A STUDY OF THE FACTORS WHICH CORRELATE TO PUBLIC LIFE IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS by Charlene Christopher Liaw BA(Hons) Landscape Architecture Leeds School of Art, Architecture, & Design Leeds Metropolitan University 2013
Tiergaten, Berlin (2013)
Content Preface...................................................................................iii Introduction.............................................................................1 History and Precedence..........................................................3 Benefits and Problems............................................................7
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Factors..................................................................................11 Case Studies........................................................................23 Conclusion............................................................................39 Review..................................................................................40 Bibliography..........................................................................41
ii Amsterdam (2013)
Preface
iii (Public spaces, Amsterdam, 2013)
A few months back I decided to write this research paper on walkable cities and the principles and ideas that make people friendly public spaces. The drive to write this paper came from the displeasure I had in me and contempt towards the car culture and existing crime rates of people where I live at home. Yes, it’s personal. I could not walk 20 minutes out to the local shops next door without feeling insecure of myself in my surroundings. I could not take the idea of moving in cars all the time and getting angry with myself when I find myself stuck in a traffic jam. Moving to England from Malaysia for university has helped expose me to the the understanding of the importance of designing for the human scale and senses. In this research I aim to attack and criticise the problems faced, looking into the qualities that make a place safe yet enjoyable for people.
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Introduction
1 La Rambla, Barcelona (2013)
There are many major problems faced by inhabitants of the urban environment today and many of these problems have emerged after The World War II where many cities have decided to focus more on rebuilding their cities but neglected the need to build for the human senses. What are the possible factors that led to such negative consequences? Why is it important to look into these principles that make places relate to the human senses? Jan Gehl so eloquently spoke about how we definitely know more about good habitats for animals such as mountain gorillas, Siberian tigers, or panda bears yet there has been very little research put into the study of urban habitats for Homo sapiens (Gehl, 2011). This research paper is aimed at looking into the factors that encourage and deter walkability; what makes a place suitable for the human scale for creating public life and thus creating livable environments for people in cities. This study will first look into the emergence of walkable streets and the way it has changed over time, followed by the benefits of walking and being outdoors. It will then look into the possible factors that encourage and hinder people from going outside in the public realm, supported by case studies in the immediate chapter. To recollect everything researched in this study, a summary with a list of criteria will then be tabulated and finally concluded with suggestive ways that can be used in approaching the problems faced in cities today and how they can be designed for walkability.
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History & Precedence
3 Frederiksberggade before it was established as Strøget in 1962 (2012)
Pedestrian Streets Timeline (2007)
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During the transitional period of time between the World War II to the 1970s, the priorities of city rebuilding has driven planners and architects but many modernists have rejected the idea of the city and public space. The other rapid development was of the increase of cars and the focus of transport and road construction.
Traditional cities Traditional cities emerged during the Middle Ages as pedestrian streets were designed to be user friendly in terms of foot traffic and were used for markets, town meetings, parades, religious processions and etc.
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (2001)
Many European cities of today still hold that strong character and the most notable one would be Venice, Italy where the scale, dimension of streets, distribution of uses along streets and squares, the scale and detail of the buildings are in harmony with human scale and senses. It supports the movement and permeability of pedestrians very directly (Gehl et al, New city spaces, pg. 10, 2001).
Invaded Cities Public spaces in old cities and urban areas have changed dramatically where car traffic has gained control. Getting around by foot becomes unpleasant and challenging and it is impossible to spend time outside due to lack of space and environmental issues. In many impoverished public spaces such as Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and Istanbul, Turkey people walk through spaces out of necessity but not because they want to (Gehl et al, 2001).
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Istanbul, Turkey (2001)
Abandoned Cities Abandoned cities have weaker background of urban tradition where car culture developed easily overtime due to lack of major constraints from urban planning. Kunstler described it as “the ghastly tragedy of the suburbs� (2007), about how American cities did not have the cultural precedence such as can be found in Europe. There is an abundance of parking spaces greying the areas between the buildings. The experience of walking and the transitions between them were deemed undesirable (Gehl et al., 2001).
Reconquered Cities The interest in public life and public spaces has begun to grow again over the past 40 years as a reaction to the increasingly poorer conditions in urban life. The idea of using public space as social and recreational space grew gradually. During the 1960s and 1970s, pedestrian streets and squares were established in European cities. Conditions and sidewalks were improved and enhanced. The oil crisis in the 1970s was an important turning point for traffic conditions in cities as this helped control the encroachment of cars. People started to be interested in bicycling and using transport as a means of commuting. Many urban visions such as traffic safety, traffic patterns, health, and reduction of resource consumption and pollution was envisaged (Gehl et al., 2001).
At present time Different ways of approaching the problems faced in cities have contributed in the way that they are today affecting its inhabitants. It is sometimes political entities that govern the way cities have been designed. The differences in the way cities have developed around the world had made very different impacts on the way cities were shaped in the world today. The next chapter will focus on the benefits of walking and interacting with the landscape around us within an urban context.
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Benefits and Problems
7 Place de la bourse waterfront, Bordeaux (2013)
This chapter focuses on the benefits of walking and its correlation to health, environment and ultimately happiness.
Green mode of transport Walking in a city is an environmentally friendly medium of commuting as opposed to driving due to already recognised reasons – the emission of harmful gases in the environment. Such harmful gases often lead to the greenhouse effect in urban environments; these are gases that do not get through the atmosphere and thus get trapped within the urban environment, heating up the temperature within it. Not surprisingly, oil depletion is a rising problem we face today due to increase of automobiles; struggling to overcome this problem with alternatives. Walkable cities help combat this problem that is escalating in cities around the world today.
Health Walking promotes mental and physical health and reduces stress. It is a form of exercise that is easy to do given the quality of the pedestrian. It makes use of the entire body, it enhances and awakens the senses and makes people more aware of their surroundings. Waiting in line in hectic traffic jams can be stressful and cumbersome, and therefore having the freedom to walk around on your own foot in a safe and permeable environment is a better means of getting to where you want. It also promotes cardiovascular fitness, developing stronger bones for people as well as control weight. Montgomery (2013), Gill (2013), and Tumlin (2013) trust this notion. NCHS Data Brief (2012 quoted by Speck 2013), expressed that one of the problems that escalated in the 70s in America was that 1/10 people were obese. Now, 1/3 American people are obese. During the past 20 years, there has been a dramatic increase in obesity in the United States and rates remain high. More than one-third of U.S. adults (35.7%) and approximately 17% (or 12.5 million) of children and adolescents aged 2—19 years are obese.
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In this respect, it might be interesting to know that in Japan, you will be fined for being obese, what seems like quite an absurd regulation to many but also contributes and helps maintain health of the inhabitants of the country (Nakamura 2009). Driving is distressing for both the brain and the body and the blood of people who live in cities are nothing but a cluster of stress hormones. Research shows that whether people were driving or taking the train, peak hour travellers suffered worse stress as opposed to fighter pilots and riot police who are facing mobs or angry protesters (Clark, 2004).
Why would travelling more slowly and using more effort offer more satisfaction than driving? Part of the answer exists in basic human physiology. We were born to move. Immobility is to the human body what rust is to the classic car. Stop moving long enough, and your muscles will atrophy. Bones will weaken. Blood will clot. ... Immobility is not merely a state closer to death: it hastens it. (Montgomery 2013).
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As noted in the previous sub topic on health benefits, it is interesting to mention that the health of inhabitants of a city could correlate to the happiness of people. It has a lot to do with the way that cities are shaped today and the way people interact with the landscape around them. How so? How does the design of cities complement the happiness of individuals? This question deserves some form of recognition solely due to the fact that the dynamic cities of the world today are produced by the most miserable cities. A study in Sweden shows that people who have to endure a 45-minute commute were 40% more likely to get divorced (Sandow, 2011), and people who live in car-dependent neighbourhoods outside urban centres trust each other less than people who live in walkable neighbourhoods where housings are of mixed use. Drivers report feeling much more in control of themselves than public transport users. Having a car has become a symbolic product of temporary boost in status and power and in some cases considered a luxury, but despite the almighty feeling of being in control on the road, half of the commuters who live in big cities and suburbs have claimed to dislike the journey they must endure every day. There is a counterbalance of power that is naturally derived from the urban system (Montgomery, 2013).
God made us walking animals, pedestrians. As a fish needs to swim, a bird to fly, a deer to run, we need to walk, not in order to survive, but to be happy.
Pe単alosa, quoted by Lezon, 2013).
To sum it up, the automobile domination in cities have caused many social deficits in the world today and walking clearly benefits people and the environment in so many ways. In the next chapter, the factors that intrigue and deter individuals to walk will be looked into.
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Factors
11 Tiergaten, Berlin 2 (2013)
This chapter looks into the factors that deter walkability and the use of public realm as well the factors that encourage it. A lot of focus has been put into the human scale and human behavior, and their interdependence on cars. This chapter looks into the qualities of places that make it inviting or repelling for people.
Safety, protection, and existing crime rates People want to feel safe when they go out of the comforts of their own home. There are a number of needs that people seek when leaving their homes to go from one place to another, whether it be walking into town or to the local farmer’s shop just five minutes away. This sub topic looks into the protection from vehicles and crime. Physiological and psychological protections are some of the most basic human needs as stated in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs. Some of the types of protections are summarised in the diagram below. The protection from crime, vehicular traffic and unpleasant weather are some of the very basic reasons why people would actually use the public realm and be drawn to walk in the public realm.
Satety and Security Needs
From people Control
From machines From Nature From Built Environment
Safety and security needs (2010)
Privacy Territories
Boundaries
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs (2013) 12
Existing crime rates Could the existing crime rates in a city deter people from wanting to walk and thus be dependent on cars instead as a safer way of commuting? Could this be a major factor of deterrence for people to walk? For instance, in Kuala Lumpur’s metropolis of shopping malls, luxury hotels, and sprawling suburbs, the rise in crime rates over the past couple of years that include murder, rape, and thefts has made a major impact on the inhabitants of the city causing them to be more dependent on their cars as it is perceived as a safer means of commuting. “Remember to carry your backpack or purse on the shoulder AWAY from the road to prevent having it snatched by motorbikers.” was a warning sent out to American citizens by the United States Embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Fuller T. 2013).
Beware of snatch theft sign (2009)
If the environment and nature of cities were free of crime and uncivilised crime, which will be further discussed in the next paragraph, wouldn’t people feel that it is safer to go out of their houses knowing that they would not get attacked or mugged? This then leads to the topic of quality of streets, and the scale of buildings, which will be discussed later on in this chapter. Some of the crime rates that exist in some developing countries involve the safety of women to the point that they have to actively strategise when they access public space in terms of where they go, what time they go out, and even what they wear! In the chart below, research shows that 40% of women felt unsafe being on roadsides and 31% feel unsafe using public transport (Procheva, 2013).
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Statistics 1 (2013)
Automobiles deemed dangerous How does the increase in automobiles affect the safety of pedestrians? How does this affect one’s decision to walk? For instance, before Bogotá’s city transformation, children were denied the opportunity to enjoy the city’s simplest daily pleasures: walking on convivial streets, sitting around in public, and playing. Children were non-existent on the streets due to the streets being deemed dangerous as a result of the escalating number of automobiles. Montgomery (2013) suggests this notion.
Car domination in Kuala Lumpur (2013)
Car interdependence and culture of a city Some of the challenges faced today by designers who try to design walkable pedestrians for people are the increased mobility of cars. Being in cars decreases social interaction. This is affected by the conflict between social space and movement space with private cars facilitating public spaces.
Urban sprawl infographics (2013)
Having a car and using it as a means of a transport is considered a luxury as opposed to getting on traffic transport in many developing countries. Could this be a potential contributing factor to the rapidly increasing number of automobiles in many cities today? Having said that, would it be fair to say that people are walking and going on their bicycles less due to such perception? Are people ashamed of cycling and walking?
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Much of the car culture today as seen in developing countries today are due to the fact that people perceive cycling and walking as a means of transport for people of lower income. This can be observed in Bogotá, Colombia before its urban transformation; before cycling paths were developed and people felt ashamed to be on their bikes (Peñalosa, Urbanized, 2011). The status symbol of cars can also be illustrated in Vietnam and having the price of vehicles and fewer restrictions in import tariffs is not helping to combat the problems. “Once people get into a car,” Valkovic warns, “it’s hard to get them out.” (Hoang, 2013). How can this problem be tackled? How does the design of cities blur the lines between people of lower and higher income and how does this assist in overcoming the supremacy of automobiles in cities? This can be illustrated in Bogotá’s city transformation, and also in Copenhagen. Having a well-designed and robust policy of pedestrian prioritisation and a network of bicycle lanes for the citizens so that they feel proud and safe to be walking or cycling.
Climate In some cases, people do not want to go outside because of the climate. Whether in the winter or a tropical environment, in tropical countries like Malaysia, or countries with high temperature such as in the UAE, where it is constantly hot all year round, people are more inclined to want to stay indoors such as in shopping malls and would rather commute by automobiles. In the winter on the other hand, people spend less time outside due to the low temperatures. O’Hare suggests that climate may hinder walkability due to unpleasant weather (2006).
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Urban sprawl Another rising problem that urban environments face today would be the increase in urban sprawls and the rise of suburbia. This problem leads to the interdependence on automobiles because people do not have a choice but commute on cars as they live out of the vicinity of the city centre and are forced to commute to work and to shops by cars. This problem can be depicted in many American cities today (Burns B et al, 2006). Children are too young to drive, that means they only really experience life outside in public spaces at the age of 16 when they get to drive. The elderly and the handicapped on the other hand are not physically able to drive and this means that they are constrained to only having people drive them to places. (Burns B et al, 2006). These problems highlighted depict the need for people to commute in cars because they do not have the option to walk.
16 Urban sprawl (2007)
Correlation of Street Quality and Street Activity Could the quality of streets have anything to do with determining street activity in a certain place? This sub topic looks into how it influences pedestrians and invites people to go outside into the public realm. From the width of streets, to the ease of movement, to materials and to the façade of buildings, everything down to the smallest details such as seating, curbs and ramps. All of these details matter in determining whether people use the streets that were made or not. How is this so?
Width of streets The human tolerance of interferences encountered during walking varies from person to person. Streets that are narrow with rich experiences yet wide enough to allow room for people to manoeuvre their way through creates an ease of movement for people. A notable example of this can be depicted in Strøget, Copenhagen, where a street is not too wide and is always filled with people no matter what season it is of the year. Why do streets need to be a certain width to encourage people to move through them? The answer to that question can be found in another question at hand. Would we feel comfortable if we find ourselves in an overcrowded street where people have to walk behind one another, rather than beside each other? Adverse walking conditions should also be taken thought of as people avoid wet, slippery pavements due to water, snow, slush whenever possible.
17 Sketch 1 (2013)
Design detail Paving, materials, seating, facades, curb and ramps are all important aspects of design detailing that may make or break the value of a street. Adding attractive and suitable detailing on streets help give a sense of place and identity to streets. How do these little details invite people to use the public realm and to interact with the landscape around them, and how do designers improve them? Unattractive ground floor facades are boring, unattractive and could even be scary at night for street users. This actually deters people from actually wanting to take a certain route at night. There are no visible variation in function and are monotonous. There is nothing interesting enough to engage the users of the street or to create an experiential walk as they make their way from one place to another. A case study that can be used as an example here is the city of Melbourne. After its urban regeneration, footpaths were widened, avenue of trees have been planted along the streets, and new paving materials helped give the city its own identity. As a result of the transformation, there was an increase in public life and street activities such as sitting, playing, and people watching rather than just walking through the landscape without experiencing what is there.
18 Quaint balcony, Bordeaux (2013)
Distances Walking distances of streets in terms of experienced distances may also affect the experience of users. For example a straight, long, dull path may be boring as opposed to a street that may wind a little bit so the space is closed and the distance that one may walk to is not immediately visible. (Gehl, 2001)
Narrow streets of Barcelona (2013) 19
Correlation of architecture and street activities
Height of buildings How do buildings relate to the streets below them and how does architecture play a role in encouraging or deterring the activities that happen in between them? The best buildings are the ones that are of street level. It makes it easier for people in interact with the built form rather than skyscrapers where people are not able to look at what is around them. For example, in Copenhagen, buildings are horizontal and are of homogenous height.
Invitation to be able to see what is going on If the orientation of building entrances were not in relation to the pedestrian routes and areas for outdoor stays, then there would hardly be any interaction between what is going on in the buildings and people on the streets. (Gehl, 2001). Furthermore, when people in buildings are able to see outside of buildings, they are more likely to interact with activities outside of their homes. For example, children who can see the street or playground from their homes can follow what is happening outside may potentially be more motivated to go out and play, as opposed to people who live in high-rise buildings who are not able to see the street from their homes.
Man observing the streets in Bordeaux (2013) 20
Orientation of buildings initiate street surveillance “Activities in the buildings and on the street can enrich each other. In the evenings friendly lights shine out through the windows of shops and other ground activities, contributing a feeling of security as well as genuine safety.� (Jacobs, p. 48, 1961) This acts as a natural form of street surveillance where people in the buildings keep an eye out for people outside of the buildings within eye reach. Besides inviting people to interact with its surroundings, Jacobs also suggests that the type of shops such as stores, bars, and restaurants that are present along sidewalks give a concrete reason for people to use the streets. Storekeepers and small businessmen are typical eye watchers who keep the peace and order of the sidewalks. (pg. 46, 2000) However, there may still be doubts about this as it depends on whether people are willing to take action if they witness a crime. This is known as the bystanders effect as described by Newman (pg. 78, 1973).
21 Friendly lights shining out windows at night (2013)
Somewhere to be Pedestrian travel is rarely single purpose: in going from one place to another, we stop to buy a newspaper or a bottle of milk; talk to a neighbour, colleague or friend; window shop; have a drink at a pavement café; or, more simply, enjoy a view or watch the ‘world go by’ (Carmona et al. quotes Jacobs 1961) famously highlighted that walking as a mechanism that turns roads into streets where social interaction and economic exchange flourish. Having said that, people usually enjoy going outside due to what is there. Why is it that it enriches the experience of the walk to go from one place to another and how does it make the journey worthwhile? If we take Copenhagen as an example, there are many old squares such as Gammeltrov, Nytorv, and Amagertorv where there is always on going social activity that encourages people to go outside. Such central social hubs give life to the place that people live in and create a friendly informal place that people can go to interact with one another. This can also be seen in Melbourne as a result of its urban regeneration where people were seen outside not only just walking, but also being part of the city. If there isn’t much of a reason to go to a place, people might be less likely to want to make an effort to go to a place. This can be observed in Brasilia, where every activity is organised and are mono functional. To sum up this chapter, there are many factors that hinder and intrigue people to be part of the city and to interact with the landscape around it and there are many suggested theories of how this could be true. Interestingly, the factors that have been discussed in this chapter creates a wider understanding of the way streets may be improved and that incorporating design based on human scale is a very important aspect in making sure public spaces work to bring life into a place.
22 Sidewalk cafes, Bordeaux (2013)
Case studies From Copenhagen, a city that was designed and driven by the human scale, to Bogotรก, a third world city that had undergone urban transformation to make the city much more livable than it was ever before, the case studies that have been selected for this study illustrate a couple of cities of varying natures. The case studies selected will look into their characteristics and extent to which they provide protection, enjoyment, comfort and response to the human needs and scale.
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24 Sketch 2 (2013)
Copenhagen, Denmark Designing for human scale
25 Aerial view of Copenhagen (Gehl et al. 1996)
Copenhagen as a single storey, horizontal city Copenhagen is a “one-storey city” with no underground shopping facilities, tunnels, or tubes. It has no second or third storey pedestrian networks, or footbridges spanning the streets. Every urban activity happens on ground level and this helps people interact with activities in and out of the buildings. (Gehl, 2011) People can relate directly to the scale of the buildings, having narrow and relatively small streets. The relationship between building heights and ground floor area where space is limited brings everyone closer to each other and to building façades. Such an interaction creates a rich sensory stimulation for people. The narrow buildings make it more interesting and pleasant to walk on the streets because façade structures have the visual effect of making distances shorter and comfortable for walking. Stairs, niches, stones and recesses also make it optional for sitting or standing. (Gehl, 2011)
Increase in cycling graph (Gehl et al., 1996)
Copenhagen cycling policy and pedestrian streets Due to the way the city has been designed, there is a sense of pedestrian freedom in the city. Some of the main streets in Copenhagen include Strøget and Strædet. Strøget is a 11m wide, one-way traffic street that was pedestrianised in 1962 and is the main link in pedestrian system between the east-west connections in the city centre. Statistics shows that during the winter, it is used by 25,000 pedestrians between 1000 – 1800 hours on winter days and 55,000 on summer days (Gehl et al 1996) Strædet on the other hand was a street that was used to carry heavy traffic including bus lines but in 1989 was experimentally reclassified as a pedestrian priority street where pedestrians and bicycles have priority but cars can enter at low speed. It is an example of changes that worked well and an example of a mixed-use space of pedestrians, bicycles, cars and street space. Antique and handicrafts also make it a quaint and charming place.
Bicycle lane network (Gehl et al., 1996) 26
For the past 30 years, Copenhagen has had a very distinct policy to invite people to bicycle as much as possible. A complete network of bicycle lanes had been designed into the city that they call the “Copenhagen-style” bicycle lanes. The bike lanes are always next to the sidewalks. Sidewalks are prioritised for pedestrians. They all run parallel to each other in a sense that the parked cars protect the cyclists from the moving cars (Gehl, Urbanized, 2011). This policy invites people to get on their bikes as much as possible showing the citizens that they can actually do it and to not be afraid to get on their bikes because now it is much safer. It is a smart and a healthy way of commuting in the city. In the past 10 years, bicycling has doubled and today, about 37% of people commute to work on their bicycles (Ibid).
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Strøget pedestrian street (Gehl, et al., 1996)
Copenhagen as an activity hub Copenhagen is a city where people can go outside and interact with one another. “Do not look at how many people are walking in the city, but look at how many people have stopped walking to stay and enjoy what is there.” (Gehl, Urbanized 2011) Some of the examples of squares that still invite people out to enjoy the city are Gammeltrov, Nytorv, and Amagertorv all of which have the same similarities in terms of public life where people watch people play music; buying food from stalls; sitting at a café watching other people as well as parades. (Gehl, et al, 1996)
Strædet, Copenhagen (Gehl, et al., 1996)
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Melbourne, Australia
Strategic planning and urban transformation of a city
29 Federation Square, Melbourne (2013)
Melbourne City Strategy Plan By 1980, Melbourne was said to be inhospitable and unplanned due to its laissez-faire approach it its economy. This then led to a strategy plan laid out over the 20 years from 1985 - 2005.
Urban regeneration Over the past decade, Melbourne has experienced urban renaissance through gradual yet consistent transformation of streets, lanes and public places. Some of the major achievements made by Melbourne’s strategic plan for urban regeneration are the improved streets for public life, new squares, promenades, and parks. The improved network of routes of public transport and cycle paths has also been implemented.
Melbourne city centre: Before and after (2013)
Melbourne Strategy Plan study area (2013)
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Pedestrianised streets and public places The walking environment in the city of Melbourne has improved significantly through a coordinated program of streetscape improvement works. The physical environment and design of the city’s streets has catered for safety, comfort and engagement of the pedestrian, inviting people to use it within a wide choice of city routes. There has been an increase in the level of pedestrian priority in the public space in Melbourne over the past 20 years. This includes wider footpath, improved paving, and tree planting. Materials were also used to give the place its own identity and these can be depicted in the new bluestone pavements and perforated steel plates. A dark green colour that harmonises well with the colour of the pavement was chosen for the new benches, tables, screens, planters and bins. Rows of trees and street lamps and regular sidewalk that were designed communicates the message that this is a city street. A notable public square in Melbourne today is Federation Square. It is a highly successful centre for cultural activity and a social hub and known as the city’s new atrium. The square encourages a mix of attractions for people to engage themselves with each other. These include visitors and tourists, students, and citizens. The design of the independent buildings within a larger whole-of block scale draws inspiration from the city’s network of arcades and laneways. Another outdoor space worth mentioning is Birrarung Marr, an inspiring contemporary public park that defines Melbourne’s traditional parks. It is an environmentally sustainable park that provides diverse recreational activities and events for people.
31 Birrarung Marr (2011)
Street musicians (2013)
Added dimensions
Birrarung Marr (2013)
Permanent art installations (2013)
Permanent art installations ii (2013)
Some other added dimensions incorporated into the city also helped improve the city of Melbourne in terms of urban activity for people. These include extended micro-scale retail such as newsstands, and fruit/food stalls. Lunchtime street closures, and permanent/ temporary laneway closures were also used to assist in reducing automobile impact and present opportunities for informal social interaction and create sense of place for people.
Implications As a result of the urban regeneration, there was a remarkable increase in public life in between the years 1993 and 2004. The increase in percentage can be seen in the bar charts on the right. There was also an increase in stationary activities. Not walking: sitting, watching, leaning, standing, listening and playing. This shows that people are being there because it is the place to be for its own sake rather than a place where you just walk through and overlook everything that is there.
Statistics 3 (2004)
Statistics 2 (2004)
Statistics 3 (2004)
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Bogotรก, Colombia
Significant transformations in third world cities
33 Streets of Bogota (2012)
City transformation Bogotá is capital city that has embarked on a journey of significant transformations since 1996. Using education campaigns through reclamation of public spaces and urban mobility as the driving force in delivering a more human environment. This contributed to persuading people to change their daily routines with regards to physical activity. Bogotá has undergone a series of transformation with its implementation various stages of urban strategies. When Enrique Peñalosa was elected mayor in the 1998 – 2000, drastic urban measures was taken to restrict the use of cars by restricting the use of car use and parking. (Fajardo, Topos, 2007) Implementation of improved public transport Peñalosa emphasised that Bogotá had been left deeply wounded by the 20th century’s dual urban legacy due to the fact that the city had been gradually reoriented around cars. Urban families had been denied the opportunity to enjoy the city’s simplest pleasures of walking on amiable streets or sitting around in public (Montgomery 2013). In 2000, the implementation of TransMilenia Bus Rapid Transit System helped improve mobility by public transportation. It helped increase the status of buses. Before TransMilenia, people were ashamed to take the bus as there was a misconception that it was only for people of lower income. (Peñalosa, Urbanized film 2011). The bus system was founded on two general objectives – To improve the citizen’s quality of life and to make the city better on the grounds of six main principles – quality, consistency, affordably and respect for life, time and human density (Fajardo, Topos, 2007).
Implications As a result of such drastic interventions, people are able to commute on public transport and be proud to use the public facilities that have been provided. Bogotá serves as an inspiration to many developing countries around the world that urban transformations can improve the well being of people who live in urban life.
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The BrasĂlia Movement Planned cities and urban sprawl
35 Map 1 (Acropole, 1960)
Neglecting functionality The Brasília Movement was one of the Garden City movements, which emerged during the 1950s that was planned and developed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer. The Brasília Movement has been designed based on this idea of a Utopian dream and that the purpose of such careful planning is to provide a surrounding that is pleasant for social gatherings and friendly intercourse. (Acropole, pg. 58 1960) However, despite the dreams of Lúcio Costa of Brasilia being a Utopian city, it was criticised due to the fact that it was designed around political needs rather than for the needs of its inhabitants (Hughes, 2011). There were many criticisms made on the design of the city. “Brasília was the ultimate modernistic city, built on all the ideas of the modernistic manifests. It looks fantastic from the airplane, but if you are down at eye level, on your feet and going from one place to another, Brasília is a disaster. Every distance is too wide and things are not connected. You have to trample for endless miles along completely straight paths. Nobody ever started to think about what it would be like to be out in Brasilia in between all these monuments.” (Gehl, Urbanized 2011) The design of the city disregarded its functionalities and how it looks on street level and suitability for human scale, but rather, just building and plonking down blocks of towers that aggravate the earth beneath it. Cars have abolished the streets and pedestrians are a large irrelevant in this city. To make things worse, there is insufficient mass transportation system in the city for people to get around. The maintenance of the city is almost non-existent, a ceremonial slum of cracking stonework and rusted metal. (Callender, 2010) 36 Monofunctional areas, Brasilia (Acropole 1960)
Mono functional and neglected spaces Today, Brasilia is made out of sprawling towns connected by very few expressways and is plonked with high-rise buildings, dispersed everywhere in the city. It can be described as a city of low densities with its extensive empty lands. The mono functional zonings create segregation and lack of a sense of place. Today, it is a city of many neglected public spaces.
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Highway platform, Brasilia (Acropole, 1960)
Summary The case studies that were used can be summarised below in a table with a selected list of criteria. A score of 1 – 4 has been used; 1 being the least and 4 being the most given points. The evaluation of the case studies selected will be based on the following: -
The table above summarises the case studies throughout this chapter based on the extent to which they fulfill the crieria. Copenhagen and Melbourne scored the same points in fulfilling the list of criteria, followed by Bogotá, and finally Brasília.
Protection; the extent to which the place meets the needs of protection from vehicles and crime.
If architects, landscape architects, urban designers and policy makers continue to build cities based on how they look and disregard their functionalities as seen in the case study of Brasília, the lives of human beings will be negatively affected by the social deficits it incurs. If only designers and political entities can be more sensitive to the fact that the way people live and interact have a lot to do with the way cities are shaped (which are almost always beyond their control), then the city’s inhabitants will be able to enjoy and be proud of the place they live in.
Comfort; the extent to which the place provides comfort for its users. Urban activities to enjoy; the extent to which the place provides urban activities for people to enjoy and interact with one another. Response to human needs/scale; the extent to which the place was designed for human scale and human needs.
Table 1
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Conclusion To conclude this study, much has been experienced around the world in public places today, from the time when cars dominated the streets after World War II, and how it has affected us in so many ways from our health and lifestyles, to the environment and eventually happiness and perceptions of life in the urban environment. Factors have been looked into in this study to determine how it affects people’s perceptions and ultimately affecting their decisions on whether they want to be outside and be part of the urban life. To support the argument, a couple of case studies, suggested theories and excerpts have been pulled together to demonstrate and justify how these could be. Cities in the world today that have become victims of the negative impacts and mistakes of designers and political entities from the past need not be discouraged. There is inspiration and ways to fix the existing problems with thorough research and sensitive approaches. This is evident in the initiatives of Melbourne and Bogotå, since both cities have undergone transformations. The possibility that these problems can be addressed also shines a light for the future of cities facing the negative impacts today. Designing for walkable cities requires sensitive approaches for it to work and people will only be drawn to be involved in the public life and enjoy what is in their surroundings if there are inviting elements present. Providing safe and comfortable conditions is also crucial in making sure people stay for what is there.
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Review During the course of this study, I have learnt so much about the implications of design in terms of how it affects the people and environment in the world today and also to be more aware of current issues that exist. Having chosen this topic because it affects me on a daily basis at home, it has intrigued me to continue reading around this topic and be more sensitive to this aspect in our field of study as landscape architects today, in our everchanging environments. I have also learnt that it is important to always do thorough background research before making an argument as this then justifies one’s statement and that it is important to always decide whether a source is reliable or not rather than trusting everything that we read on the internet today; information overload can be overwhelming and potentially deemed untrue sometimes. Interestingly, it is also important to look at an argument in different perspectives rather than just being biased or one-sided about an argument that I want to bring to the table. This study process has been very rewarding in terms of building my analytical and evaluation skills. I have learnt a great deal in terms of utilising available resources that have been provided by the academic institution that I study in. Ultimately, I have also learnt that time management and a high tolerance of patience is essential to go through this procress of thorough research.
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Thank you for reading. by Charlene Christopher Liaw BA(Hons) Landscape Architecture Leeds School of Art, Architecture, & Design Leeds Metropolitan University 2013