET

Skill Cards will be created for individuals trained and certified (and linked to their Aadhaar card) through the Digital Locker (or DigiLocker) initiative of Digital India. Once developed, Skill Cards are expected to support the identification of individuals to facilitate enrolment, skill certification and accreditation as well as create a skill profile of each trainee to streamline process of hiring/ re-hiring skilled workers.

Direct: Leveraging ICT to capture/register skills of all workers across skill landscape (regardless of formal or informal status)

Monitoring and Evaluation

The government envisions the development of an automated skill process from enrolment and registration to training fee payment and placement.

Indirect: Leveraging ICT to support administrative processes

Page 77 of 116

Skill Development Challenge*

Policy Vision and Role of ICT*

Relevance to Informal Subsistent Population

Organization and community support among workers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; formal and informal

E-guilds-The policy states plans to develop and disseminate technological tools that will encourage and sustain aspiration for skill development through the promotion of online skill networks and communities.

Direct: Leveraging ICT in the creation of communities of learning and practice for the informal worker (as well as formal)

Too few people work

ICTs can also boost growth in other sectors and promote SMME development by reducing costs and geographic barriers while increasing efficiencies and creating new opportunities. The development of central registers of skills and employment opportunities can further facilitate employment. Digital literacy programmes are likely to increase the employability of individuals across South Africa.

Informal subsistence workers need access to formal employment opportunities and this intervention is addressing the needs of the unemployed

The quality of school education is poor

E-learning and innovative use of ICTs in the education sector can assist in addressing inequalities in education in schools across South Africa, and facilitate the ongoing improvement of educator skills.

Relevant if the informal worker is/was engaged with the education sector

Spatial divides hobble inclusive development

ICTs can assist in reducing geographical divides and facilitating participative and inclusive development across the country.

Informal workers often experience trouble with geographical boundaries what is also cost intensive

The public health system cannot meet demand or sustain quality

E-health solutions and innovative use of ICTs can significantly improve access to quality health care for all people across the country. ICTs can also assist in the proactive monitoring of disease incidence and allow patients to report on poor health care. Mobile and other communication with patients can increase health awareness among citizens and encourage adherence to health programmes.

Not directly for the focus of our study but important for the population

Public services are uneven and often of poor quality

The digital transformation of government can assist in transforming the public sector and, for example, increase the efficiency of delivery, reduce the costs of providing services and ensure equitable access for all to public services. ICTs can also assist in increasing transparency and accountability and facilitate greater participation by citizens in public policy-making.

Not directly for the focus of our study but important for the population

Page 78 of 116

Skill Development Challenge*

Policy Vision and Role of ICT*

Relevance to Informal Subsistent Population

Corruption levels are high

ICTs can play a crucial role in increasing the effectiveness and reach of Government programmes to address corruption.

Not directly for the focus of our study but important for the population

South Africa remains a divided society

ICTs facilitate conversations, allow citizens to engage with each other, with government and other institutions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; regardless of where they live. While social media can seem to breed social division, it can play a role in building communities and give all South Africans the opportunity to access a broad range of information, ideas and analysis.

Informal Workers often experience trouble with social boundaries

*Extracted from the MSDE (2015) Skill Development Policy

While this review of regulatory frameworks

consolidate the multiple labour laws into 4

in India reveals an apparent promotion of

codes titled: Industrial relations, Social secu-

ICT along the skill development value chain,

rity, Wage Equality, Occupational Safety and

implementation mechanisms have not as

Working Conditions. Under this framework,

clearly been outlined. What is additional-

employers found guilty of practicing gender

ly apparent from the table above is a gen-

discrimination in the hiring and employment

eralized approach to ICT implementation,

process would be punished (6 months to 2

as opposed to a sector or industry specific

years in prison). Enforcement of these laws,

focus. Questions remain on how such rec-

however, relies entirely on the willingness of

ommendations regarding ICT use for skill

the affected individual to come forward and

development will be financed and enforced.

file a complaint against the employer, mean-

Gender equality As mentioned earlier, it was observed that

ing that awareness of these rights among workers and employers will be critical.

formal training providers seem hesitant to

In the case of South Africa, the focus on ICT

train women due to a perceived lack of pro-

development has been the point of atten-

tection for women on the construction site.

tion in multiple policy papers and particular-

In addition to support for ICT implemen-

ly evident in the white paper on e-education

tation, the issue of how and whether pub-

in 2004. Unfortunately, significant develop-

lic policy supports gender equal practices

ments are not yet visible (Ndlovu, N.S., &

within the construction industry in training

Lawrence, D., 2012). Essentially, the main

and employment was also explored. An in-

vision of the policy focuses on the develop-

terview with a senior representative of In-

ment of an inclusive information society and

diaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ministry of Labour revealed a plan to

knowledge economy. ICTs are accredited to

Page 79 of 116

address the key challenges South Africa fac-

Table 6. SD challenges, ICT vision and prom-

es with respect to skill development. Con-

ise for subsistence workers in South Africa.

tent in the last column is an analysis of the

Data amended from DTPS 2016 with analy-

extent to which the respective policy con-

sis of relevance by the authors provided in

siders the needs of the informal sector.

column 3.

Summary In this section, we have explored the ex-

opment space. Additionally, the mandate

tent to which policies in India and South

to incorporate ICT into the skill develop-

Africa promote and regulate the use of

ment value chain, particularly in teaching

ICT for skills development. Drawing from

and learning, points to a preconceived

this initial analysis of various relevant pol-

notion that ICT integration engenders a

icies, regulatory frameworks on ICT for

positive skill development outcome of

skills development may be more accu-

some kind. Lastly, the mandate to enable

rately described as prescriptive guidelines

better access to skills development and

for better practices and initiatives on ICT

re-skilling or up-skilling individuals alludes

use. The need to bridge social, econom-

to the need to reach out to populations

ic, geographic and digital divides (vis-Ă -

generally excluded from formal skills de-

vis ICT) indicates the need for measures

velopment or recognition, namely work-

that enhance inclusivity in the skills devel-

ers in the informal economy.

Page 80 of 116

PART III: Main Issues, Perspectives and Ways Forward This scoping study attempted to explore the

The study also demonstrated that to effec-

extent of integration and observable and

tively target the informal subsistent pop-

perceived benefits of ICT in skills develop-

ulation, training providers must develop a

ment, with a specific focus on the construc-

fundamental understanding of the barriers

tion industry and subsistent informal labour

that hindered the target group from enroll-

population in India and South Africa. Since

ing in skill development programs in the first

this investigation was exploratory, further

place. L&T CSTI demonstrated this by trav-

research is required to more deeply under-

eling to rural villages and appealing to the

stand the causal linkages that contribute to

aspirations of working-age youth, and then

effective implementation of ICT integrated

providing the necessary financial supports

practices among the target group, so that

to incentivize training. AMMACHI Labs also

working models can be developed and rep-

demonstrated an understanding of the in-

licated. However, several observations and

formal subsistent population group it tar-

lessons learned emerged from the explor-

gets (women in rural villages) by designing

atory study, summarized below.

flexible training programs and ICT tools

The extent of ICT use observed among VTPs studied varied significantly, reflecting a range of enabling and constraining factors. AMMACHI Labs and SkillPro presented more diverse uses and blends of ICT in an attempt to provide quality and accessible training, likely motivated by the conditions of limited re-

that cater to learners with the lowest educational qualifications. SkillPro also found that among its predominantly young-adult population, mobile use was pervasive and accordingly explored ways to provide skill development through mobile devices to improve accessibility.

sources such as the lack of qualified teachers

Despite the extent to which ICT has demon-

and access to relevant training material. On

strated capacity in addressing some of the

the other hand, the use of ICT at L&T CSTI

most disabling challenges to skill develop-

was less frequent given the availability of

ment in India and South Africa, the pres-

qualified trainers to support standardization

ent study found that the usage of ICT and

and uniformity in the teaching process. From

blended learning is still at a nascent stage

this initial study, it appears that ICT can effec-

with isolated examples of implementation at

tively support training providers that operate

various stages of integration. What appears

in low-resource settings â&#x20AC;&#x201C; areas where there

to be missing is a support system that nur-

are often high levels of subsistence informal-

tures the culture and practice around ICT

ity in both India and South Africa.

use for skills development among training

Page 81 of 116

providers targeting the informal subsistent

The start-up costs associated with support-

population. Despite the global demand for

ing e-content and ICT integrated solutions

skills in this sector, the fact there are such

may be another reason for limited practi-

few instances of ICT-based training for con-

cal evidence. Financial support from stake-

struction in India and South Africa begs the

holders – both government and industry –

question of whether alternative forms of

is a critical requirement to help implement

training would be more effective, and leaves

ICT-integrated training. Policy initiatives,

space for further research in this domain. For

in particular, favour formal VTPs that align

example, construction-site training or RPL-

training with the national accreditation

linked initiatives might be more practical to

framework. However, as the current study

integrate ICT-based teaching and learning

demonstrates, ICT-use can be as or more ex-

practices.

tensively implemented by non-formal train-

The following areas additionally merit further research attention: • Given the limited extent to which ICT has been integrated in vocational education in South Africa, feasibility studies are required to explore the potential for ICT-enhanced skill development delivery models in formal and non-formal settings. • In India, since a majority of construction trade training takes place on construction sites, studies to understand how and whether training via ICT can take place on construction sites is required. The impact of such an inquiry may provide an avenue through which women in construction receive opportunities for skill development and skilled employment. Such inquiries call for support from stakeholders at the level of policy and industry to facilitate further research of formal, non-formal and informal training programs alike.

Page 82 of 116

ing providers, which predominantly cater to informal subsistent communities. These organizations also require financial support to help sustain the provision of financially affordable training. The need for an inclusive knowledge network and funding support system among formal, non-formal and informal training providers is critical. Another reason for limited evidence of providers that integrate ICT into training of construction trades could be the impracticality associated with deploying formal training programs in isolation from the industry. The study suggested how ICT could effectively lend itself to structuring an industry dominated by informality, through the case of L&T CSTI. With further research, L&T CSTI could potentially serve as a successful example of industry-linked skill development, where skills taught through ICT integrated training are reflected in the standards and practices expected in the workplace. The study also revealed a strong sense of dignity and pride among several of the students interviewed across the VTPs ob-

served, in learning construction trades

ticularly in India, may add to the possibility

through ICT-integrated teaching and learn-

for skills development in the informal sector.

ing practices. This finding is particularly significant among a population characterized by involuntary informal employment due to the lack of access to education and skill development opportunities in the past. With improved access to training and aspiration for dignified labour through ICT-integrated teaching and learning practices, the target population can potentially transition from a position of involuntary employment to voluntary. Lastly, in the course of this two-part study, macro-oriented policy issues emerged that, if left unaddressed will negatively affect the relevance and potential for ICT-integrated teaching-learning of construction trades:

Certification – An issue that affects both countries, certification was found to play an insignificant role in the hiring process in the construction sector. If skills development is expected to make any impact on the quality and productivity of the sector, further inquiry into the lack of governance surrounding the certification and hiring process by the industry is necessary. Safe and Gender Inclusive Training and Working Environments – An observed and perceived lack of protection for women at the construction site was also reported upon particularly in the Indian case studies. Therefore, a re-examination of anti-discrimination laws in India with respect to the construction

Unemployment Policies – The differences

industry and the workplace in general, is

between the two countries unemployment

warranted. As more women are encouraged

policies merit further reflection particularly

to enter the industry, gender sensitization

in the residual impact such policies were

at multiple levels of the skill development

observed to have upon on the options of

chain would be required.

selecting into unemployment in the case of South Africa, informal employment in India, and ultimately the value and relevance of skill development in each country, respectively.

As far as our research of literature on ICT enhanced skills development and the informal sector goes, this seems to be the first attempt to understand the specific interaction between ICT-integrated skills development,

Social organizations – Trade unions were

the construction industry and subsistent in-

found to play varying roles in the two coun-

formal population in India and South Africa,

tries. While labour unions are socially dis-

respectively. By grounding the discussion

couraged in India, South Africa presents a

of ICT integrated skill development within

case where social organization strengthens

this implementation level context, we hope

the agency of individuals seeking employ-

to have contributed, fulfilling the need for

ment in construction. Further inquiry into

greater knowledge in this domain.

the issues around social organization, par-

Page 83 of 116

Appendices Part I

Appendix 1: Skills development initiatives, India Program/Initiative

Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS)

Year

1950

Source: DGT, 2017

Women’s Vocational Training Program via National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) and Regional Vocational Training Institutes (RVTI)

Source: DGT, 2017

Page 84 of 116

1977

Department

Skill Development Policy Goal

Directorate General of Training (DGT) (formerly DGE&T, Ministry of Labour and Employment)

Establishment of Industrial Training Institute (ITIs)

DGT

Promote skill development and industry employment (“mainly organised sector”) among women as semi-skilled/skilled & highly skilled workers by increasing their participation in skill training facilities through the CTS and Advanced Skill Training Scheme, and Apprentices Training scheme.

Training in 70 engineering and 63 non-engineering trades. Required to conduct training courses as per the curriculum prescribed by National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT)

Progress Towards Target Target revised periodically: Started with 50 ITIs in 1950, over 800 in the 1980s, etc. As of 2014: 10,750 ITIs (seating capacity of 1.5 million)

1 NVTI 12 RVTIs (as of 2014)

Program/Initiative

Skill Development Initiative Scheme (SDIS)

Year

2007

Department

DGT

Sources: DGT, 2017; Planning Commission, 2011

Skill Development Policy Goal Promote vocational training to school leavers, existing workers, and ITI graduates, etc. to up-skilling and recognize existing skills to improve their employability by using the existing infrastructure available in government, private institutions, or Industry Targets:

Progress Towards Target Latest report on progress: 467,277 trained, tested, and certified through SDIS; 242,191 employed (formal/informal sector not specified)

Workers seeking certification of their skills acquired informally Workers and ITI graduates seeking skill up gradation School drop-outs and unemployed Previously child labour and their families Apprentices Act

1961

National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme

(latest mod. 2014)

Source: MHRD, 2017

Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) Administrating

Apprenticeship Targets:

2016-17: 500,000 2017-18: 1,000,000 2018-2019: 1,500,000 2019-20: 2,000,000

2016 Regional Directorates of Apprenticeship Training and DGT and State Apprenticeship Advisers-state and private establishmentsImplementing

Page 85 of 116

Program/Initiative

Skill Loan Scheme (Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Rin Yojana) Scheme replaces Indian Banks Association (IBA) Model Loan Scheme for Vocational Education and Training Source: GoI Press Information Bureau, 2015

Year

2015

Department

MSDEAdministrating DGTImplementing

Skill Development Policy Goal Provides a loans to individuals who intend to take up skill development courses as per the Skilling Loan Eligibility Criteria: First criteria: Training must be through ITIs, Polytechnics or in a school recognized by central or State education Boards or in a college affiliated to recognized university, training partners affiliated NSDC/Sector Skill Councils, State Skill Mission, State Skill Corporation, preferably leading to a certificate/ diploma/ degree issued by such organization as per National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF). 3,400,000 lakhs for Skill Loan for a period of 5 years and the target for 2015-16 is 2 lakhs

Page 86 of 116

Progress Towards Target 6003 numbers of Skill Loan accounts have been opened till 30.09.2015 (Department of Financial Services (DFS)

Program/Initiative

Year

Department

Pradhan Mantri 2015 Kaushal Kendra (PMKK)

MSDEAdministrating

Source: NSDC, 2017

NSDCImplementing

Skill Development Policy Goal Promotes establishment of “Model Training Centres” (MTCs) that demonstrate: Aspirational value for competency-based skill development training.

Progress Towards Target 205 PMKKs established (as of 15th July, 2017) out of 556 allocated nationally

Focus on elements of quality, sustainability and Connection with stakeholders in skills delivery process. Transform from a Mandatedriven footloose model to a sustainable institutional model. Funding provided by NSDC NSDC up to 75% of the project investment (infrastructure, training aids, civil work) PMKKVY Source: MSDE, 2015

2015

MSDE

Promotes aspiration for standardized skill development and certification through financial incentives

1,800,000 (as of July 2016) trained and certified

Implementation via NSDC’s 187 training partners and 2,300 centres and via central and state government affiliated training providers Target 2016-20: 10,000,000 youth

Page 87 of 116

Program/Initiative

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

Year

2015

Department

MSDE-PMKVY

Skill Development Policy Goal Promotes and facilitates RPL – the recognition of skill regardless of method through 5 step process that includes assessment and certification (aligned with National Occupational Standards – NOS)

Progress Towards Target 2017 – 2018 Target: 217,790

Financially incentivized Special Projects

2015

MSDE-PMKVY

Source: MSDE, 2015

Encourages trainings in NA special areas and premises of Government bodies, corporates / industry bodies Encourage trainings in special job roles not defined under the available Qualification Packs (QPs) or National Occupation Standards (NOSs)

Kaushal and Rozgar Mela

2015

MSDE-PMKVY

(Skill and Job Fair) Source: MSDE, 2015

Skill Fair: Training Providers are required to hold mobilization and outreach camps every 6 months to promote skill development and PMKVY in the local community

2 times per year per Training Provider

Job Fair: Training Providers must also hold job fairs every 6 months. UDAAN-Special Industry Initiative Source: MSDE, 2015

2015

MSDE-PMKVY Funded by: Ministry of Home Affairs Implemented by: NSDC

Page 88 of 116

Promote employment/ placement among youth from Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) Connect corporate India to talented and qualified youth from J&K

40,000 J&K youth over a period of 6 years

Program/Initiative

International Skill Training

Year

2016

Source: NSDC, 2017

Department

Skill Development Policy Goal

MSDE and Ministry of External Affairs

Establishment of International Skill Centre to provide skill trainings and certification according to international standards

Progress Towards Target NA

Designed to offer skill development to Indians seeking jobs overseas Focus: Prepare youth for global market Deen Dayal Upadhyaya 2014 Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) Source: MoRD, 2014

Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)/ National Mission Management Unit (NU) MSDE (Skill India)– aligned

EST&P Source: MoHUPA, 2013

2013

Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MoHUPA)

A skilling eco-system (NRLM and NU Implement, Training Partners – implementing agencies, SSCs and State Skill Development Mission (SSDM) – knowledge and industry support)

Focus: skill development and employment among rural youth between 15 and 35 years old, from economically poor households Promotes and enables skill training for the urban poor to support either selfemployment or salaried jobs

National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) MSDE (Skill India)- aligned

Page 89 of 116

Appendix 2: Interview guide used with construction workers in the informal sector, India and South Africa A. Biographical Information What is your full name?

Full Name Surname

What is your gender?

Select the answer that applies to you Female

What is your age? What is your race? (South Africa only)

Male

Age

Years

Select the answer that applies to you Black White Coloured Indian Other

What is your caste? (India only)

Select the answer that applies to you Brahmin Forward ST SC OBC

What is your nationality? (South Africa only) In which province were you born (South Africa only)

South African Non-South African (specify country) Eastern Cape Free State Gauteng Kwa-Zulu Natal Limpopo Mpumalanga North West Northern Cape Western Cape

Where do you live?

Township

(South Africa only)

Informal settlement Rural village Surbub

Page 90 of 116

A. Biographical Information What best describes your home environment?

Rural Village

(India only)

Urban town Semi Rural Semi-Urban

What is your economic status?

BPL

(India only)

APL Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know Didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t answer

What is your highest level of education?

No formal education Primary / basic education High school / secondary education ITI University Other

What is your first, second and third trade (in order)?

Brick-layer Tiler Plumber Painter Carpenter Electrician Mason Plasterer Other

B. Skills Acquisition and Practice Can you rate your level of proficiency in your first trade?

Very good Good Average Below average Poor

Page 91 of 116

B. Skills Acquisition and Practice How did you learn the skills of your trade?

School TVET college Building Contractor Master Craft Watching others Books Other

In your training, what exactly did you learn?

Theory Practice

Do you have any certificates for your trade?

Yes

Where have you used your skills and for how long in each case

Year/ Period Building contractor Informal sector -employed by others Informal employmentself employed Other

In your job, rate the use of your skills26 according to the order of frequency

Have you been able to move between the formal and informal sector?

Skill

Technical

Soft

Business / Entrepreneurship

General Education

From the formal sector to the informal sector From the informal sector to the formal sector

Page 92 of 116

B. Skills Acquisition and Practice How do you get jobs in your field of work?

Market myself near hardware stores Get referrals through people I have worked for Apply at construction work sites People I know ask me to assist them I have a website and business cards Other

On average, how many days do you work?

How many days in a week? How many days in a month

C. Organisation, Access to Information and Resources Do you think you have enough information about where construction jobs are?

Yes

Do you know where you can improve your skills

Yes

If yes, where?

If yes, where? Do you think you have resources to carry out your job? (e.g. money, tools, building material, knowledge, etc.)

Yes

Do you think you have the social or community support to carry out your job? (e.g. skilled people who support you, colleagues who can lend you tools and equipment, etc.

Yes

If yes, where? No

If yes, where?

Page 93 of 116

C. Organisation, Access to Information and Resources In general (not specific to you), are you aware of whether workers are organized in any manner, as a way to help each other find jobs?

We are organised as families We are organised as friends We are registered with the Hardware store here There is no organisation or registration at all Other

D. Desires and Challenges What are your desires about improving your skills? (More than one is okay)

Get more training Get a trade certificate Have sufficient training Have more practical training Have more theory of my training

What are your desires about employment? (More than one is okay)

Get formal employment Continue with self-employment Star my own business contractor Get a better salary Other

What are the challenges you experience with your job?

Not enough work? Not enough capital My skills need improvement Not enough networks to know where jobs are Other

E. Access to and Use of Technology Do you have access to any of the technology?

Computer Smart Cell phone Ordinary phone Television Internet Radio Tablet

Page 94 of 116

E. Access to and Use of Technology If you have access to a computer, how often do you use it?

Make calls Send and receive messages Social networking News Sourcing material for my clients Book keeping for my business Other

How do you use your cell phone?

Social networking News Sourcing material for my clients Book keeping for my business Other

How do you use your computer / tablet?

Social networking News Sourcing material for my clients Book keeping for my business Other

What are the challenges you have with technology?

Do not have access to the devices My phone is limited in what it can do Do not have enough data Do not know how to use it well Do not have enough skills to use my phone / tablet for many functions Other

F. Any Other Comments Thank you for your participation

Page 95 of 116

Part II

Appendix 1: Applications of ICT in Skills Development, India This table was compiled from a combination

and ICT tools were listed on the websites,

of information found on each of the train-

while the blend and form of training are

ing provider’s websites and analysis of the

based on descriptions of the training modal-

blended learning model and form of train-

ity, as described on the training provider’s

ing. Information on the target population

websites.

Training Provider

Target Population

ICT Tool/Blend

IGNOU Gyanvani

Target: rural and urban school drop-outs

Radio

Courses: Cover different aspects and levels of education including Primary and Secondary Education, Adult Education, Technical and vocational Education, Higher Education and Extension Education

Self-Blend

IGNOU Gyandarshan

Target: rural and urban school drop-outs

Direct to home TV

Courses: Cover different aspects and levels of education including Primary and Secondary Education, Adult Education, Technical and vocational Education, Higher Education and Extension Education

Self-Blend

IGNOU Digital Green

Target: rural communities

Videos

Courses: locally relevant agronomic and livelihood practices

Self-Blend

Form of Training Informal/Nonformal

Informal/Nonformal

Informally employed and unemployed rural and urban areas IL&FS Skills

Target: “vulnerable populations” and school dropouts; placement linked focus Courses: Wide range from agriculture automotive, apparel to wellness, healthcare, and construction trades (assistant electrician, helper mason)

Page 96 of 116

ICT-enriched Brick and Mortar

Formal

Training Provider Larson and Tubro CSTI

SkillPro

Target Population Target: 5th and 8th grade school dropouts in rural areas and ITI graduates

Skill Train

LMS

Courses: construction trades

ICT-enriched Brick and Mortar

Use of ICT: Teaching and learning

Lab-Rotation

Target: school dropouts, ITI graduates, etc.; placement linked focus

LMS

Courses: automotive, retail, electrician, IT, ITenabled services, etc.

AMMACHI Labs

ICT Tool/Blend

Formal

ICT-enriched Brick and Mortar Station Rotation and Flex

Target: women in rural India

Tablets, Laptops,

Courses: tailoring, handicraft, and construction trades

VOOCs

Target: rural school dropouts and urban youth

Smart Phone, Tablets and Digital Notebooks

Courses: mobile, electronics and computer hardware repair, plumbing, and masonry

Form of Training

Non-Formal

Station Rotation and Flex Informal and Formal

Use of ICT: TVSD provider and e-content developers

Page 97 of 116

Appendix 2: I nterview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector, India Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector in India A. About the Respondent 1. Training Provider 2. Full Name 3. What is your role here? B. About the Training Provider 4. What training courses are currently offered that fall within the construction sector? 5. How often are these courses offered per year? (For example, the number of times plumbing, bar bending, masonry, etc. are offered per year). 7. How many construction-training students can this facility train per year? [To understand the training capacity of training provider] 8. How many students enroll in construction training programs per year? [Number of students by trade: carpentry, electrician, plumbing, etc.] 9. Approximately how many students are in each classroom? 10. What is the completion and dropout rate of students? 11. How many students complete with certification per year? 12. How many students complete without certification per year? 13. On average, what is the placement rate of students for each trade?

C. About the Student Population (This will only be asked of principals, or senior representatives that are likely to have this information.)

The following questions are specific to each construction trade course offered if possible or else, among total number of construction training candidates at this facility 14. Gender breakdown of your students (specific to each construction trade course if possible or among total number of candidates): Female: Male: Other: 15. What is the approximate age breakdown of students enrolled (specific to each construction trade, if possible or else, among all construction trade candidates)

Page 98 of 116

Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector in India 16. Socio-economic background composition of your students (specific to each construction trades, if possible or else, among total number of trainees): a. Percentage Below Poverty Line: b. Percentage Above Poverty Line: c. Percentage from rural/village areas: d. Percentage from urban/slum areas: e. Average distance of home to training facility: f. Means of transportation for students: 17. Education background of students No formal education Primary/basic education High school/secondary education Post-secondary education Vocational Training 18. On average, what is the caste composition of your student demographic? Brahmin Forward Caste Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Other Backward Caste

D. Technology Integrated Instruction The following questions are specific to construction trade courses 19. Please describe the ways in which the training content is being taught (lecture, hands-on, peer teaching, etc.)? 20. Is technology integrated into the training taught at [Training Provider]?

Yes No 21. Which construction trade courses integrate ICT or could integrate into the training (for example is technology integrated in the electrician and plumbing courses, but not in the masonry course)? 22. Which of the following technologies are used or could be used in training? (Select all that apply)

Computers/Laptops/ Tablets/Electronic Readers (iPad, Kindle, etc.) Television/DVR

Page 99 of 116

Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector in India Projectors Smart boards Radio Mobile Technology (Cell phone, smart phone, etc.) Game Devices (Kinect, Wii, etc.) Educational or Reference Applications (such as Google maps) Simulators (such as bar bending simulators) Other: 23. Please describe how ICT [that is mentioned by the respondent in the previous question] is used or could be used in training (for example, is the computer or projector used to present lectures or videos for theoretical lessons, game devices or simulators used simulate practice for practical skills, etc.)? 24. Please describe how frequently the ICT mentioned is used or should be used in training? (For example, every training session, once in a while, etc.) 25. In addition to ICT enhanced instruction, is technology being used or could be used in any other ways such as for administrative purposes, monitoring, assessments, etc.? 26. Is ICT integrated into any other trades taught at [the Training Provider]? Please describe.

Yes No E. Perceived Benefits of Technology Integrated Education 27. If using technology, how long has the technology been a part of the instruction? 28. Users of technology: Since integrating technology into the instruction and training process, have you observed any differences in the following areas, as a result of the integration of ICT versus the traditional method?

Non-users of technology: Do you anticipate or believe that technology integrated instruction could have an impact on any of the following? Please explain. a. Student Enrolment b. Student Attendance c. Student Performance d. Drop-Out Rates e. Completion Rates f. Certification Rates g. Placement h. Cost of Training

Page 100 of 116

Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector in India 29. Do you find the use of ICT in teaching has better enabled you to stay up to date with the current needs of the industry? Please explain how/how not? Non-users of technology: Do you think that the use of ICT in teaching enables providers to deliver content that is up to date with the current needs of the industry? 30. What are some other benefits you have observed that the use of ICT in teaching has lent to the learning process? Please describe. (For example, has it facilitated a more standardized approach to training, enabled greater peer-to-peer interaction, collaborative learning, are students developing skills in digital technology, affect on class size, etc.) Non-users of technology: Are you aware of any other benefits that the use of ICT offers the learning process?

31. Do you think ICT can or should replace a teacher entirely? Why/Why not?

32. Do you envisage the use of ICT in teaching will increase in the future? Please explain.

F. Integration of Technology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Practical Considerations â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Skip this section if respondent does not use technology in teaching

33. From a training providerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective, what are the practical processes required in the integration of ICT into the instruction? (For example does the use of technology require training the teaching staff, preparing teaching manuals, power requirements, etc.)

34. How did the students respond to the use of technology initially? Please describe how long it took for students to feel comfortable with learning through technology and challenges faced in this process, if any.

35. How did the trainers and teaching staff respond to the use of technology to train? Please describe how long it took for trainers to feel comfortable with teaching with technology and challenges faced in this process, if any.

G. Factors that influence the use of technology 37. What [do you think] prompted your organization to integrate technology into teaching? Non-users of technology: What do you think prompts organizations to integrate technology into teaching?

Page 101 of 116

Interview guide for vocational training providers on use of ICT-enhanced training methods for training in the construction sector in India 38. Who decides when technology is integrated into the instruction? Follow Up: To what extent does the individual teacher determine the use of technology in training?

Non-users of technology: How should the use of technology in instruction be decided or determined?

39. Are you aware of whether funding (public or private) or government policies play a role in the incorporation of technology in training?

40. Does or should the skill level of the trade being taught influence the use of technology? Please explain/describe.

H. Barriers to Integration 41. If you are not extensively using technology or stopped using technology in the instruction of construction trades courses, what are some of the reasons?

Page 102 of 116

Appendix 3: Formal vs. non-formal education Vocational education learning pathways may

tices make to a nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skill development

be generally categorized as either formal or

landscape:

non-formal learning or education. Cedefop (2015) provides the following distinction between the two forms:

To devise and deliver training programmes oriented to the specific skill requirements of the client group and de-

Non-formal education and training is un-

signed to take into account the variety of

derstood as education and training lead-

social, cultural, local, political and tech-

ing to qualifications, which are not direct-

nological factors affecting it, therefore

ly recognised as such by relevant national

demands a high level of expertise, com-

education authorities (or equivalent au-

bined with insight, empathy, and flexi-

thorities) or not leading to any qualifica-

bility of approach. It is largely for these

tions at all (although recognition and val-

reasons that NGOs have been more suc-

idation of learning outcomes could then

cessful than the Government in educa-

be used and indirectly lead to formal

tion and training in the informal sector.

qualifications). This concept is therefore distinguished from formal education and training, which: (a) typically takes place in (or, in the case of formal apprenticeships, dually involve) the system of schools, colleges and universities and other formal education institutions; (b) normally, although not necessarily, constitutes a continuous ladder of education for children and young people; (c) is directly relevant for the determination of the highest level of formal education attained. It is also distinguished from random and informal learning which are not intentional and/or not institutionalised.

In addition to the Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) and Industrial Training Centre (ITC), which represent formal education training streams, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s larger skill development landscape, largely facilitated by the NSDC consists of non-formal and informal education providers supported by private, for-profit entities and NGO actors working to meet the demand and requirement for skilled personnel in India (Chenoy, 2013; Sanghi and Sensama, 2014). The countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s latest skill development policies (i.e. PMKVY) incentivize alignment with national occupational standards set by the MSDE, in cooperation with NSDC and the sector skill

After exploring education for the informal

council, indicating a general trend towards

sector in Chile, Ghana, Kenya and India,

private actor driven skill development.

Fiona Leach (1995) articulated the unique contribution non-formal and informal prac-

The MSDE and NSDC establishment of Sector Skill Councils (SSCs), National Oc-

Page 103 of 116

cupational Standards (NOS), and Common

ganized according to the National Standard

Norms43 (described in greater detail on the

Qualification Framework (NSQF). Table 10

section on India’s skill development land-

provides one example of how the QP and

scape) demonstrate the nation’s vigorous

NOS are organized for each job role.

agenda to standardize and improve quality across the skill development landscape, among formal and non-formal training providers alike. NOSs specify the standard of performance, knowledge and understanding when carrying out a particular activity in the workplace. Each NOS defines one key function in a job role. Qualification Packs (QPs) are comprised of a set of NOSs or job duties, aligned to a job role in each industry sector. SSCs are responsible for the creation of QPs and NOS, and are publically available for one month on http://www.nsdcindia.org/nos, for feedback and comments by the stakeholders that participated in development and validation of standards. All comments/ feedback received during the period will be responded to by the respective SSC, facilitated by NSDC. The standards are generally institutionalized as NOS, following the one moth review process. The intricate process in developing NOSs and QPs illustrates the skill administration’s attention to strengthening the link and transparency between industry and the skill development landscape. The NOS and QPs drive the creation of curriculum and assessments. Job roles are created at various proficiency levels, ranging from Level 1 to Level 8, and orCommon Norms initiated in 2015 for the purpose of: “To harmonize the functioning of various skill development schemes and bring about uniformity and standardization among them.” (http://msde.gov.in/assets/images/Notification/Common%20Norms%20Notification.pdf) 43

Page 104 of 116

While the current policies are designed to improve the standardization and quality overall (vis-à-vis recognition as an NSDC Training Partner, curriculum alliance with NSQF, Common Norms, etc.), teaching and learning approaches between formal and non-formal training providers remain innately distinct. The co-existence of formal and non-formal education providers in India reflects the general acknowledgement that both streams of education are critical to the skill development agenda. A more extensive description of the QP and NOS, developed by the NSDC in conjunction with the relevant sector skill council industry (in this case construction), describe the knowledge, understanding and skills required of each job role. Knowledge comprises an understanding of the company and larger organizational context as well as technical understanding of and processes (i.e. procedural guidelines, health and safety processes, etc.). Skills prescribed for each role are divided into core or generic skills and professional skills. Core skills consist of writing, reading and oral communication skills relevant to the job role. Professional skills consist of various job-requisite life and soft skills such as decision making, planning, organizing, customer care, problem solving, critical thinking, team work, etc.

Table 10: Sample NOS and QP (NSDC, 2014)

Qualifications Pack Code

CON/Q 0202

Job Role

Assistant Bar Bender & Fixer Level-2

Sector

Construction

Sub-sector

1. Real Estate (Residential, Factories, Industry, Institutional & Special Economic Zone) 2. Infrastructure (Roads, Railways, Runways & Urban Utilities) 3. Power Generation (Hydro, Thermal & Nuclear)

Role Description

To work as Semi-Skilled Bar Bender & Fixer while attending and responding to the needs and requirements of the tasks independently as per given instruction and drawings. He should be able to engage suitably and productively the Helper Bar Bender & Steel fixer under him.

NSQF level

Minimum Educational Qualifications*

Equivalent to 5th Standard / Helper Bar Bender & Fixer Level-I qualified

Maximum Educational Qualifications*

12th Standard

Training (Suggested but not mandatory)

Trained to qualify test & assessment by Authorized agency for Behavior, Knowledge & Skill as per all relevant NOS for Assistant Bar bender & fixer level-2. Recommended training period 12 to 15 weeks for non-trained and non-qualified worker and 6 to 8 weeks for Helper Bar Bender & Fixer level-1 qualified with 9 to 18 months of experience.

Page 105 of 116

Appendix 4: Forms of training delivery observed in the field A less frequently discussed factor that influ-

derstand the nature of learning. It is more

ences the use of ICT in training is the form of

accurate to conceive ‘formality’ and ‘infor-

skill development delivery: Formal Training,

mality’ as attributes present in all circum-

Non-Formal Training and Informal Training.

stances of learning, which is (i) a process, (ii)

The discourse on the distinctions between

a topic and context-bound matter and (iii) a

these forms of training or education is exten-

change factor.

sive and on-going, as Hellen Colley (2003) summarizes in the following excerpt:

The following table defines each training form, the general use of ICT found in prac-

Learning is often thought of as ‘formal’ or

tice of teaching and learning and the place-

‘informal’. These are not discrete catego-

ment of the VTPs explored within this study.

ries, and to think that they are is to misun-

Form of Training Delivery

ICT in Practice

Formal Training:

Tends to follow formal, traditional and • Structured program1 (scheduling, financing, learning ob- less flexible training models given the availability and formal training of jectives2) trainers and staff. Use of ICT tends to complement existing brick and mortar • Recognised by the attainment of a formal qualification1 training models. • Takes place in vocational centres, technical secondary VTP: Institute for Quality Collegiate schools, technical colleges, polytechnics3 IQETD, L&T CSTI and SkillPro Sources: 1NCVER 2013; 2Werquin, 2011; 3ADB, 2009 Non-Formal Training:

Tends to provide more flexible training models to cater to the needs of a • Additional, alternative and/or a complement to formal diverse learner population. education1 Limited resources such as formally • Caters to learners of all ages1 trained staff calls for greater need of • Short in duration, and typically provided in the form of tools such as ICT to supplement the short courses, workshops or seminars1 teaching and learning. • Training leads to no qualifications or qualifications that VTP: AMMACHI Labs are not formally recognized by national educational authorities1 • Adaptive and flexible program design2 • Learner-centred2 • Participatory, locally relevant content2 Sources: 1UNESCO UIS 2013, Global; 2M. Blaak, et al. 2012

Page 106 of 116

Form of Training Delivery Informal Training:

ICT in Practice Use of ICT is driven by the learn-

• On the job training/learning1; Enterprise-based er and will be informal (via online mediums such as learner driven Training3 • Learning from everyday activities at work, home or community2 • Learning without intention or awareness2 • Unstructured, unorganized1 Sources: 1NCVER 2013; 2Werquin, 2011; 3ADB, 2009

MOOCs, and other sources of information online i.e. ICT-enhanced VTPs (not included in this study): Khan Academy, YouTube, Facebook, etc.

Page 107 of 116

Appendix 5: AMMACHI Labs’ pilot phase AMMACHI Labs’ ICT tools and e-content

or more students per ICT tool, in resource

evolved and continue to develop through

constrained areas. Trials also demonstrat-

an iterative process that began with a series

ed that the ideal length of video class-

of pilot deployments, to effectively test the

rooms, in retaining the learner’s attention

concept of training individuals with little to

span, was between 7 and 10 minutes. It

no prior education or basic literacy, in vo-

was found that the peer interaction in the

cational trades using computers and tablet

computerized classroom eliminated inhibi-

based technology.

tions to learn and created a space for col-

Over a two-year period starting in 2009, AMMACHI Labs conducted four independent trials in rural areas (training women of low socioeconomic status and varied education backgrounds, from illiterate to primary or basic education achievement) to assess a variety of factors pertaining to the usability and efficacy of the ICT tool for teaching and learning. Overall, the pilot phase served as an effective test bed to investigate the following: i. Usability among a user group characterized by low education attainment and digital illiteracy: The trials demonstrated effectiveness in achieving: independent and self-paced learning; motivation to learn new subjects; interest in repeated use; recommendation of the course and learning tool to others; heightened sense of self-esteem and confidence and feelings of personal dignity in connection to learning a skill through technology. ii. Various deployment scenarios and blended learning models: 1-student per ICT tool (desktop computer, laptop, or tablet) in high resource settings, versus 2

Page 108 of 116

laborative learning. Furthermore, the sharing of a common experience in learning a vocational trade through the computers, the discovery of personal and shared perspectives through collaboration on tasks and in-class group discussion catalysed the formation of bonds that are found to be critical in the development of personal confidence and a sense of professional identity. AMMACHI Labs’ cVET pedagogy was accordingly designed to develop and strengthen a community of learning and practice within and without the classroom. iii. Necessary infrastructure and human resource inputs: the presence of a facilitator, who functions as the centre owner, coach and mentor to students, was determined essential; and the extent to which a subject matter expert is actually required (as per the course), for periodical handson practical training and assessment was monitored and found to be required intermittently. Combinations of on-line and offline modalities were also tested in Internet constrained areas. The pilot studies additionally confirmed that women living in poverty face a series of social deprivations (i.e. lack of access to re-

sources, social mobility, confidence, etc.) that

model. The successful training of more than

go beyond the issue of skill development,

3,000 women in rural India, and associated

hindering their ability to effectively transform

increases in empowerment across multiple in-

learned skills into a livelihood or income

dicators (potential to earn an income, access

generating activity (Kabeer et al, 2013). Life

to opportunities, self-confidence and partic-

enrichment education (LEE) was accordingly

ipation in the community), further demon-

developed and integrated into the AMMA-

strated the effectiveness of AMMACHI Labs’

CHI Labs’ computerized vocational educa-

cVET-LEE model in reaching remote popula-

tion and training (cVET) approach, to address

tions.

dimensions of personal empowerment: confidence, self-esteem, inter and intrapersonal development.

The host of lessons learned and best practices that emerged from the pilot phase and subsequent deployments helped cement the

Scaled operations

cVET-LEE model that AMMACHI Labs im-

Following the success of the pilot phase, the

plements in over 35 villages across 21 states

AMAMCHI Labs implemented the cVET-LEE

throughout India today. While AMMACHI

model on a large scale through the Women

Labs continues to cater to women in rural

Empowerment (WE) Project from 2012 to

India, men in the same villages where AM-

2014 in rural areas throughout the states Ker-

MACHI Labs Skill Development centres are

ala and Tamil Nadu (Transtec, 2014). Target-

located, have also begun to receive train-

ing women who self identified as struggling

ing. In 2017, AMMACHI Labs was featured

with financial independence, the WE Project

as a UNEVOC “Promising Practice” in em-

strove to economically and socio-democrati-

powering rural women through ICT in TVET

cally empower women and deliver socially in-

(UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2017).

clusive skill development using the cVET-LEE

Page 109 of 116

References Part I Barnabas, A., Anbarasu, J. D., & Paul, C. S. (2009). A study on the empowerment of women construction workers as masons in Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of International Women's Studies, 11(2), 121. Buckley, M., et al. (2016). Migrant Work & Employment in the Construction Sector. ILO. CETA (Construction Sector Education and Training Authority) (2013/14). ‘Sector Skills Plan Update, 2013/14’. Chen, M. (2007). Rethinking the Informal Economy: Linkages with the Formal Economy and the Formal Regulatory Environment. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2007/wp46_2007.pdf Ernsberger, L. (2016). Overview of India’s evolving skill development landscape. British Council. IBEF. (2017). Infrastructure Sector in India. Retrieved from: http://www.ibef.org/industry/infrastructure-sector-india.aspx on February 7, 2017. Fernández, C., Lilenstein, K., Oosthuisen, M. & Villar, L. (2016). Rethinking the effect of informality on inclusive growth: Lessons from Colombia and South Africa for their regions. Fedesarrollo, Colombia and Development Policy Research Unit, South Africa. Gupta, P., Gupta, R., & Netzer, T. (2009). Building India: Accelerating Infrastructure Projects. Mc Kinsey & Company, Mumbai, India. Heintz, J. (2009). Informality, Inclusiveness and Economic Growth: An overview of Key Issues. SIG Working Paper 2012/2. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA. Huitfeldt, H. & Jütting, J. (2009). Informality and Informal Employment. Promoting Pro-poor Growth: Employment. OECD Development Centre Icasa (2017). Bi-annual report on the analysis of tariff notifications submitted to icasa for the period 01 july 2017 to 31 december 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.icasa.org.za/uploads/ files/Bi-Annual-Retail-Tariffs-Report-Q4-2017.pdf IMF (2017). World Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/

Page 110 of 116

statistics/263617/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-india/. India Brand Equity Foundation (2017). Infrastructure. Unpublished presentation. International Labour organisation (2002). Provisional Record 25 Ninetieth Session, Geneva. Accessed January 2017, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc90/pdf/pr25.pdf Kraak, A. (2004). An overview of South African human resources. Cape Town: HSRC Press. Kleiner Perkins (2017). Internet Trends 2017. Retrieved from: http://dq756f9pzlyr3.cloudfront. net/file/Internet+Trends+2017+Report.pdf KPMG. (2016). Human Resource and Skill Requirements in Building Construction Real Estate Sector (2013-17, 2017-22). Retrieved from: http://www.nsdcindia.org/sites/default/files/files/ Building-Construction-Real-Estate.pdf on January 7, 2017. Kucera, D. & Rancolato, L. (2008). Informal employment: two contested policy issues. International Labour Review, 147 (4): 321 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 48. Ligthelm, A. (2004). Profile of Informal Mironterprise in the Retail Sector of South Africa. Southern African Business Review 8 (1) 39-52. Loots, A.E. (1998). Job creation and economic growth. The South African Journal of Economics, 66(3), 319 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 336. Marock, C. (2006). Barriers for young people in accessing employment. Unpublished paper, prepared for Researching Education and Labour (REAL) Centre. McGrath, S. (2003). Improving quality in South African Further Education and Training Colleges. Unpublished paper for Umalusi Conference. Pretoria: South Africa NSDC. (2015). Guidelines for Setting up of Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendra: Base Document for PMKK. Retrieved from: https://www.nsdcindia.org/New/sites/default/files/files/Guidelines_for_PMKK_2017.pdf on August 7, 2017. Oung, M. 2006: Conceptualising vocational knowledge, some theoretical consideration. In Young, M. & Gamble, J. (eds.) Knowledge, curriculum and qualifications for south African Further education. Cape Town: HSRC Press. Praveen,V. (2013).Informal Labour and Dynamics of the Construction Sector in India. Intercultural Resources.

Page 111 of 116

Rahul (2014). Participation of the Female Workers in the Construction industry in India: A Review. Ph.D Research Scholar Dept. Of Economics, Babasahib Bhimrao Ambedker (A Central University) Lucknow U.P. unpublished paper. Schneider, F. (2002). ‘Size and Measurement of the Informal Economy in 110 Countries around the World.’ Camberra: Workshop of Australian National Tax Centre pp. 1-50. Srivastava, R., & Jha, A. K. (2014). Capital and Labour Standards in the Organised Construction Industry in India: A Study Based on Fieldwork in the National Capital Region of Delhi. Report prepared for the ESRC Project on Labour Conditions and the Working Poor in India and China. Statistics South Africa (2011). The Census. Pretoria, South Africa Statistics South Africa (2017) Work and Labour Force. Pretoria. South Africa Statistics South Africa (2015). National and provincial labour market: The informal sector. Statistical release: P0211.4.3. Pretoria Unni, J. & Rani, U. (2003). Social protection for informal workers in India: Insecurities, instruments and institutional mechanisms. Development and Change, 34(1), 127–161. Unnithan (2016). 40 lakh migrant workers – Rs 25k cr flowing out of economy every year. Mathrubhumi March 30, 2016. http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/40-lakh-migrant-workers-rs-25k-cr-flowing-out-of-economy-every-year-english-news-1.960675 WEIGO (2017). Women in India’s Construction Industry. Retrieved from: http://www.wiego. org/informal-economy/women-india%E2%80%99s-construction-industry. World Bank (2017). Skilling India. Retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/06/23/skilling-india

Page 112 of 116

Part II Akshay, N., Sreeram, K., Anand, A., Venkataraman, R., & Bhavani, R. R. (2012, January). MoVE: Mobile vocational education for rural India. In Technology Enhanced Education (ICTEE), 2012 IEEE International Conference on (pp. 1-5). IEEE. Basu, C. K., & Majumdar, S. (2009). The Role Of Icts And TVET In Rural Development And Poverty Alleviation. In International Handbook Of Education For The Changing World Of Work (Pp. 1923 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1934). Springer Netherlands. Blignaut, S., Hinostroza, J., Els, C. Brun, M. (2010) ICT in education policy and practice in developing countries: South Africa and Chile compared through SITES 2006. Computers & Education, Volume 55 (4), 1552-1563. Chenoy, D. (2013). Skill Development in India; A Transformation in the Making. In India infrastructure report 2012: Private sector in education (pp. 199-207). IDFC Foundation. Routledge India. Chinien, C. (2003). Analytical Survey: The use of ICTs in technical and vocational education and training. Moscow, Russian Federation: UNESCO. Chinien, C., & Boutin, F. (2005, July). Framework for strengthening research in ICT-mediated learning. In Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, 2005. ITHET 2005. 6th International Conference on (pp. T3B-11). IEEE. Clarke. D., & Palmer. L. (2011). Skills for Employability: The Role of Information & Communication Technologies. GESCI. UN ICT task force. DTPS (2016). National Integrated ICT Policy White Paper. Department: Telecommunications and Postal Services, Republic of South Africa. European Union. (2011). Transferability of skills across economic sectors. FICCI (2010). The Skill Development Landscape in India and Implementing Quality Skills Training. ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited Goel, v. (2002). Student support in open and distance learning for TVET. Skills Development through Distance Education, 51. Majumdar, S. (2008). Workforce development in India: Policies and practices (No. id: 1779). Marope, P. T. M., Chakroun, B., & Holmes, K. P. (2015). Unleashing the potential: transforming technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO Publishing.

Page 113 of 116

MHRD, 2009. National Mission On Education Through Information And Communication Technology. Government of India. Retrieved from: http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ mhrd/files/upload_document/MissionDocument.pdf on November 24, 2016. MSDE, 2015. The National Skill Development Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Government of India. Retrieved from: http://msde.gov.in/assets/images/Skill%20India/ policy%20booklet-%20Final.pdf on December 5, 2016. Ndlovu, NS & Lawrence, D 2012. Th e quality of ICT use in South African classrooms. A paper presented at “Towards Carnegie III”, Cape Town. Perspectives, G. C., & Economics, O. (2015). Global construction 2030: a global forecast for the construction industry to 2030. Global Construction Perspectives and Oxford Economics: London, UK. Toyama, K. (2015). Geek heresy: Rescuing social change from the cult of technology. Public Affairs. United Nations (2015). Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300 Wheeler, S. (2001). Information and communication technologies and the changing role of the teacher. Journal of Educational Media, 26(1), 7-17 Yasak, Z. & Alias, M. (2014). ICT Integrations in TVET: Is it up to expectations? Procedia – Social and Behavorioral Sciences. 204 (2015). 88-97

Page 114 of 116

Contact

NORRAG 20, Rue Rothschild, P.O. Box 1672 1211 Geneva 1, Switzerland

T: +41 (0) 22 908 45 47 E: norrag@graduateinstitute.ch W: norrag.org