Envelope vivisection by Jason Tan

Envelope Vivisection A Critique of Ghanaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Modernist Tropicality 1946 - 67 Jason Tan

IN A NUTSHELL The period during which Ghana was the political and economic centre of Africa conceived of architectures proportional to that of the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s triumphant independence. The book-ends of 1946 to 67 represent a comprehensive timeline that marks the various points of development for selected institutions from the ten years before and ten years after Ghana gained its freedom in 1957. This event was as pivotal for Africa as it was for the former Gold Coast as it paved the way for the liberation of the rest of the continent. The resultant architecture reflects this optimism in structural, climatic and aesthetic innovation as the industrial spirit of the west was mutated with equatorial considerations and cultural sensibilities. The structures stand today as remnants of a historical significance that catalysed African freedom towards a unified and prosperous future. Unfortunately, the continentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey has since been in decline and the expected legacy of its architecture of independence has experienced a similar misfortune. While remaining highly relevant to an international discourse of tropical modernity, the endurance of the selected works through this decline tells a story of their relevance to a nation that has forgotten its modernist roots. The various modifications and lack of preservation throughout the past 60 years reflects this culminated devaluation of architecture within the region. A clinical vivisection of the current buildings reveals the weathering effects of time, users and authorities and critiques the applicability of such architectures in present day Ghana as well as Africa. The envelope, both visible and invisible, is the object of inquiry and shall be celebrated in its performative merits but condemned in its lack of resilience. From the unadulterated schools of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, to the desecration of one of James Cubittâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s modernist icons, to the pristinely maintained tropical dwelling of Kenneth Scott, this comprehensive and focussed journey through a fragment of equatorial West Africa interprets the story of a struggling nation and continent through its early modernist architecture.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;I have practiced architecture at a time when architects were full of hope and optimism â&#x20AC;&#x201D; at a time when we felt that the changes in planning and in architecture would change living conditions and improve the world. A time when there was great hope for the future.â&#x20AC;? Maxwell Fry

NAT IO NA L M U SE UM O F G HA NA Fry, Drew, Drake & Denys Lasdun | 1957 Accra, Ghana P U B L IC R E C O R D S A N D A R C H I V E S A DM I N D E PA RT M E N T Nickson & Borys | 1956 Accra, Ghana AC C R A C E N T R A L L I B R A RY Nickson & Borys | 1956 Accra, Ghana S C O T T HOU SE Kenneth Scott | 1961 Accra, Ghana I N T E R NAT IO NA L T R A D E FA I R Chyrosz & Rymaszewski | 1964 Accra, Ghana Vivisection

F O R M E R A M E R IC A N E M BA S SY

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Harry Weese & Associates | 1956 Accra, Ghana COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING James Cubitt and Partners | 1953 Kumasi, Ghana PA A J O E STA D I UM KNUST Development Office | 1964 Kumasi, Ghana U N I T Y HA L L John Owusu-Addo | 1963 Kumasi, Ghana C E N T R A L L I B R A RY James Cubitt and Partners | 1953 Kumasi, Ghana PREMPEH COLLEGE

Schools of Maxwell Fry & Jane Drew

Fry, Drew and Partners | 1949 Kumasi, Ghana O P O K U WA R E SE N IO R H IG H S C HO O L Fry, Drew and Partners | 1952 Kumasi, Ghana M FA N T SI P I M SE N IO R H IG H S C HO O L Fry, Drew and Partners | 1958 Cape Coast, Ghana ADISADEL COLLEGE Fry, Drew and Partners | 1950 Cape Coast, Ghana W E SL EY G I R L S’ H IG H S C HO O L Fry, Drew and Partners | 1946 Cape Coast, Ghana A BU R I G I R L S’ SE N IO R H IG H S C HO O L Fry, Drew and Partners | 1953 Aburi, Ghana iii

my thanks to: The people of Ghana, who give me hope for the future of Africa and Africans despite the hopelessness of its neighbours... The Bartlett, without which I would have never known the dark side of architecture to which I now flee from in pursuit of the light... Erik Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Heureux, without whom my calling for design would have remained buried under the banalities of the profession...

G U Y A M A RT E I F IO

F R E D KO F I A M E K U D I

Regional Director Ghana Library Authority

Deputy Director, Monuments Ghana Museums and Monuments Board

KWESI ARMO-HIMBSON

G I F T A M E N YA

Chief Director Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection

English Teacher Aburi Girls Senior High School

E M A N N U E L K WA B E NA Y E B OA H

G E O R G E T E L L E H S A R BA H

Headmaster Prempeh College

Art Teacher Aburi Girls Senior High School

V I DA A Z E NA B

M IC HA E L O BU O B I

Social Studies Teacher Aburi Girls Senior High School

Chief Technician Museum of Science and Technology

V I N C E N T A N KA M A H - L OM O T EY

K WA K U AG Y E N - G YA ST

Deputy Registrar University Relations (KNUST)

Acting Librarian Central Library (KNUST)

T H E R E SE S T R IG G N E R S C O T T

J O SE P H K - G A D O S SEY

(Wife of the late Kenneth Scott) Ghana Centre for Democratic Development

Principal Technician Mechanical Engineering (KNUST)

V IC T O R F O R F O E

E DWA R D O P O K U K E N N E DY

Director of Finance and Administration Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection

Technician Electrical Engineering (KNUST)

G A B R I E L K UM A S S A H

E R N E ST A D OM A KO

Assistant Headmaster Wesley Girls’ Senior High School

Principal Technician Aerospace Engineering (KNUST)

DA N I E L D Z AT HO R and d aug hte r, E s ane m

E M M A N U E L M P IA N I N G

Economics Teacher Wesley Girls’ Senior High School

Integrated Science Teacher Opoku Ware Senior High School

SAMUEL MENSAH

JOE OSA E-A DD O

Assistant Headmaster Mfantsipim Senior High School

Chairman, Archiafrika CEO of Constructs LLC

JIMMY CHITULWA with my father, Johnny Tan Civil Engineering Technician University of Zambia

A M B E R N . W I L EY H. Allen Brooks Travelling Fellowship Ph.D, George Washington University

V IC T O R IA L O I S O F O R I , PAT I E N C E D U P E ,

L E O N K R IG E

H E N R I TA A M P O N S A H - A N T W I

Architectural Theory & Design Lecturer University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Form 1 Girls, Aburi Girls Senior High School

S T E FA N U S R A D E M EY E R

E G H E N R O B E RT S

Artist & Lecturer WITS School of the Arts, South Africa

Assistant Headmaster Adisadel College O K Y E R E DA R KO Assistant Headmaster Prempeh College R AYM O N D O R I S O N AG B O Deputy Director, Museums Ghana Museums and Monuments Board

HIGH COURTS Accra, Ghana

IN A NUTSHELL iii

PROJECT LIBR ARY v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1

THE AFRICAN CONDITION 7

THE SCHO OLS OF MAXWELL FRY & JANE DREW 25

BREEZE BLOCKS

VIVISECTIONS 29 BRISTLING (A Canopy) 37 B R E AT H E ( A H a l l ) 45 THICKEN (A House) 59 S U F F O C A T E ( A Wo r k s h o p ) 73 VA P O U R O U S ( A n O f f i c e )

AU TOP SY R E P ORT 88

BIBLIOGRAPHY

10,852 Words iv

I N D E P E N D E N C E ?

CAPE C OAST CASTLE Swedish Settlers (1650) Cape Coast, Ghana

THE AFRICAN CONDITION How do the most well designed schools account for the world’s lowest standard of education? How does one of the poorest developing countries maintain the architecture of its independence? How does Ghana reconcile its conception of tropical modernity with the consequences of its turbulent past? These questions establish an architectural lens through which the complexity, beauty and tragedy of a nation can be studied. From its origins as an Ashanti Kingdom, to its numerous European settlements, to the incorporation of the British Gold Coast, to becoming the first Sub-Saharan African country to gain independence, the Ghanaian context cannot be comprehended without consideration of its heavy history. The exploitation of its resources lead to the brutal slave trade which endured for over three centuries. Though the trade was abolished more than two centuries ago, the slave castles built along the coast - which were originally established to export timber and gold - now stand as national monuments against the backdrop of a liberated people1 . Even now, the weekly beach parties held by the locals and fishermen around Cape Coast Castle are a powerful symbol of freedom (image). The white-washed walls of the fort, where millions of Ghanaians were held before being shipped to and sold in the Americas, represent the extremities of an architecture of oppression. Barack Obama’s first trip to Africa as president of the United States in 2009 was a significant event for the country as well as the continent2. His visit to Cape Coast Castle however, was an even greater but understated milestone. As he walked through the Door of No Return (the threshold between the fort and the Atlantic Ocean), the first black president stepped into a new chapter of racial equality. This was the place where the African American journey began as the first slaves departed from the beach of Cape Coast. 500 years later a man, whose wife and children are descendants of the very slaves that left those shores, emerges as the most powerful man in the world. Though compelling, these symbols remain symbols as independence is said to be an abstract ideal for the history books and freedom is a concept of generations past3. The nation had high hopes for Obama’s visit to lift the free continent from its poverty and conflict. Street vendors stocked Obama memorabilia and posters 1 History Slave Trade. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 2 President Obama in Ghana at the Cape Coast Dungeonsâ pt 1-2. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 3 Ghana independence in perspective. (2015, March 10). Retrieved September 7, 2015.

WESLEY GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL Fry, Drew and Partners (1946) Cape Coast, Ghana 2

littered the streets of the capital as residents celebrated the coming of their supposed messiah4. The man had never set foot in Ghana or any other West African country and his speech, while inspirational, made it clear that Africa had to bring about its own change - You have the power to hold your leaders accountable, and to build institutions that serve the people5. The country’s message of ‘Welcome Home’ to the foreign president was as deluded as their expectations for aid or intervention. In his controversial polemic, Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What should be Done, Godfrey Mwakikagile plainly expounds the disintegration of post-colonial Africa. The prominent Tanzanian scholar then goes so far as to prescribe recolonisation for the entire continent. The subtitle in fact was changed from, Should it be Recolonized - perhaps against the author’s wishes. In 1965, Nigeria was richer than Indonesia, and Ghana richer than Thailand. Today Indonesia is three times richer than Nigeria, and Thailand five times richer than Ghana6. The list goes on measuring other African nations to Asian 1. Godfrey Mwakikagile, 2004

rivals. When compared to other parts of the developing world, Africa has performed miserably in every conceivable way. And statistics tell the story, a sad story7. Independence in Africa was cursed with irrevocable and perpetual corruption, civil war, poverty and disease. President Obama‘s advice to Ghana to make change from the bottom up with his Yes YOU Can speech is an appropriation of his coined presidential slogan of Yes WE can8. According to Mwakikagile, Obama’s insinuation that Africa is to bear the consequences of its own freedom may be futile. A recent publication by German architect and author, Manuel Herz, uncovers a seemingly undiscovered trove of African modernism. In his travels through Sub-Saharan Africa, his team documents over 80 buildings built between 1945 and 1965 - during the post-independence period. Acknowledging that most of the projects were designed by foreign architects, some of which were the citizens of their colonisers, Herz does not avoid the complex political conditions through which these buildings were conceived through the ambivalences of decolonisation. The lack of local designers was mainly attributed to the lack of architecture and engineering

2 . Manuel Herz, 2015

schools in the continent at that time - with the exception of South

4 Africans react to Obama’s visit to Ghana. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 5 Obama speaks of hopes for Africa. (2009, July 11). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 6 Mwakikagile, G. (2006). Africa is in a mess: What went wrong and what should be done (2nd ed.). Tanzania: New Africa Press. 7 Ibid. 8 Remarks by the President to the Ghanaian Parliament. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015.

Africa. These modernist mutations were borne of the imported knowledge and aesthetics from the west colliding with the height of Africa’s economies and its foreign climatic conditions. The architects were also a pioneering force that set an exemplary standard in design and construction - which in turn gave them a large amount of regulatory latitude. Together with low-cost labour and materials, the designs had more potential to take on expressive and 3. Main Library, University of Zambia

daring forms. Herz describes these architectures as

heroic as they imbue a sense of social freedom and boldness. They convey the relished departure of the colonial powers and re-brands the continent with an unconventional modernism9. These modernist experiments are undoubtedly a heroic representation of a series of historical events - the various periods of each African country attaining independence. However, to ascribe any significance the buildings had on contributing towards the salvation or even the betterment of a nation would be a distortion of the truth. While highly comprehensive and invaluable, the research’s subtle but conclusive position is stagnated in the period of the buildings’ conception. They have been documented 60 years after construction but the study fails to address their change through time. The structures are examined as what they were as opposed to what they are now. The critique therefore, lies in this optimistic position of viewing architecture as heroic through the medium of independence - as supposedly faultless objects, they are depicted as witnesses to the crime of independence without entertaining the possibility of their affiliation to its victimisers. This spirit of optimism would have been qualified if this conclusion was established shortly after the various periods of decolonisation. Alas, as Godfrey Mwakikagile puts it, Africa has been in decline ever since: Since independence, most African leaders have raided national coffers, bankrupted their economies; jailed, tortured and killed their opponents, real and imagined, including innocent civilians, to perpetuate themselves in office. They are among the world’s richest people in the poorest countries in the world. African countries have become international beggars and they have been begging since independence in the sixties10.

9 Herz, M. (2015). African modernism. The architecture of independence. Zürich: Park Books. 10 Mwakikagile, G. (2006). Africa is in a mess: What went wrong and what should be done (2nd ed.). Tanzania: New Africa Press.

To reiterate, the work of Herz and his team has opened up a forgotten chapter of tropical modernism that may internationally (and more importantly locally) recognise and appreciate the numerous architectural gems of the region. However, where their research is wide this critique is deep. A thorough study uncovered inconsistencies and erroneous accounts in the publication which probably stemmed from their method of superficial documentation. The work itself admits to its shortfalls: We are sometimes unsure of the precision of the information. Do we really know the names of the architects? Are we sure of the construction dates11? The African condition is known to retard any attempt to document the undocumented and organise the disorganised. That being said, this critique is in honour of what was done and complements it with a substantial and vivisectional probe into a selected list of buildings within the selected country of Ghana. The interest in the former Gold Coast, apart from its wealth of independence architecture, lies in its position as an African nation. Surrounded by countries experiencing incessant instability such as its British colonial sister, Nigeria, Ghana stands out as a beacon of democratic and social stability. The United States even decided that Ghana would be the first African country to send its leader to instead of the seemingly more appropriate nations like South Africa and Nigeria - the largest and wealthiest in the continent12. Having consecutively peaceful elections as well as one of the fastest growing economies, Ghana was hailed by President Obama as a model of democracy and development in Africa13. This stability is most evident in travelling in and around the country with its local means of transportation. Ordinarily in most African countries, a local contact with a rental car is necessary for extensive travel and substantial research. In Ghana however, it is relatively safe, economical and at times necessary to use taxis (tro tros, image) within and between cities - foreigners are even advised to experience the cities through this economical mode of transportation14. It is 4. Tro Tro carrying luggage and livestock from Cape Coast to Accra

the roots of this stability that enabled the proliferation of notable modernist architectures within the region as well as the substantial documentation of said architectures.

11 12 13 14

Herz, M. (2015). African modernism. The architecture of independence. Zürich: Park Books. From the Archives: President Obama’s Trip to Ghana. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. Obama hails Ghana as ‘model for democracy’ in Africa - CNN.com. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. Zijlma, A. (n.d.). How to ride a tro-tro - Getting Around Ghana by Tro-Tro - Tro-Tros in Ghana. Retrieved September 7, 2015.

PREMPEH COLLEGE Fry, Drew and Partners (1949) Kumasi, Ghana

THE SCHO OLS OF MAXWELL FRY & JANE DREW Through a series of acts of parliament proceeding the Second World War, Britain made an effort to invest in the education of its overseas colonies. The shift from a universal and Corbusian modernism was catalysed by the decolonisation of these nations such as India, Nigeria and Ghana. Among the pioneers of this shift was the husband and wife team of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew who worked with Le Corbusier in the seminal development of Chandigarh. The advent of this tropical sensibility evoked new and refreshing building forms that changed the notions of space throughout the equatorial region. Alternate parameters of light, shadow, rain and wind met with the efficiency of reinforced concrete and its rational construction methods. It was as though these parameters started a new architectural conversation - a blank canvas upon which design conventions now prioritised the circulation of air, the runoff of water and the shielding from direct sunlight. The counter narrative of integrating nature in the west has dealt predominantly with the visual sense - the Farnsworth House with its panoramic framing of nature and Fallingwater with its use of nature to frame the architecture. Nature becomes a different component of design within the tropics as unseen forces are orchestrated to mitigate the other senses. Prempeh College, a boys’ junior high school consists of a series of classroom blocks and administrative buildings that are connected by an elevated walkway (image). This spinal corridor acts as a deep sun-shading device to the long elevation of the various blocks and also provides shelter from the incessant rains. The current headmaster, Emannuel Yeboah, stated that he was most pleased with the design’s accommodation of unrestricted movement during the rains - that one could be completely sheltered from the elements particularly during school hours1. Throughout their careers, Fry and Drew were incredibly active in West Africa. It was their earlier work in Ghana that piqued the interest of Indian Prime minister Pandit Nehru and initiated the essential involvement of Le Corbusier in the planning and design of Chandigarh. At the time, the couple had other commitments and was unable to take on a large role in the project. Drew managed to convince Le Corbusier to head the master plan of the city and its principal government buildings while the couple and Pierre Jeanneret designed much of the city’s housing2. It could be argued that these earlier works in West Africa showcase an understated origin of tropical modernity. 1 Yeboah, E. (2015, April 21). Personal Interview. 2 Jane Drew (1911-1996): An Introduction. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015.

O P O K U WA R E S E N I O R H I G H S C H O O L Fry, Drew and Partners (1952) Kumasi, Ghana

Ghana appears at the very bottom of list in the recent OECD global ranking of education3. Educationalist, Anis Haffar, was not surprised by the research findings and attributed the declining educational system on the quality of training received by teachers as well as the learning environment - the lack of toilets and water to flush the toilets affects the ability of the pupils to learn4. Within Ghana however, there is a broad spectrum of educational disparity. The country’s prestigious high schools were mostly designed and renovated by Fry and Drew with a high degree of tropical attunement. 60 years on, these educational buildings stand as if they were built yesterday when compared to their newer surrounding institutions. Opoku Ware Senior High School (OWASS) is currently Ghana’s top boys’ school5 and affords to regularly repaint its classrooms to maintain its prestige and highlight its tropicality6. Its deep, south facing brise-soleil (image), which uses both horizontal and vertical elements, shields the large classroom windows from both rain and direct solar radiation while its white-washed finish reflects a significant amount of diffused light into the building for classroom activity. The sufficient daylighting ensures that every desk receives ample illumination throughout the day - even the least illuminated lower left corner (fig. 1). The corridors shade the less exposed northern elevation and its porous balustrades allow the walkway and classrooms to ventilate (fig. 2). Though

1. Corridor to the left and brise-soleil to the right

the seemingly simplistic forms and climatic strategies of these classrooms are replicated throughout the couple’s many school buildings, the varying articulation of these strategies distinguishes each project to such a degree that no two are alike in their shading and structure. OWASS’s brise-soleil is made up of various hierarchies of visual, structural and climatic performance. The primary vertical members serve not only as columns for the roof but are also the deepest southern shading devices that divides

2. Corridors overlooking the gardens

each classroom into halves. These bays are further halved by an additional, shallower and perforated vertical member that shades, ventilates, and supports the shallowest horizontal members that are at a slight angle to repel the rain as well as the harsh afternoon sun. 3 4 5 6

Asia tops biggest global school rankings. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. We don’t take education seriously in Ghana. (2015, May 13). Retrieved September 7, 2015. Top 10 Secondary Schools. (2013, February 12). Retrieved September 7, 2015. Yeboah, E. (2015, April 21). Personal Interview.

M FA N T S I P I M S E N I O R H I G H S C H O O L Fry, Drew and Partners (1958) Cape Coast, Ghana

ABURI GIRLS’ SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Fry, Drew and Partners (1953) Aburi, Ghana

3 . Ass e mbly Hall and Kil sy th Hou s e, Abur i Girl s’ , 1953

4 . Sylv ia As e mpa Hou s e and Kil sy th Hou s e, Abur i Girl s’ , 2015 12

Overpopulation, more severe in Ghana’s lesser prestigious schools, presents an educational problem as well as an architectural one. In some classrooms the pupil-teacher ratio is as high as 134 - quadruple the acceptable quota of 35 by the Ghana Education Service7. In these lesser established buildings the ventilation and air quality is exacerbated by this ratio which causes health problems within the schools. While a few of Ghana’s top institutions can generally afford to keep to the pupil-teacher ratio, others such as Aburi Girls’ School by Fry and Drew have doubled their capacity in the last 60 years. Almost all public schools in Ghana are boarding therefore the challenge of housing these students is most affected by its capacity. Upon viewing one of the many dormitories out of the many houses, the beds were seen to be packed like sardines (fig. 5) - and the school would fit more into the space if it could. Circulation is allowed by the mere width of their shared lockers which measures at half a meter. Despite its capacity, the students claimed that these older dormitories are more comfortable than the newer, more spacious additions built much later8. The large windows are shaded by deep overhangs and the clerestories not

5 . Kil sy th Hou s e dor mitor y, 2 0 1 5

only illuminate but also exhaust the hot air generated by the bodies in the dormitory. The overpopulation has even forced the school to convert its assembly hall into a massive dormitory. What was once the central node where students and staff would gather for assembly is now an axially celebrated house of residence facing the public square. The conversion has also interrupted the façade of the hall by closing off the frontal entries for privacy. The remnants of its iconic proportions can now only be seen in the history books (fig. 3). The schools that do not face the problem of overpopulation are not without their own problems. Unfortunately, the best of Ghana is often times also the most corrupt. The Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII) issued in a statement that 40% of parents are paying bribes for schooling and that this may be the reason for the failing standard of education in the country9. When acceptance is dependent on bribes the priority is no longer given to the education of the students, but to the wealth of the system and its beneficiaries - much like that of many African institutions.

7 Pupil congestion and overpopulation. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 8 Aburi Girls’ Form 2 Students. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview. 9 40 percent of parents pay bribes for education in Ghana. (2013, October 1). Retrieved September 7, 2015.

M FA N T S I P I M S E N I O R H I G H S C H O O L Fry, Drew and Partners (1958) Cape Coast, Ghana

This tragedy however, is not isolated to the country’s downfall since independence. While the Colonial Welfare Development Acts initiated the plan to set up new secondary schools and teacher training colleges, the money granted was heavily insufficient and had to be supplemented from elsewhere. Industries such as the cocoa exportations, of which the Gold Coast during the time was the world’s leading provider, earned the United Kingdom disproportional profits when compared to the grants given through the Development Act10. The well-intended modernisation of British colonies was not without the insatiable colonial agenda of the empire to rob the country of its resources and regiment its people through western education systems. While not technically corruption, the effects are similar except at a colonial scale. Fry and Drew had few illusions about the cultural consequences of imposing a foreign system on an indigenous people but knew that these issues were beyond the capacities of the architect11. They were however, sympathetic to the egalitarian purposes of the missionary groups that ran the education system and through their designs attempted to make affinities with tradition without replicating it12. Within the tight budgets, Fry and Drew executed each school with considerations from the arrangement of the master plans to the articulation of its detailing. Certain institutions are wealthier than others and this is evident through their regular maintenance. Wesley Girls’ High School, Ghana’s top girls’ school can afford to repaint its entire campus on a yearly basis to maintain its image13. Other less wealthy institutions, such as Mfantsipim Senior High School (image) and Asisadel College (fig. 6), showcase the relentless weathering from the elements as well as its utility. Despite the disparity in wealth, no school designed by the couple is seen to be more or less regarded than the other. The typology of these boarding schools is arguably one of the most heavily utilised as every year accommodates a new and overpopulated generation of students to educate, house and feed. Therefore, the design of these schools will inevitably have a consequential influence on the entire nation. The architects were aware of this responsibility and the challenges faced through a developing country: 6. Damaged balustrade, Adisadel

10 Crinson, M. (2003). Modern architecture and the end of empire (p. 138). Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., pp 138-139 13 Kumassah, G. (2015, April 24). Personal Interview.

M FA N T S I P I M S E N I O R H I G H S C H O O L Fry, Drew and Partners (1958) Cape Coast, Ghana

Education is a prime responsibility of evolving tropical countries. Literacy is necessary to democracy, as higher education is to government, and where the pace of advance brings rapid development for both, education must extend over a wide front embracing every form lying between primary education and specialised research at pressures corresponding to the resources available14. Mfantsipim Senior High School was visited during a public holiday as the academic year was due to start. Students both old and new took part in a communal day of scrubbing and cleaning their individual houses lead by a house captain, usually a senior third-year student. The rudimentary methods of washing the concrete floors and walls involved large amounts of water that effectively increases the relative humidity within and around the dormitory. 7. Porous Staircase, Mfantsipim

However, the porosity of the balustrades and

staircases allow for the water’s run-off and the ventilation enabled by this permeability quickly evaporates the water and evacuates its excess humidity. This represents one demonstration of the extent to which each block is designed to endure as long as it has with such heavy usage. Since, for economy, classrooms are normally built in series the essential conditions of keeping direct sun from the walls and out of the classrooms can be met by siting the block so that its length runs approximately east-west, classroom windows in the northern hemisphere facing approximately north, and its access veranda approximately south. In the southern hemisphere the reverse is true. With this disposition no elaborate means are necessary to keep sun out of classrooms and a basically economical classroom becomes possible... ...The most concentrated and sustained work of a school takes place in classrooms and the architect’s job is to make such work not only possible, but enjoyable, since there is little education without pleasure15.

14 Fry, M., & Drew, J. (1964). Tropical architecture in the dry and humid zones (p. 139). New York: Reinhold Pub. 15 Ibid., p. 145

ADISADEL COLLEGE Fry, Drew and Partners (1950) Cape Coast, Ghana

ABURI GIRLS’ SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Fry, Drew and Partners (1953) Aburi, Ghana

WESLEY GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL Fry, Drew and Partners (1946) Cape Coast, Ghana

Through their canonical manual for design in the tropics, the couple seemed to have developed a general formula for economically designing educational buildings. Yet despite these architectural strictures of climatic rules, each school is able to boast uniqueness in formal, spatial as well as aesthetic character. Ms Vida Azenab, a social studies teacher at Aburi Girls’ High School, describes her experiences through different schools with decisive emphasis on their status in rank and prestige; praising the triumphant approach through the dormitories of Wesley Girls’ towards the terminus of the chapel, but claiming that the classrooms in Aburi Girls’ are more pleasant because they are brighter, and despite the overpopulation experienced in Aburi Girls’, the dormitories seem to be better ventilated that those in Wesley Girls’16. The exact science is clearly not as the relationship between tropicality and the project’s budget or the school’s wealth is seen to be disproportionate. The significance lies in the tangible envelopes that its users can see, experience and compare.

8. Balustrade, Wesley Girls’

16 Azenab, V. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview.

BLO CK LIBR ARY Accra | Aburi | Kumasi | Cape Coast 2015

BREEZE BLOCKS The ventilation block is perhaps the most common vernacular of tropical strategies. While infinite in its complexities and arrangements, the honesty of material and elementary nature of the stacked brick renders a fundamentally simple architectural element to design, fabricate and assemble - a crucial attribute for an undeveloped society. The early modernists were not the creators of such versatility but undoubtedly paved the way to the possibilities of its use. Extensively employed within the schools of Fry & Drew, the jali wall was a test bed for various experiments in structural, climatic and visual performance - or simply a blank canvas for the coupleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own expressive enjoyment. Throughout equatorial West Africa, the legacy left behind by the modernists can be seen in all manner of deployments. The blocksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; systematic and calculated potential may not be entirely harnessed when a humble farmer uses it on his own dwelling, or when a shop owner uses it on his store front, but the very fact that it has been engrained in the culture to perforate its envelopes is a climatic accomplishment. This was unlike that of other tropical nations such as Mauritius, whose relatively brief French and British occupancies never revolutionised its architectural modernism Fry & Drew completed three governmental buildings in Mauritius much later in their career but this was not enough to bring about any substantial influence1. In Ghana however, an industry of casting these concrete breeze blocks can be seen on the streets of its cities as well as its rural settlements. Through the entire typological spectrum of governmental offices to urban slums, and public hospitals to public schools, the relentlessness of the use of these economical bricks is extensive. The documented library of breeze blocks would be much wealthier if Ghanaian culture allowed for the freedom of photography - most were taken with consent, few were taken facing some hostility, and many were taken incognito from a vehicle. Aesthetically, there are those that subtly and blatantly refer to either religious or cultural motifs. While Fry & Drew attempted to appropriate indigenous textures and symbols, their results remained ambiguously neutral and therefore highly architectural. The inherent nature of the densely textured and extensively repetitive responds consistently to the symbolisms found in West African art and clothing. One could perform a vivisection on each and every breeze block envelope regardless of building type or status and each would render different results. Alas, only five will be briefly mentioned: 1â&#x20AC;&#x192; Jackson, I., & Holland, J. (2014). The architecture of Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew: Twentieth century architecture, pioneer modernism and the tropics (p. 348). Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

1. Chapel Jali, Opoku Ware School Fry, Drew & Partners 1952 2. Chapel Jali, Mfantsipim High School Fry, Drew & Partners 1958 3. Teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bungalow, Opoku Ware School Fry, Drew & Partners 1952 4. Central Library James Cubitt & Partners 1953 5. International Trade Fair Chyrosz & Rymaszewski 1964

Fry & Drew’s chapel at Opoku Ware (fig. 1) utilises a sheared honeycomb jali at the rear of the building. The large openings, despite the wall’s 300mm depth, allows for maximum breeze while the shearing at 45 degrees repels rainwater. During the rains, the chapel doors are closed and the perforated rear end provides a sufficient intake of ventilation for the entire hall. Their chapel at Mfantsipim (fig. 2) is of a much smaller scale and performs like that of an outdoor pavilion. Set within a secluded forest area, it is inaccessible during rains and therefore operates purely as a ventilated shelter for small gatherings. The blocks are given an extra task as the structural triangulation bears a considerable amount of the chapel’s load while providing abundant illumination and breeze. The porch of the teachers’ bungalow in Opoku Ware (fig. 3) as well as the ground floor of KNUST’s central library (fig. 4) employ jali walls as mere fences to indicate circulation. Minimal shading and maximum ventilation is achieved but the focus is perhaps more of an aesthetic one through the experimentation of solid and void and the expression of motif. The simple, double-tapered block of the International Trade Fair (fig. 5) de-prioritises light and views as security is prioritised for the exhibitions. The 50mm air gap between the bricks ensures ample infiltration at a high pressure creating a pleasant breeze within the hall. While these represent some of the more sophisticated experiments, the mere use of the breeze block indicates an understanding of the tropical envelope through the appreciation of its vernacular.

B R I S TT 26

TT L I N G 27

PA A J O E S TA D I U M ( K N U S T ) KNUST Development Office (1964 - 67) Kumasi, Ghana

A CANOPY Paa Joe Stadium KNUST Development Office (1964 - 67) Kumasi, Ghana

The simple function of a canopy that shades a grandstand of spectators takes the form of a complex structure designed and built by the in-house developmental office of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). Ten years after the completion of its masterplan by James Cubitt & Partners, the legacy of Ghana’s post-independence optimism and its abundance of early modernist buildings resulted in an unassuming architectural gem in the heart of the campus. Upon first impression, the canopy’s response to the insolation of the stands appeared ingenious. Despite the tip of canopy only reaching less than halfway above the steps, the full extent of the seating area (and beyond) was enveloped in shade when visited at 4pm. The structure’s insolative and programmatic specificity seemed to embody the success of its typology. However, this operated under the assumption that the canopy was oriented east-west - a subsequent inspection of the plan rendered this ingenuity unfounded. The stands face east, which implicates that the entire seating area is penetrated by direct sunlight in the morning, roughly half of the area is shaded at noon, and the shade line finally surpasses the last step at around 4pm (fig. 3). This unfortunate dis-orientation consequently leaves the lower half devoid of spectators during events - people would prefer to stand at the back instead of sitting in the sun. Most sporting events are cancelled on account of rain which eliminates the necessity to shelter the entire area from the wet. If the stadium was simply rotated at 90 degrees to face north (which C

16:00

12:00

1 . Pe rspec tival ins olation diag ram

2. View of the canopy from the east

3. View through the canopy from the south

the abundance of land in the university would permit) the entirety of the stands would be shielded against Ghana’s slightly southern sun. However despite this misfortune, the canopy of the Paa Joe Stadium remains a beacon of modernist construction as the limits of reinforced concrete are tested. The six meter cantilever over the stands is made possible by a collaboration of strategies: the folded plate structure, the plate’s formal attenuation, the tapered array of columns, and their connected tie beams. The plate is a calculated hybrid of a structural fold as well as a hyperbolic paraboloid. The virtually imperceivable twist within the plate is generated through the change of fold angle from 70 degrees at its rear to 140 degrees towards the front (fig. 2). The acuity of the rear renders a denser fold which increases its weight through material and thickness. The obtusity of the front flattens the plate using less material and gradually relieves the cantilever of dead load towards the tip. This change in angle would have made construction a complex and precise endeavour but ultimately demonstrates the structural and material possibilities of a concrete canopy. The posts consist of two members that create a triangulation of forces consistent with that of the triangulation of the plate (fig. 3). The compression member stretches out towards the plate’s centre but does not quite reach it, bearing the weight of the structure through a beam that passes through the folds. If designed for equilibrium, the point at which the column meets the plate (the beam) would be the centre of gravity and the tie member would only provide additional support for what would have been a moment connection. The local office’s modernist ambition resulted in an iconic piece of architecture that is able to rival its brutalist cousins. The Miami Marine Stadium, completed shortly after the work on the Paa Joe Stadium began, employs a similar structural system of the folded plate, hyperbolic paraboloid, compression and tensile members. How then does one distinguish

4. Miami Mar ine Stadium , 1 9 6 2 - 64

between the two? Which canopy belongs on which

line of latitude or are they interchangeably generic? Questions that would be easier to answer if the Paa Joe Stadium simply faced north to qualify its tropicality. Despite the shortfall of the invisible envelope of shade, there is a visual tropicality to the repetitive lines and edges that suggest a metaphysical association to the equator. The formal texture and vibrations together with a natural phenomenon created by the seemingly countless rainwater spouts may qualify its relevance. Perhaps then a more probing question would be, can aesthetics and phenomenology alone qualify tropicality?

PA A J O E S TA D I U M ( K N U S T ) KNUST Development Office (1964 - 67) Kumasi, Ghana

5. View of the canopy from the west

6. Canopy detail

B R E AA

Look at that subtle off-white colouring. The tasteful thickness of it. Oh my God. It even has a watermark... Patrick Bateman, American Psycho

AA T H E

I N T E R N AT I O N A L T R A D E FA I R Chyrosz & Rymaszewski (1964-67) Accra, Ghana

A HALL International Trade Fair Chyrosz & Rymaszewski (1964-67) Accra, Ghana

Polish architects, Jacek Chyrosz & Stanisław Rymaszewski, were commissioned to design the International Trade Fair as part of former president Kwame Nkruma’s strategy to promote international trade particularly within Africa. Their contribution represented the country’s close ties to Soviet Eastern Europe which created tension with Western investment opportunities1. Ghana’s reliance on a broad communist alliance perhaps threatened the relationship with its post-colonial exploiters by embracing its independence and remaining politically neutral. The yearly events are no longer held in the original buildings but instead in a larger hall located within the compound. The new centre, opened three years ago, does not compare in terms of climatic innovation to its predecessor that still stands less than 100 metres away - the spirit and content of the recent fairs have had a similar decline since the fairs held shortly after independence. Alas, the original building remains relatively well maintained and continues to accommodate a series of odd functions throughout the year. Similar to that of the canopy, the brief of the hall presents itself as a building with a somewhat simple function - the design of which only requires a simple solution as demonstrated by the new trade fair building. The hall was to provide a vast and flexible space in order to cater for various exhibitions of varying shapes and sizes - a checkbox that the new hall unequivocally ticks. What sets them apart however, is a tenacious obsession with tropicality through an elaborated orchestration of the elements. The hall dramatically confronts climate with the nakedness of its structure. The multiple layers of its elevation play with varying porosities and distort any perception of scale as the building disassociates itself with its typology. The roof indeterminately hovers above the podium which elevates its sculptural quality. This top layer operates independently as a passive mechanism that deals with the hot, wet and breeze through a performance that can be clearly read from its form. The diamond truss effectively creates a double roof system which the architects have chosen to clad in an inexpensive corrugated metal. This cheap roofing material is expressed as a scaled 1 Herz, M. (2015). African modernism. The architecture of independence. Zürich: Park Books.

1. View of the hall from the access road

2. Hot, wet & breeze diagram

texture consistent to that of the corrugated nature of the roof â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s form. Three responsibilities assigned to this undulating roof structure, on top of its basic requirements, include: a. Rainwater diversion from the pitches towards the massive rainwater spouts (wet) b. Filtration of thermal heat gain by the double pitch (hot) c. Harnessing of the prevailing winds through the gap between pitches (breeze) If ever there were a defining formula of the tropical envelope, it would be the marriage of these three operations together with the undulating aesthetic of the hallâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roof. The seven metre long cantilevers extend towards the edges of the podium on both sides like gargoyles ejecting rainwater run-off from the ornate roof of this modern cathedral. The dampness of the shaded lower pitch is then evaporated by the south-western, and north eastern winds to which the openings are aligned to harness. This harvested breeze also evacuates the accumulated hot air between the upper and lower pitches ensuring that the surface of the exposed roof structure to the space within the hall remains cool. The podium too is not without its climatic acrobatics - if the display of performance of the roof was insufficient. The innovation of the overall structure may have been initiated by its conventionally dispreferred north-south orientation - and its 120 metre long, east and west facing elevations suggest a highly strong orientation. To reconcile this transgression of the cardinal law of tropical design the podium redeems itself by remaining highly opaque as well as highly porous. The absence of windows and openings prevents a visual relationship with the exterior as it shields the space from direct radiation. The extensive 50mm air gap in between the block-

3. Breeze diagram

4. Hall interior

5. Second floor

work creates a uniformed porosity throughout the plinth layer of the podium. This allows for the intake of air at a high pressure thereby creating a constant breeze within the hall - an effect that is accelerated when populated with people. The air is then exhausted through the second floor where the heavy roof lightly interfaces with the podium. The intermediate gap in between the floor slab and the block-work mediates the overall system by exhausting hot air when pressure is low and sucking in more air when pressure is high - usually when occupancy is low and high, respectively. Rainwater travels along the entire length of each massive beam before being released at its tapered spouts into the surrounding landscaping. Every component is essential as each structural member carries, repels and absorbs the elements. This Polish import represents the quintessence of a tropical modernity that not only performs well on the equator, but looks like it belongs there as well. When compared to the new hall, with its roof panels of the same material that dumps rainwater down onto the connected rows of stalls beneath, it is difficult to ascertain the relevance of architecture in modern Ghana. Were the modernist buildings of independence an architectural canon or monumental white elephants? Perhaps the large hovering roof of the new hall has its roots in its predecessor but 6 . Ne w hall

none of its accompanying strategies were applied. Eventually however, the newer air-conditioned exhibition halls currently under construction will eliminate the tropical sensibility entirely just as its air-conditioning will eliminate ventilation. It is difficult to find fault with the hall of the International Trade Fair even through half a century of weathering. The recent restorations have retained its integrity as a naturally ventilated space despite the fully air-conditioned additions that are being built which, unfortunately, may not be due to an intentional preservation of the hall itself, but rather the infeasibility of conditioning the considerable openness of the space.

T H I CC

CC K E N

SCOTT HOUSE Kenneth Scott (1961) Accra, Ghana

A HOUSE Scott House Kenneth Scott (1961) Accra, Ghana

Kenneth Scott, a British architect who practiced extensively in West Africa, migrated to Ghana where he subsequently designed his own private residence in the capital city of Accra1. Much like that of the Eames’ Case Study House No. 8, the Ghanaian home is Kenneth Scott’s most notable project by far. Since his death more than 30 years ago the house has been occupied by his wife Theresa Scott, a former Ghanaian high court judge, who recently completed an additional house on the property. The widower vacated her late husband’s pièce de résistance earlier this year and is having her first tenants move into both buildings2. When visited, both houses were unfurnished and the original has been so well maintained that it was hard to believe that one was built 50 years before the other. The only alteration is the translucent glass panels added to seal the staircase of the main entrance for security reasons - disrupting the purity of the front elevation. Apart from this addition the house is as it was intended to be in its now thick and lush landscaping. The proportional and white-washed elegance of the original Scott House pays tribute to the classical order of Villa Savoye. This distant cousin was completed 30 years before West Africa could respond with its own version of a residential canon - having attained the means of industrialisation much later. Unlike the locally designed French dwelling by Le Corbusier, equatorial Africa owes its House to a colonial national. This is perhaps why they bear such resemblance to one another in form and method which raises the criticism of authenticity. Despite the Scott House’s relevance to the tropics, does the imported knowledge of an imposing empire qualify its validity as canonical? Would Ghanaians recognise and claim the architecture as one of their own? When asked the latter, most locals of every social class were ignorant of the house’s existence let alone its importance - even local architects. Only a selected minority of conservationists and civil servants knew of house and only through the association of 1 The Architectural Column: Profile: Kenneth M. Scott. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2015. 2 Scott, T. (2015, April 18). Personal Interview

1. Villa Savoye, 1931

2. Scott House, 1961

Mrs Scott. If the premise of regional relevance were similar to that of Villa Savoye, in that the liveability and applicability of the house itself was considered, perhaps the citizenship of the architect is irrelevant. Just as most Parisians do not live in a house modelled by Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s five points embodied by Villa Savoye, so too are Ghanaians unable to relate to the importance of the Scott Houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tropicality.

3. North-west elevation, Villa Savoye

4. South elevation, Scott House

Apart from the formal resemblance, the methodical rigour visible from a diagrammatic analysis deduces an unofficial five points of architecture specific to the equator:

1. Orientation

A decisive directionality of the plan to the sun path

2. Raised Building mass

Lifting the bulk of the structure off the ground

3. Recessed Envelope

The setback of walls and windows within floor-slabs and roof

4. Shaded east-west, opened north-south

Repelling direct light, receiving diffused

5. Storm-water management

Accommodation for the equatorial rains and its runoff Like a solution to the tropical equation, the Scott House was

a platform for testing and displaying these principles in a simple yet refined shape. The building is aligned perfectly to the four cardinal points and its square plan maintains elevational neutrality allowing the strategies to resolve the directionality without bias. East and west elevations are enveloped with louvres while the rest of the elevations

are left open. The ground floor is halved to accommodate parking with a shaded patio on one side and an indoor entertainment area with services on the other. The entrance is centred and tucked in between the two staircases with a slight extrusion consisting of an overhang supported by a wall and a column. The second floor is also halved with the living room on one side, and the bedroom and kitchen on the other. This rational compartmentalisation of the plan into halves and quarters allows the strategies to operate uniformly with clear opacities and transparencies - unlike that of Villa Savoye that prioritises views and approach. The recessed walls and columns form a corridor that wraps the space in an envelope of shade. This invisible component is especially essential since the spaces are hermetically sealed and air conditioned. Rainwater collects through the roof slabbing and evacuates through the spouts located on every corner before terminating into identical planter boxes. One could argue that Scott took the experiment with his house further than Le Corbusier ever did (or could) with Villa Savoye by extensively living in his model - to the end of his days like that of Charles and Ray Eames. Few architects have had this ultimate privilege and fewer have had their experiments revered by fellow pioneers of the

5 . Liv ing room , 1 9 6 5

discipline - the houses of Fry and Drew built after that of the Scott house borrows from its unofficial five points3. Nobody would have been more appropriate to continue the experiment than the very wife of the architect. Mrs Scott’s Africanism took hold of the interior decorating after her husband’s passing but she has left the architecture and the built-in furniture as it was intended. 50 years ago, Scott’s landscaping conformed to the clean lines of its European influence (fig. 7). It has since shrouded

6. Liv ing room w ith The res a S cot t, 2 0 0 5

the site with thick vegetation that dwarfs and further shades the architecture - undoubtedly beyond his expectation (fig. 8). Many locals refer to the big tree when asked if they knew of the house. This presents an additional element to the discourse of hot and wet architecture. The icon, unlike that of Villa Savoye which is celebrated by an absence of site, connotes not only a textured object but a highly textured site that is thick, unpredictable and unbound by time.

7 . S outh ele vation , 1 9 6 5

3 Fry, M., & Drew, J. (1964). Tropical architecture in the dry and humid zones (p. 139). New York: Reinhold Pub.

Like Villa Savoye however, the Scott House is not without fault and as a diagram of tropical design it has many. The most obvious shortfall lies in the louvre design. Tropicality 1.01 dictates that east and west facing shading devices are most efficient when horizontal in orientation. Despite the 45 degree rotation towards north-west (south-east) on both bays, the design only shifts the problem as the vertical louvres are now aligned towards the 8. West elevation, 2015

afternoon sun in June as well as towards the morning sun in December (fig. 9). Aesthetically, the verticality of the louvres balances the rather flat and horizontal building but the performative strategy is towards that of a temperate solution where the rotation would receive sunlight during winter, and repel it during summer - which may be enough to disqualify the canon before even establishing it. Another problem is the use of blinds behind the floor-to-ceiling glazing found on the north and south elevations.

9. Louvre detail

Though the glass is never penetrated by direct radiation, the openness of the envelope and the white floor reflect a large amount of light which the blinds may be able to repel but not before the radiation penetrates the glass and heats the envelope (fig. 10). Additionally, the blinds are horizontal which, despite their limit to a visual utility, furthers the houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contradiction of vertical louvres facing east-west and horizontal blinds facing north-south. These issues are ultimately offset by the mechanical ventilation that is in constant use by the Scotts. Whether it was an embrace of the inevitability of air conditioning that has been impeding the advance of tropical modernity, or a predilection for the conditioned environment in their Ghanaian home, the Scott house consists of a 10. Nor th facing cor r idor

sophisticated gradation of the natural before abruptly transitioning into the artificial. When visited however, the vacant house was unconditioned, hermetically sealed and had absorbed almost a full summerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s day of insolation. The interior air was thick, stagnant and it was difficult to appreciate its relevance to the tropics within such an uncomfortable space. The blight of designing for the conditioned air was made manifest in spite of its formal tropicality. The Scott Houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s five points are beyond contestation but the chosen shading devices break the cardinal rules of tropical design. It therefore looks more equatorial than it performs. Alas, at least the thing is white, as instructed by Le Corbusier: By law, all buildings should be white...

SCOTT HOUSE Kenneth Scott (1961) Accra, Ghana

11. West Elevation

12. Scott House 2, 2012

S U F F OO

OO C A T E

A WORKSHOP Engineering Laboratory James Cubitt & Partners (1953) Kumasi, Ghana

Block B

Block A

The engineering laboratory is one of the several buildings designed by James Cubitt & Partners in his masterplan for KNUST. It bears a striking resemblance to an unbuilt and yet renowned project of Le Corbusier. The inverted pitched roof of the New Venice Hospital was designed to maximise daylight and ventilation for emergency patients. It was one of Corbusier’s last projects that never saw completion as the first phase of design took place in 1965, the year of the modernist master’s death1. Incidentally, this celebrated paper architecture was designed 12 years after the completion of an obscure workshop building within the forgotten modernist trove of West Africa.

1 . New Venice Hospital, Le Corbusier, 1965

KNUST began as a College of Technology established in 1951. It quickly expanded from being a teachers’ training institute to include a school of engineering a year later. The College of Architecture and Planning was formed in 1958 and the institution subsequently gained its university status three years later. Throughout this period, KNUST saw the incremental erection of more buildings according to Cubitt’s masterplan. The earlier buildings, such as the engineering lab, central library, and great hall were all designed by foreigners but many returning Ghanaian graduates as well as the university’s development office were continuing the legacy with highly comparable projects.

1 Fabrizi, M. (2014, May 18). The Building is the City: Le Corbusier’s Unbuilt Hospital in Venice. Retrieved September 7, 2015.

2. Northern elevation

3. Workshop interior

4 . Hot, wet & breeze diagram

Construction of the workshop took the form of a conventional but slender reinforced concrete, post-and-beam structure (fig. 5). The column grid with support beams appear spars along the length of the building as the area between the expressively inverted pitches are devoid of structure. It is only after the clerestories have been casted that the alchemy is revealed. The steel beam that supports the concrete and glass of the daylight device is itself supported by

5 . Construction of the workshop, 1951

an array of adjustable steel rods that ties the structure

back to the wings of the pitch (fig. 6). The lightweight timbre truss of the roof construction is then hung from these beams and effectively fills the void in between the wings (fig. 3). The acrobatics behind this displacement of the roof pitch enables these linear beams of light that span the entirety of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s width to be exploited by the deep and open plan of the workshop area. The effect is that of a uniformly day-lit space with direct light filtered through the whitewashed slopes of the inverted pitches and their supporting beam. The shuttered doors are almost entirely opaque for the security of the workshopâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s equipment and are therefore relieved of any dependence for light. The adjustable louvres on the doors provide an intake of fresh air that is evacuated through the once adjustable louvres of the clerestory. Additional daylight is supplemented through a strip of 6. Clerestory detail, 2015

glazed but shaded windows directly above the doors. The diagram of the workshop area is therefore one that is well attuned to create a comfortable and conducive equatorial envelope that breathes, cools, and illuminates (fig. 4).

The story continues however, beyond the intended optimism of its utopic utility. Since its completion more than 60 years ago, the ingenuity of the engineering laboratory has been subjected to the acquired incompetencies of the KNUST developmental office - the very office that conceived of architecture like that of the Paa 7. Original drawing, James Cubitt & Partners

Joe Stadium. The state of the office has proven to be inadequate in maintaining or refurbishing (let alone designing) architecture. Upon seeking approval, the deputy registrar at the university administration asserted that the drawings of every building within the campus were available - the condition of the documents was another question. The workshop drawings appeared as though they saw the light of day for the first time in decades when examined for this research (fig. 7) despite the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s several alterations in the past years. The office is currently using digital drawings but no initiative has been made to preserve the plans and sections of a building that is still being extensively utilised. Air-conditioning has also robbed the building of its tropicality through the addition of compartmentalised labs within the structure. These sealed boxes not only divorce from the air quality and ventilation mitigated by the original envelope but they

8. Conditioned compartment

also completely eliminate the primary daylighting from the roof. The lights that were subsequently introduced accentuate this absence as the space is disfigured beyond recognition (fig. 8, 9, 10). As more of these smaller labs are required, additional walls and ceilings will eclipse the source of free and copious daylight rendering the roof structure that was once as functional as it was elaborate, purely

9. Conditioned compartment

ornamental. These multiplying pockets of conditioned spaces are the effects of the proliferation of air-conditioning which suffocates the once balanced and healthy respiratory system of the building. Currently, these labs and classrooms amount to 40% of block A (electrical engineering) as well as block B (mechanical, materials and aerospace engineering) and although this figure will increase, the need for an open workshop area in both blocks will eventually

10. Conditioned compartment

limit the spread of this compartmentalisation.

E N G I N E E R I N G L A B O R AT O RY James Cubitt and Partners (1953) Kumasi, Ghana

These open spaces however, are not free from the interventions of the developmental office. While the beam of filtered light still holds its daily performance to this date, the accompanying evacuation of hot air through the device has been indefinitely suspended. What was once three blades of operable glass louvres that made up one panel is now a single pane of inoperable glazing (fig. 11). The levers that still hang from the beams are the only evidence that the space once breathed (image). An extension rode was used to reach this height in order to open and close three louvered panels at a time. The office chose to replace these components instead of periodically maintaining them, but effectively changed the design in the process. Air circulation has been eliminated as the hot air that now lingers in this area is further heated by the radiation absorbed through the glass - unless the doors are all opened which never happens. This open space suffocates as

1 1 . Workshop interior

well making the performance of the entire building fall short of its former innovation. Few exceptions resist the inevitability of conditioned spaces mostly due to their type, but occasionally due to the relentless tropicality that makes it infeasible to hermetically seal. Most residential buildings and dormitories are able to resist it based on economy - despite the younger Ghanaian generationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s preference for air conditioning in their rooms. These examples, including the Fry & Drew school buildings and KNUSTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Unity Hall (pg. 67), stand in the glory of their embrace of climate. They are still appreciated for their visual and atmospheric integrity even after 60 years which gives hope for their endurance. Others such as KNUSTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s central library, where the floor-to-ceiling bays of horizontal louvres illuminate and ventilate only when opened, are so extensively tropical that it is almost impossible to convert the space for air conditioning - and they have tried (pg. 69).

UNIT Y HALL (KNUST) John Owusu-Addo (1963) Kumasi, Ghana

12. Unity Hall study area

1 3 . Unit y Hall t w in towers

CENTRAL LIBRARY (KNUST) James Cubitt and Partners (1953) Kumasi, Ghana

V A P O UU

UU R O U S

1. Inter nal cour t yard

2 . Staircas e w ith veranda

AN OFFICE Former US Embassy Harry Weese & Associates (1959) Accra, Ghana

The prolific Chicago-based architect, Harry Weese, was awarded the commission of the U.S. consulate for the British colony of Gold Coast in 1955. The country then became an independent sovereign state during the year of construction in 1957 and the consulate in Accra was raised to the status of an embassy. Weese’s design was a counter response to the proliferation of the Mediterranean-style concrete boxes that he witnessed in Accra. The inception of the embassy’s diagram came from the traditional chieftain’s house in Ghana’s northern territories1. The tapered buttresses of the mud-brick construction defines the precedent just as its inverted appropriation would come to define the embassy’s structure. The building has had 3. Traditional Wa Na hou s e , Wa , Ghana

its share of shortfalls during

its 55 years of use but it has also satisfied the ultimate architectural requirement - if ever there was one. Its users both past and present love the building. The American reporter Angus Thuermer wrote to Weese in 1962 while sitting in the embassy and praised the architect for his, beautifully panelled office while looking out through the slats, enjoying it madly, and muttering to any foreign buildings officer who will listen, ‘Let’s have another Weese embassy2.’ Its current Ghanaian occupants of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, who have claimed the architecture as one of their own, appreciate the extensive use of wood down to its interior finishing3. In 1960, Weese also won the Honor Award for Architectural Installations by the Fine Hardwoods Association for his creative use of native mahogany in the framework and trim of the embassy. Architectural historian, Jane C. Loeffler, admits that the building is functionally flawed but describes the design as handsome and widely admired as well as imaginative and a break from colonial traditions4. 1 Bruegmann, R., & Skolnik, K. (2010). The architecture of Harry Weese (p. 97). New York: W.W. Norton &. 2 Ibid. 3 Armo-Himbson, K & Forfoe, V. (2015, April 26). Personal Interview 4 Bruegmann, R., & Skolnik, K. (2010). The architecture of Harry Weese (p. 98). New York: W.W. Norton &.

FORMER AMERICAN EMBASSY Harry Weese & Associates (1956) Accra, Ghana

The embassy however, was forced to vacate the premises for security reasons due to the acts of violence against U.S. installations abroad in the late 1960’s5. Guidelines were instituted to protect the overseas U.S. buildings which included a ban on stilts. Weese was subsequently asked to revisit the embassy to determine if the building could be altered to comply with this guideline, but he found no solution. The building was thereafter used by the state department for other purposes until the late 1990s, when it was abandoned and left to deteriorate. It was then acquired by the government of Ghana and repaired with various additions to the original design as well as to the internal partitioning6. While some of these alterations have enhanced the functionality and even the tropicality of the former embassy building, the distinctly illdisciplined hand responsible for the additions taints experience of what can now only be seen through old photographs. The large roof was repaired with a thickening of its profile using an inwardly sloping corrugated metal sheeting (fig. 4). This thickness undoubtedly increases its thermal barrier but disrupts the building’s original proportions and

4 . Weste r n ele vation

material purity. An additional roof was added above staircase that was once unprotected from rain and shine (fig. 5). Its inconsistent slope and additional structure that descends onto the steps interferes with the sculptural objectification of the staircase within its highly symmetrical setting. The ministry’s director of finance, Mr Victor Forfoe, highlighted in an interview that the provision of only one point of entry to the raised building presents a serious fire and

5 . C our t yard

safety hazard especially considering that the building is enveloped in timber - there may be plans to add an additional staircase which would further disrupt the original design7. Perhaps Weese was stubborn towards the pragmatism of these issues but then again the building was occupied by the U.S. for over 35 years without any of these modifications. The one addition that has had a negative effect on the building’s performance is the clear perspex sheet that wraps the internal corridor’s vertical louvres to keep out the rain that occasionally seeps through (image). Ventilation through the corridor has been largely decreased and the heat that is generated through the solar exposure that periodically penetrates the louvres is retained by this impermeable material.

5 Bruegmann, R., & Skolnik, K. (2010). The architecture of Harry Weese (p. 98). New York: W.W. Norton &. 6 Ibid. 7 Forfoe, V. (2015, April 26). Personal Interview

Additional partitioning has disrupted the plan and the once generously spacious offices have now been compartmentalised with the same ill-discipline. The partitions haphazardly interrupt the windows and column re-entrants diminishing the uniformed daylighting. A large reception area that once greeted the employees after ascending the staircase has been walled off to maximise office space. A blank wall now disrupts the once celebrated transition. Despite these numerous deformations, the building still performs and exemplifies the typology of a high-end, corporate tropicality. Similar to that of the Scott house, the designâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s embrace of air conditioning as an essential component was the driver for the articulation of architecture. Unlike the Scott house however, the building accommodates both modes of the hermetically sealed and naturally ventilated - and succeeds equally through both. Mr Kwesi Armo-Himbson, the Chief Director of

6. Central pool

the ministry, claims that when the fountain in the central pool was running, it had a noticeably cooling effect on the space around it (fig. 6)8. Together with the corridor acting as a thermal buffer around the interior court, the three metre overhang of the roof around the perimeter, the raised building mass allowing airflow beneath, and the parasol roof that allows ventilation between the roof and the offices, the interior spaces are entirely sealed in a passive

7. Clerestory louvres, internal columns

envelope that is both visible and invisible. Clerestory

glass louvres along the corridor allow ample daylight and ventilation within the offices as privacy and security are maintained (fig. 7). The complex gradation of thermal zones can be seen through the section but due to the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lack of directionality, this treatment is consistent throughout every change in section. The orientation is fixed perpendicularly to the adjacent roads, thereby rendering its position based on the sun path arbitrary. Perhaps the solution to avoid the equatorial requirements of orientation is to design a building without direction - to treat all elevations with the same intensity of shading. Aesthetically, this may ensure its iconicity based on a simple plan with a high degree of articulation but this move throws a curveball to the discourse of tropicality that opens up further seemingly unanswerable questions. This is the first building in the study to disregard orientation; but is it a lazy favour of formalism over climate, or a clever solution to deal with

8â&#x20AC;&#x192; Armo-Himbson, K (2015, April 26). Personal Interview

an intentional disorientation? The 17 degree tilt of the plan away from north is slight (based on the roads), making the four elevations for the most part face the four cardinal directions. The uniformed shading devices would in fact be most efficient if the angle were at 45 degrees - but it is not. The critique of such a solution would be that east and west elevations do not shade enough as the sun still penetrates through the vertical louvres, and north and south elevations shade excessively while impeding views and the indirect light that would have otherwise been desirable. For the Scott House, it was all about the orientation that defined its tropicality. The dialogue of transparency and opacity dictated space, structure, views, and direction. Weese’s counter narrative employs the same elements of that dialogue, but combines both through each elevation in order to disregard orientation - or overly regard it with a blanket solution. Arguably one of the most notable buildings of West African modernism, the former U.S. Embassy challenges the definition of equatorialism. Are the uncompromising regard for climatic design and the industrial aesthetic of a refined modernity mutually exclusive? Does one represent pure performance and the other pure formalism, respectively? The tug of war between the architect, the U.S. government as well as the government of Ghana throughout the past half century suggests that the agents have had their own position in advocating either one or the other. Geometrical rigour was undoubtedly the protagonist of this story which is evident through the architect’s purely formal (or arguably cultural) inspiration. The building’s premise is founded upon an inversion of a vernacular precedent which, despite being located within Ghana, originates from so far north of the country where it is no longer hot and wet, but hot and dry. Weese’s design may not have employed the fundamental (or conventional) strategies of the tropical envelope, but the architectural rigour of the building from its sophisticated diagram to its intricate detailing has earned the approval of its users through time and gained its recognition as an equatorial icon.

8. Geometry of the floor-slab’s structure

U N K N O W N A PA R T M E N T B U I L D I N G

AU TOP SY R E P ORT

The expounded architectures are the embodiment of Kenneth Frampton’s somewhat paradoxical proposal of Critical Regionalism. There was a time when chief proponent for the International Style, Le Corbusier, had the ambition to make the ideal temperature of 18°C available everywhere - from the Poles to the Tropics, from Moscow to Dakar1. Opponents of the style believed this to be ridiculous, dictatorial and inhumane and tended towards the other extreme where environmental wisdom was found almost exclusively within vernacular architecture. Reyner Banham describes the poles of this spectrum as the tyrannies of technology as well as those of custombound vernaculars, and prescribes the full exploitation of this kit of parts as modern opportunities2. The planets of modernism aligned when Ghana’s journey through its colonial independence birthed the likes of such architectures similar to that of the more deliberated sites of Chandigarh, Sao Paolo and Brasilia. Ghana’s ironic dependence on foreign professionals (especially architects) after its independence necessitated this rare and utopic relationship between the omnipotent architect and an impressionable client. The relationship’s lack of regulatory strictures

and

bureaucratic

hindrances

enabled the architects to marry their imported

universalistic

industrialism

with the unsentimental utility of culture and nature - the result of which was a new

1. Jane Drew (1911-1996)

aesthetic and arguably a new modernism. This disassociation from the International Style was precisely what Frampton’s resistance from modern society’s homogeneity advocates for3. Colonialism brought with it many foreign products, practices, even policies - some less beneficial than others. Analogous to its industrial knowledge and architecture, western clothing infiltrated the tropics in a proportional fashion. The kente cloth (fig. 2) originated in the Ashanti Kingdom (now Ghana) and was widely adopted by many 2. Kente Cloth 1 Banham, R. (1969). The architecture of the well-tempered environment (p. 304). Chicago: University of Chicago. 2 Ibid. 3 Frampton, J. (1983). Towards a critical regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance. (p. 16).

WESLEY GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL Fry, Drew and Partners (1946) Cape Coast, Ghana 84

other West African countries. Its symbolic colours and textures represent different thematic events throughout history and was usually worn during special occasions. Similar to that of the Roman Toga, the cloth is a rectilinear hand-woven sheet that wraps the body and is draped over the left shoulder. Unlike that of its European counterpart, the cloth represents a tropical lifestyle in aesthetic as 3. As ante boy s , 1 9 7 3

well as performance. The second skin is effectively a ventilating envelope that loosely fits and shades the body. The arrival of the formal suit-and-tie, and shirt-and-trousers was as appropriate as a glass house in the tropics. Just as the universal appeal of the crystalline form has proliferated its presence in many parts of the equator, so too are equatorial bodies being sealed within the suffocating confines of the buttoned-up cuffs, tight collar and

4. KNUST D eput y Reg i strar, 2 0 1 5

tucked-in shirt of the temperate west. Ghanaians however, have not entirely neglected their roots and remain proud of their Africanism. There has certainly been a shift towards the tight, tucked and buttoned in Ghana’s corporate realm (fig. 4) but it has never been rendered unprofessional to wear the cloth or its similar shirt-like evolution (batakele - fig. 5). The duality of the form-fitting and ironed uniforms contrasting with the thick and airy drape remains as prevalent today as it did in the past.

5. Prempeh C ollege Headma ste r, 2 0 1 5

Certain institutions such as high-schools still hold to its importance as an African identity with the headmasters and staff preferring to wear the batakele as their daily attire. Even school uniforms, while having adopted the normative shirts-and-trousers convention are adorned with the colours and patterns of the cloth which instils in the youth a sense of national pride. During President Obama’s speech to the Parliament of Ghana, an event that not only signified the ‘return’ of one of their own but also the coming of a great western leader, the supposed professionalism of suits were greatly outnumbered by that of the Ghanaian Kente Cloth as well as other traditional West African attires. The sea of colours and textures with an occasional jacket-and-tie perhaps symbolises an African resilience towards the panoptic omnipotence and omniscience of the

6. Members of Parliame nt dur ing O bama’s speech

international style.

While the cultural nostalgia is inherently performative in that the design of the attire is rooted in climate and comfort Ghanaians maintain their identity through the aesthetics of form and pattern. The people embrace western clothing as a utilitarian necessity but at the same time also express the country’s textured heritage which suggests a parallel necessity for ornamentation. Similarly the former Embassy building by Weese is appreciated, first

ADISADEL COLLEGE Gordon Cullen, African Experiment (1953) The Architecture Review

by the Americans followed by the locals, primarily for its formal and spatial character as opposed to its climatic attributes. However the building is as extensively performative as it is formally articulated. The shading devices and structural components are themselves ornaments - and vice versa - which is perhaps how the building has endured the relentless modifications for additions such as airconditioning and casement windows. This is also seen in Fry and Drew’s schools that endure not only because they out-perform any of the newer institutional buildings but also because they are inherently adorned with ornaments that are also essential architectural components - the patterned balustrades, while highly expressive, are also elements of safety and ventilation; the brise-soleil that primarily shade and ventilate are also essential structural elements. Perhaps the failure of buildings with equally sophisticated climatic ingenuity, such as the Engineering Laboratory by James Cubitt, was the failure to exploit the full extent of critical regionalism. While the workshop building performs like it belongs in the tropics it does not appear to divorce itself from the clean lines and white walls of a Corbusian International Style. As demonstrated by Weese, among others, it is possible to aesthetically appeal to a foreign climate without succumbing to the custom-bound vernacular as described by Reyner Banham. The challenge therefore, is to both appropriate modernism into a culture that understands aesthetics more than performance, as well as to equally innovate a climatically attuned machine for the furtherance of the discourse. The next step, which has proven to be an even greater challenge, is to preserve these architectures. The Scott house is kept pristine in recognition and reverence of Kenneth Scott’s contribution to tropical modernism. Although he is still survived by Mrs Scott who’s preservational sentiments are aligned to that of her late husband’s, the test will be if Ghana continues to treasure the house long after her departure - and as the government’s attempts with the modernist icon of the former U.S. Embassy have shown, there appears to be a long way to go. The recent light on West African modernism shines from outside of Africa and yet these architectures will only endure if Africans themselves appreciate and treasure it more. This challenge however, is seems to stretch beyond the capacity of the architect. As Ghana, and the rest of Africa, strives to develop since falling behind in globalisation, perhaps the country is now ripe to fully realise the architecture of its independence. It is an opportunity to reawaken the spirit of experimentation where the friction between aesthetics and performance drive each other towards the bold and daring forms like that of the its early modernism, and beyond.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Bruegmann, R., & Skolnik, K. (2010). The architecture of Harry Weese. New York: W.W. Norton &. Banham, R. (1969). The architecture of the well-tempered environment. Chicago: University of Chicago. Banham, R. (1967). Theory and design in the first machine age (2d ed.). New York: Praeger. Crinson, M. (2003). Modern architecture and the end of empire. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. Frampton, J. (1983). Towards a critical regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance. Fry, M., & Drew, J. (1964). Tropical architecture in the dry and humid zones (p. 139). New York: Reinhold Pub. Herz, M. (2015). African modernism. The architecture of independence. Ghana, Senegal, Kenya, Zambia, Côte d’Ivoire. Zürich: Park Books. Jackson, I., & Holland, J. (2014). The architecture of Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew: Twentieth century architecture, pioneer modernism and the tropics. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Mwakikagile, G. (2006). Africa is in a mess: What went wrong and what should be done (2nd ed.). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: New Africa Press.

I N T E RV I EWS Ankamah-Lomotey, V. (2015, April 20). Personal Interview Armo-Himbson, K. (2015, April 26). Personal Interview Azenab, V. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview Dupe, P. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview Forfoe, V. (2015, April 21). Personal Interview K-Gadossey, J. (2015, April 20). Personal Interview Krige, L. (2015, April 30). Personal Interview Kumassah, G. (2015, April 24). Personal Interview Kwabena Yeboah, E. (2015, April 21). Personal Interview Mensah, S. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview

Obuobi, M. (2015, April 20). Personal Interview Ofori Lois, V. (2015, April 15). Personal Interview Opoku Kenney, E. (2015, April 20). Personal Interview Orison Agbo, R. (2015, April 17). Personal Interview Rademeyer, S. (2015, April 30). Personal Interview Striggner Scott, T. (2015, April 18). Personal Interview

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We donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t take education seriously in Ghana. (2015, May 13). Retrieved September 7, 2015. [source: http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/We-don-t-take-education-seriously-in-Ghana-Anis-Haffarlaments-358022]

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I L LU S T R AT I O N C R E D I T S All illustrations are by the author, with exception of the following:

Pg. 3, fig. 1

- Book Cover, Africa Is in a Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done

Pg. 3, fig. 2

- Book Cover, African Modernism: The Architecture of Independence

Pg. 12, fig. 3

- Assembly Hall, Aburi College (Fry, Drew & Partners, c. 1953).

Pg. 31, fig. 4

- Miami Marine Stadium

Pg. 41, fig. 6

- International Trade Fair Accra

Pg. 49, fig. 5

- Scott House interior

Pg. 49, fig. 6

- Scott House interior

Pg. 49, fig. 7

- Scott House interior

Pg. 59, fig. 1

- New Venice Hospital, Le Corbusier, 1965

Pg. 61, fig. 5

- Construction of the workshop, 1951

Pg. 73, fig. 3

- Wa Na Temple

Pg. 83, fig. 1

- Jane Drew (1911-1996)

Pg. 83, fig. 2

- Kente Cloth

Pg. 85, fig. 3

- Asante boys going to a dance, 1973

Pg. 85, fig. 6

- Obamaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s speech to Ghanaian Parliament

Pg. 86, image

- Gordon Cullen, African Experiment (1953) The Architecture Review

[source: http://www.amazon.com/Africa-Is-Mess-Wrong-Should/dp/0974433977]

[source: http://www.park-books.com/index.php?pd=pb&lang=en&page=books&book=625] [source: Mark Crinson, Modern Architecture and the End of Empire, 2003] [source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Marine_Stadium] [source: https://www.facebook.com/Tradefair.gh] [source: Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, Tropical architecture in the dry and humid zones, 1964] [source: http://www.petertolkin.com/stories/listening-there/] [source: Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, Tropical architecture in the dry and humid zones, 1964] [source: Phaidon Editors, Le Corbusier Le Grand, 2014] [source: http://www.jamescubittandpartners.com/#!__projects-g-k/kumasi-college] [source: https://awayfarers.wordpress.com/tag/kumasi/] [source: http://www.architectural-review.com/view/reviews/reputations/jane-drew-1911-1996/8665224.article] [source: http://akwaabaensemble.com/about-kente-cloth/] [source: https:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adinkra_symbols; ] [source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYvwYWabWvs] [source: http:/www.architectural-review.com/tropical-modernism-fry-and-drews-african-experiment]