!
Analyse!the!way!in!which!gender!has!affected!the!interpretation!and!status!of! British!women!artists!of!the!mid!twentieth8century.!Discuss!relevant!literature! and!exhibitions,!and!consider!the!impact!of!modernism.! !
At!the!start!of!the!twentieth!century!many!considered!the!infiltration!of!the!art! world!by!women!artists!a!part!of!the!important!political!and!social!fight!for! equality.1!However!writing!about!“women”!as!a!group!is!always!going!to!be! challenging!for!it!assumes!that!their!default!as!the!other!gender!makes!them! somehow!inhabit!a!shared!mind8set!that!reflects!in!their!work.!It’s!often! considered!that!women’s!agency!is!promoted!when!dealing!with!“women”!as!a! group!however!many!opponents!of!essentialism!see!trouble!in!anything!that! hints!that!women!might!think!or!act!in!an!identifiable!group2!but!certain! conclusions!can!be!drawn!when!comparisons!are!made!to!male!artists.! ! There!is!a!notion!of!gendered!subjectivity!within!art!historical!discourse,!the!idea! that!every!artist!responds!to!the!world!–!consciously!or!unconsciously!–!from!a! position!of!gendered!experience.3!It!is!worth!considering!that!it!was!only!in!1928! that!women!were!granted!universal!suffrage!and!it!was!the!two!World!Wars!that!
prompted!women!into!trade!based!work.!The!formation!of!organisations!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! like!the!Women’s!Land!Army!and!the!Women’s!Auxiliary!Air!Force!changed!the! way!that!women!worked!when!the!life!experience!of!women!before!this!time! would!have!generally!been!one!of!homemaking!and!child8rearing.!The!numbers! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Alicia!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists!(United!Kingdom:!Distributed!in!the!U.S.!by! Harry!N.!Abrams,!2004),!59.! 2!Norma!Broude!and!Mary!Garrard,!“Introduction,”!in!Reclaiming%Female%Agency:% Feminist%Art%History%after%Postmodernism!(United!States:!University!of!California! Press,!2005),!2.! 3!Ibid.,!3.! ! 1!
of!female!artists!who!worked!professionally!were!considerably!lower!than!men! in!the!mid8century!period.!In!a!1957!exhibition!at!the!Institution!of! Contemporary!Arts!entitled!Statements:%a%Review%of%British%Abstract%Art%in%19564% there!were!seventeen!male!artists!but!only!four!women!artists.5!It!is!hard!to! believe!that!abstract!art!is!a!medium!that!inherently!attracts!men.! ! The!lower!ratio!of!female!artists!to!male!undoubtedly!stemmed!from!the!fact!that! wider!British!society!was!biased!towards!men!in!its!education!and! entrepreneurial!possibilities!but!the!writers!of!art!historical!texts!did!certainly! not!help!women!artists!either.!The!discipline!of!art!history!and!criticism!was!on! the!rise!throughout!the!twentieth8century!and!the!booming!publishing!industry! saw!the!creation!of!standard!texts!for!wide!dissemination!in!schools!and! universities.!The!structural!sexism!of!the!artist!as!male!pervades!through!this! period!and!is!reinforced!by!key!art!historical!texts!such!as!Gombrich’s!The%Story% of%Art!where!the!artist!in!general!is!repeatedly!referred!to!as!‘he’!even!in!the! modern!art!sections!of!the!book,6!meaning!that!the!experience!of!the!female!as! artist!is!invalidated!and!thus!their!status!is!lowered.!! ! The!way!that!a!woman!artist’s!work!is!interpreted!depends!largely!on!the! framework!that!is!being!used!for!interpretation.!Prior!to!the!1970s!and!the!New! Art!Histories!there!was!no!real!impetus!to!look!at!works!from!a!gendered!or! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!“Full!List!of!ICA!Exhibitions!from!1948!8!Present”!(Institute!of!Contemporary! Arts),!13,!accessed!November!8,!2014,! http://www.ica.org.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/Complete%20ICA%20Ex hibitions%20List%201948%208%20Present.pdf.! 5!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!86.! 6!E.H.!Gombrich,!The%Story%of%Art,!Sixteenth!(London:!Phaidon!Press!Limited,! 2013),!561.! ! 2!
social!point!of!view.!Hilary!Robinson!points!out!that!woman!artists!have!been! written!about,!both!in!the!twentieth8century!and!previously,!‘in!terms!of!their! appropriate!or!deviant!“femininity”’7.!This!view!of!women!reinforces!the!idea! that!while!men!are!artists!and!worthy!of!critical!review!a!woman’s!function!as!an! artist!is!to!provide!idle!entertainment.!Before!this!1970s!period!of!development! most!writers!of!art!history!and!criticism!were!male!with!very!few!exceptions!and! a!thinly!disguised!misogyny!can!be!seen!in!texts.!Classic!pre81974!versions!of!art! historical!textbooks!by!Janson!and!Gombrich!omit!to!mention!a!single!women! artist!with!their!educational!pages.!Gardner’s!Art%Through%the%Ages%gives!both!a! paragraph!and!a!picture!to!two!women!artists!–!Kollwitz!and!Riley!–!but!this!still! only!results!in!0.42%!of!the!artists!in!the!book!being!women.8!This!is!a! devastating!ratio!that!female!artists!must!have!been!aware!of,!what’s!more!is! that!the!number!of!women!artists!in!societies!and!exhibitions!were!often!far! higher!than!these!ratios!would!suggest.! ! In!addition!to!the!lack!of!women!artists!being!written!about!in!the!publishing! industry,!the!art!education!industry!was!not!an!inspirational!place!for!women! either.!While!access!to!art!school!was!no!longer!a!problem!for!women!(provided,! of!course,!that!they!could!find!the!funds!–!families!may!have!been!reluctant!to! pay!for!such!frivolities)!there!were!few!prominent!women!educators.!That!the! Royal!Academy!did!not!employ!a!female!teacher!until!the!1960s9!not!only! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!Hilary!Robinson,!“The!Women’s!Movement!in!Art!Education,”!Circa%Art% Magazine!89,!no.!Supplement!on!Art!Education!(Autumn!1999):!7.! 8!Roger!Clark,!Ashley!R.!Folgo,!and!Jane!Pichette,!“Have!There!Now!Been!Any! Great!Women!Artists?!An!Investigation!of!the!Visibility!of!Women!Artists!in! Recent!Art!History!Textbooks,”!Art%Education!58,!no.!3!(May!2005):!7.! 9!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!60.! ! 3!
demonstrates!a!lack!of!role!models!for!young!artists!but!also!shows!a!symptom! of!the!difficulty!of!finding!employment!as!a!female!artist!after!graduation.!In! addition!many!female!teachers!at!other!institutions!worked!with!the!applied!arts! rather!than!fine!art.!For!example!the!Glasgow!School!of!Art!had!twenty8seven! female!teachers!between!the!1890s!and!the!1920s!working!primarily!in!the! applied!arts.10!This!attitude!towards!a!particular!type!of!low!art!being!suited!to! women!is!also!reflected!internationally!and!can!be!seen!in!the!Bauhaus!where,! despite!Gropius’!claims!to!believe!in!equality,!women!were!generally!pushed!into! craft!based!art!such!as!weaving!while!men!were!pushed!into!fine!art.11!While! these!specific!examples!are!earlier!than!what!would!be!considered!mid8century,! these!attitudes!towards!the!status!of!women!artists!would!have!been!reinforced! in!the!next!generation!of!students!by!the!example!set!by!their!mentors.! ! The!First!World!War!provided!an!opportunity!for!women!artists!to!gain! important!commissions!on!an!equal!footing!with!male!artists.!However!it!speaks! volumes!that!it!was!decided!in!the!early!years!of!the!Imperial!War!Museum’s! foundation,!just!after!the!First!World!War,!that!a!separate!‘Women’s!Work!Sub8 Committee’!should!handle!women!artist’s!work.!During!the!Second!World!War! both!female!and!male!artists!were!handled!by!the!War!Artist’s!Advisory! Committee!which!was!a!step!forward,!however!still!less!than!ten!per!cent!of!the! work!acquired!was!by!women!artists.12!Officially!commissioned!works!by! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!Ibid.,!261.! 11!Jonathan!Glancey,!“Haus!Proud:!The!Women!of!Bauhaus,”!News,!The%Guardian,! (November!7,!2009),! http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/nov/07/the8women8of8 bauhaus.! 12!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!59.! ! 4!
women!from!both!World!Wars!place!emphasis!on!women!who!are!undertaking! roles!traditionally!performed!by!men.!It!is!impossible!to!know!if!this!bias!came! about!due!to!women!being!pre8disposed!to!portraying!the!lives!of!other!women,! or!if!it!was!a!symptom!of!not!being!allowed!on!the!front!line!as!well!as!other! historically!sexist!beliefs.!In!proving!themselves!as!substitutes!for!their!male! counterparts!(who!were!often!away!fighting!in!the!war!rather!than!engaging! with!artistic!endeavours)!the!women’s!contribution!to!the!war!effort!became! valued,13!but!not!to!the!same!degree!as!the!male!artists!who!were!their! contemporaries.!Women!war!artists!may!have!been!finding!a!hypothetical!equal! footing!with!male!war!artists!but!those!awarding!the!commissions!did!not! respect!this.!It!was!common!for!women!to!receive!fewer,!less!lucrative! commissions!and!they!enjoyed!less!prestige!and!publicity!than!commissioned! male!artists.14! ! Discrimination!against!women!war!artists!was!not!just!restricted!to!the!official! government!advisory!boards.!Many!organisations!engaged!artists!for!the! creation!of!work!related!to!war!and!it!is!in!this!wider!range!of!work!that!we!can! see!the!true!scale!of!the!discrimination!toward!women!artists.!There!were!two! major!installations!of!war!art!in!London!which!featured!both!officially! commissioned!artists!and!artists!invited!to!submit!works.!The!Imperial!War! Museum!had!a!large!exhibition!in!the!winter!of!1919!where!women!made!up!just! nine!of!the!one!hundred!and!seventy!three!artists!on!show.15!After!the!Second! World!War!the!Royal!Academy!held!an!exhibition!entitled!National%War%Pictures! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13!Kathleen!Palmer,!Women%War%Artists!(London:!Tate!Publishing,!2011),!27.! 14!Ibid.,!2.! 15!5.2%! ! 5!
where!women!were!just!fourteen!of!the!one!hundred!and!fifty!one!artists.16!The! percentage!of!women!artists!may!have!doubled!but!ninety!per!cent!of!the! included!artists!were!still!male.17! ! What’s!puzzling!about!the!lack!of!women!being!written!about,!commissioned,! employed!as!teachers!or!included!in!blockbuster!exhibitions!though,!is!that! women!artists!did!appear!in!appear!in!art!societies!and!largely!appear!to!be! accepted!by!their!artist!peers.!The!Seven!&!Five!Society,!which!was!founded!just! after!the!Second!World!War,!included!ten!women!amongst!the!fifty8six! members.18!While!still!not!giving!women!equal!status!within!the!organisation,! this!is!a!far!larger!ratio19!than!is!seen!when!comparing!male!and!female!ratios!in! other!aspects!of!the!art!world.!However!when!looking!at!the!Seven!&!Five!Society! it!seems!remiss!to!ignore!the!fact!that!only!a!decade!earlier!the!Camden!Town! Group!in!1911!had!voted!that!women!should!be!excluded!altogether20!and!it!is! questionable!if!the!status!of!women!artists!could!change!quite!so!much!in!such!a! short!space!of!time.! ! There!is!an!argument!to!be!made!that!the!acceptance!of!women!as!artists!by! their!male!peers!is!a!reflection!of!the!aims!of!modernity.!If!the!act!of!being! modern!is!a!rebellious!act!of!breaking!away!from!the!classical!traditions!of!art! then!including,!rather!than!excluding,!women!is!a!clean!break!with!the!past.!The! Seven!&!Five!Society!showed!that!women!could!attain!equal!status!and!in!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16!9.3%! 17!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!59.! 18!Ibid.,!60.! 19!17.9%! 20!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!60.! ! 6!
1926!exhibition!at!the!Beaux!Arts!Gallery!almost!half!the!artists!that!exhibited! were!women.21!It!is!notable!that!this!time!period!in!the!group’s!history!with!its! high!ratio!of!female!members!coincides!with!a!neo8classical!style!being! predominant.!Later!in!the!group’s!timeline,!when!the!group!transforms!into!the! Seven!&!Five!Abstract!Group!and!then!Unit!One,!there!are!less!women!members,! with!Barbara!Hepworth!eventually!being!the!only!female!member!of!Unit!One.22! It!is!unclear!if!this!decline!in!membership!has!to!do!with!changing!social! dynamics!in!wider!society!or!a!predisposition!for!women!to!create!pictorial! rather!than!abstract!art.!! ! Hepworth!is!often!held!up!as!a!champion!of!women!artists!but!this!could!be!a!red! herring!in!the!manner!that!Linda!Nochlin!describes!in!her!seminal!essay!Why% Have%There%Been%No%Great%Women%Artists.!Hepworth!was!the!exception!rather! than!the!rule!in!many!ways.!She!grew!up!with!a!liberal!father!who!believed!that! his!children!should!have!equal!opportunities!and!after!an!educational!period! where!she!was!encouraged!to!travel!internationally!Hepworth!had!her!first!solo! exhibition!at!the!Beaux8Arts!Gallery!in!1928.23!Hepworth’s!work!is!often! interpreted!as!being!directly!related!to!motherhood!and!her!four!children!and!in! a!book!entitled!Carvings%and%Drawings!in!1952!she!does!state!that!her!work!did! profoundly!change!in!direction!and!that!the!only!new!influence!was!the!arrival!of!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21!“Women!in!the!Seven!and!Five!Society,”!Art%News,!September!19,!2014,! http://artsafari.tv/?p=35.! 22!Ibid.! 23!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!111.! ! 7!
her!children.24!Later!in!this!book!she!also!states!that!‘the!sensation!of!being!a! woman!presents!yet!another!facet!of!the!sculptural!idea’25!which!lends!weight!to! the!idea!that!being!a!woman!brings!something!extra!to!an!artwork.!Susan!Hiller! makes!a!similar!assertion!in!1991:!that!being!a!minority!means!you!already! know!two!languages.26! ! A!direct!comparison!between!the!interpretation!of!woman!male!artists!can!be! made!between!Hepworth!and!her!first!two!husbands.!Despite!having!a!child!with! the!sculptor!John!Skeaping!and!triplets!with!Ben!Nicholson27!her!husband’s! works!are!almost!never!interpreted!as!being!about!children!or!caregiving.!It!is! impossible!to!know!how!much!Hepworth’s!own!statements!on!her!work! influenced!critics!and!historians!or!if!remarks!from!her!husbands!were!ignored! but!it!is!likely!that!there!is!a!gender!bias!that!might!give!undue!focus!on! Hepworth’s!status!as!a!mother!when!interpreting!her!sculptures.!Although!by! the!1940s!and!1950s!Hepworth’s!place!in!the!Canon!was!firmly!assured!some! contemporary!critics,!including!Herbert!Read,!had!a!tendency!to!represent!her!as! the!feminine!8!or!lesser!8!counterpart!to!the!masculine!Henry!Moore.28!Writing!in! her!autobiography!Hepworth!said!that!it!was!only!just!becoming!realised!that!it! was!as!compelling!for!women!to!become!artists!as!it!was!for!men29!which!is! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!Barbara!Hepworth,!“Quotations!from!Barbara!Hepworth’s!Writings,”! BarbaraHepworth.org.uk,!accessed!November!10,!2014,! http://barbarahepworth.org.uk/texts/.! 25!Ibid.! 26!Alexandra!Kokoli,!“Home!Truths”!(presented!at!the!Susan!Hiller:!Defining!a! Practice,!Tate!Britain,!2011).! 27!“Biography,”!BarbaraHepworth.org.uk,!accessed!November!19,!2014,! http://barbarahepworth.org.uk/biography/.! 28!Foster,!Tate%Women%Artists,!111.! 29!Ibid.,!113.! ! 8!
perhaps!an!indicator!that!throughout!her!life!she!felt!that!she!had!never!quite! been!given!the!same!status!as!her!male!contemporaries.! ! The!first!half!of!the!twentieth!century!also!saw!The!Bloomsbury!Group!form!with! the!sisters!Vanessa!Bell!and!Virginia!Woolf!accepted!as!members.!The!group’s! ethos!rejected!the!values!of!Victorian!society,!instead!promoting!a!relaxed!yet! honest!approach!to!love,!relationships!and!creative!pursuits.!Bell!and!Woolf!had! rejected!the!expectation!from!their!family!that!they!would!take!on!domestic!roles! rather!than!pursuing!careers,30!showing!that!even!in!a!highly!cultured!family!it! was!still!not!the!expected!norm!for!a!woman!to!work!professionally!even!in!the! arts.!This!attitude!would!have!affected!the!status!and!worth!of!women!artists! since!many!still!considered!that!a!woman’s!place!was!in!the!home.!In!Woolf’s! extended!essay!A%Room%of%One’s%Own%she!writes!about!how!during!this!period!‘a! woman!must!have!money!and!a!room!of!her!own’!if!she!is!to!engage!in!creative! pursuits.31!Choosing!to!go!against!the!grain!of!society!and!become!an!artist!was! something!that!could!see!your!status!as!a!woman!lowered!since!you!were!not! fulfilling!your!cultural!obligations.! ! There!is!a!reoccurring!throughout!history!theme!that!women!are!seen!as! insiders!to!the!lives!of!other!women!and!this!influences!interpretations!of!work.! Edith!Tudor!Hart!was!a!photographer!who!primarily!photographed!the!plight!of! women!and!children!in!poverty.!This!subject!matter!was!normal!for!a!female! photographer!at!this!time,!while!“photographers”!(note!that!the!word! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!Ibid.,!70.! 31!Virginia!Woolf,!A%Room%of%One’s%Own!(Los!Angeles,!CA:!Green!Light!E8Books,! 2012),!chap.!1.! ! 9!
photographers!generally!refers!to!a!male!practitioner)!were!generally!focussed! on!international!issues!and!the!threat!of!fascism.32!Parallels!can!be!drawn!with! the!Farm!Security!Administration’s!work!in!the!United!States!of!America!where!a! group!of!nine!documentary!photographers!were!brought!together!to!record!the! efforts!made!to!combat!American!rural!poverty!during!the!Depression!of!the! 1930s.!Two!photographers!in!the!employment!of!the!FSA!were!female!and!they! appeared!more!interested!in!documenting!women!and!the!family!while!the!male! photographers!focussed!on!what!could!be!termed!the!bigger!picture.!From!the! works!themselves!it!is!impossible!to!tell!whether!this!was!as!a!result!of!an! intrinsic!part!of!being!a!woman!or!a!specific!brief!from!the!FSA.! ! This!does!raise!the!interesting!question!as!to!whether!women!artists!and! photographers!felt!pushed!into!recording!aspects!of!womanhood!or!if!they!had!a! sense!of!agency!within!their!work.!There!can!be!no!doubt!that!the!historical! influence!of!society!would!mould!women!who!work!as!artists!and!mid8century! woman!photographers!in!particular!seem!to!have!retained!an!intellectual!legacy! from!the!Victorian!period!in!their!work.!Woman!photographers!are!often!–!even! now!–!praised!highly!for!their!intellectual!grasp!of!photography,!which!Carol! Armstrong!suggests!comes!from!a!tradition!of!‘home8bound!amateurism’33!in!the! early!days!of!photography.!This!home8bound!amateurism!could!also!largely! contribute!to!the!choice!of!women!photographers!to!primarily!focus!on!the! photography!of!women!and!children.!Both!the!“lady8amateur”!forebears!and!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!Val!Williams,!The%Other%Observers:%Women%Photographers%in%Britain,%1900%to% the%Present!(United!Kingdom:!Virago!Press!Ltd,!1994),!54.! 33!Carol!Armstrong,!“From%Clementina%to%Käsebier:%The%Photographic%Attainment% of!the!‘Lady!Amateur,’”!The%MIT%Press!91,!no.!October!(Winter!2000):!123.! ! 10!
mid8century!professionals!often!have!in!common!that!their!careers!began!mid8 life!after!childbirth!and!child8raising!was!done.34!This!experience,!combined!with! the!fact!that!at!this!time!it!was!still!the!expected!norm!for!women!to!bear!the! responsibilities!of!child8raising,!could!be!a!major!contributing!factor!to!their! choice!of!subject!matter.!There!can!be!no!doubt!that!starting!a!career!later!in!life! means!that!rarely!will!a!female!photographer!reach!the!same!lofty!heights!as!a! male!photographer!due!to!simple!availability!of!years!to!dedicate!to!their!art.! ! Women!artists!of!the!mid!twentieth8century!operated!in!a!world!that!was!largely! stacked!against!their!success.!Society!in!general!believed!they!should!remain!in! the!domestic!sphere!and!if!they!ventured!into!the!art!world!then!certain!kinds!of! applied!art!were!deemed!more!suitable.!!When!considering!the!work!of!woman! artists!it!must!always!be!kept!in!mind!that!the!ones!who!carved!out!places!in!the! established!Canon!did!so!in!the!face!of!adversity.!Their!identification!as!women! affected!the!way!that!critics!and!historians!would!interpret!their!work!then!and! now!–!no!matter!if!they!wished!for!that!label!to!be!attached!to!them.!But!the!very! being!of!a!woman!working!within!the!fine!arts!was!in!itself!a!modernist! statement;!despite!hardship!they!were!a!clean!break!from!the!classical!tradition! of!the!male!artist.! ! (Words:!3014)! !
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34!Ibid.,!129.! ! 11!
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