SOUND VESSELS
How can architecture continue to develop and support the aural experience of music in today’s techno‐visual context?
Chris Paxton
Chris Paxton | January 2011
History and Theory | Issues in Contemporary Architecture University of Bath Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering BSc General Architectural Studies | Year 4 | 2010 – 2011
PREFACE 8
INTRODUCTION
11
EVOLUTION OF MUSIC AND MUSICAL AUDITORIA
18
TODAY’S CONDITION
21
A CONTEMPORARY RESPONSE?
31
CONCLUSION LINKS TO MUSIC REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY PICTURE CREDITS
Figure 1 | Lowlands, Turner Prize Gallery
Figure 2 | Lowlands, Clydes Bridges
PREFACE
I developed an interest in the aural experience of music after hearing Lowlands, by Susan Philipsz, performed at the 2010 Turner Prize exhibition, fig 1. In the sparseness of the gallery space, the vocals seemed to have been sanitised of the intended dark, haunting qualities that were experienced when the lament was played out underneath the three Clyde bridges in Glasgow, fig 2. Instead, the song offered a purity and softness, creating a relaxing, contemplative atmosphere for listeners in the exhibition. Philipsz’s installation appears to be an ever changing collaboration between music and architecture.
This led me to question the contemporary spaces in which music is performed and to study the capacity of architecture to alter the aural experience of music. It seems that the musical auditorium typology has been accepted as the traditional ‘shoe box’ ‐ seating and stage; yet it is clear that architecture can actively enhance the sound experience and even collaborate in the composition of music.
I have experienced the aural space of several contemporary musical auditoria, including the Casa da Musica and the JS Bach Chamber Music Hall. I have not been able to visit all the examples mentioned in this study, which include temporary pavilions that have now been
dismantled. Following thorough research, I have gained a firm understanding of their design and the aural experience they create.
Previous writing on music and architecture has tended to focus on how musical patterns are used to inspire a visual architectural expression or how architecture can be designed as instrument, but I am keen to study the experience of sound in space and how it is affected by the proportion, form and surface materiality of architecture.
This essay focuses on the evolution of music and architecture, and it is specifically concerned with musical composition and auditorium design which create evolutionary new aural experiences of music. In this way, the examples cited do not involve traditional concert hall typology.
Internet links to videos of all the aural experiences included in this study can be found at the end of the essay, in the section ‘Links To Music’.
PREAMBLE I will explore the spatial and temporal relationship between architecture and music and map the evolution of auditorium design and musical composition alongside technological advances and cultural contexts. This essay investigates the design of contemporary musical auditoria and speculates as to the future direction of aural architecture.
INTRODUCTION Architecture has the ability to change sound. We can consider musical auditoria as sound vessels, not simply places for musicians and listeners to gather for performances, but extensions of the musical instruments played within them. Music and architecture are arts that rely on spatiality and temporality, the precise way in which they combine within musical spaces initiates a unique and ephemeral aural experience.
“Listen! Interiors are like large instruments, collecting sound, amplifying it, transmitting it elsewhere” [1]
Over the last millennia, architecture and music have evolved in parallel to produce new musical genres and auditoria design. In recent years, however, technology and ocular centrism have conspired to reduce the importance of sound architecture and to diminish the willingness of the designer to prioritise the aural experience. In order to reverse this trend and restore the relationship between architecture and music, architects must return to an aural centric approach ‐ the intuitive study of surface materiality, form and proportion.
SOUND AND SPACE “Music and architecture have the common property of putting us inside a sensorial whole different from that we ordinarily live in” [2]
When music is performed, the sounds we hear are affected by the shape and surface materiality of the space we are in. Architecture and music are related by the basic physical properties of sound in space. Through the radial spreading of sound from a point source and the subsequent reflecting of sound waves, we are able to perceive sound and gain an idea of the spatiality of our environment.
For musical performance, it is important to understand that the temporal spreading and reflecting of soundwaves causes reverberation to extend the perceived length of notes, an expression of the materiality of a space, while spatial spreading and reflecting transforms the notes into an enveloping sound field, an expression of the distance to the edges of the space. [3] It is these essential properties that inform the architectural design of auditoria and our perception of a musical composition. The physical behaviour of sound can be used by architects and composers to sculpt an aural experience.
Figure 3 | Kalimba Mbira of the Nsenga of Zambia
EVOLUTION OF MUSIC AND MUSICAL AUDITORIA
“Auditorium
1727, from L. lit. ‘place where something is heard’ “ [4]
It is possible to observe the parallel evolution of musical genres and auditoria design, throughout history. The tempo, timbre, style and tone of music will strongly influence the appropriateness of auditoria. Likewise, the proportion, form and surface materiality of a space will greatly inform the suitability of the music. Meanwhile, altogether new aural experiences can be generated through collaborative composition involving both music and architecture.
SPACE INFORMING SOUND The ancient music of Western Africa is played to mark rituals and tribal ceremonies and is performed outside in the savannah. Without a sound envelope to create reverberation, percussive drum rhythms are emphasised, their complex and overlapping patterns perceptible in the open air. The resonant chambers of acoustic instruments are shaped to produce an optimum amplification for the vocal accompaniment, while the Mbira, fig 3, a
Figure 4 | Cologne Dom
type of xylophone, has a buzzing timbre that carries over large distances of the flat open surroundings. [5] Over many years, the design of these sophisticated instruments and the style of music they play have been refined to exploit the musical environment.
Similarly choral music is perfectly suited to performance inside a church. In contrast to the open air environment of the savannah, a gothic cathedral, such as the Cologne Dom, fig 4, provides a highly reverberant envelope ‐ a large volume with an acoustically reflective materiality. Under this condition, choral music is atonal, with long notes and almost no rhythm. [6] The combination is entirely appropriate as the smooth stone surfaces of the church interior enhance the aural experience of hearing choral music.
In 17th century Europe, the Baroque movement introduced music of elaborate ornamentation, performed in the ballrooms of the aristocracy. These auditoria were small in size and decorated in soft furnishings allowing the musical aesthetic to become frilly and delicate with intricate melodic patterns. [7] Pachelbel, Vivaldi and Handel used violin and harpsichord, instruments with high pitches, to cut through the murmur of conversations. They explored key changes, knowing that the shape and materiality of the space would not create large dissonances, thus confusing notes.
SOUND INFORMING SPACE In 1872 Wagner commissioned the Bayreuth Theatre, a concert hall made specifically for the performance of his experimental compositions. His music involved huge, rich sounds with emphasis on the bass instruments, so the design of a larger orchestra pit accommodates more double basses, cellos, tubas and drums. The auditorium’s acoustics were designed to allow high pitched notes to be perceived amongst the loud bass sounds;
Figure 5 | Bayreuth Theater
Figure 6 | ‘Glissandi’ of Metastatis
timber furnishings soften the effect of the booming bass and projecting cross‐walls absorb sound reflected off the ceiling and rear wall. Wagner’s operas were based on mythical stories; the design enhances the dreamlike quality of the music by visually separating the audience from the musicians using a hooded screen to cover a sunken orchestra pit. [8] In the Bayreuth Theatre, fig 5, the character of music informs the design of the auditorium to create a complete aural experience.
ORGANISED SOUND At the start of the 20th century, advances in audio technology enabled sound to be recorded accurately, stored and then played back through loudspeakers. These developments enabled innovative musical composition, allowing sound to be organised in space – a technique explored by sound artist Edgard Varèse.[9] In 1956, Varèse collaborated with architect, Le Corbusier, in creating the Poème Électronique ‐ a 480 second performance of music, architecture, image and film to be presented inside the Philips Pavilion, at the 1958 Brussels Exposition.
While Le Corbusier focussed on the assembly of the visual and aural performance, his assistant, Yannis Xenakis designed the auditorium. Xenakis, also an experimental composer, was inspired by the graphical representation of the musical score of Metastatis, one of his own compositions. Using orthogonal axes to signify pitch and time, Xenakis’ scores created hyperbolic paraboloids through the overlapping of straight line relationships, ‘glissandi’, fig 6. [10] An assembly of these three‐dimensional forms created the volume of the Philips Pavilion; a space conceived through an interpretation of a musical composition, fig 7. It may have seemed appropriate to represent the sounds of the Poème Électronique, however Xenakis saw merit in layering musical expressions, he says, “we are capable of speaking two languages at the same time. One is addressed to the eyes, the other to the ears.” [11] Sterken articulates the exact difference between these
Figure 7 | Philips Pavilion exterior
Figure 8 | Philips Pavilion interior
expressions, “...the continuous transition between two states. In acoustic space this condition is articulated in the development from unison to clustered sounds while in architectural space it is expressed by merging the horizontal level surface with the vertical wall plane.” [12] Xenakis created a fluid interior space, a continuously shifting canvas of potential acoustic compressions and rarefactions that allows for multiple possibilities for the organisation of spatialised sound, fig 8.
“Architecture was no longer restricted to playing the role of a reverberating sounding board but instead became the source of sound: architecture and music rendered coincident.” [13]
Into this auditorium, Edgard Varèse inserted the Poème Électronique. In collaboration with the architects, the musical composer devised the positioning of 350 loudspeakers onto the interior surface of the sound volumes, each programmed to emit a unique set of ‘concrete’ sounds at a set time. Lead sound engineer Willem Tak describes the artistic approach, “The listeners were to have the illusion that various soundsources were in motion around them, rising and falling, coming together and moving apart again, and moreover the space was to seem at one instant narrow and ‘dry’ and at another seem like a cathedral.” [14] The temporality and spatiality of the Poème Électronique created a ‘moving sound’ around the audience, and through manipulation of recordings composers aimed to alter the listener’s perception of space. Architecture and music combined to evolve the aural experience of music.
TODAY’S CONDITION
In recent years the evolutionary trajectory of architecture and music has diversified, as technological advances have enabled highly accurate acoustic design and virtual aural space. With acoustic refinement ensured by computational audio analysis, architects have tended towards visual expression, persuaded by the culture of ocular‐centrism.
TECHNOLOGY In the 20th century, musical composition and the design of aural spaces were influenced by two revolutionary advances in sound technology. The development of sound recording in the early 1900s split musical performance temporally and spatially, democratising music through radio and enabling organised sound compositions. Towards the end of the century, new computer technology enabled the electronic manipulation of sound, which allows music to become independent of its architectural environment – musical instruments and their aural space merge. Blesser (2007) writes, “Spatial acoustics are no longer the result of sound reflecting off surfaces, but from computers using algorithmic rules to manipulate digital signals.” [15] With headphones attached to laptops and personal media players, the way in which we experience a lot of the music we hear does not even involve actual physical space.
Advances in audio technology have also enabled highly accurate computer aided analysis of acoustics. Today, this computer software is widely used in the construction industry by acoustic engineers who apply their expertise to adapt architectural proposals, so that they perform appropriately. Architects will delegate the task of acoustic design to sound engineers, as Salter (2007) explains, “The architect is a social scientist with the skill to determine appropriate aural attributes... but it is the acoustic engineer who understands how to create spaces with these attributes”. [16] In resigning direct control over the creation of the sound experience, architects have distanced themselves from aural design. Thus, in auditorium design, the relationship between architecture and music is weakened.
OCULAR CENTRISM While music has become more reliant on computer technology, architecture has developed a bias towards visual expression. Pallasmaa (2005) writes, “In the past 30 years, a type of architecture, aimed at a striking and memorable visual image, has predominated. Instead of an existentially grounded plastic and spatial experience, architecture has adopted the psychological strategy of advertising and instant persuasion.” [17] This form of architecture has developed because of an ocular‐centric cultural context, as “From television to newspapers, from advertising to all sorts of mercantile epiphanies, our society is characterised by a cancerous growth of vision, measuring everything by its ability to show or be shown.” [18] Our eyes have become the primary means by which we experience the physical world, negating our other senses. In this way, sound architecture that affects our feelings has been forgotten, while visual experiential qualities have predominated.
Figure 9 | Swiss Sound Box
A CONTEMPORARY RESPONSE?
‘Auralcentric’, ‘refined’ and ‘virtual’ are some important defining characteristics of emerging musical auditorium design. The following contemporary examples explore these notions and inform the extent to which contemporary architecture can continue to develop and support the aural experience of music.
AURALCENTRIC I will use this term to refer to a design approach that allows the human ear to intuitively feel, modulate and balance the aural experience. A study of surface materiality, proportion, shape and spatiality, that informs all others areas of the design. It is a process that does not necessarily rely on the accuracy of computational audio technology.
Swiss Sound Box , Hanover | Daniel Ott and Peter Zumthor The Swiss Pavilion for the 2000 World Exposition, Hanover, assembles a series of relaxing, sensual experiences within a stacked timber labyrinth, through which visitors are invited to stroll, rest and discover the culture of Switzerland, fig 9. Conceived as a ‘sound box’, the pavilion acts as a single auditorium with a series of musical experiences united under a fluid umbrella of sound. Ott and Zumthor achieve an embodied aural experience, with individual acoustic musicians performing in intimate spaces. A new form of musical composition is created through the spatialising and layering of music that involves definite structure, but also improvisation and chance.
Ott devised three musical layers; accordions and dulcimers make basic sounds using a
Figure 10 | Swiss Sound Box
fluid umbrella of sound. Ott and Zumthor achieve an embodied aural experience, with individual acoustic musicians performing in intimate spaces. A new form of musical composition is created through the spatialising and layering of music that involves definite structure, but also improvisation and chance.
Ott devised three musical layers; accordions and dulcimers make basic sounds using a strict combination of notes, creating a continuous drone that spreads throughout the pavilion. Onto this aural canvas, improvised passages allow several lead musicians to engage or disrupt the sound field, while musical windows enable all musicians to ‘play as they would at home’, encouraging different musical styles, creation and spontaneity, fig 10.[19] Arranged spatially in Zumthor’s diffusive sound box, the ‘Body of Sound’ is a “speculativemathematical moment of joint soundspace proportions...that at the same time is open to the individuality of musicians, and open to the idiom that resonates through them.” [20] Essentially, Ott has formulated a compositional framework of heterogeneous building blocks [21] that can be arranged in different ways, applied to many musical styles and involve many contrasting musicians; the musical experience is always different.
In plan, Zumthor spatialises individual aural spaces using a weave of timber walls, articulated orthogonally. Its acoustic materiality ensures a warmth and closeness to the individual musical performances, while the innovative stacking of cut and planed wood creates a diffusive sound field, as sound can permeate voids between perpendicular timbers. Significantly, acoustic design development did not involve computational sound engineering, but was instead an intuitive process in which the sound qualities were listened to, and then adjusted. Grueneisen (2003) explains “Acoustic properties could not be calculated in advance but had to be intuitively felt. The interplay between architectural construction, acoustic space and various musical sounds was tested in Chur using sound trials on a full scale sample stack. It was discovered that the
dulcimer has a structure markedly similar to that of the sound box.” [22]
This creative collaboration between architect and composer informed the detailing of the structure and the arrangement of the musical piece. Zumthor’s design focusses on
Figure 11 | The ribbon structure
acoustic space and various musical sounds was tested in Chur using sound trials on a full scale sample stack. It was discovered that the dulcimer has a structure markedly similar to that of the sound box.” [22]
This creative collaboration between architect and composer informed the detailing of the structure and the arrangement of the musical piece. Zumthor’s design focusses on materiality and is informed by the ear. The architecture evolves alongside the musical composition, manipulating sound into both intimate and diffusive acoustic environments.
REFINED Advanced computational audio technology enables highly accurate acoustic design. Digital analysis can more precisely examine an aural space, refining acoustic quality to an ‘optimum’ sound that is usually predetermined. Nothing is left to chance; it is sound architecture without intuition and creative spontaneity.
JS Bach Chamber Music Hall, Manchester Art Gallery | Zaha Hadid Architects and Sandy Brown Associates
The JS Bach Chamber Music Hall is indicative of auditoria design influenced by today’s techno‐visual culture, as advanced computer engineering ensures optimum sound quality, while the architecture is primarily of visual expression.
The project brief involved the conversion of a large exhibition room in Manchester Art Gallery into a musical space specifically for the performance of Bach’s solo pieces, fig 11. It was desired that the space would replicate the acoustic qualities of Baroque ballrooms and salons, the auditoria where compositions were originally performed.
The architects installed a single swirling form that controlled the reverberation of the space and enveloped the performers and audience, creating an intimate, unified aural space. The design adapted an iconic, recurring motif in Hadid’s work – the ribbon – she says (2009), “We’ve done this idea of the spiral quite a few times in other projects to give the idea of enclosure, of a tornado in the space – but this time it works acoustically.” [23] The
Figure 12 | Computer aided acoustic design
was desired that the space would replicate the acoustic qualities of Baroque ballrooms and salons, the auditoria where compositions were originally performed.
The architects installed a single swirling form that controlled the reverberation of the space and enveloped the performers and audience, creating an intimate, unified aural space. The design adapted an iconic, recurring motif in Hadid’s work – the ribbon – she says (2009), “We’ve done this idea of the spiral quite a few times in other projects to give the idea of enclosure, of a tornado in the space – but this time it works acoustically.” [23] The architectural design is ocular centric as it invokes a feeling of enclosure using its wrapping form and deliberately conforms to the instantly recognisable visual style of the practice. A previous form is adapted by detailed acoustic analysis, tailoring a curvature and exact positioning in space to the unique setting of the gallery.
The design development utilised the latest digital audio technology to accurately assess the existing acoustic environment and then adapt the ribbon accordingly, ensuring flutter echoes and external background noise were eliminated, fig 12. Acoustics engineer, Mark Howarth describes the process, “Zaha Hadid Architect’s 3D CAD models were imported into the acoustic modelling software by Sandy Brown Associates. This enabled the investigation into different material finishes and sculptural shapes to enhance the acoustic conditions around the stage and audience areas of the space.” [24]
The designers relied on audio technology to ‘hear’ for them, enabling more accurate acoustic analysis and a ‘perfect’ aural space. A computer orientated approach allows the architect greater freedom of visual expression however detaches the architects from the aural experience they are creating. As a result, the relationship between architect and music is weakened.
Figure 13 | Sound plan, Son-O-House
Figure 13 | Son-O-House exterior
VIRTUAL This emerging strand of visionary architecture uses cutting‐edge digital technology to create virtual responsive environments. In auditoria design, virtual aural space replaces actual physical space.
SonOHouse, Son En Breugel, Holland | Studio Nox and Edwin Van Der Heide Architect Lars Spuybreok and composer Edwin van der Heide intended to create an ambient place for people to relax in the evening. Conceived as a ‘house where sounds live’, [25] the auditorium is a virtual responsive environment that generates ambient tonal sounds from the specific movements of visitors. A network of sensors placed in strategic positions influence the frequency of sound that is emitted using tonal interference, fig 13. With sound that is responsive to movement in space a new form of musical awareness is created. “Usually music is a way to vivify time and make its passing more perceptible. Here you notice the passing of space.” [26] The Son‐O‐House reconsiders the traditional auditorium, offering a new experience of music in virtual aural space.
In contrast to the previous examples, the Son‐O‐House relies solely on digital sound engineering to animate its musical space. In terms of acoustics, architecture is only required as a structure on which sensors and loudspeakers are supported; instead, architecture is a visual tool to encourage visitors’ movement through the fluid, amorphous volumes, fig 14, which consequently affect the music that is played. “’Looking’ is not really the appropriate term because the space is organised in such a way that is appears different from different points of observation.” [27] While the form invokes people’s movement, their aural experience is taken away from the architectural and placed within the virtual world. In creating such responsive digital environments, the role of architecture is redefined and its influence on our sense of hearing is diminished.
CONCLUSION
Architecture and music share a spatial and temporal relationship, which has, historically, informed the evolution of auditoria design and our aural experience of music. In the late 20th century, however, revolutionary audio technology has diversified this relationship, diminishing the influence of architecture on the aural experience. Advanced computer software, which can accurately analyse and refine optimum sound environments, is widely available; architectural design has thus become detached from the aural experience it creates. Relieved of the task of mediating aural quality, architects have instead prioritised the visual experience of musical performance spaces, persuaded by a contemporary culture of ocular‐centrism. Indeed, as cutting‐edge digital technology continues to develop virtual aural spaces, sound architecture may be rendered obsolete. Thus, for the continued evolution of architecture with music, auditoria design must be aural‐centric; a study of surface materiality, proportion, form and spatiality. Acoustic design of auditoria must not be controlled solely by computers; the human ear must also be enabled to intuitively feel, modulate and balance the aural experience. The role of the architect is critical here.
Finally, it may be revealing to consider the evolution of architecture and music from the opposite viewpoint. It seems inevitable that the future composition and performance of new music will further engage with improving audio technology. As our consumption of music is increasingly controlled by virtual aural space, spatial and material characteristics of auditoria become less significant. With this in mind, future architects may sadly be destined to accept a more subordinate role in the aural experience of music.
LINKS TO MUSIC NhariraMbira DzeNharira | Mbira West African Music Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=pNEs8ewFgo4&feature=related Gloria im Kölner Dom | Choral Music Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMTfTS6sans&feature=related Vivaldi – La Follia | Baroque Music Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_mP7PdpEdg&feature=related Götterdämmerung Hoiho! | Richard Wagner Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=qRJcWQXPGq8 Poême électronique | Edgard Varèse and Le Corbusier Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1AT8rI_A8M&feature=related klangkörperklang | Daniel Ott and Peter Zumthor Source ‐ vimeo.com/15767119 French Suite No. 5, Bach | JS Bach Chamber Music Hall Source ‐ www.guardian.co.uk/music/video/2009/jul/14/zaha‐hadid‐bach‐pavilion‐ manchester SonOHouse | Edwin van der Heide and Studio NOX Source ‐ www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRyfQmlenrI
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BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Zumthor, P. (2006). Atmospheres. Birkhauser
Paget, V. (1932). Music and Its Lovers: An Empirical Study of Emotions and Imaginative Responses to Music. Allen and Unwin Blesser, B and Salter, L. (2007). Spaces Speak, Are You Listening? . The MIT Press Williams, BM. (2001). Learning Mbira: A Beginning... . Honeyrock Forsyth, M. (1985). Buildings For Music. CUP Archive
Trieb, M. (1996). Poème Électronique – Space Calculated In Seconds. Princeton University Press Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The Eyes of The Skin. John Wiley & Sons
Grueneisen, P. (2003). Soundscape: Architecture For Sound and Vision. Birkhauser
Muecke, MW and Zach, MS. (2007) Resonance: Essays on The Intersection of Music and Architecture. Culicidae Architectural Press Blacking, J (1976). How Musical Is Man?. Faber & Faber
Ripley, C. (2007). In Place Of Sound: Architecture, Music, Acoustics. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Cage, J (1973). Silence. Calder and Boyars, London EJOURNALS Salter, L and Blesser, B. (2007) Aural Architecture. Research Design Connections ‐ Page 2. Sourced From: www.researchdesignconnections.com/pub/aural‐architecture.
JOURNALS Howarth, M. (2009). ‘Acoustic Design For The JS Bach Chamber Music Hall’. Architecture and Urbanism. No. 12 (471), 2009 December Mulder, A. (2004).’The Son‐O‐House, Architects: NOX Architekten’. Domus. No. 871, 2004 June ‐ Page52‐57
Bullivant, L. (2005). ‘4D Space: Interactive Architecture’. Architectural Design. Vol 75, No. 1, 2005 Jan/Feb Such, R. (2004). ‘Altering Form and Sound With Movements’. Architectural Record. Vol 192, No. 8, 2004 August
FILMS Ted Talk. (2010). How Architecture Helped Music Evolve. David Byrne. Available at: www.ted.com/talks/david_byrne_how_architecture_helped_music_evolve.html
The Culture Show. (2009).Series 6 Episode 3: Zaha Hadid’s Music Pavilion. BBC2. 22 July 2009. Available at: www.bbc.co.uk/cultureshow/videos/2009/07/s6_e3_zaha/index.shtml
PICTURE CREDITS
Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7
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Blacking, J From: Blacking, J. (1976) How Musical is Man?. Faber & Faber
Danson, T Available at: www.flickr.com/photos/jivedanson/4747374903/ sizes/l/in/photostream/
McAllister, JA Available at: anthonymcalister.blogspot.com/2010/06/inside‐ring‐part‐ three‐bayreuth‐tales.html Xenakis, Y From: Trieb, M. (1996). Poème Électronique – Space Calculated In Seconds. Princeton University Press Philips From: Trieb, M. (1996). Poème Électronique – Space Calculated In Seconds. Princeton University Press
Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14
Herve, L From: Trieb, M. (1996). Poème Électronique – Space Calculated In Seconds. Princeton University Press
Pohl, EB Available at: en.urbarama.com/project/swiss‐sound‐box‐swiss‐pavilion‐ expo‐2000 BridgeCo AG From: Grueneisen, P. (2003). Soundscape: Architecture For Sound and Vision. Birkhauser Harrison, S Available at: www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/gallery/2009/aug/ 11/2#/?picture=351478840&index=0 Tony Hogg Design and Base Structures From: Howarth, M. (2009). ‘Acoustic Design For The JS Bach Chamber Music Hall’. Architecture and Urbanism. No. 12 (471), 2009 December
van der Heide, E Available at: 77.164.215.58/~Edwin/ van der Heide, E Available at: 77.164.215.58/~Edwin/