The Art Of Being

The Art of Being (The Modern Druidic Path)

Cianoadh of The McGillemhaoil

I am all truth, wisdom and love, I am poetic inspiration, and artistic expression, I am the fire, warmth and light, Divine Brighid The Creator, I am the rock, the fruit and the stream, I am woman’s beauty, and man’s strength, I am the blood, flesh and bone, Great Mother Danu The Sustainer, I am darkness, desire and thought, I am the dancer’s skirt, and a warrior’s sword, I am life, death and rebirth, Queen Morrighu The Destroyer, I am all that is, and will be, I am nothingness, and infinity, I am the universe of stars, and the mother of mothers, Eternal Universe The Blessed Seed,

For my beautiful wife…your love sustains me like the bountiful goddess And Ow Thas-Gwyn (Poppa) - you taught me more than you can imagine, and so you will forever be a part of me.

Preface A lot of this world is not seen. Behind this illusion that we all live, there is a deeper reality, one which clearly stares us in the face. When we learn how to recognise its presence, we find ourselves overwhelmed and surrounded by it. What was once hidden, now becomes clear as day…but brings with it, some harsh truth. The long dream is finally over.

Religions are dying, our Earth has been plundered, and our Governments continue to fail us. We now live in a world of almost no individual rights, and so very few free thinkers still around to fight for them. We’re so wound up with separating ourselves by race, colour, caste, language, sex, age and subculture, that we can not even see our own oppression. When this farce of a situation reveals all its layers, we will be left only to stand in disbelief at the madness of it. Then the hardest task that we as individuals and as a society will have to face is to accept that we have been so misguided in our views, and that the bankers and businessmen who force us to pay for our own slavery, and the politicians (glorified accountants) who lie and cheat us are all our own creation. Like idiots we confuse Ipods and the idea of getting drunk on the weekends with symbols of liberation. We must stop lying to ourselves now, this isn’t freedom, and it isn’t happiness.

Are you happy wasting your life slaving away at some mindless job, only to pay an endless cost of living?

Are you happy to let politicians walk all over your civil rights and choices, and openly lie to you?

Are you happy with over crowded hospitals and drug dealing doctors?

Are you happy with under funded education systems failing our children?

Are you happy continuing to watch the beauty of our planet be plundered and polluted for money and war?

Are you happy to allow bankers to enslave our families and countries with their monetary system?

Are you happy being harassed by media and marketing that’s designed to hijack your thoughts?

Are you happy to know most of the food we buy is full of poisons and unfit to eat?

Are you happy to see other human beings suffering because of unnecessary war, disease and famine?

I could go on, but it doesn’t take a genius to realise that there are dangerous flaws in this society. How much more evidence does someone need but to look around them? We all know deep down what must be done, it’s just that we’re too afraid to do it because we’re taught to fear change. How bad are we going to let it get before people start to get as mad as we should be though? While we stay frightened and indecisive, people are still dying of curable diseases and avoidable hunger. The longer we ignore it as a society, the less there will be of our precious forests, and more of our water will be unsafe to drink. It’s obvious we need change…urgently.

Not everything we’ve been taught in school, ever believed in culturally, or heard and saw in the media was based on the entire truth. Therefore, what you’re about to read might require you to have an open mind. I won’t intend to offend, belittle, or attack anyone, but I do aim to be academically or historically accurate, as well as rational and positive.

There’s not much point in writing another book to tell everyone how bad things are either, I don’t see how that would help anyone, and there are already many great films and publications available urging the seriousness of our present circumstances. This is not a novel, nor am I writing to argue any case, or presenting these beliefs for debate. I wish only to share with you an understanding, profound human revelations that to me have become a revolution.

It’s not my job to convince or convert you, because the truth belongs to all and comes from all. I don’t have all the answers, nor will I pretend to know how to stop any global events. All I am saying is that it’s time the cultures and nations of this world united in freedom, love and peace as human beings, and not be secretly pulled together by a web of corrupted business and political agendas. We now find ourselves at a crucial turning point in history, and must seriously consider our future here on this planet and our place in the universe. We could either continue to live in a world of injustice and fear, or we could live in a world of peace and love. The choice is simple…act out of love, or act out of fear, but know that we shall not know a world of peace until we find it within ourselves.

Trust only what lies deep within your spirit, an instinct so ancient and pure, to know what is true and just. The beating of your heart will tell you that this life you inherit, with freedom and justice as a god given right. Ghandi once said “Be the change you wish to see in the world’, the simplest yet most profoundly empowering statement ever made. It means that all this injustice we see could end, right now, if we all wanted it to. We are responsible for our lives, and our world.

If soldiers threw down their guns, politicians decided to be honest, people acted with honour, money was abandoned,

science was embraced, and sustainable and revolutionary technology was allowed to excel, this world would be truly a paradise, nirvana, utopia, or heaven.

Contrary to outward appearances, Science and Spirituality were always one. Sadly few people out there can truly comprehend this. Modern science evolved from the ancient arts that were practiced by the ancestors. For example, Healing became Medicine, Alchemy became Chemistry, Astrology became Astronomy and so on. Religion has nothing to do with Spirituality and never did. Spirituality is philosophical, enlightening and real…Religion is rigid, disempowering and misguided. Religion is slavery, spirituality is freedom. The time for irrational old superstitions is over. A real belief system is based on and backed up by observable facts and truths, only then can it be valid and justifiable. The modern mindset calls for a merger of scientific fact and philosophical truths to be the basis of an essential worldview and understanding that heightens our perspectives. Modern technology works to unlock the secrets of our universe, and ancient wisdom helps us to live fulfilling lives, and build a world of harmony. It’s only natural that we adapt as we have expanded our knowledge of life and the universe. It’s time for a new way of looking at things, and to bring our cultures into the 21st century.

That doesn’t mean we have to discard of gods or cultural identities. What I am proposing is to get rid of religion, not spirituality or culture. We must simply redefine a new way to understand what our gods are or represent to us, and evolve only what practices are relevant and worthwhile to our lives or beneficial for the community. Spirituality is a very personal thing, and everyone has their own way of seeking a connection with society and the universe. Belief in a Creator is not the garbage they preach in most churches, and so called holy books such as the Bible, Torah and Quran have continually been misinterpreted either deliberately or just taken too literally, so much so that the original philosophies of them have been completely distorted. The point is, we can’t trust these books enough to abide by them or be the only reference to mainstream history. The bible is essentially based on Astrology and Philosophy, not History, and in fact no such person as Jesus Christ ever existed according to any other records from the time. Christianity itself is just a mere parody of ancient Egyptian religion, all they did was changed the SUN of God into the SON of God. When you institutionalise spiritual beliefs, you lose the intimacy of it and cut yourself off from direct energy. You become a worshipper, or a follower of something, you fear your Creator instead of loving them. Of course you must definitely honour your Gods/Spirits, but you are not at any of their mercy. Christians always talk about Jesus being the Shepherd, and refer to themselves as the herd/flock, which I find epitomises this very notion. The truth is the Churches have always served the Roman taxmen throughout the centuries and continue to do so. The Catholic Church has become a forum for paedophiles and sadists to exert mind control over portions of the population by scaring them into believing in heaven and hell. Well I say it’s their hell, so let them burn in it. Ancient Egypt is the mother of true Christian faith, and unless you accept that the SUN is Christ, and that Jesus is a human personification of the Sun, unless you acknowledge pagan Egypt you are not practicing real Christianity anyway.

It is in the older native spiritual traditions that you will find greater wisdom. Ancient India for example, is a sister of Pagan Europe, and there still survives many remarkable connections between pre-Christian traditions in Europe and classical Indian culture. Europeans originate near that part of the world, which is why we are referred to as IndoEuropeans, a term that includes cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Norse, Germans, Persians, Slavs and Armenians. Pagan mythology and Hindu mythology share a common heritage, so it’s hard not to feel a deep connection to ancient India as well as ancient Egypt. In fact, India had probably more to do with shaping our civilisation than Egypto-Christian culture did. The Vedic scripts are one of the most revered ancient texts in existence, and Sanskrit is probably similar to the languages that ancient Europeans would have spoken when they left their central Asian homelands many thousands of years ago. The languages of Gaelic (the oldest surviving European language) and Sanskrit, show clearly that there are commonalities between the Vedic and Celtic cultures. For one example "Awen" (pronounced ah-oo-en), the word for God in Gaelic Celtic culture, and "Om" (pronounced ah-oo-em), the word for God in Sanskrit, are very similar in both purpose for recitation and pronunciation. The similarities go on, as will be explored more throughout the book.

I have studied and practiced the Druidic teachings in my culture for many years solitarily and as a member of a Brighidine Order. I can confidently say there are no practitioners alive today with any teaching lineage directly back to the Druids of antiquity. Any who claim so are pure liars, usually the same people who echo the idea that Druidic means the same as Celtic. Druidry is a native spiritual tradition, indigenous to the British Isles. Celtic cultures came from continental Europe over a period of around 500 years (est. 1000BC), as Celtic peoples dominated most of all Europe, including Britain before the Romans. Celtic people were strong, and able to hold onto a lot of ancient traditions and folk memories, sometimes encoding it into arts. Ultimately the coming of the Romans, and then the rise of the Roman

Catholic Church saw the destruction of much of native British and Celtic cultures dominance in Britain by the end of the 5th century AD. Having said all this, we wouldn’t want to be practicing pure ancient Druidry anyway, as much of their ways would be only relevant to their time and understanding of their world, and would make little to no sense to a modern mind. We know enough to piece the puzzle back together and reconstruct a lot of this knowledge, but in order to make it viable in doing so, it needs to be real. There’s no point reviving something that has little value to us just for the sake of nostalgia and romanticism, it should be as meaningful now as it was in the past in order to do it real justice.

Unfortunately also, there are many aspects of ancient culture that have been wrongfully misconceived as being part of some sort of new age movement, largely thanks to the media. Much of that new age movement you’ll find is led by fake psychics and tarot card reading monkeys, who spend their time eating Tofu burgers as they disappear up their own anuses. Furthermore, another issue I must clear up is the fact that ‘Wicca’ is not Celtic either. Wicca was started by a Freemason called Gerald Gardner in the 1950’s as a hybrid form of witchcraft. It has nothing to do with Celtic culture in truth, and to link the two is misguided in my view, as Wicca borrows from all different religions. I generally find Wicca to be problematic rather than worthwhile anyway, because its teachers seem on the most part more interested in pretentious ceremony and image, instead of study and practice.

This book covers topics such as Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Medicine, which were long considered areas of study by the ancient ones, including Druids. What I aim to do is to redefine a new spiritual consciousness, using real facts and real truths, resulting in a perception without much speculation or pretension. My way is to work towards a real Heaven on Earth, where all people live without fear, in peace, equality and freedom. I would like to see a world where science and technology relieve us all from laborious work, kill off all diseases and provide us with a sustainable future. I wish to encourage cultures to reconcile with each other, and learn how to love again. To live and let live, celebrating our rich diversity and not fearing our differences, should always be the way of humanity. Instead we’ve created a society that is reactive, not proactive, and all this Thou shalt not nonsense and law would be unnecessary if people were to live in a state of love and peace. In a world of higher beings, we would need one rule only: to live free and not hurt anyone else. It may sound ridiculously simple or inadequate, but it takes a much higher consciousness to fully appreciate its depth and levels. Society isn’t about rules and regulations to punish people after they do something, it’s about getting people to act in unison, with love and respect for each other in the first place.

Prevention is far better than cure, so we need to be raising our children differently. The most ancient idea of family, clan, tribe or community is what life is really about. Having people around you who care, people that enrich your experience with love and happiness is what matters most. Take care of each other and band together.

The first thing we need to do is simple: get rid of the money system. We will eliminate 99% of suffering in the world almost immediately by shedding its shackles. Crime would virtually come to a halt, war would most likely stop and billions of people could finally get access to proper medical treatment, plentiful food and water. To have a better world we won’t need money at all, so no more banking, financiers, accountants, economies, or employment. An honest trading system, based on resources or skills is a much more viable alternative. Natural resources could be cooperatively harvested between communities, then shared equally amongst its inhabitants. Also, a new education system designed with scientific, technical, artistic and sociological curriculums could turn the population into an educated, skilled and informed one. We could evolve large networks of technicians and skilled practitioners of all fields, to ensure everyone has access to adequate healthcare, resources and education in their more local areas. The incentive to get rid of money is clear, think of how much more we could be enjoying our lives by exploring our passions in an environment free of fears and hardship as opposed to our lives now. The problem with chaining up people in the mindless day to day routines of full time employment is that people are not able to pursue personal growth. If we didn’t have to work, but spent our days following our dreams and interests, the world would advance in enlightenment and technological achievement at a rate never before known in our history. We must abolish nations, ruling elites and false identities altogether. The world is full of beautiful cultures, our diversity should be celebrated and embraced, and spiritual unity between all peoples maintained.

In summary, this book is a foundation to a series of more topic specific books in the future. Here, I give you all the tools and wisdom you need to know to help you free your mind, find something deeper in life and become more self sufficient. When you find your own path towards personal growth, spiritual connection with God/Nature, and service to the community, I hope this knowledge can help you decipher that which is real truth and that which is not. It’s up to all of us to start the revolution from within ourselves, because nothing will change unless we do. Let us pledge allegiance then to Humankind, and the fight for a free mind, peace on earth and mutual prosperity. Remember always that there’s more to life than what is in front of us. Knowledge is power, and truth will set you free.

Contents Chapter 1: DRUIDRY            

Druidry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

History of Druids Common Druidic Principles……………………………………………………………………………………………

Meaning to life Trinity………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Redefining God…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Sex……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Wholeness…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Being The Mind…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

The Soul……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

Perceptive Evolution…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Love and Fear Conquering Fear………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Personal Ritual……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Chapter Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 2: The Heavens           

Intro…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The Universe………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Solstice and Equinox……………………………………………………………………………………………………

The Ages.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Serpentarius………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

The Moon……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Gregorian Calendar……………………………………………………………………………………………………...

The Week The Sun.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

The Planets………………………………………………………………………………………………………….........

The Druidic Year………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Rites of Passage Chapter Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 3: Mother earth           

Intro…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Pagans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

The 3 Realms……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

The Biosphere…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Plantae……………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

History, Dependence, Photosynthesis, Botany Mineralia………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Rocks and Minerals Animalia………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………...

The Body.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Physical Form………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Sleep Homeostasis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Energy Conversion………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Glycolysis, Metabolism Nutrition……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Blood……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Cell Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......

Protein Biosynthesis, Mitosis, Mitotic Phase and Cell Cycle Evolution…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Dúile and Dindsencha…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Ecosystems and Biomes……………..………………………………………………………………………………...

Pollution and Destruction………..……………………………………………………………………………………..

Natural Medicine………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Methods of Use, Common Herbs and their Properties Chapter Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 4: Awen                  

Intro…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Particles……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Atomic Life……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......

Chemical Elements………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Vibration……………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Waveforms Electro-Magnetism………..……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Light………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………….........

Colour Energy Sound.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

Sound Wave Energy, Sound Waves and Emotion, Hearing Meditation and Channelling……………………………………………………………………………………………

Raising Vibration, The Power of Thought, Techniques The Ley System…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

How to find Ley Lines, Ritual Radiation and Attraction………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Creative Visualisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Chakras…………………………………………………………………………………………………..........................

The 3 Cauldrons……………..……………………………………………………………………………….................

The Supernatural - Spirit World………..……………………………………………………………………………...

Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………………………………....................

5th Dimension………………………………………………………………………………………………….................

Chapter Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 5: The Bard         

Intro…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Bardic and Ovatic………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Bardic Tradition, 9 Gifts of the Cauldron Sacred Language of Symbolism………………………………………………………………………………………

Runes.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

The Ogham…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

Numbers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Ancient Celtic History…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Invasion Myth, Culture, Clothing The Gauls.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Invasion of Italy, Invasion of Greece, Roman Conquest The Britons………………………………………………………………………………………………………….........

Roman Conquest

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The Gaels………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Gaelic Scotland, Gaelic Mythology, The 3 Queens The Picts…………………………………………………………………………………………………….....................

Pictavia – Caledonia, Romans and Picts The Fall of Rome…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Britannia after Rome, Viking Invasions The Medieval Age.………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

England, Scotland, Wales Chapter Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 1: Druidry

Druidry Druidry is a way of being, a spiritual path built on the study of sciences, arts and philosophy. We are not a codified religion with a sacred book, set of rules or commandments and do not gather in churches. Druidry is the native living tradition of the British Isles and Western Europe. The Druids flourished in the pre-Roman cultures, as a priestly caste who originated in Britain and spread west. Historically, the Druids of antiquity were highly regarded, even by their enemies, as scholars, astronomers and social leaders. The Greeks in particular, regarded them as sources of great wisdom and credit them with many discoveries. Druid training is a long and arduous process, up to 20 years. It followed a carefully laid-down structure that demanded a lot of knowledge, wisdom, verse and stories.

In ancient times there were said to be three kinds of druids, the Bard, the Ovate and the Druid. Each were concerned with different areas of the same lore, however, Bardism was the very foundation of druidry. The bard was an artist, guardian of sacred knowledge, messenger, and historian. The Ovate was a seer, prophet, herbalist, wizard and healer.

The Druid was a judge, teacher, advisor, philosopher, guide and ritualist. Many famous historical Celts are said to have been Druids, such as Vercingetorix, Queen Boudicca, Myrrdin, and much more recently William Blake.

History of druids: The last great centres of druidry were deliberately targeted and destroyed by the Romans in the 1st Century AD, during their invasion of Britannia. This was done because the Romans knew that the Druids were leaders. Druids were the ones who had the power to unite the British tribes and were behind 17 years of organized resistance, also supporting the great Queen Boudicca in her almost successful campaign to rid the land of Rome in 60AD. It is a common belief that the practices of druidry and pagan beliefs died out thereafter and also later with the arrival of Christianity. This however couldn’t be further from the truth, druidry never really went away. Much of their knowledge and wisdom continued to flourish in the more remote parts of the British Isles until the coming of the Christian missionaries. The establishment of Christianity in Celtic countries merely made druidry change its coat. It continued in the Colleges of Bards of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, in the folklore and customs of the 'common' man, among many families who continued to revere the 'old ways', and within the Christian Church itself. In their rush to assimilate the Celtic tribes of Gaul and Britain, the Christian missionaries converted many of the old gods into saints. A good example of this is the goddess Brighid, (patroness of the arts, fertility and knowledge) who William Butler Yeats famously thanked for putting the 'fire in his head'. She became St. Bridget, the supposed midwife of Christ. She quickly became one of the most popular saints in Ireland. The Catholic Church recently recognised this 'conversion' and decanonised her. Despite this, the Irish and Scottish still love her and some of her nuns have gone on to create an independent shrine to her.

In the 18th Century the first of the modern orders of druidry appeared, during a time of self discovery and romanticism in Europe. As first the Reformation and then the Age of Reason freed many Northern Europeans from the dead hand of Catholicism, some began to explore their own native spiritualities. Though at first quite Christian (or in the case of some, Freemason) in their outlook, they slowly recovered much of that which was lost and became the ancestors of most modern druidry. Druids these days are not priests, unlike our ancient predecessors and as is popular belief still.

Instead, we are networks of individuals within communities who are skilled artisans, disciplined practitioners and academics. There are many mystical fantasies and fallacies that spring to mind when one thinks of Druids, which is largely due to poor misrepresentation or misinterpretation of facts. However, strange robes, secret rituals and violent human sacrifice are no longer acceptable ways to remember this inheritance. Druidry is meant as a path of service and excellence, the ways of Philosopher, Practitioner, Artisan, Warrior and Teacher.

In the 1950s the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1735 in Britain, allowed many non-Christian and native spiritualities to emerge from the shadows. During the 1960s and 1970s there was a huge increase in interest in these native spiritualities and this led to the founding and re-emergence of many druid orders. Many people who felt constrained or even betrayed by the failure of the Christian churches to provide a meaningful spiritual path turned to the ways of their ancestors. In the 21st Century pagan faiths are some of the fastest-growing spiritualities in the world, especially among those of northern and western European ancestry. It is recognised by national governments and is now even included as a choice in censuses. In the midst of all the excitement and growth the druid orders continue their work, as they have done for the last 5,000 years (a bold claim, but one founded in fact).

Modern druidry is a vital and growing spiritual path. With open hand, open heart and open mind, it faces the future with hope, love and purpose. To those that seek it out, it offers a clarity of vision and freedom of expression not often found among the more dogmatic faiths. Those who approach druidry will generally find it an open and welcoming spiritual community. No one is ever asked to give up their own beliefs or commit any more of themselves to it than they feel comfortable with. It is considered that each person must forge their own path, though the teachings and wisdom of our ancestors is available to any who seek it.

Common Druidic principles       

All life comes from the Universe The Universe is made of Matter and Energy All life is conscious Life is interconnected, from the depths of the Earth to the stars Life travels in cycles Love is the highest consciousness There is no law but the laws of Nature

Druidry is not a path of power. No real druid would claim that we can wield great power over reality, nor bend the elements to our will. We work with the cycles of the earth and seek to promote learning and wisdom, as well as healing both of individuals and the land. We are seekers of the truth, all truths. We do not deny the truths of such spiritually-contentious issues (to other religions) as evolution, the birth of the physical universe and other scientific discoveries. We also have no interest in marketing ourselves to a wider community, those who wish to learn more can find their way to one of the orders or to a willing teacher.

The path of a Druid is one of continuous study, and most of us are constantly involved in some type of personal development in order to better serve and honour the Earth and our community. Life is interconnected, because there is a sacred spirit that flows in all things. This energy we call the Awen, our name for God. This planet and all things upon it are sacred to us, and we see ourselves as its stewards not its masters. We seek to understand and work with natural phenomena and cycles, which we celebrate as the equinoxes, solstices and fire festivals. Life always travels in cycles, from the turning of day and night to the flow of seasons and ages, we walk this constant spiral of existence.

“All paths to the creative force are valid and to be respected, no one has a grip on the truth. Follow your own tenet and do not oppress others.”

Druids can work with and revere gods if they choose, be that a single universal force, a belief in 'The God' or 'The Goddess', or a recognition that there are many gods and goddesses in the land. There are even Christian druids, often those who follow the re-emergence of the Celtic Christian path after centuries of suppression by Rome. Druidry is a broad and tolerant path and all are welcome. The key words here are 'work with' and 'revere', please note that I do not say 'worship' or 'follow'. As Druids we can respect our gods but will not slavishly worship them, because they are largely impartial to our choices in life, and we tend to have very personal relationships with them.

Man alone has invented the idea of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ or ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. Such concepts are highly subjective and based on people’s individual morality. Morality is formed by cultural and personal perceptions, and therefore a product of one’s biases and mental programming. In Druidry, God is not a punisher of bad deeds, nor does he care what you do in this life. I do specify that when I’m using the term God here I am actually referring to the womb of life itself, the infinite universe and creative energy, or whatever you choose to call it. Nevertheless, you were born with freewill, and to embrace that freewill, it is impossible to accept the idea of spending eternity in some sort of ‘hell’. This was all a lie, created out of deliberate misinterpretation of the bible, and designed to keep you in fear of looking outside the square, blind to your own oppression. In reality, only other people are the judges to what we do in this life, because God is neither critical, cynical nor boastful. God certainly doesn’t need you to believe in her, for her to exist. So I conclude that morality is too fragile and inaccurate a position to be determining social relations with. There is no law but nature, for only Her will and Her rhythms remain unchanged.

Unfortunately what we have now is a judicial system that comes from the twisted set of morals promoted by the religious institutions and enforced by a dumbed down media. We have long forgotten what humanity is, and learned how to treat each other so badly that we’re used to it. The greed of a few, has rendered the masses feeling helpless and confused about themselves. We let others tell us what’s good for us, and don’t think for ourselves. We really wouldn’t have to live under so many laws and such an oppressive system if we all at least learned to respect each other. Remember the golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have done unto you”, the idea of individual freedom, but respectful of others. Live and let live is the only divine message, a co-existence and strength in our differences.

This is the way of nature: balanced and diverse, yet united. What I’m saying is be free and don’t hurt people is the only rule we should need to live by as a society. It’s as simple as having enough respect for each other to start being truly civilised.

I realize it may never be perfect for everyone all of the time, because the good sometimes inevitably comes with the bad in this world. But it’s all part of life experience and makes us who we are. It’s so important to express and experience different feelings and emotions, be they positive or negative. The only trick is however, negative emotions or thoughts should not be held onto, we have to let them come and go. I have met many priests who behave as if they’re divine and don’t ever seem to be in a bad mood, but to me they seem to be suppressing themselves only. I find it hard to trust a person that doesn’t show their emotions at all, they’re not genuine. There’s nothing wrong with getting angry or feeling sad from time to time, we should never be withdrawn from the experience. It’s not impressive or wiser to ignore our natural instincts and feelings. Express yourself and explore, it’s what we are born to do.

Meaning to life: We cannot pretend to understand the meaning of existence because it’s just a ride. We’re here to experience what it has to offer. There must be a point when we just have to come to the conclusion that it just IS, and will always BE. We don’t know why yet, and I don’t think there could ever be a definitive answer anyway. When it comes down to it, there has to be something, because even nothing exists. We must treat life as a canvas for us to fill with colour and expression, otherwise what else are we going to do in the middle of infinite emptiness and all these colossal spinning balls of rock and explosions? Who even knows what may be beyond this universe, we could be a tiny part of something beyond our wildest imaginations…but that’s the magic and mystery of life, and nothing can change it.

We can not prove that there are any predetermined purposes for our lives, although some of us, myself included, may feel destiny bound to certain paths and experiences. Life is what our perception makes it out to be, because we forge our own journeys most of the time. The point is, life is about seeking fulfilment, there is no other ‘plan’ to it, just enjoy and explore…just BE. What you do in life is your choice, if there was a God to interfere at your every prayer and cry it would take away the point of freewill. Freewill is about taking responsibility for your own actions, about being an individual. You were not born to be like everyone else or to follow anything, because you are here to become yourself.

The goal is to find out who you are in life, not what you can be.

I don’t tend to have any kind of creation theory, although traditionally the druids did believe that plants were the Earthly ancestors of all animals. Most modern Druids support the theories of science, like the big bang and evolution, however we still maintain that the creative force is conscious and attribute it intelligence. So we slightly differ from the completely rational and scientific view in that we do not view the existence of life as accidental, nor do we see nature as mechanical. The struggle between creationism and evolution has been dividing science and mainstream religion for a long time now. Evolution is real, that we can plainly see in the adaptations of nature. How did we get here in the first place though? I am doubtful that it was by accident, but very sure it wasn’t a man in the sky who did it in 7 days, respectively. We surely came to be via some sort of a conscious and intelligent force in this universe, but we continue to adapt to our environment as we have done all through our known history.

Trinity Triads have always been an important concept of Druidic tradition and understanding. The concept of Trinity can tell you everything you need to know about Druidic philosophy and perception, and serves to acknowledge a reoccurring pattern or structure that exists in natural phenomena and reality. 3 was a very sacred number to Celts, which is why it was adopted by the Catholic Church in later years as their ‘Father, Son and Holy Ghost’ idea. Little do most Christians know that their Holy Trinity is much older and completely Pagan. Some triads that are important to the philosophy of Druidry are as such:       

3 characteristics of god are: Complete life, complete knowledge and complete power.

3 things found everywhere: God, truth and circles of knowledge.

3 qualities of a good man: Truth in the heart, Strength in the arm and honesty in the tongue.

3 unities are: 1 god, 1 truth and 1 point of liberty.

3 candles that light the darkness: Truth, nature and knowledge.

3 keys to unlocking thoughts are: Openness, Love and Forgiveness 3 doors where falsehood enters: Anger in outlining a case, Doubtful information and evidence from a bad memory

Likewise, there are many triads related to the natural phenomena of life cycle and physical reality. When you read through them you will start to get an idea of how we map out our Universe through this concept. Some of these patterns go as follows:          

Create Sustain Destroy Life Death Rebirth Sun Moon Earth Dawn Day Dusk Solid Liquid Gas Earthworld Underworld Otherworld Land Sea Sky Animals Plants Minerals Body Mind Soul Flesh Blood Bone

The idea of Triads is not a rigidly bound structural understanding that we all must live by, it is just a way of easily mapping out or structuring knowledge. Triads are very easy to encode into music, poetry, chants and artwork, which is why they have such significance in Celtic culture. It makes it easier for people to remember knowledge when it is expressed in a creative way. This is plainly proven by the effect music and advertising has on people, or how people quote lines from films. Our ancient counterparts were primarily an orally learning tradition, where a Druid would chant verse to an Acolyte (pupil) and they would then chant it back. Ancient people recognized that knowledge encoded into arts is a better form of teaching than the methods commonly used in schools today. I firmly believe that school curriculums should be more practical based, and with the help of visual and performance arts they could improve greatly the retention of knowledge amongst children. Why can’t children learn from accurate and thorough documentaries? Who better to teach a child about biology than David Attenborough or David Suzuki, or who better to teach history than people who are experts in the field, I mean real Archaeologists. The problem with 99% of teachers in

public and private schools is that they lack inspiration, vision and imagination. It’s not all their fault though, they are just not taught to be effective teachers in training, and often not given the resources to be as such either.

Redefining god We create our gods and goddesses as personifications of divine qualities and entities, with which we choose to represent all that is great or inspiring in our world. In the past they were mostly locally inspired and culturally tailored to the tribe. As always, they serve as a source of inspiration, an image of greatness and a reminder of the morals one chooses to live by. Apart from the entities of Universe, Sun, Moon and Earth, all gods and goddesses are of human creation. They can loosely be based on real people, but they do not necessarily depict a particular person in history.

Despite what religion will claim, these are largely fictional characters. The presence of divinity can also be found in a place or an event, as both may accommodate acts of greatness. For example, in a particular battle the warriors may have shown extreme bravery or humanity, their actions are inspiring. Their deeds we wish to emulate, and by the veneration of them, they are brought to life within us. The Great Mother may have given birth to man, but man created the gods.

Using cultural tools like symbolism and art we celebrate them, invoking the spirit into our lives. The perceived greatness helps guide our actions and determine who we are as human beings. It is no mistake that a goddess is often shown as a beautiful or wise woman, or a god as a powerful warrior and protector figure. It makes perfect sense that by giving an idea of divinity a human form, we become more connected to it, even to a point where we may look upon it (the god) as our family. When we do claim that they are our ancestors however, we still accept their occupying of a different realm to that of the dead…there are heavenly ancestors and Earthly ones.

It is important to understand also that all deities, regardless of their gender are androgynous by nature. This is because masculine and feminine energy is found in all of us, and divine attributes are shared beyond physical gender. This is very evident in Hinduism, where each God is considered incomplete without his ‘Shakti’ or feminine side and so many gods have consort-goddesses. We do tend to have defining qualities that we would normally associate with either men or women, for example we may say that to nurture is a feminine aspect, as a mother nurtures the child. However that doesn’t mean a man can not or should not show such an attribute. In fact, it is higher consciousness to do so. Just as we each are born from a union of man (father) and woman (mother), we are not whole without recognition of both energies within us. Holiness = Wholeness.

Ancient pagan cultures were generally matriarchal, the title of Mother was viewed as the most important role in society, she was celebrated as the giver of life into the world. The father may carry the seed, but it is in the mother’s womb that it grows and is brought to life. That is why I call the Sun, Moon and Earth mothers, and personify them as goddesses. It is also why ancient European cultures were known for being very liberal and equal between men and women. Ancient women in our cultures were also warriors, leaders and practitioners, and often you would find them on the battlefield beside their husbands (in fact, Romans were terrified of them). Most commonly, pagans dedicate their time to the veneration of a particular god or goddess. It was common practice in pagan society to each have a specific God/Goddess they prayed to in their house. Gods based on physical entities (planet, element etc) or natural forces are not subject to the ideas of morality like the rest of the pantheon, because they are higher powers and non fictional.

Sex Druids believe the path to absolute experience is strewn with powerful orgasms, erotic desire and fantasy. Sexual energy is to be nurtured, its expression is love. In societies where sexuality is openly and freely discussed or explained and experienced, there is usually less sexual crime or unwanted births. The natural feeling of desiring someone is nothing to be ashamed of, but it is the act of self control we must practice that is important. If behaving in a way that will be hurtful to another is what makes you feel good, then you should rightfully come under the scrutiny of those you hurt. Denying is destructive however, so sexuality should be celebrated not oppressed. It really is important to understand that regulation is not denial. Regulating our behaviour is an active choice to do or not to do something based on our decision of who we are. If we declare that we are someone of honour, who respects the rights of others, then a decision not to steal from, not to rape or plunder is a self-declaration not denial.

The idea of gender preference is often and commonly mistaken for representing a person’s whole sexuality, but a person’s sexuality is a wide set of instincts and perceptions that go into making the many different tastes of each

individual. The terms Hetero, Bi or Homosexuality only account for one piece of the puzzle. Our ideas of beauty and ways of expressing desires are as varied as our fingerprints. For example, you may be attracted to people of a particular race, or a certain look or physique. What arouses each of us and what occupies our deepest fantasies are the results of a broad and predetermined criteria that we use to judge as attractive. The question isn’t all about whether you like men or women, but more so of what kind of man or woman you find attractive and why it turns you on. In this way, you can begin to understand your whole sexual being much deeper.

The orgasm is the most powerful experience we can have, it is like love in its earthly and spiritual forms, colliding in divine alchemic fusion. When we experience it with another person, our bodies seem to become one as we open a portal between the realms of life and death. Dramatic I know, but there simply aren’t the words to describe it, again, it is something one must feel to know. Not all things are learned from words and theories, on an academic or intelligence level. Think about it, it’s only natural that sexual acts are so pleasurable, because they are acts of love, through which is even the creation of life. In other words, if making love was not meant to be pleasant, how would we continue to harbour the instinct and will for it to procreate our species? So you see, life is born and sustained out of love, and sexuality is very important because it determines how we express and experience love in our world.

I should probably point out at this stage, that I do not differentiate between desire or lust and love. Love is many faces, it can be found in the subconscious and conscious mind and behind every emotion. The love you have for your family, your gods, or your work is not the same as the love of a partner. The love you have for your partner, is one that combines sexual attraction and spiritual connection. It pulls together the spirit world (emotion) and physical world (sex), meaning body and soul are one. To lust sexually after someone, whether you like/know them or not personally, is in its own way an unconscious form of love. Lust is desire, which comes from sexual attraction, and so would justify it as an act or expression of love. To want to have sex with someone there must be at least a desire to reach orgasm, and/or the desire to seek pleasure from as well as pleasure someone who arouses us physically. Even masturbation, is perfectly natural and comes from a deep seeded instinct and lust.

Sexual expression is, along with the Arts, a human being’s highest achievement in communication and experience.

Some would even say that sexual expression is in itself an art form. We know some ancient cultures like India in particular developed great knowledge and skill in sexual exploration, this wisdom is commonly known as the Kama Sutra. Most European pagan traditions have elements of ‘Sex Magic’ within them also.

Your love for another person is unique, and true love is always free. When it comes to monogamy or polygamy, that’s totally up to the people involved and we should not judge. Personally, I prefer to demonstrate my love with one special person alone as a declaration of freedom, not an ongoing obligation. If you see your decision to express love with one particular person as a promise, never to be broken, you may start to experience it as an obligation and resent it. However, if you see this decision as a free choice made over and over again out of unconditional love, then resentment is far less likely to come. The institution these days that is called marriage has become an attempt to create security, like a business like deal. Marriage attempts to guarantee that the feelings you have for each other, you will never have for another or express with another. When you make an exclusive commitment to someone sexually, emotionally and socially, you automatically choose not to hurt that person, to be honourable and supportive. Real marriage starts with a spiritual connection, and should be about what serves you, as an expression of who you are. To make a commitment to one person should be out of love and freedom, a shared bond. Affection between exclusive lovers is sacred. The sexual act, which is not just intercourse, is a ritual of giving yourself to another and being one with that person physically.

Wholeness Ancient beliefs recognized that everybody has a male and a female side, and we really only physically represent one side. On Earth there has always been a balance that the foundations of life depended upon.

Like how the solar and lunar paths interweave, so do the paths of masculine and feminine, with positive and negative, known and unknown, light and dark, love and fear. Each supports or sponsors the other in relationship, one can not exist without the other. You can’t have something without there being nothing, you can not have day without night. You can’t recognise feelings of joy without knowing first the feeling of sorrow to compare it with.

The universe itself is both masculine and feminine, it is androgynous. The man carries the seed that grows in the woman’s womb and together they create life.

Men and women are assigned certain roles in society too. Thus, we have culturally learned to associate different qualities and virtues to men and women, even though essentially we are one and equal in intellect and skill. Sex is the act of uniting these forces, the God and Goddess. We can see this concept clearly in Hinduism, where gods all have their goddess consorts, or Shakti, and are not whole without them.

Unfortunately there is a growing separation between men and women, a sort of ‘battle of the sexes’ type power struggle going on in popular culture. The rate of divorce, domestic violence and sexual abuse in our society is real enough to lead us to this conclusion. The reality is, that masculine and feminine energies are flowing all over the universe and within us. These energies compliment and work with each other, they make us whole. We take half our genes from a woman and half from a man, and so we are influenced by both energies. We must understand and accept that there is a woman inside every man, and a man inside every woman. Every one of us must be in touch with this, and allow ourselves to be whole in mind and spirit. We must not try to sexually possess our partners because we are not getting energy from our other side. We are susceptible to a person of the opposite sex and we can get ‘addicted’ to them. If we start to receive energy from someone of the opposite sex we cut off from that energy within ourselves. We then start to expect it, which ends in a power struggle.

Being: We as beings exist in three forms of consciousness, within what is commonly expressed via the Trinity. Our whole is a combination of body, mind and soul. The spirit (soul) wishes to experience what the body can create. The mind occupies a middle realm, as a door between worlds. However, the three are interchangeable and each relates to the other. Experience is the highest consciousness, it is life itself, but before there is experience, there is always a thought and then action that creates it. The soul uses the mind and the body as its tools of creation:

What the mind conceives, the body creates, so the soul can experience.

Understanding anything only on one level is doomed for failure. If we were to see things purely from a philosophical point of view, it would be that we’re limited in our wisdom and restricted in potential. There needs to be spiritual, practical and theoretical understandings to reality, without this, it’s pointless because our world is physical,

psychological and spiritual. When we are dealing with the complex questions of our lives and deaths, we need to take it seriously. Put it this way, life goes in circles, and to see a circle, you must go all the way around it. In other words, we must learn to see things from all angles and consider everything as possible. A totally spiritual view can be subject to fanaticism or block you from exploring alternate options. A wholly scientific one will lead you to a lifetime of nonsensical fact finding and lack of depth. Science can not tell you what something ‘is’, only what it does and how. You can go down to the minutest particles and atoms, or the crudest form of organism, and it still has an unexplainable spark of life.

There is ‘something’ that makes it alive which science could never hope to label or measure. That doesn’t make it unreachable, but just not through logical analysis will there ever be an answer. It’s something we have to feel from deep within us to discover I think.

The mind The Mind is like the door between the physical and spiritual realms of body and soul. It can be a liberating tool, yet sadly for most it is their enslaver. Memories and knowledge are stored in our brains, collectively we call this intelligence. Our intellect guides our perceptions of the world, and forms our instinct/intuition. What we know and our abilities depend on what we have learned in life through study and experience. The way in which we act and react to different experiences or situations is in a sense programmed like a template. Sometimes that means the present is governed by our past, because we use it to judge and as the foundations of our understanding of events. For example, there is a concept in Martial Arts called ‘muscle memory’. If you practice a particular move repeatedly, your body will automatically react because it remembers to do so when it needs. You won’t have to think about it, because it has become instinct. When knowledge becomes wisdom is when theory is made practice…to know it is one thing, to be it is another.

“For our ancestor's survival, there was no time for thinking or conscious and laborious logic. Their responses had to be instantaneous. The sound of movement in the brush caused an immediate reaction. Those who failed to respond were removed from the gene pool by voracious predators. Therefore these original instincts, now distilled as intuition, had to be based on a rapid-access fast track system separate from conscious thought, and unencumbered by hesitation and doubt.” Daniel Cappon, M.D. The mind can be divided into two parts, the unconscious and the conscious. This is a way of distinguishing those mental operations which we are aware of and may even will, and those which we ignore but continue to influence our lives drastically. Even dreams are messages from the unconscious to the conscious. With thorough meditation we can really unlock this unconscious mind and reprogram our instincts to be greater beings, i.e. to act with love and not fear, to look at things objectively and be positive about new experiences. In pagan cultures the mind is often associated with death, night and the moon, the dark underworld, kingdom of chaos and destruction. Its importance however is equal to that of Sun (soul) and Earth (body). They say the light is best found in the darkness, as it shines much brighter. This is because in many cases, enlightenment has come in times of trouble and uncertainty, like how a war inspires the greatest humanity in us. In the mind as in life, you have to fall, before you can rise.

The mind is thus most potently symbolized by the moon, and takes its place in the order of things as man’s own shadow. After all, the mind is where insanity resides, that’s why on the full moon some people are believed to go crazy in our folklore. The term Luna-tic is no coincidence, most cultures and religions across the world even still regard the full moon to be a sacred time, and hold ritual and ceremony to observe it. Also, when we speak of Heaven and Hell, it should be a place in our conscious minds, to be living in Love or Fear. The devil would then be nothing more than your own unconscious fears. In this way, we see that thought is a person’s most powerful tool, and cruellest tyrant. It is where the battle between good and bad is really fought. The mind is our light in the dark, our night sun, but when not consciously controlled or understood it is our destroyer.

There can be four functions of the mind, most people have one dominant function, two that are auxiliary and one that is inferior. The inferior function is usually opposite the dominant function (as shown in the diagram below). For example, the intellectual may often neglect his emotional life. Though sooner or later the individual would come to a point which will no longer enable them to ignore this function, and so restore the balance of their personality. Intuition relates to intellect, and is an unconscious function, whereas sensation relates to emotion, and is conscious.

Sensation is the 5 senses: see, hear, smell, taste and touch. It’s important because Life is experienced through the senses, they send signals to the brain, triggering the other 3 functions. Emotion is also interpreted by the mind, allowing us Human experiences, our ‘feelings’. Intuition is the ‘6th’ sense, the survival instinct that we have all inherited from our earliest ancestors. Intellect is your memory, the gift of knowledge and reason, allowing rational thought and analysis. Knowledge and memory are essentially the same thing. Knowledge is to remember facts we have learned, just as we remember life experiences and emotions as memories.

Intelligence - Stores knowledge/memory Sensation - Channels the senses Intuition - Controls the body Emotion – Channels our emotions Like the outer world, inner factors don’t just go away when you ignore them. On the contrary, when the individual turns their back on them it leaves them completely free to condition their responses and so govern many of their actions.

Only by becoming ‘uninhibited’, recognising the forces at work within, can the individual gain control of the situation and make delusion-free decisions about life. As I mentioned, many of our responses are governed by what happened previously in a similar situation. However, the new encounter is only superficially the same in which the old response is not necessarily suitable.

Meditation and Psychology can help us get control of our minds, and reprogram our thinking. It’s essential that each individual takes the time to understand their own thoughts before there can be true liberty. The mind is what brings our body and soul together, like the glue holding it all in place. You wouldn’t cook a steak in a rusty pan, it will make you sick, neither should you be thinking with an unclear mind, it will cloud your judgment. Thoughts are of vital importance, never underestimate the power of the mind. Try to remain positive in life, always keep studying and be at peace in your world.

“Most of us already know the fundamental level of the physical universe consists of vibrating waves and particles of energy quanta. If everything in the physical world consists of vibrations, the Principle of Correspondence predicts that other forces (thoughts and emotions) also have a vibratory nature for subtle sense interactions with matter and energy.

Thoughts appear to be the most manipulable -- by conscious intent -- and, thus, the most creative form of vibration.

Next comes subtle energy or emotional vibrations* and then those of physical matter and energy. In this hierarchy of our energetic/vibratory universe, distinct thoughts have the power to cohere subtle energy that concentrates matenergy into physical forms. This dominant flow of influence is evidenced by research in a variety of fields (mind/body healing, subtle sense communications, mind-influence-on-matter experiments). A reciprocal but less powerful flow of influence is also self evident, e.g., the effects of fatigue on emotions and drugs on consciousness.

In the organism of our universe, human expression of intent or desire activates the vibration of subtle energy. While we do not yet understand the mechanism, there is adequate evidence (e.g., psychokinesis, changes in one's body by conscious intent, stimulating a response in another's body by mental focus) of the fact that thoughts activate some form of energetic vibration that acts on the physical realm.

If my expressed desire softens the clustering of molecules in a spoon to allow me to easily bend it, there is no question that a similar expression can cause a physical reaction in another's organic body. (Use of this power -- that we all have -- got me into trouble when my lover was a co-worker in a formal government office.) If I can, through the silent

expression of positive intent, help a friend's body to heal, then there is no question that my silent expression of disdain or hate can make another feel ill at ease, or worse.” Paul Von Ward – Cosmologist

The soul Some people may question the existence of the individual soul, because they don’t know how to recognize its presence in themselves or understand what we define it as. To describe it is hard with words, as feeling is its language and the subconscious mind is its home. It is that very spark which makes you alive, that unknown force deep within us all. When we die on this Earth, it will always continue to exist in some form or place in the universe, even though we don’t leave this experience with such learned things as our ‘personalities’. Like a spark from one fire that sets another alight, it is eternal. We live on in those who come after us, our spirits are reborn in their actions when they are honoured and remembered. The point is, our bodies may be vehicles that do not last forever, but the spirit of life is constantly brought into them. I believe in only physical death, I as a person will die, but the spark of life within me will live on in some way or form.

"Know thou that the soul of man is exalted above, and is independent of all infirmities of body or mind. That a sick person showeth signs of weakness is due to the hindrances that interpose themselves between his soul and his body, for the soul itself remaineth unaffected by any bodily ailments. ... When it leaveth the body, however, it will evince such ascendancy, and reveal such influence as no force on earth can equal ... consider the sun which hath been obscured by the clouds. Observe how its splendor appeareth to have diminished, when in reality the source of that light hath remained unchanged. The soul of man should be likened unto this sun, and all things on earth should be regarded as his body. So long as no external impediment interveneth between them, the body will, in its entirety, continue to reflect the light of the soul, and to be sustained by its power. As soon as, however, a veil interposeth itself between them, the brightness of the light seemeth to lessen.... The soul of man is the sun by which his body is illumined, and from which it draweth its sustenance, and should be so regarded."…Bahá'u'lláh (Founder of the Bahá'í Faith)

Perceptive Evolution Perception is the most powerfully influential force behind the way we feel about things and the actions we take in life.

When you are dealing with is the sub conscious mind, the ability to be openly and objectively receptive to each situation and event in life is a priceless gift. Our mindset shapes our lives in ways unimaginable, it determines what kind of people we project ourselves to be in the world and how we deal with things. Our thoughts give instructions to the body, producing a desired action. Perception therefore, may be regarded as the filter between thought and action, or a ‘door’ of perception as William Blake once said. In life, the outside always reflects what is on the inside, an environment reflects the life it contains.

Often our perceptions of other people and things are formed from an early age in childhood. We learn to compare things and situations, judging the present by past experiences. In doing this we tend to put up blockages that don’t allow us to be open. We form expectations and assumptions of everything and everyone, and that is disruptive to our growth as a spiritual being. This will subconsciously program our reactions, which often blinds us from the truth of the situation and we don’t end up learning from it. Ignorance and denial are not good qualities for perception, and humility is often the hardest thing to accept.

The process of evolution relies heavily on humanity’s perceptions. We are coming to a time in the world’s history when people need to share knowledge and overcome petty differences in order to become higher beings. A good interrelation between all nations, races and cultures is more crucial now than it ever was. Different perceptions of life enable us to evolve consciously, and all cultures developed their own perceptions of their world and advanced in some way. Scientists and practitioners of ancient traditions are meeting together more often to exchange their knowledge, because humanity is bonded together in its search of truth and pursuit of dreams. Evolving our perceptions as cultures is vital for a more global consciousness to emerge and a healing process to begin. When we all learn to live with and love ourselves, there’ll be less desire to oppress others and more happiness in the world.

We aim to increase our vibration and perception, this is our ultimate destiny. We are here to create Heaven on Earth, and we are the culmination of evolution itself. Here are a few steps to help you free your mind from the messed up and misguided thinking that was bred into you by society:

1) Think Global - The first step to any spiritual awakening is to be aware of the mysterious changes that occur in ones life and to understand that some other mysterious process is operating from deep within our minds. We can learn to extend our consciousness above the material preoccupations that have for centuries been distracting the human race from its original goals and questions. In essence, we should see culture and development beyond our own lifetimes, look at history from a common perspective throughout all of time. When you understand that you are a part of something bigger than yourself, you will see that your perception could ultimately make or break you in life.

2) Be Positive - The world is vast system of energy and each one of us is an antenna of reception as well as a transmitter of radiation. Natural energy is everywhere, every living thing has a field of energy around it that can be seen by focusing on it. We can heighten our sensitivity to this natural energy by seeing and feeling beauty in it. The world can be anything you want it to be, hell or heaven. It is a pity that so many view life as a struggle and think they are here to be tested rather than to experience the paradise it should be. When we stop seeing the world as a dangerous, unforgiving, unfair or sad place it ceases to be so.

3) Forget competition - We must realise that for a long time humans have been unconsciously competing for the only part of natural energy that they think is open to them, the energy that flows between people. This is a result of feeling insecure and weak, needing to steal another’s energy to fill up the gap. The way we try to control and dominate each other has created a massive power struggle in the world. Freeing ourselves from competition over mere human energy will come when we find other sources of energy. Natural energy is the alternative source, which means drawing in or sharing energy with the land and life around you, and opening up to a higher source.

4) Release - Cleansing our past must also be done before finding our higher selves. We must become aware of the ways of controlling people we have learned in childhood and erase these habits. These dramas can be passive or aggressive, and are formed from the individuals own treatment in childhood. If we do not overcome our emotional past we may use energy irresponsibly, and that can have serious consequences for ourselves and others. We must forgive our past, and that means to remember the good and take from the bad, forgive but don’t forget.

Love and fear: All our emotions have their origins in one of two mindsets, Love or Fear. Negative emotions such as anger, jealousy, hatred, sadness or stress come from Fear. Much of our society is based on it, and it’s bred into us from an early age, like a programming system. Advertising tells us we’re ugly and useless, so we will buy their products and services out of fear that we will be outcaste in society. TV, film, radio, magazines and advertising all promote unfair and unrealistic images of beauty and success. So we spend our lives trying to please everyone else, desperately seeking people’s attention and approval, again out of fear. We’ve had fear bred into us from all angles, serving only to disconnect us from our world, and disempower us. Don’t be afraid of other people, no one is born in sin or evil. We only have so much violence and crime in the world because of money and greed.

Conquering Fear We all feel it from time to time, just as we are under its spell sometimes without even knowing. It can control and stop our evolution of consciousness. Fear is the parent of cruelty, which is why we must seek to relieve it on every level of life. It is time to live not in a fearful world but to feel secure within ourselves. It’s perfectly natural to feel afraid or worried every now and then, but we must recognise the true nature of our emotions. Only by doing so can we then make choices in life.

Fear is the basis for most other negative emotions like anger, jealousy and anxiety. Instinctively it acts as a personal alarm, signalling out to us when we are in a potentially threatening situation. In experiencing fear, we start to feel like we do not have control over our own well being and we become anxious, losing our sense of inner security. So in response our body sends us a rush of energy (adrenalin, if you like), which is supposed to give us a boost back into security and centre our thoughts. In most people, it usually goes all wrong though, and they begin to get shaky and lose reason. The energy received gets channelled poorly and it just ends up feeding the fear, the person gets hysterical and panics instead of using the charge to stay focused.

There are many common fears in society but people also have there own particular set of phobias. Only each individual can judge for themselves what those fears are, according to their situation in life. Certainly some seem to be more extreme than others but as we all know, the feeling is the same no matter how the lesson comes. Meaning, the

resulting emotion is the same no matter how we came to experience it. No one’s sadness, passion, love, fear or anger is stronger than anybody else’s, nor is it more valid and reasonable than anyone else. People will often try to convince us that their emotion or behaviour is more understandable and justified because they are secretly biased of their own past experience. These people usually see themselves as victims and inspire pity and sympathy in us. They are also one of the shining examples of the result of living in great fear.

Three major fears seem to be the most common amongst our society: 1: Fear of violence 2: Fear of humiliation 3: Fear of death 1. Violence: A violent or hostile encounter in life can happen anywhere at anytime, when you least expect. Fear of violent confrontation is probably the most common fear in all parts of the world. Behind this fear is often a lack of trust in others as well as a lack of confidence in our ability to defend ourselves successfully. It’s easy to see where a lack of confidence and trust comes from (upbringing), but we must analyse what it is about confrontation we are really afraid of if we want to overcome it. When we think of being attacked physically, there are a couple of thoughts that automatically run through our minds: 1. The possibility of being killed or our bodies being permanently affected, we don’t want to be left disabled or damaged.

2. The possibility of feeling humiliated in front of people. We think we’ll appear cowardly or weak, resulting in a loss of respect.

Of course we don’t want our bodies to be affected. This may mean we can not continue to do the things we love, making life harder to live and enjoy. For example, we don’t want to lose our fingers because we need them to play our instrument, nor do we want receive a severe injury that prevents us from playing football or any other sport for the rest of our lives. Whatever it is you love to do, you don’t want someone to take away your chances of future enjoyment in those activities. Don’t think that these fears aren’t justified, it’s perfectly natural that we want to protect ourselves from tragedy. Courage is not the absence of fear but the will to carry on, every warrior knows this. Here are a couple of philosophies about fear: Courage is knowing what not to fear. ~Plato Courage is resistance to fear, mastery of fear - not absence of fear. Except a creature be part coward it is not a compliment to say it is brave. ~Mark Twain 2. Humiliation: The possibility of humiliation is the direct result of the social environment we experience in our school days. Meaning, it is born out of our learned lack of confidence and trust. What we have in western culture is something that I would like to call ‘The Coward Theory’. Our society, from a very early age exposes us to everybody’s expectations of how we should act and what we should look like. This expectation is also known as peer pressure.

These standards of expectation are too hard and virtually impossible for most people to live up to and so we end up feeling insecure about ourselves. Magazines, television, radio and all other influential sources in society are successfully convincing many young people that there is something wrong with them if they don’t fit in with these expectations. This is where the coward theory comes into play. We are taught inaccurately how to deal with volatile situations, so we receive a very distorted view of what true courage is. With such an emphasis on using physical domination to achieve honour, we almost confirm the chances of any situation becoming violently confronting. As western men, we are raised under this ideal of being ‘adored by women, respected by men and feared by enemies’.

We are taught that to be a real man we must fight and never back down, that is what courage is. Our culture tells us that running away, avoiding or defusing is cowardly and not the behaviour of a real man. This however, couldn’t be further from the truth of reality.

We can choose to be or not to be victims. If we empower ourselves, we will never lose because we’ll have the ability to move on psychologically and not let such an encounter hinder our lives. Bruises and cuts will heal automatically, but the chaos of the attacker’s mind will take much more work to repair for them. Don’t be afraid to lose on a physical level, it’s highly unlikely that you are the strongest person in the world. Stay calm, and focus on your defence, get into a basic

martial arts stance and do not take your eyes off of your opponent. Put your feet no wider than your shoulders, and hands up to cover your head. Always face straight at your opponent, and keep your knees and elbows bent for flexibility. There is no need to be a hero, especially if you don’t know the person you are confronting. NEVER make the first move, always defend and counter attack if able.

3. Death: Fear of death is no different to other fears in many respects, it’s something that is feared due to our lack of understanding. Because we don’t fully understand the realm of the afterlife some people see death as ‘the end’.

Although many of us know and believe that it’s not necessarily the end, there are some who are too frightened to consider such a prospect. It’s not really the feeling of death, because being dead isn’t painful. I believe the fear is more to do with the fact that they don’t feel like they have lived a full life and are scared to let go. Think about it, death is nothingness in some people’s view. So what we effectively have are people who are scared of nothing, or more so, scared of the prospect of being nothing and that life going on without them. It’s definitely quite a strange fear, one that seems to be developed by people’s unwillingness to face it. Some would prefer not to consider that perhaps they may be judged for their actions on Earth at a later time. For others, the afterlife may simply be a concept of fantasy and they won’t allow themselves to believe on account of appearing different. That is a reason that stems back to the fear of humiliation though. I think that everyone suffers from fear of death during some stage of their lives until they learn to face it. People are merely anxious about it because it hasn’t been explained by humanity yet. Some even spend their lives waiting and planning for this inevitable occurrence, so they forget to live. This is a kind of fear that nests deep down and affects the decisions we make and the way we perceive life.

All fears simply come back to having no confidence or trust in ourselves, others and the world around us. Sadly, this is the result of a loss of innocence that we all lose as children when we are flung out into this intimidating and judgemental society. We are never able to fully regain such innocence but we can certainly change the way we perceive this loss. Remember, we can’t change the past but we can change the way we look at it. “Don’t be afraid to lose” was something someone said to me once. We must release our fear as it happens, do not drag it with us through life and repeat the same behaviour. Understanding is the only way to heal fear in the world. We only fear what we can’t control, and we can’t control what we don’t understand. I believe that is the true essence fear. Our inner hell is living that.

Personal Ritual Personal ritual is a way to help you to nurture your being, it is in essence your Way of Being. You need to be at your best everyday if you want to have the energy to enjoy life and achieve things. There are plenty of simple and effective ways to make sure you are looking after yourself, after all, we all want to live long and healthy lives.

Nurturing the body: 1. Clean the body everyday - Wash yourself of the germs and energies of the previous day, you don’t want to carry around bad energy or be unhygienic.

2. Stay active - A simple exercise and stretching routine in the morning will help your body perform its tasks more smoothly and help preserve it for longevity in life.

3. Eat healthy and well - Eating is a great source of energy, in fact we need it to survive. You are what you eat so make sure you are eating naturally good quality food, and don’t be lazy in your eating habits.

Nurturing the Mind: 1. Think Positively - Look on the bright side of life. The finest flowers are grown from shit, so never forget to look at everything objectively.

2. Study - Life is a study so keep the mind active by exercising it, but do not over analyse things. Knowledge is food for thought, so feed your brain because knowledge is also power.

Nurturing the spirit:

1. Meditate - Take the time to listen to your thoughts, recharge yourself with love and inspiration. Stop to admire and appreciate people and things we often forget about or take for granted.

2. Keep you home and your possessions clean and tidy - An environment usually depicts the life it contains, so cleaning is a symbolic act of the soul too.

3. Practice all of the above - All these simple tips are ways of nurturing your spirit (being), so look after yourself.

chapter notes If we look in one direction we see the future, if we look in the other direction we get a sense of the past. Nonetheless, both will and have been moments of the present, and such is the nature of this existence. This means we should live in the moment, because the past and future are but illusions. Just as night and day depend on the Sun, your future is mapped by the choices you are taking in the Now. Free yourself from living in fear, this is the most precious gift anyone can give themselves. You have to change your mindset completely if you want to make any changes to your life because your perception, like a template of thought, could be hindering you if it’s programmed to society. Mainstream ways of thinking have proven inherently crooked and oppressive. Pull back from the pointless circles of the rat race, because life isn’t meant to be like that at all.

Concentrate on that which enriches your life, and what really matters, because that’s where you will find truth.

The media, government, education system and law all do their best to make you think there are things wrong with you, and that you need whatever product or idea they are selling to be acceptable. They convince you that you are incapable of handling your own well being, and that we are all incapable of living together in harmony. All this is there to do is scare you, steal your confidence and insult your intelligence. If you take anything from Druidry then, let it be the motivation to grow, and to seek out the truth for yourself. Learn the facts, then make up your own mind.

Chapter 2: The Heavens

Chapter 2: Intro To understand the ways of the universe is paramount for any practitioner, and in my opinion the first area of study for anyone beginning their path to knowledge and enlightenment. Life on Earth depends heavily on the Solar and Lunar cycles, and as explained in this chapter, our whole society is structured around this reality. Astronomy is a field that takes years of learning to grasp, and as a discipline it can be taken into painstaking depth if desired. The basic study of Astronomy is the starting point to further paths of knowledge such as Physics and Chemistry, as one of the fundamental sciences from which other branches were derived.

I do not differentiate between Astronomy and Astrology in terms of the Zodiac, but I do leave out the parts which claim the positions of the stars have an affect on our personality. We have always accepted that the heavens have profoundly influenced life on Earth, but whether it has any role in shaping our character or actions in life is by no means proven. Again, it seems to go against the idea of freewill, as it assumes that outside forces dictate our decisions in life or moods. It is true that perhaps in small indirect ways it could affect us, but unlikely to cause major change. People’s personalities or characters I feel more inclined to attribute to mental programming via environment and upbringing.

Nevertheless, knowing the Zodiac, the Solar and Lunar cycles and other systems of measurement is extremely important because it is solely responsible for our survival on this planet. We need to understand that we’re part of a bigger picture, because we have to put everything else into real perspective. The heavens are the limits of all we know, all we can see or experience. In order to understand our Earth, humanity looks to the heavens as well. It’s the heavens that make the seasons, give us light and warmth, allowing our Earth to sustain us in life.

This is Her law, an unspoken agreement between mother and child. Our Universe is all consciousness, as everything she embodies is conscious. In every tree, every river, every pair of eyes, we see her and feel her. From solstice to solstice, new moon to new moon we synchronise to her rhythms of life. She who fires our hearts, she whose breast we suckle. She is our Great Mother, with whom we each share a sacred love. Blessed it be.

The Universe As mentioned previously, the core of Druidic beliefs lay in the perception that the Universe, Sun, Moon and Earth are conscious entities, or part of an entity, that regulates the environment in an intelligent and deliberate way. Life itself is not randomly mechanical in nature, instead it flows in cycles on many different levels. All life is interconnected from the depths of the subatomic to the astronomic (biosphere). Meaning, we are all part of the same universal entity. You are a part of me, and I you. Like the fragments of a broken glass, so are our spirits the pieces of the great creative force. To us Celts that force is the ‘Awen’…the forces of the Universe, God. Astronomical observations indicate that the Universe is 13.7 billion years old and at least 93 billion light years across.

There is some speculation about whether this universe may be one of many disconnected universes, which are collectively denoted as the Multiverse. In all honesty, we may never know.

Our Universe consists of energy, matter and time, and is commonly defined as everything that physically exists. In our dimension everything is made of Matter, which is the creation of massed particles. Matter is also made of Energy, as written in the ancient Hermetic teachings. Energy is measured by two things, force and frequency, and we can observe it in a wave form or by how much force it applies to an object. What appears as solid is not really solid at all, we simply resonate at the same frequencies as everything else in our dimension, which gives the illusion of solid form, like a hologram.

Time however, is the unseen force, and an equally essential ingredient for life. If the universe only existed for a second as we know it, how would life continue to be able to evolve and grow? That very second itself, would be an element of time anyway. Time is strange in that it appears at first as a solely man made concept. Yet, Time is what allows all existence to manifest and can never be controlled.

Before going any deeper into the physics of the Universe we need to understand primarily our relationships to the Sun, Moon and Earth, and their relationships to each other. For us to see the universe in its uncorrupted image, we should map out what’s around us first. Our solar system the Milky Way is one of a possibly infinite number of galaxies, and there is no doubt whatsoever in my mind that we are not the only planet to harbor such diverse and complex life forms in the whole universe. Whether we came from or have contact with those alien life forms or not is a debate for conspiracy theorists. Nevertheless, it has to be said, it’s just too big for us to think we’d be alone.

Solstice and Equinox Earth revolves around the Sun as the Moon revolves around it. As the Sun, Moon and Earth move around each other they create the flow of Day and Night, as well as bringing about the seasonal changes and the ages. This is because Earth not only revolves around the sun but spins while it’s doing it. The spinning is what makes day and night, while the orbit around the sun is how the seasons occur. The Earth’s axis is not straight, it has a tilt of 23 ½ degrees, which means the poles never face directly at the sun until the Summer Solstice when it gets as close as possible, and Winter Solstice is as far away as possible. Between these two times, in spring and autumn, the spin axis of the Earth points 90 degrees away from the Sun. This means that on this date, day and night have about the same length, and are called the Equinoxes. It takes the Earth 365 ¼ days to rotate around the Sun in one full circle, and 24 hours for it to spin once around. When the Earth's axis points towards the Sun, it’s summer for that hemisphere. When the Earth's axis points away, winter can be expected.

We can see then evidence of how life flows in cycles as we witness the days, seasons, and years repeat throughout the astrological ages. Using the stars of the constellations, we track our movements through these cycles as the seasons bring with them constant regeneration of life in all forms on Earth.

The Ages An Astrological ‘Age’ refers to a period of approximately 2150 years, the time it takes for the Sun to enter a new constellation on the morning of the Spring Equinox. Equinoxes mark the changing of the seasons on Earth. The current age we’re in is Pisces, spanning 0AD – 2150AD. 2150BC – 0AD was the age of Aries, 4300BC – 2150BC was the age of Taurus etc.

The Egyptians often referred to a certain period they called the ‘First Age’, which according to the Nermer Plate pinpoints it around 10750BC – 8600BC. This would make sense as it has long been debated that civilizations were in Egypt, the Middle East and India, not to mention lost lands such as Mu, Lemuria and Atlantis at that time.

Needless to say, our cultural histories are much older than we think.

Ages move backwards through the zodiac due to the Precession of the Equinoxes. The Earth maintains a slow angular wobble while spinning on its axis, which causes the motion of equinox points along the ecliptic to appear opposite to the planetary orbit. The ecliptic is the sun's apparent path among the stars during the

year as seen from the perspective of the Earth (the Zodiac). A complete precession through all 12 signs covers a period of approximately 25,750 years, the so called Great Year, during which time the equinox regresses over a full 360°. Contrary to naked eye, the Earth is not quite a sphere, and if it were a sphere there would be no movement through the ages. The Precession of the Equinoxes is caused by the gravitational pull of Sun and Moon on the Earth.

For the last 2000 years the Sun has been passing through Pisces and gradually into Aquarius. Opinions differ as to when the cycle starts, but Christ's alleged birth coincided with the Precession into Pisces, so there has been an urge to mark this as the beginning of the Piscean Age. The spring equinox will occur in Aquarius approximately 2150AD, however the issue of tropical astrology (used mainly by Western astrologers) and sidereal astrology (used mainly by Indian astrologers) is still a topic of great debate. The debate is whether the signs should be defined in terms of zones derived from nodal points determined by Earth's motion during a tropical year , or whether the signs should be defined in terms of signs roughly aligned with the constellations of the same name (for sidereal astrologers).

It’s important to understand both ways of looking at it. In Western astrology the link between sign and constellation has been broken, whereas in Indian astrology it remains of paramount importance.

Neither is necessarily wrong, just different in their measuring.

First of all, The Zodiac is a region of the celestial sphere that encompasses 13 constellations over a band of 8 arc degrees above and below the ecliptic, and therefore includes the paths of the Moon and the naked eye planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn).

Classical Astronomers called these planets wandering stars to differentiate them from the fixed stars of the celestial sphere (Ptolemy). Astrologers understood the movement of the planets and the Sun through the zodiac as a means of explaining and predicting events on Earth. However, it is important to understand the Zodiac’s intended use was for scientific and spiritual observation, but never really included the belief in planetary positions having any affects on our personalities etc.

There is little proof of it really, so in that sense I don’t think its worth discussing. Celestial bodies being blamed for people’s behaviour really seems like more of a cop out than anything.

Essentially The Sidereal zodiac and the Tropical zodiac use the same 12 constellations, but some of those constellations are larger than others and therefore take up more room along the ecliptic. For example, Scorpio is the smallest and the Sun takes merely 7 days to pass through it. In Western Astrology we judge the movement along the ecliptic by every 30° marker point in a full 360º radius, which I think allows us much more mathematically calculated and accurate observations of our planets orbit. Though it seems to have somewhat shrugged off the notion of importance of synchronicity and rendered it completely out of alignment with the actual constellations, leading to problems debated over its continued Astrological worth.

The Sidereal zodiac, unlike the Tropical zodiac, does not separate the signs into calculated degree points but rather judges it based on when the sun first enters that constellation as visible to the eye. Its primary feature is that the signs of the zodiac align to the sky constellations of the same name. The signs therefore run between dates which are different from the Tropical zodiac used in the West. Classical Tropical astrology is based on the orientation of the Earth relative to the Sun and planets of the solar system, sidereal astrology deals with the position of the Earth relative to

both of these as well as the stars of the celestial sphere. Nearly all astrologers, Tropical and Sidereal, agree that the ecliptic should be divided into twelve equal segments to form the zodiac, they simply differ on where the zodiac begins.

Thus, most sidereal astrologers simply divide the ecliptic into 12 equal signs of 30 degrees but approximately aligned to the 12 zodiac constellations. If we want to be totally accurate though, neither of these methods have the correct dates, none are matching perfectly to the Suns passage through each of the constellations. What we have is three different sets of dates as such: Tropical date

Sidereal Date

Sun is in constellation

March 21 - April 20

April 15 - May 15

April 19 - May 13

Taurus

April 21 - May 21

May 16 - June 15

May 14 - June 19

Gemini

May 22 - June 23

June 16 - July 15

June 20 - July 20

Cancer

June 24 - July 23

July 16 - August 15

July 21 - August 9

July 24 - August 23

August 16 - September 15

August 10 - September 15

Virgo

August 23 - September 22

September 16 - October 15

September 16 - October 30

Libra

September 23 - October 23

October 16 - November 15

October 31 - November 22

Scorpius

October 23 - November 22

November 16 - December 15

November 23 - November 29

Constellation Aries

Leo

Serpentarius

November 30 - December 17

Sagittarius

November 23 - December 21

December 16 - January 14

December 18 - January 18

Capricornus

December 22 - January 19

January 15 - February 14

January 19 - February 15

Aquarius

January 20 - February 18

February 15 - March 14

February 16 - March 11

February 19 - March 20

March 15 - April 14

March 12 - April 18

Pisces

“The signs of the zodiac do not necessarily coincide with the actual constellations for which they are named. Because of the division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30° each; due to various specifications for the boundaries of the constellations; and especially due to the precession of the equinoxes for the tropical system of coordinates, the constellations should not be confused with zodiac signs.”

Serpentarius Another apparent problem is the issue of Ophiuchus (Serpentarius), the 13th constellation, between Scorpius and Sagittarius. In the 2nd century, Ptolemy told us there were 29 stars in Ophiuchus, and that most of them were north of the ecliptic, however four of them (today known as 36 Oph, 42 θ Oph, 44 Oph, and 51 Oph) are south of the ecliptic. That means the Sun passed through the constellation of Ophiuchus, and so was recognised by Ptolemy.

Ophiuchus is not a zodiacal sign in Western astrology. There are no real clues as to why this is the case, and it’s hard to say whether there’s any inaccuracy to leaving it out. It is best visible in the northern summer and located opposite Orion in the sky. Ophiuchus is depicted as a man grasping a serpent; the interposition of his body divides the snake constellation Serpens into two parts,

Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda, which are nonetheless counted as one constellation.

The most important event in Ophiuchus' history was the Supernova of 1604, which was first observed on October 9, 1604, near θ Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on October 16 and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless. It occurred only 32 years after another supernova in Cassiopeia that had been observed by Tycho Brahe; the last supernova before then had occurred in 1054, and after Kepler's, no further naked-eye supernovae were observed until 1987.

The Moon The Moon is another system all together, and of vital importance to life. It’s the second brightest thing in our sky besides the Sun, and the only natural satellite for the Earth.

Our Moon is a slightly egg-shaped ball composed mostly of rock and metal, also it has no liquid water. The Moon shines by reflecting the light of the Sun, be it only 12 percent of the light that actually falls on it. The Lunar phase (or Moon phase) refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer on Earth.

The Moon moves in an elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around Earth at an average distance of 384,403 km and at an average speed of 3,700 km/h. It completes one revolution in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes, but for the Moon to go from one phase to the next similar phase, as in full moon to full moon, it requires 29 ½ days. This period is called a Lunar Month. The Moon rotates once on its axis in the same period of time that it circles Earth, accounting for the fact that virtually the same portion of the Moon is always turned toward Earth. The side that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite side is the far side. The far side should not be confused with the ‘dark side’, which is the hemisphere that is not being illuminated by the Sun at a given moment.

Lunar phases vary in cycles, according to the relative positions of the Earth and Sun. Other than during eclipses, there is always one side of the Moon that is lit up. The Moon’s 8 phases of lunation, are often related to the flow of the 8 earthly seasons, Full Moon being the equivalent of Midsummer, and New Moon being the deathly Midwinter. Scientific communities claim she is lifeless, but they don’t understand her mysterious nature. Her light has guided and protected man from the cold, dark, predator filled nights since the dawn of our being. Without her, the crops will not grow, the tides will not turn, and we would not be able to measure the days.

The Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees. If the Moon’s orbit were exactly in the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, a solar eclipse would occur somewhere on Earth every month at new moon. This of course doesn’t happen, solar eclipses occur only about 2 to 5 times a year. Another type is the Lunar Eclipse, when Earth comes directly between the Sun and the Moon. These happen at full moon about twice a year and are visible over large areas of Earth. The round shadow of Earth passes over the Moon,

giving it a red or copper hue from sunlight filtered through Earth’s atmosphere.

When new and full moons occur, the Moon usually lies to the north or south of a direct line through the Earth and Sun. As the Moon circles Earth in a counter clockwise direction, Earth itself rotates counter clockwise (west to east) on its axis and revolves around the Sun in a counter clockwise orbit. All of these motions combined determine when and how the Moon appears in the sky to an observer on Earth. The Moon rises about 50 minutes later every day. Since the Moon has moved 13.8 degrees further in its orbit in 24 hours, the Earth has to turn an extra 13.8 degrees on its axis for the Moon to rise above the horizon again.

The co-formation hypothesis proposes that the Earth and the Moon formed together at the same time and place from the primordial accretion disk. The Moon would have formed from material surrounding the proto-Earth, similar to the formation of the planets around the Sun. Some suggest that this hypothesis fails adequately to explain the depletion of metallic iron in the Moon. Hopefully, one day we will learn of the birth of our Moon through science and higher consciousness.

Gregorian calendar In the Gregorian calendar, the length of a year is normally 365 days, but in a leap year (every 4th year) there is 366 days. This gives each year an average length of 365.2425 days. It‘s then broken down into 12 roughly similar months per year, and further subdivided into 7 day weeks and 24 hour days. Obviously, since we base its measurements on the time of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, it can rightfully be called a (Tropical) Solar calendar. Like the Zodiac, its starting point was generally marked by the Spring Equinox, as a matter of preference. However, the time of the equinoxes aren’t fixed, they arrive about six hours later every year, amounting to one full day unaccounted for in four years. This is the reason for the leap year, it resets the difference and pulls it back into alignment. It’s necessary to understand that the Gregorian calendar is designed to follow the seasons as accurately as is practical. It’s good, but certainly not perfect.

By no means should we think that the Gregorian year shares any synchronicity with the Lunar phases either. One could argue that because the Moons cycle is 29 ½ days, it means that it fits in close enough to the calendar month to work. Yes, but it would only work if we chose to live by a Lunar year rather than a Solar one. We could try to

reconcile the two paths by synchronising the first day of the month as close as possible to the New Moon every 29-30 days, but that would unfortunately still keep us further out of touch with the Sun by about 12 days. 29.5 x 12 = 354…well short of a full Solar year. So you see the difference is too great to be accurate and we can not serve two masters, the choice is Solar or Lunar, there’s no in between. I think the problem with understanding it seems to lay in the confusion over why we don’t have 12 months of equal length, and that people just generally forget that the Lunar calendar is a different calendar to their Solar Gregorian one.

First of all, February has always had less days, going back to the 8th century BC, when a Roman king by the name of Numa Pompilius established the basic Roman calendar. This was a Lunar calendar of 12 months equally dividing by 354 days (12 x Lunar cycles). He added two new months to contain the 60 or so days that were not considered part of the calendar before, January and February. The previous calendars only had 10 months, and ended in December.

With these additions, the new months now each had 29 days.

It was Julius Caesar who decided to ignore the lunar cycle completely and arrange the number of days in the twelve months to add up to exactly a 365 ¼ day Solar year, originally creating equal months of 30 and 31 days (6x 30, 6 x31).

In 44 BC, Caesar renamed the 5th month Quintilius, “Julius” (July). The inherent emperor, (Octavian) Augustus Caesar, didn't like the fact that Julius Caesar's month (July) had 31 days and his (August) had only 30, so he "stole" a day from February to make August have 31, as February was at that time the last month of the year.

Ancient Romans began their years on 1 January since 153 BC using the Julian calendar. This is probably to do with the symbolism or characteristics of Capricorn as being the founder of civilization and culture. During the Middle Ages though, under the influence of a more Pagan rooted Christian Church, many countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals — 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 1 March, 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter. Eastern European countries (most of them with allegiance to the Orthodox Church) began their numbered year on 1 September. From the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March. Eventually that was to change though, and most Western European countries adjusted the start of their year to 1 January whilst still using the Julian calendar. Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752, (so 1751 was a short year with only 282 days). Later that year in September the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies.

The word 'month' derives from 'moon', and 'calendar' comes from Calare (to call out), as the ancient ones did when they announced a new moon. The month names we use were chosen to celebrate Roman deities and emperors:  

    

January: Roman god Janus was the god of doorways, entrances, gateways, thresholds and beginnings, and therefore used for the opening of the New Year.

February: This used to be the last month of the Roman calendar. On 15th day of the month was a Pagan festival of purification called Februa and so this month came to be known as Februa's month. The day before that, and the day after (ides), was a holiday to honour Juno. The goddess Juno was the Queen of the Roman gods and goddesses, and also the goddess of women and marriage. Was it coincidence that the nasty Emperor Claudius II arranged for a priest named Valentine to be clubbed to death and then beheaded on this day?

March: The Roman god Mars, god of war and guardian of the state. This was the first month of the ancient Roman calendar.

April: Considered a sacred Roman month for the goddess Venus. The name 'April' is probably from Apru, an Etruscan borrowing of Greek Aphrodite, a fertility goddess. Alternatively, it may stem from the Latin aperire (to open), as so many buds and blossoms open in this month.

May: This is from Maia a Roman goddess of earth, honour and reverence. She was wife of Vulcan, mother of Mercury by Jupiter and daughter of Atlas. It became a popular girl's name in English.

June: The chief goddess Juno, wife of Jupiter and queen of the heavens and gods. June became another popular name for girls.

July: Named after the death Julius Caesar in 44 BC to deify and immortalize his name. Gaius Julius Caesar was born in this month, which was formerly Quintilis (fifth) month of the Roman calendar.

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August: Named in 8 BC after Augustus Caesar, the adopted heir of Julius Caesar and the first Roman emperor (31 BC - 14 AD). A synonym for the adjective 'august' is 'venerable', and the emperor was known as the Venerable Caesar. Quite a contrast to the month's original name, 'Weodmonao', which means 'month of weeds'. Today's gardeners would agree with that.

The next four months are just based on the numbering system. Considering the year used to begin in March (for Christian reasons), it meant September through to December were months 7 to 10. It may seem strange that in 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII changed the calendar system and established the Gregorian calendar with January as the first month of the year, he didn’t rename any of these months. December, for example, could have been changed to represent Christ or Jesus.    

September: This name comes from the Latin septem, meaning 'seven'.

October: This name comes from the Latin Octem, meaning 'eight' November: This name comes from the Latin novem, meaning 'nine'.

December: This name comes from the Latin decem, meaning 'ten'.

The Week: The days of the week are based on Greek mythology. The original Greek and Roman naming has changed over the years to match the equivalent gods of North European mythology. Ancient astronomers identified 7 celestial bodies: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. They named an hour of the day after each of them in no particular order. An ‘Hour’, is a day divided by 24. The Daytime was subdivided into 12, as was the night time, being obviously tied to the sacred number of constellations. The reason why they are separate and not 6 hours per period, is that the Lunar and Solar paths are in different constellations most of the time, and not synchronised with each other’s paths, and thus they should be measured as such. The 8th hour would recycle to the Saturn hour, as would the 15th and 22nd. Following this pattern, the 23rd hour would be Jupiter, the 24th Mars, and the 1st hour of the next day would be the Sun. 1st hour: Saturn 2nd hour: Jupiter 3rd hour: Mars 4th hour: the Sun 5th hour: Venus 6th hour: Mercury 7th hour: the moon From this method, the first hour of each day is calculated to be 2 hours ahead of the previous day. For example, the day that begins in Mars will follow with a day starting in Mercury, which will follow with Jupiter then with Venus and so on: 1st day: Saturn 2nd day: the Sun 3rd day: the moon 4th day: Mars 5th day: Mercury 6th day: Jupiter 7th day: Venus Each day is then consecrated to the celestial body of its first hour, which means we have seven days a week, all with names and meaning. The first day of a week was Saturn's day (Saturday), but on their questionable flight from the Egyptians, the Jews changed this and made Saturday their Sabbath, the last day of the week. Christians later moved observance of the Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday as part of their theological and historical split from Judaism.   

Sunday: Day of the Sun Latin: dies solis - Helios, god of the Sun. Saxon: Sunnandaeg - god of the heat and the sky.

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Monday: Day of the Moon Latin: dies lunae - Luna or Selene goddess of the moon.

Saxon: Mona - god of the light ball in the night sky, and tide maker.

Tuesday: Day of Mars Latin: dies martis - Mars or Aires, god of war.

Saxon: Tiwesdaeg - etymologically related to Zeus.

Wednesday: Woden's day Latin: dies mercurii - Mercury or Hermes, Messenger of the gods.

Saxon: Wodnesdaeg - Woden's day (King of the gods).

Thursday: Thor's day Latin: dies jovis - Jove or Zeus, god of thunder Saxon: Thuresdaeg - Thor's day (god of thunder).

Friday: Fria's day Latin: dies veneris - Venus or Aphrodite, goddess of love Saxon: Frigedaeg - Freya's day (goddess of love).

Saturday: Saturn's day Latin: dies saturni - Saturn, god of agriculture Saxon: Seterne's day (god of agriculture).

It is extraordinary to watch the heritage of our ancient ancestors emerge as we look at the way our society works today. What becomes truly staggering is just how much our modern life is a legacy of the Roman Empire. The western world still uses Roman religion, Roman languages, Roman calendars and zodiacs, Roman politics and Roman ideas.

But let us not forget the Greeks, who were the ones that even the Romans learnt from. Our modern society was based on Greek and Roman civilisation, even though much of our indigenous cultures still echoed through their own languages and arts. The Romans, like the Greeks, were Indo-Europeans, and shared with them a common pantheon under different names, but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods.

We must understand that Southern Europe and Northern Europe had different cultures, and some very different ideas.

We must also recognise Pagan Europe from Christian Europe. All Europeans peoples, south and north, were pagan based cultures originally. Christianity comes from the Hebrew culture, and the bible is an interpretation of the ancient Egyptian religion. Original pagan cultures of Europe come from India, and the similarities between Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and Pagan European philosophy are not coincidental. Europeans originate ethnically from this region of the world, as they migrated after the end of the Ice age to the fertile western lands that were no longer covered by snow.

One might ask why we still use a Roman and Greek system long after their Empires have fallen, especially since our own cultures had their arts and sciences of equal wisdom. Well, we still live in the Roman Empire. When the Legions left, the Catholic Church was still there as a means of continuing to exert influence and accruing wealth via taxes on their former subjects. The underlying falsity is, Rome has never left.

The Sun Astronomically speaking, The Sun is the star at the centre of our Solar System. Energy from the Sun, electro-magnetic radiation in the form of sunlight and heat, supports almost all life on Earth via a process of photosynthesis. It drives the Earth's climate and weather, and provides us with our primary source of energy.

The Sun orbits the centre of our Milky Way galaxy at a distance of approximately 26,000 light-years from the galactic centre. It completes one revolution in about 225–250 million years, the approximate orbital speed is 220 kilometres per second. This is equivalent to one light-year every 1,400 years, or 150 million kilometres every 8 days. The surface

composition of the Sun consists of hydrogen ( 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (24-25% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements, including Iron, Nickel, Oxygen, Silicon, Sulfur, Magnesium, Carbon, Neon, Calcium, and Chromium. The surface temperature of The Sun ranges from 5500ºC - 6000ºC. The Sun's current age, according to computer models of stellar evolution and nucleo - cosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.5 billion years. Apparently, the Sun is about halfway through its main sequence evolution (life cycle), during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4 million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun will have so far converted around 100 Earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a star.

That the Sun will die is clear, just how we are still unsure of. The theory is that the Sun doesn’t have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in 5–6 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase. That means its outer layers expand as hydrogen fuel in the core and is consumed, so the core contracts and heats up. Helium fusion also begins in the core and will produce carbon, enlarging it until it becomes a Red Giant. As a red giant, the Sun will have a maximum radius beyond the Earth's current orbit. Following the red giant phase, intense thermal pulsations will cause the Sun to throw off its outer layers, forming a planetary nebula. The only object that will remain after the outer layers are ejected is the extremely hot stellar core, which will slowly cool and fade as a white dwarf over many billions of years.

New research suggests that Earth could be swallowed by the Sun due to tidal interactions. If Earth escapes incineration by the Sun however, its water will still be boiled away and most of its atmosphere would escape into space. In fact, the Sun is gradually becoming more luminous, its surface temperature is slowly rising. The increase in solar temperatures will be evident in about 900 million years time, when the surface of the Earth will become too hot for the survival of life as we know it. After another billion years the surface water will have completely disappeared, and thus ending any hopes for other life forms on Earth. Sadly we must accept that our Earth, our Sun and our Moon will all die…but us human beings will perish long before this happens.

For most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the p–p or ‘proton–proton’ chain, which converts hydrogen into helium. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles. Energy is released at the matter–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second. These high-energy photons (gamma rays) released in fusion reactions are absorbed in only few millimetres of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction (at slightly lower energy). It takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the "photon travel time" range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In this way energy makes its way very slowly outward. Sunlight on the surface of Earth is filtered by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surface. The

amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area (that is directly exposed to sunlight) is called the Solar Constant.

The Solar Constant is equal to approximately 1,370 watts per square metre, but is closer to 1,000 watts per directly exposed square metre when the Sun is near the zenith.

When observing the Sun, the most strikingly visible features are usually its sunspots, well-defined surface areas that appear darker than their surroundings, which is due to lower temperatures. Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic activity where convection is inhibited by strong magnetic fields, reducing the energy transportation from the hot interior to the surface. It’s all to do with the difference in rotation speeds of the Sun at its Poles and its Equator. Because all matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma, and of high temperatures. That makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (about 35 days near its poles). The differential rotation of the Sun's latitudes is what causes its magnetic field lines to become twisted together over time, resulting in magnetic field loops erupting from the Sun's surface to trigger the formation of the Sun's dramatic sunspots and solar prominences. The number of sunspots visible on the Sun is not constant, but varies over an 11-year cycle known as the Solar cycle. The Sun is the planetary ruler of Leo. In modern astrology, the sun is the ruler of the 5th house. In the tradition, the sun ruled the 4th and 11th houses. The Sun is associated with Sunday.

Energy from the Sun can be harnessed by a variety of natural and synthetic processes. Photosynthesis in plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds). Most autotrophs (plants), use the energy of sunlight to turn air into simple sugars, which are then used as building blocks and in other synthetic pathways that allow the organism to grow. Heterotrophs (animals), use light from the sun indirectly by consuming the products of autotrophs, either directly or by consuming other heterotrophs. The sugars and other molecular components produced by the autotrophs are then broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the heterotroph the energy required for survival. This process is known as respiration. Direct heating or electrical conversion by solar cells can also be used by man-made solar powered equipment to generate electricity or do other useful work. Energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was even originally converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past, the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter.

While the production of vitamin D is beneficial to health, excessive sunlight exposure has been linked to all types of skin cancer caused by the ultraviolet part of radiation. A lack of sunlight however, is considered one of the primary causes of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), a serious form of depression. Sunlight is very bright, and looking directly at it with the naked eye for brief periods can be painful, but is not particularly hazardous for normal, non-dilated eyes.

Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artefacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, not on whether one looks directly at the Sun.

The Planets Seven classical planets were known to ancient astrologers: Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (the Sun and Moon were considered to be planets).

The ancients noticed how lights move across the sky in relation to the other stars. Greeks called these lights planetes asteres or ‘wandering stars’. Today we know them as Planets, and have since learned that there are 8 of them in our solar system, not including 277 Extrasolar ones (planets around other stars), 3 Dwarf planets, or the Sun and Moon. Many of these planets are orbited by one or more moons, which can be larger than some small planets. Rotating on their tilted axes, they each orbit the Sun in an elliptical fashion, creating the Solar System.

Planets are divided into two main types: 4 large, low-density gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), and 4 smaller rocky terrestrials (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars). Some planets have ice caps, volcanoes and go through seasonal changes just as we do on Earth.

Terrestrials are defined as planets with bodies consisting primarily of rock, like the Earth. Gas Giants are planets with a composition made up of gaseous material, and are significantly bigger than terrestrials. Ice giants, comprising Uranus and Neptune, are a sub-class of gas giants, distinguished from gas giants by their significantly lower mass, and by depletion in hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres together with a significantly higher proportion of rock and ice.

Since Earth was only accepted as a planet in the 17th century, there is no tradition of naming it after a god. The same is true of the Sun and the Moon, though they’re no longer considered planets. The name Earth originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word Erde or Erda, which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of the Earth perhaps around 1300. It is the only planet whose name in English is probably not derived from Greco-Roman mythology. Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra (or some variation of it) that was used with the meaning of "dry land" (as opposed to "sea"). However, the non-Romance languages use their own respective native words.

Uranus was the first planet discovered in modern times. It’s visible to the naked eye like the five classical planets, but was never recognized as a planet by ancient observers due to its dimness. Sir William Herschel announced its discovery on March 13, 1781.The discovery of Neptune followed some 60 years later, made by French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier on September 23, 1846. Although, Galileo's drawings show that he first observed Neptune on December 28, 1612, mistaking it for a star. In the 20th century, Pluto was discovered. Initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth, so it was immediately accepted as the ninth planet. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union redefined its view of the term Planet, and Pluto was thus declassified because it is surrounded by many other equal sized masses.

All planets revolve around the stars, when looked at from Earth. In our Solar System, planets orbit in the same direction as the Sun rotates. The period of one revolution of a planet's orbit is known as a sidereal period (year). A planet's year would therefore depend on its distance from its star. The further a planet is from its star, the longer the distance it must travel, so the slower its speed, because it’s less affected by the star's gravity. No planet's orbit is perfectly circular, the distance of each varies over the course of its year. The closest approach to its star is called its periastron (perihelion in the Solar System), while its furthest separation from the star is called its apastron (aphelion).

As a planet approaches periastron, its speed increases as the pull of its star's gravity strengthens; as it reaches apastron, its speed decreases.

A planet's rotation period is known as a Day. Every planet in the Solar System rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, except for Venus, who rotates clockwise. No one knows for sure how the Planets formed. The most common theory is that they form during the collapse of a nebula, making a thin disk of gas and dust. Then what’s called a protostar forms at the core, and is surrounded by a rotating protoplanetary disk. Through a process of sticky collision, dust particles in the disk steadily accumulate mass to form larger bodies. Local concentrations of mass known as planetesimals form, and accelerate the accretion process by drawing in additional material by their gravitational pull. The concentrations become denser until they collapse inward under gravity to form protoplanets. When a planet reaches a diameter larger than the Earth's moon, it begins to accumulate an extended atmosphere, hugely increasing the capture rate of the planetesimals due to atmospheric drag. The Solar System planets all have atmospheres, because their large masses mean gravity is able to keep these gaseous particles close to the surface. Larger gas giants are even big enough to keep large amounts of the light gases hydrogen and helium close by, whereas smaller planets lose these gases into space. A Planet has enough mass to form itself into a spherical shape and ‘clear its neighbourhood’ of all smaller objects.

We can’t be too sure as to what kind of effects, if any, the planets have on life. Planets are other worlds inside our world, and largely unknown to us but by observation. Humanity must sit tight and wait for technological advancement to be able to fulfil a burning desire to explore them. We must be careful in space though, as we’ve already begun to pollute it with junk. We definitely need to take better care of our own planet before we are deserving enough to claim the other Planets.

Mercury - hermes Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, and very similar in appearance to the Moon. It is the smallest planet, at 0.055 Earth masses. The day on Mercury is almost twice as long as its year. Mercury has no moon, and its temperature on the surface can range from -180º - 430º.

The first known observations of Mercury were made by the Sumerians in the 3rd millennium BC. Greeks called it Hermes, Romans called it Mercury: the Messenger of the gods, and since we inherit the Greco-Roman system we also call it so. In Astrology, Mercury is the ruling planet of Gemini and Virgo. Mercury is regarded as the ruler of the 3rd and 6th houses; traditionally it ruled the

6th house, and had joy in the 1st house. Mercury also rules over Wednesday. In Romance languages the word for Wednesday is often similar to Mercury (mercredi in French and miercoles in Spanish).

Mercury’s apparent magnitude varies between about −2.0—brighter than Sirius—and 5.5. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun’s glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight.

Venus - Aphrodite Venus orbits the sun in 225 days, spending about 18.75 days in each sign of the zodiac. Venus is the second brightest object in the night sky (the moon being the brightest). Sometimes it’s referred to as Earth’s ‘sister planet’. Similar in size and gravity, Venus is covered with reflective clouds of sulphuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light.

Venus and Aphrodite, are the Goddesses of Love and Beauty. It is the modern ruler of the 2nd and 7th houses, but traditionally ruled the 5th and 12th houses. Venus is the ruling planet of Taurus and Libra, the planet of Friday. In languages deriving from Latin, such as Spanish and French, the word for Friday often resembles the word Venus (viernes and vendredi).

Venus's surface has been mapped in detail only in the last 22 years. It shows evidence of extensive volcanism, and the sulphur in the atmosphere is taken by some experts to show that there has been some recent volcanism, but no evidence of lava flow is visible. It is also noteworthy that there are a surprisingly low number of impact craters. This demonstrates that the surface is relatively young, approximately half a billion years old.

Mars - Aries Mars orbits the sun in 687 days, spending about 57.25 days in each sign of the zodiac.

It is often referred to as the Red Planet, because of its obvious appearance. There are deserts, volcanos, valleys and Ice caps on Mars, however the atmosphere is very thin.

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped, and may even be captured asteroids.

Mars is said to rule the 1st and 8th houses, and traditionally, it ruled the 3rd and 10th houses. Mars and Aries are the gods of war, the rulers of Scorpio. Mars is associated with Tuesday, and in Romance languages the word for Tuesday often resembles Mars (in Spanish, martes and in French, mardi).

Many specualte as to whether there was, is or could be life on Mars. Considering there are ice caps, then there is potenial water, and so is a possibility but we don’t know yet for sure. 95% of the Martian atmosphere is carbon dioxide.

Surface temperatures vary from lows of about −140 °C during the polar winters to highs of up to 20 °C in summers.

Mars also has the largest dust storms in our Solar system.

Jupiter - Zeus Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet within the Solar System. It is two and a half times as massive as all of the other planets in our Solar System combined, and has 63 moons. Jupiter takes 11.9 years to orbit the sun, spending almost an earth year (361 days) in each sign of the zodiac.

Jupiter is said to be the ruler of the 9th and 12th houses, but traditionally Jupiter was assigned to the 2nd and 9th houses. Jupiter is the ruling planet of Sagittarius, and associated with Thursday, and in Romance languages the name for Thursday often comes from Jupiter (for example, jueves in Spanish or jeudi in French).

The planet Jupiter is primarily composed of about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium. It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements under high pressure. Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus). 47 of Juptier’s 63 moons are less than 10km in diameter.

Saturn - Kronos The sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in the Solar System. Saturn takes 29.5 years to orbit the sun, spending about 2.46 years in each sign of the zodiac. It is 95 times the size of the Earth, and probably best known for its system of planetary rings, which makes it the most visually remarkable object in the solar system.

Saturn is the ruling planet of Capricorn, and traditionally Aquarius. Astrology calls it ruler of the 10th and 11th houses. Traditionally, however, Saturn was associated with the 1st and 8th houses. Saturn is also associated with Saturday, which was named after the deity Saturn.

The outer atmosphere of Saturn consists of about 93.2% molecular hydrogen and 6.7% helium. Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, phosphine, and methane have also been detected. Saturn’s rings are approximately 20 meters in thickness, and are composed of 93 percent water ice, ranging in size from specks of dust to the size of a small automobile. Saturn has around 60 moons. Titan, Saturn's largest moon, is the only moon in the Solar System to have a dense atmosphere.

Uranus - Caelus Uranus takes 84 years to orbit the sun, spending about 7 years in each sign of the zodiac. The third largest planet in our solar system, and 14.5 times the size of Earth.

Uranus' atmosphere, while similar to Jupiter and Saturn in being composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, contains a higher proportion of "ices" such as water, ammonia and methane, along with the usual traces of hydrocarbons. It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of (−224 °C).

Uranus has a faint planetary ring system, composed of dark particulate matter up to ten meters in diameter. It was the second ring system to be discovered in the Solar System after Saturn's. Uranus has 27 known moons, the five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon.

Neptune – Poseidon Neptune takes 165 years to orbit the sun, spending approximately 14 years (13.75) in each sign of the zodiac. It is 17 times the size of Earth, and the furthest planet from the Sun. Neptune's atmosphere is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium along with traces of methane. The methane in the atmosphere, in part, accounts for the planet's blue appearance.

Neptune also has the strongest winds of any planet in the solar system, measured as high as 2,100 kilometres per hour. The temperature at its cloud tops is usually close to −218 °C. Neptune also has a planetary ring system, though much less substantial than that of Saturn. The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon-based material, which most likely gives them a reddish hue. Neptune has 13 known moons. The largest by far, comprising more than 99.5 percent of the mass in orbit around Neptune and the only one massive enough to be spheroidal, is Triton.

The druidic Year The Druidic year is marked by the interweaving paths of the sun and the moon, as it reconciles the Solar year with the Lunar month. The Lunar year only contains 355 days, so the solar year was compensated by the insertion of a 13th month every two and a half years. The months were further divided into two halves, the first is the Light half (waxing moon), the second half is the dark half (waning moon). The basic unit of the Celtic (Coligny) calendar was thus the fortnight or half-month, as is also suggested in traces in Celtic folklore. The first half was always 15 days, the second half either 14 or 15 days on alternate months (similar to Hindu calendars). Each month began on the new moon, and each year began with Samhain, but was not really celebrated until the Winter solstice, where the death of the light (sun) occurred.

I should point out at this time that the calendar talked about here, is in fact a Gallic Celtic calendar, because the Gaelic Celts used a more lunar one only. The solar festivals are known to us by their British Celtic names now, even though they weren’t actually marked with a festival by any of the Celts of antiquity. In this Celtic-Nordic ‘8 fold year’ (as it is called in modern times), there are 4 solar festivals and 4 lunar festivals. Similar to the months, there is also the light half of the year and a dark half of the year, which are associated with hot and cold, or growth and decay. The dark half of the year represents the empty womb, and is a time of seeing your own short comings, a time for more inward reflection and growth. The light is always found in the darkness (winter months), never in light, which is a world of illusion. The light half of the year represents the fertile mother, a time of expression and sensuality. This is because the sun warms our blood and life is in full bloom (summer months).

The Lunar cycle is associated with the lower conscious, the paths of body and mind, and so influencing us psychologically and instinctually. The solar cycle is associated with the higher conscious, the path of the soul or spirit, influencing our emotion. As the seasons change, the energy patterns of the Earth changes. This is because the Earth moves into different parts of the universe and connects with the different energies, she responds to this change and therefore so do you indirectly. When you attune consciously to these changing patterns through meditation and ritual, you begin to be more aware of the planetary and universal energies around you.

Rites of passage: The processions of the 8 festivals are symbolic for the lifecycle of people, as it is reflected in all nature. Celtic people in the southern hemisphere usually celebrate the festivals on the opposite dates of the year (6 months apart from the northern dates), in order to follow the cycle of seasons where they live. For example, an Australian would celebrate Samhain on May 1, when a Canadian would be celebrating Beltane. We collectively refer to the procession of these festivals as ‘Rites of Passage’.

LUNAR (body and mind) – Rebirth-Nurturing-Sensuality-Responsibility SOLAR (Soul/Spirit) – Inspiration-Reception-Expression-Recollection LUNAR FESTIVALS The ‘cross quarter’ lunar or fire festivals are times of great concentration on the energies of each season, their celebration reflects this intensity. Traditionally, there would be great clan gatherings, where bards played music and recited poetry, people danced, made love and feasted.

Samhain – (April 31/May 11) The thinning of the veil between two worlds. The spirits of the otherworld enter this world, the portal is open. This is the time of the dark moon (no moon), a time when mortal sight needs to be obscured so it can see into higher realms.

Remember the dead by honouring your ancestors, those not of this earth anymore. Make new years resolutions and look at your own shortcomings. This is the time of rebirth, order and structure was traditionally abolished during this time. A period of lawlessness ensued for 11 days.

Imbolc – (July 31/August 1) This is Brighid’s feast, a time of creativity and community. The great mother is reborn and she prepares the earth for new life. Imbolc invokes the gentleness and mothering that is needed during the first years on earth, it is said that Brighid sings to us every night as we sleep. Honour the goddess in her many forms and the new life she brings, beautiful rituals of fire and water were traditionally held in ceremony.

Beltane (October 31/November 1) Festival of the great fires. The fertility and vigour of life is the initiation needed as a young adult. The forces of sexuality run through our blood, invoking the fertile sensuality of the young man and woman. Great fires were traditionally lit throughout the land, symbolic of the fire that is life in full bloom.

Lughnasadh (January 31/February 1) Celebration of the earth’s bounty. The wildness of youth gives way to wider understanding of the grand scheme of things. No longer with the seeds of rebellion in our hearts, the tides of change bring responsibility. Honour the joy of accomplishment and the satisfaction it brings. Traditionally this was the time of harvest and clan gatherings when sports, games and marriages were held.

SOLAR FESTIVALS The Solstices (‘standings of the sun’) are phases when the sun appears at its nadir or zenith, standing still in the positions in which it rises and sets. At the very extreme of each end it holds its position momentarily before beginning its return journey. The equinoxes are times when the days and nights are equal, a time of balance and equality.

However, they have a very different feel from each other.

Alban Arthuan – Winter solstice – (June 21-24) The sun appears to abandon us completely as the longest and darkest night comes. In darkness (the empty womb) you will find the light, the new light of inspiration which celebrates the rebirth of the sun.

Alban Eiler – Spring equinox - (September 21-22)

The forces of light are on the increase. The sun is triumphant over winter as great energy and vitality springs forth from the land. Flowers begin to appear from the seeds planted during the darkness (resolutions).

Alban Heruin – Summer solstice - (December 22-25) The days are at their longest and there is a pure outpouring of light energy. The earth’s full flowering and there is maximum light. Inherent with this is the knowledge that now the light will begin to wane.

Alban Elued – Autumn equinox - (March 21-22) The days are shortening and we give thanks to the mother goddess for her fruits of field (animal) and tree (fruits), which is the goodness of her womb.

CHAPTER notes Its interesting to see the strong influences of Greco-Roman civilisation appear when we study the Zodiac and Calendars we still use to this day. The Greco-Roman systems are good and accurate, but no better than any other cultures traditional systems, as all either follow the Solstices and Equinoxes of the Sun, or the lunar month. The GrecoRoman culture would become the primary way in the West due to no other reason than fate. Some European historians do tend to have an overstated admiration for Rome, which has always led to us believing that the cultures they conquered were inferior and suddenly just disappeared. In reality, Northern and Southern Europeans both had Pagan practices centred around the seasonal changes on Earth, and were also very alike. In fact the Romans often incorporated other gods into their pantheon etc, such as the Celtic Dieties Sulis and Epona. The point is, the Roman way was not and is not the only way, it’s just the most widely used in western society, and thus the best place to start for most people.

The year 2012 is often talked about amongst practitioners across the world, and has been marked as an important global event by many ancient cultures. The basis of this event lies in the Mayan calendar, in which time as we understand it, comes to an end and a major shift will occur in human consciousness. Personally, I’m not too sure I’ve settled on a theory as to what’s going to happen, as there are many theories out there. I tend to agree though in parts with some who believe that the shift will reveal the 4th dimension (time) or maybe the 5th dimension (unity with the unseen Spirit World/Heaven). The photon belt too (band of intense light energy), is reportedly on a collision course with Earth also. When it gets here, things are predicted to change dramatically. It is said we may have a new age of energy sources and more psychic ability.

Scientifically, astronomers know that our sun and planet will be in perfect alignment with the centre of the Milky Way on December 21, 2012. There are reports that say NASA is tracking an asteroid, scheduled to make close contact with Earth in 2012. The sun is changing its magnetic poles and huge bursts of energy hitting the Earth are to be repeated in 2012. Plus, there are the ongoing measurements of Earth’s magnetic fields, which appear to be speeding up, so it could lead to a polar shift. There are many reasons to believe that this date is highly significant in history, the possible merging of physical and spiritual planes is the most exciting for myself. To be honest, I feel that whatever changes do occur may not necessarily be all of a sudden or completely obvious anyway, so it’s pointless over speculating about it right now.

Chapter 3: Mother Earth

Chapter 3: Intro This chapter is dedicated solely to the Earth, and will cover the areas such as Biology and the Earth sciences of Geography and Geophysics. These are distinguished from the physical sciences of Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, due to their focusing on the phenomena of our planet solely. As already discussed, all planets go through regular changes or cycles, and ours is no different. It’s more than just about being able to read signs in nature and flowing with the seasonal cycles though, we need to attune ourselves to the natural energies flowing across the surface of the planet. The natural forces flowing around the Earth are beneficial to us and essential for our well being physically and spiritually. To know the ways of nature is of paramount importance for any practitioner as it is at the core of Druidic ritual and Pagan lifestyle.

The natural world is rich and diverse in lifeforms, which all sustain us with their nourishment and resources. Everything we build and use is made of elements that come from the Earth, just like our own mortal bodies. Therefore it is undisputable that we all arose from her depths. Like loving children, we should live with and not dominate her, we should respect and honour her, because she is our Mother.

We sometimes forget as humans that we are not the only conscious beings around. We may have lost our ability to communicate with other animals and the natural world, but we are arrogant to question the intelligence of what we do not fully understand. One of our biggest mistakes was letting ourselves be separated from the animal kingdom, our natural instincts and intuition. The idea of oneness with the Earth and the self empowerment style beliefs that pagan communities were mainly based on became the enemies of the early Church. Breaking up our societies and ending our respect for nature, so as to shift the power of Awen towards men, and not the Mother. A dark age of worshipping false ideas and people has existed ever since.

Earth, my body, Water, my blood, Air, my breath and Fire, my spirit.

Pagans Pagan is a word used to refer to various spiritual beliefs from across the world. It is a term which, from a Western perspective, has modern connotations of spiritualist, animist or shamanic practices or beliefs of any folk religion contemporary. It has also been used as an equivalent term for polytheistic (multiple god) religions. The term has been defined to encompass faith traditions outside the ‘Abrahamic’ monotheistic group of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Pagan includes many of the Eastern religions, Native American religions and mythologies, as well as non-Abrahamic ethnic religions in general. Characteristic of pagan traditions is the absence of attempting to convert people and the presence of a living mythology which explains religious practice. It’s interesting how Pagans get labelled ‘alternative’ and ‘new age’ (a term I detest), since Pagan beliefs are at least 5000 years old, and Christianity is not even 2000. In my opinion, it’s Christians who are the alternative new agers.

I generally avoid the term ‘paganism’, with its uncertain and varied meanings. In referring to traditional or historic faiths, more precise categories are polytheism, shamanism, pantheism, or animism. Since the later 20th century, ‘Pagan’ or ‘Paganism’ has become widely used as a self-designation by adherents of Neopaganism. As such, various modern scholars have begun to apply the term to three separate groups of faiths: Historical Polytheism (such as Celtic polytheism and Norse paganism), Folk/ethnic/Indigenous religions (such as Chinese folk religion and African traditional religion), and Neo-paganism (such as Wicca and Germanic Neopaganism). It can become very confusing and vague as to whether the term and its validity is a proper namer or category, sort of like saying Aboriginal.

As a person of Northern European ancestry, when I use the term Pagan in my society, it means Pre-Christian. I venerate the gods of my ancient ancestors, and continue a cultural tradition that is based on living close to nature.

Pagans are not a religion, our way of life is much older than any church. Ours is a way of life that respects nature, that does not try to dominate but live and work with Her. There are three main beliefs or concepts that define Pagan in my rational thought:   

The Earth is alive and conscious.

All upon the Earth is sacred.

The Earth is our physical mother.

Anyone who agrees with these beliefs, can rightfully be called a Pagan. A Pagan life is about feeling one with nature and connecting to our Earth in a spiritual way. When a Pagan takes from the Earth, he gives thanks, and gives back in acknowledging Her power and beauty by respecting or celebrating Her. We harbour a deep love in our hearts always for the sanctity of this planet, and our home. We understand nature, and by understanding it we know that we would be arrogant if we were to believe that we are the masters of it.

Pagans are not vegetarians, vegans, greenies or any other type of lifestyle choice by default. Sometimes, those who make such choices need to make more of an effort to fully understand nature before they criticise people who make other choices. For example, I believe in hunting as a natural activity, and culturally as a rite of passage. I do not believe in the mindless slaying of animals, as my Pagan mentality would not allow me to make such a slaughter of mother Earths sacred life. I hunt only what I need in food, or in protection of native ecosystems (pests). When I hunt, I pray for the soul of the animal I slay, and I kill with mercy and respect. I say to anyone who wishes to label me a murderer…that they know nothing of the ways of nature to accuse me of such. Firstly, animals eat other animals, we need the foodchain and ecostystems to keep things balanced in nature. Secondly, to a Pagan and a Druid, all life is conscious, so then what makes that celery stick they may be chewing on any different from a steak? When someone pulls a vegetable out of the soil they are killing it too.

In Celtic culture, a pagan may make a spiritual promise toward a land or animals, which is known as a ‘Geasa’ (Geesha). My particular promise was never to kill or eat deer of any kind, because my guardian animal is the Stag and I have taken it as my totem. Therefore it is my duty only to protect it, as to violate my Geasa would be dishonourable. In Celtic folklore, animals brought many special messages and represented a stage of evolution and consciousness that was important to understand. Animals often came as helpers to humans who were lost or seeking answers, and could inspire solutions to problems. Sometimes eating animal meat was done to connect a shaman to its spirit, by chewing meat raw or under cooked, which releases certain endorphins in the brain.

The 3 realms The 3 realms seeks to explain the view of life on Earth as a whole, as understood by most ancient minds. In ancient times, the Druids believed in 3 levels of existence for the individual (Body–Mind-Soul), as well as 3 dimensions of reality: The Otherworld, Earthworld and Underworld. The otherworld contained spirits, and was higher or above this world, but could be accessed with hidden secret doorways in burial grounds or sacred groves. The Earthworld contained plants, animals and humans, this is the world we live in, the physical realm. The Underworld contained the dead, a subterranean realm which was accessed by wells, springs, lakes, caves and burial mounds. The Underworld was believed to be a negative zone, where darker more hidden forces resided. It was the world between incarnations, where we waited to be reborn at the perfect moment, and located in the ocean.

This view can be renewed by the perceptions of modern Earth science. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres: the Lithosphere, the Hydrosphere, the Atmosphere, and the Biosphere, which correspond to rocks, water, air, and life.

The interactions of Earth's spheres create the conditions that can support life. Some practitioners include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, the Cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the Hydrosphere, as well as the Pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. There are five major disciplines in earth sciences, namely Biology, Geography, Geology, Geophysics and Geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry and mathematics to build an understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earths systems. The following fields of science are generally categorised within the Earth sciences:    

Geography: the study of the earth and its features, inhabitants, and phenomena.

Geology: describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development.

Geophysics and Geodesy: investigate the figure of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere Biology: The study of the biosphere (Awen), all forms of life from single-celled organisms to people.

As you can see it exhonerates that Life exists on land, in the sea and in the sky, and nothing has changed but the terminology for thousands of years. Although, there seems little significance in the idea of Otherworlds where Gods live and the biologically observable idea of spheres, we can make sense of it if we look on a practical level. In modern times the ocean purely represents the Hydrosphere, whereas our ancestors the ancient Celts, believed the ocean was a vast underworld and the place of the dead. We can see why if we use a little imagination, for deep beneath the perceived bottomless sea laid a dark and mysterious environment, characterised in legendary tales. In Northern European cultures like the Celts and Vikings, the dead were often laid to rest on a small boat covered with flowers, jewels and posessions, pushed out to sea and then lit like a Pire upon the waves. The Earthworld or Middleworld is not so complicated, the place where all living things (except sea creatures, which were seen as underworld beings) walked, is obviously the metaphor for where we live. The Otherworld was thought to be the place of the Gods, because it reaches up to the heavens (space) where the ‘gods’ (Sun and Moon) live. The Earth’s sky linked us to the greater universe. All these concepts however, have survived in name only, as we no longer acknowledge the old superstitions.

When I refer to the 3 realms, I am simply using old cultural terms for the modern concepts of Earth science that I have explained above. World or sphere, it is different in name only.

Alongside these worlds, were the so called ‘Circles of Existence’ or Annwn, known by their Celtic names of Abred, Gwynedd and Ceugant. This represented a concept of the Past, Present and Future. Abred is the inner most circle, where inner and outer worlds meet. Abred is the past, where everything begins and returns again at death. Gwynedd is the present, where life is blessed and pure, and good triumphs over evil. Ceugant is the future, which spreads out into infinity, but ultimately circles back to Abred. Ceugant was thought to be the home of God. The circles can be said to map a soul's journey, starting from Annwn (the birth of the soul) in the centre, through to Abred (physical birth) and finally to Gwynvid (present moment) and, who knows, maybe even eventually to Ceugant (infinite future).   

The Circle of Abred, in which are all corporal and dead existences.

The Circle of Gwynvyd, in which are all animated and immortal beings.

The Circle of Ceugant, where there is only God. The wise men describe them thus, in three Circles.

The Bioshphere Life on Earth is diverse and complex, and it is the discipline of Biology that reveals its layers to us. Biology is one of the natural sciences, the study of living organisms and how they interact with their environment. Biology involves every aspect of life in a living organism, examining the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of all living things. Knowing basic biology helps us to classify and describe organisms, their functions, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and the natural environment. Four unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology: Cell theory, Evolution, Genetics and Homeostasis. 

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Cell theory - Cell Theory is the study of everything that involves cells. All living organisms are made of at least one cell, the basic unit of function in all organisms. In addition, the core mechanisms and chemistry of all cells in all organisms are similar, and cells emerge only from preexisting cells that multiply through cell division. Cell theory studies how cells are made, how they reproduce, how they interact with their environment, what they are composed of, and how the materials that make up a cell work and interact with other cell sections.

Evolution - Through natural selection and genetic drift, a population's inherited traits change from generation to generation.

Gene theory - A living organism's traits are encoded in DNA, the fundamental component of genes. In addition, traits are passed on from one generation to the next by way of these genes. All information flows in the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of the organism. Although the phenotype expressed by the gene may adapt to the environment of the organism, that information is not transferred back to the genes. Only through the process of evolution do genes change in response to the environment.

Homeostasis - The physiological processes that allow an organism to maintain its internal environment notwithstanding its external environment.

Most biological sciences are specialized disciplines. Traditionally, they are grouped by the type of organism being studied. For example, Botany is the study of plants, Zoology is the study of animals and Microbiology is the study of microorganisms. Fields within biology are then further divided based on the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them: 1) 2) 3) 4)

Biochemistry examines the fundamental chemistry of life.

Molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules.

Cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell.

Physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues and organ systems of an organism.

5)

Ecology examines how various organisms and their environment interrelate.

Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified by Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

Many now consider the 5 kingdom system to be outdated though. A modern alternative classification is the 3 domain system, consisting of Archaea (originally Archaebacteria), Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) and Eukaryota. These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors. “A group of organisms share a common descent if they share a common ancestor. All organisms on the Earth both living and extinct have been or are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.�

The name of any organism is obtained from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens.

Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species. The term used for classification is called taxonomy. The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The Virus International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.

Plantae Plants are living organisms, which include familiar forms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. About 350,000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes. Green plants, sometimes called metaphytes or viridiplantae, obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called photosynthesis.

When the name Plantae or plants is applied to a specific taxon, it is usually referring to one of three concepts. From smallest to largest in inclusiveness, these three groupings are: 

Land plants - also known as Embryophyta or Metaphyta. As the narrowest of plant categories, this is further delineated below.

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Green plants - also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta or Chlorobionta - comprise the above Embryophytes, Charophyta (i.e., primitive stoneworts), and Chlorophyta (i.e., green algae such as sea lettuce). It is this clade which is mainly the subject of this article.

Archaeplastida - also known as Plantae sensu lato, Plastida or Primoplantae - comprises the green plants above, as well as Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (simple glaucophyte algae). As the broadest plant clade, this comprises most of the eukaryotes that eons ago acquired their chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria.

Most familiar are the multicellular land plants, called Embryophytes. They include the vascular plants, plants with full systems of leaves, stems, and roots. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called Bryophytes, of which mosses and liverworts are the most common.

All of these plants have eukaryotic cells with cell walls composed of cellulose, and most obtain their energy through photosynthesis, using light and carbon dioxide to synthesize food. About three hundred plant species do not photosynthesize but are parasites on other species of photosynthetic plants. Plants are distinguished from green algae, which represent a mode of photosynthetic life similar to the kind modern plants are believed to have evolved from, by having specialized reproductive organs protected by non-reproductive tissues.

History: Plants have evolved through increasing levels of complexity, from the earliest algal mats, through bryophytes, lycopods, ferns and gymnosperms to the complex angiosperms of today. While simple plants continue to thrive in the environments in where they evolved, each new grade of organisation eventually becomes more successful than its predecessors by most measures. Further, many theories suggest that each more complex group arose from the most complex group at the time.

Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land around 1,200 million years ago. It wasnt until the Ordovician period, around 500 million years ago, that land plants appeared. These began to diversify in the late Silurian period 420 million years ago. The fruits of their diversification are displayed in remarkable detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage known as the Rhynie chert. It preserved early plants in cellular detail, petrified in volcanic springs. By the middle of the Devonian period most of the features recognised in plants today are present, including roots, leaves and seeds. By the late Devonian, plants had reached a degree of sophistication that allowed them to form forests of tall trees. Evolutionary innovation continued after the Devonian period. Most plant groups were relatively unscathed by the

Permo-Triassic extinction event of the dinosaurs, although the structures of the communities changed. This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (200 million years ago), which exploded the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the grasses, which became important in the mid Tertiary (40 million years ago). The grasses, as well as many other groups evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low CO2 and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last 10 million years.

Bryophytes (cellular plants) first appeared during 542 to 251 million years ago. They can only survive where moisture is available for significant periods, although some species are desiccation tolerant. Most species remain small throughout their life-cycle, which involves an alternation between two generations: a haploid stage, called the gametophyte, and a diploid stage, called the sporophyte. The sporophyte is short-lived and remains dependent on its parent gametophyte.

Vascular plants however, first appeared around 416 million years ago, diversifying and spreading into many different land environments. They have a number of adaptations that allowed them to overcome the limitations of the bryophytes, including a cuticle resistant to desiccation, and vascular tissues which transport water throughout the organism. In most the sporophyte acts as a separate individual, while the gametophyte remains small.

The first primitive seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns) and Cordaites (both now extinct), appeared around 360 million years ago and diversified through the Carboniferous. In these the gametophyte stage is completely reduced, and the sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops while on the parent plant, and with fertilisation by means of pollen grains. Whereas other vascular plants, such as ferns, reproduce by means of spores and so need moisture to develop, some seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions.

Early seed plants are referred to as gymnosperms (naked seeds), as the seed embryo is not enclosed in a protective structure at pollination, with the pollen landing directly on the embryo. Four surviving groups remain widespread now, particularly the conifers, which are dominant trees in several biomes. The angiosperms, comprising the flowering plants, were the last major group of plants to appear, emerging from within the gymnosperms during the Jurassic and diversifying rapidly during the Cretaceous. These differ in that the seed embryo (angiosperm) is enclosed, so the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the protective seed coat; they are the predominant group of flora in most biomes today.

Dependence: Virtually all human nutrition depends on land plants directly or indirectly, by way of cereals, especially maize or corn, wheat and rice or other staple crops such as potato. Other parts from plants that are eaten include fruits, vegetables, nuts, herbs, spices and edible flowers. Beverages from plants include coffee, tea, wine, beer and alcohol. Sugar is obtained mainly from sugar cane and sugar beet. Cooking oils and margarine come from corn, soybean, canola, safflower, sunflower, olive and others. Food additives include gum arabic, guar gum, locust bean gum, starch and pectin.

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants. Many animals pollinate flowers in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar. Many animals disperse seeds, often by eating fruit and passing the seeds in their feces.

Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants.

In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes provide organic fertilizer.

Wood is used for buildings, furniture, paper, cardboard, musical instruments and sports equipment. Cloth is often made from cotton, flax or synthetic fibers derived from cellulose, such as rayon and acetate. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and many other biofuels. Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels derived from plants. Medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. There are hundreds of herbal supplements such as ginkgo, Echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's wort. Pesticides derived from plants include nicotine, rotenone, strychnine and pyrethrins. Drugs obtained from plants include opium, cocaine and marijuana. Poisons from plants include ricin, hemlock and curare. Plants are the source of many natural products such as fibers, essential oils, dyes, pigments, waxes, tannins, latex, gums, resins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, paints, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, turpentine, rubber, varnish, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, chewing gum and hemp rope. Plants are also a primary source of basic chemicals for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals. These chemicals are used in a vast variety of studies and experiments.

Tree rings are an important method of dating in archeology and serve as a record of past climates. Basic biological research has often been done with plants. Space stations or space colonies may one day rely on plants for life support.

Plants are used as national and state emblems, including state trees and state flowers. Ancient trees are revered and many are famous. Numerous world records are held by plants. Plants are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Plants figure prominently in mythology, religion and literature. The field of ethnobotany studies plant use by indigenous cultures which helps to conserve endangered species as well as discover new medicinal plants. Gardening is the most popular leisure activity in many countries.

Working with plants or horticulture therapy is beneficial for rehabilitating people with disabilities. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals which are extracted and ingested, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), and opium.

Photosynthesis Most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through the process known as photosynthesis, plants use energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and turn water into simple sugars. These sugars are then used as building blocks to form the main structural component of the plant.

Chlorophyll, a green-coloured magnesium-containing pigment, is essential to this process. Generally it is present in plant leaves, and often in other plant parts as well.

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments.

Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.

Plants rely on soil primarily for support and water, but also to obtain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other crucial elemental nutrients. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots for respiration. However, some plants grow as submerged aquatics, using oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water, and a few specialized vascular plants, such as mangroves, can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions.

The growth rate of plants is extremely variable. Some mosses grow less than 0.001 mm/h, while most trees grow 0.025-0.250 mm/h. Certain climbing species, such as kudzu, which do not need to produce thick supportive tissue, can grow up to 12.5 mm/h. The genotype of a plant affects its growth, for example selected varieties of wheat grow rapidly, maturing within 110 days, whereas others, in the same environmental conditions, grow more slowly and mature within 155 days. Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as temperature, available water, available light, and available nutrients in the soil. Any change in the availability of these external conditions will be reflected in the plants growth. Biotic factors (living organisms) may also affect plant growth.    

Plants compete with other plants for space, water, light and nutrients. Plants can be so crowded that no single individual makes normal growth.

Many plants rely on birds and insects to effect pollination.

Grazing animals may affect vegetation.

Soil fertility is influenced by the activity of bacteria and fungi.

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Bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and insects can parasitise plants.

Some plant roots require an association with fungi to maintain normal activity (mycorrhizal association).

Simple plants like algae may have short life spans as individuals, but their populations are commonly seasonal. Other plants may be organized according to their seasonal growth pattern:   

Annual: live and reproduce within one growing season.

Biennial: live for two growing seasons; usually reproduce in second year.

Perennial: live for many growing seasons; continue to reproduce once mature.

Among the vascular plants, perennials include both evergreens that keep their leaves the entire year, and deciduous plants which lose their leaves for some part of it. In temperate and boreal climates, they generally lose their leaves during the winter, whereas many tropical plants lose their leaves during the dry season. Plants protect themselves from frost and dehydration stress with antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars. LEA (Late Embryogenesis Abundant) protein expression is induced by stresses and protects the other proteins from aggregation as a result of desiccation and freezing.

Botany: The study of plants is called Botany, and it began with tribal efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants. This makes botany one of the oldest sciences. From an ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms. As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of any plant life.

Studying of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth. They generate the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow humans and other higher life forms to exist. Through photosynthesis, plants also absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate, and they also prevent soil erosion and impact on the water cycle. It is believed that early in the earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global atmosphere of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by oxidation. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:    

Produce food to feed an expanding population Understand fundamental life processes Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments Understand environmental changes more clearly

Mineralia A mineral is defined as “a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties”. A rock, by comparison is a mix of minerals and doesn’t need a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. The study of minerals is called Mineralogy, which defines the classes of minerals known as follows: 1. Silicate class - The largest group of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, and calcium.

Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.

2. Carbonate class -The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion (CO3)2- and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate).

Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate

on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals.

3. Sulfate class - Sulfates all contain the sulfate anion, SO42-. Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals.

Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals.

4. Halide class - The halides are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporitic settings such as playa lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide minerals.

5. Oxide class - Oxides are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide - a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals.

6. Sulfide class - Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide - commonly known as fools' gold), chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic).

7. Phosphate class - The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals.

8. Element class - The elemental group includes metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides (which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites).

9. Organic class - The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound.] Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species. Examples include whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

Rocks and Minerals: As mentioned, a rock is a mix of one or more minerals. A rock may also include organic remains. Some rocks are predominantly composed of just one mineral. For example, limestone is a sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of the mineral calcite. Other rocks contain many minerals, and the specific minerals in a rock can vary widely. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only one or two locations worldwide. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz, feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Over half of the mineral species known are so rare that they have only been found in a handful of samples, and many are known from only one or two small grains.

Animalia Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular, which separates us from bacteria. We are heterotrophic, digesting food in an internal chamber, which distinguishes us from plants and algae. We are also classed as lacking cell walls. All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth.

All animals are capable of movement, even if only at certain life stages. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera) and Placozoa, animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissue, which sends and processes signals.

There is also typically an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general. Most known animals appear in the fossil record as marine species about 542 million years ago.

1) Porifera - The sponges or poriferans are primitive, sessile, mostly marine, water dwelling filter feeders that pump water through their bodies to filter out particles of food matter. Sponges represent the simplest of animals.These are non-motile animals attached to some solid support.They are covered with a hard outer layer or skeleton. With no true tissues, they lack muscles, nerves, and internal organs. There are over 5,000 modern species of sponges known, and they can be found attached to surfaces anywhere from the intertidal zone to as deep as 8,500 m (29,000 feet) or further.

2) Cnidaria - Cnidarians are the most primitive eumetazoans, and found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine environments. Despite their early appearance in the evolutionary history of animals and their simple morphology, the modern forms are genetically sophisticated and bio-chemically complex. The basic body shape of a cnidarian consists of a sac containing a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that functions as both mouth and anus. Their movement is coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Tentacles surrounding the mouth contain

cnidocytes, specialized stinging cells, which they use to catch prey and defend themselves from predators. The ability to sting is what gives cnidarians their name.

3) Platyhelminthes - The flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are a phylum of relatively simple soft-bodied invertebrate animals. With about 25,000 known species they are the largest phylum of acoelomates. Flatworms are found in marine, freshwater, and even damp terrestrial environments. A troublesome terrestrial example is the New Zealand flatworm, Arthurdendyus triangulatus, which rapidly colonized large areas of Ireland and Scotland since its destroyed most of the indigenous earthworms. Most flatworms are free-living, but many are parasitic. There are four classes: Trematoda (flukes), Cestoda (tapeworms), Monogenea, and Turbellaria.

4) nematodes - The Nematodes or roundworms are one of the most common phyla of animals, with over 80,000 different described species (of which over 15,000 are parasitic). They are ubiquitous in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and are found in locations as diverse as Antarctica and oceanic trenches. Further, there are a great many parasitic forms, including pathogens in most plants, animals, and also in humans.

5) Molluscs - Molluscs are an extraordinarily diverse group, and representatives of the phylum live in a wide range of environments, from the deep-sea to a variety of different terrestrial habitats. Molluscs such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus are among the most neurologically-advanced of all invertebrates, and either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species. The brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors that detect chemicals, vibrations and touch.

6) Annelids - The annelids are a large phylum of animals comprising the segmented worms, with about 15,000 modern species including the well-known earthworms and leeches. They are found in most wet environments, and include many terrestrial, freshwater, and especially marine species (such as the polychaetes), as well as some which are parasitic or mutualistic. They range in length from under a millimeter to over 3 meters (the seep tube worm Lamellibrachia luymesi).

7) Arthropods - Arthropods are animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda, which include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others. Arthropods are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs and of cuticles which are mainly made of Îą-chitin; crustaceans' cuticles are also biomineralized with calcium carbonate. The cuticle is so rigid that it would inhibit growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by molting. Arthropods' body plan of repeated segments, each with a pair of appendages, is so versatile that it has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all ecological guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living species. In fact they are one of only two groups that are very successful in dry environments (the other is amniotes). They range in size from microscopic plankton up to forms a few metres long.

8) Echinoderms - Echinoderms are a phylum of marine animals (including sea stars) found at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum contains about 7,000 living species, making it the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial representatives. The Echinoderms are important both biologically and geologically: biologically because few other groupings are so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea, as well as the shallower oceans, and geologically as their ossified skeletons are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. Further, it is held by some that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic revolution of marine life.

9) Chordates - Chordates are a group of animals that includes the vertebrates, together with several closely related invertebrates. They are united by having, at some time in their life cycle, a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail. The phylum Chordata consists of three subphyla: Urochordata, represented by tunicates, Cephalochordata, represented by lancelets, and Craniata, which includes Vertebrata.

The Body The human body consists of 12 biological systems, and by the time we reach adulthood, our bodies have close to 10 trillion cells. Groups of these cells combine and work in tandem to form tissue, which combine to form organs, which work together to form organ systems. These ‘organ’ systems of the body include the Muscular system, skeletal system, Circulatory system, Nervous system, Lymphatic system, Immune system, Respiratory system, Endocrine system, Digestive system, Urinary system, Reproductive system and Integumentary system,

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Muscular Sytem: provide movement via cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Predominantly controlled through the nervous system.

Skeletal system: provides structural support and protection with bones, and works together with muscles to allow physical movement.

Circulatory system: pumps and channels blood to and from the body and lungs via the heart and blood vessels.

Nervous system: collects, transfers and processes information with the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and nerves Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph (clear fluid responsible for absorbing acids and fats) between tissues and the blood stream.

Immune system: protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens or tumor cells Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.

Endocrine system: communicates within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids, and adrenals or adrenal glands Digestive system: digests and processes food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus.

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Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine.

Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis.

Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails, which is our outer layer.

PhySical Form Philosophically, the human body was thought to be made of 3 primary forms of matter: Flesh, Blood and Bone. It has six senses which it uses to perceive its reality, the five usual ones of touch, see, smell, taste, hear, and the hidden one of intuition. The body exists in Solid, Liquid and Gas forms, and performs many functions, based on our sexual other physical instincts. The highest physical experience is the emotion of love, and it is found in the body through the power of sexual and creative expression.

The body ages and eventually ‘dies’, that is, it shuts down or ceases to function. To the ancients, all living things moved in cycles of life, death and rebirth. So a body’s imminent physical destruction, was simply the process of create, sustain and destroy that were consistent with the laws of nature.

This is why many Indo-European cultures have this concept reflected in their Gods and Goddesses. For example in the Indian Veda, we have Saraswati (creative), Lakshmi (sustaining) and Kali (destructive), or their Celtic equivalents of Brìghid (creative), Danu (sustaining), and Morrighan (destructive). Ancient Europeans believed in reincarnation, like their Indian cousins, and so viewed the event of a persons ‘death’ as a transistion to the next world. Celtic people in particular thought the person went on to be born into a new life in the next world, where they eventually die thereon, and be born back on Earth in a never ending cycle. Sometimes this place was called Avalon, as mentioned in the famous story of King Arthur. a) The Bones are the structure that supports the body. It is the bones that give us backbone, as they say. To the Celts, and the Neolithic peoples of the British Isles, bones contained the magic of a person. Bones were used to produce implements and were carved with symbols and even Ogham to enhance their effect. It was on stone that Ogham was also written. Stone is the foundation of a house just as the bones are the foundation of the body. It is no mistake that in Ireland knowledge was carved and contained within the stones of the Brughs. Meteorites were also accorded a very high and mystical position, as the bones of the stars, ‘stones that burn’. b) The Flesh is the part of the body that connects to the structure of the bones and provides us with a shape or form.

This shape was known in Ireland as the delb. The flesh is what moves us and empowers us. Earth is the Cosmic analog of flesh. It is the Land that supports our being and it is upon Her surface that we labor. c) The Hair and Skin are the sensors and feelers of our bodies. The skin is the largest sensory organ that we possess.

It is reactive to touch, heat, cold, pain and pleasure. The skin is one way in which we become aware of ourselves, our boundaries and our surroundings. The hair, extending beyond the skin, is an additional way we can sense our surroundings without actually touching anything. We can perceive the winds and even electricity caused by nearby objects. The hair also reflects our general well being (as does the skin). When we feel good our hair is shining and sleek. When we are depressed, the hair droops and is drab. The behavior of the skin closely parallels the behavior of the hair as an indicator of our body's condition and even its state of health. The Trees, shrubs and grasses of the earth are the Cosmic analog of the skin and hair of the human body. A healthy environment is reflected in the presence of green and growing trees, shrubs and plants. d) The Blood is the river of life within the body. It is what sustains the flesh, along with the breath. It also warms us and reflects our emotional state. Are we warm or hot blooded? Is our blood up? Do we have blood in our eyes? Is our blood racing? All of these expressions characterize the flowing, sustaining and reactive nature of blood. As Blood is the life spring of the Body, so the Sea is the Cauldron of Plenty for the World. The Sea reflects Her moods and tempers, just as the Blood does. The Sea is in a constant state of change. It is the Blood of the World.

e) The Breath is the constant renewal of the spirit. It provides cleansing for the feelings as well as relief for tension.

Our breath is also used to ignite the nutritional processes that invigorate the blood. The winds are what affect our moods and our perceptions. Our first act of awareness is to take in the ‘breath of life’. It is no coincidence that the words for breath, soul and name all have the same root in the Gaelic language (anail, anam, ainm). The breath and the wind are body/natural correspondences. The Celts viewed the winds as the breath of the heavens. The winds were also used by Celtic sailors to predict the weather and to foretell their catches. f) The Mind, on the other hand, was a much deeper consideration for the Celts. Wisdom was said to flow from wells and cauldrons. It is an amazing coincidence that this flowing of wisdom from a well of knowledge directly parallels the nature of the mind's alpha waves that our modern science has discovered. Perhaps the ancient Druids discovered this wavelike nature of thought when they were performing brain surgeries, as examples have been discovered in the remains of Celtic burials. The Moon is the natural phenomena that controls the waves of the earth and sea. The moon is the symbol given by the Celts for inner thoughts and the wavelike cycling of Nature Herself. g) The Face was thought to be the window on the personality. How one appeared in public and how one were perceived was very important. The reputation and personal prowess were both extolled in the praise poems of the poets and the bards. A man's word and honor (or a woman's) were considered to be as important as life itself. This importance of face and appearance might account for the emphasis placed upon satire by the Bards and may well account for their ability to blemish or even kill the object of their scorn. In the world around them, face was represented by the Sun. It was the Sun that illuminated the world for all to see and to be seen. It was in turning with the Sun or against the Sun that praise or insult were communicated. The Sun was the epitome of face to the Celts. h) The Brain serves as the platform for supporting our thoughts and memories. It is like the paper of books or the silicon of modern computers. It is the media that sustains our minds and contains our thoughts. The brain is the organizer and the architect of our mental abilities. It is a sign of our mental powers. i) The Head was so venerated among the Celts that they took the heads of their most prominent enemies and adversaries as trophies of war. It was thought that a person's Soul could be controlled if his head was possessed. The head was thought to contain the essence of personality and personal power. This is the reason that they were preserved in cedar oil and displayed in a place of honor within the Celtic banqueting hall and home (as well as on the war chariots and horses). The head ruled the Self, just as the Heavens ruled over the Earth.

Since the physical always represents the spiritual, meaning life is always reflected from the inside out, we see how the process of thought can influence our body’s condition. All illnesses or ailments have a mental and a physical cause. It is important we take care of our bodies, because we rely on them to experience and express ourselves in this world.

When it does not function properly in some way, it can be very hard to enjoy life as much as possible. The body is our vehicle to Earthly delights, such as sexual experiences, creative expression and other adventurous activites. The thing is, we know it is a vehicle for the soul because all these experiences lead to a desire to feel certain emotions. You have sex because you enjoy it, just like hearing great music or bungee jumping off a bridge over spectacular scenery, it makes you feel ‘alive’.

Nature maintains our bodies through the processes of Homeostasis, Glycolysis and our Metabolisms. The average core temperature of a Human body is roughly 37˚C. If this falls to around 24˚C or less, or rises to 45˚C or more, it is usually fatal and death occurs. A human body has its limits, and although nature has equipped us with the abilities to sustain ourselves, we should be mindful of these. For ultimate survival, it is best to remember the rule of 3 that they teach in most military or survivalist training, which is: 1.

2.

3.

You can not survive longer than 3 hours exposed to sub-zero temperatures.

You can not survive longer than 3 days without water.

You can not survive longer than 3 weeks without food.

Of course there are exceptions, and people have been known to exceed those limits, but it is still true of the majority of human beings. Lack of food remains a serious problem in modern times, with about 300,000 people starving to death every year. The media has us convinced that there are not enough resources to feed an overpopulated world. This is a

lie, the world is not overpopulated, and there is more than enough food to go around if it were shared. History proves famines are caused by corrupt or bad governments, wars and economies…NOT overpopulation.

The human body comes in many shapes, sizes and forms. On Earth there exists a beautiful display of diversity, which we can see when we look at the different ethnicities that exist across the wrold. Likewise, the male and female bodies represent a seemingly obvious biological variety. However, as discussed early on, we know that the physical form does not necessarily mean you are different from others. You are your spirit, not your body, which is a tool like the mind.

This philosophy may explain or justify the existence of Homosexuality or Bisexuality in human beings. We are each born of male and female union, which in physics terms means energy that is receptive (female) and energy that is active (male). Our spirit is neither man nor woman, only Human. Like the marriage of Shakti and Shiva we are a whole being when we express ourselves as such. I guess nature’s way needed these energies to be separate in physical form in order to procreate on Earth, but we really don’t know the exact why with regards to the grand scheme of things at all. There are even some organisms that are what is called Asexual, like Bacteria or Viruses. Asexual reproduction is the process by which an organism creates a genetically-similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual. Regardless, being physically the manifestation of receptive or active energy (man or woman) means we are simply more succeptable to that kind of energy. Naturally, energy will seek out its opposite in order to complete itself, which is why by default men seek out women and vice versa. Perhaps then, a Homosexual is simply an individual with more influence from the opposite energy, respectively. The concept of Receptive (Female) and Active (Male) energy works on a philsosophical level, when we think of how men and women behave on Earth. In the act of procreation itself we see this play out and begin to understand why we have this understanding of masculine and feminine energy and spirit. The Vagina, the defining organ of females, receives the male’s active energy via his Penis as it penetrates her. Therefore the Penis is active, and the Vagina is receptive.

Apart from gender, if you were to compare two people of different ethnicities, you would soon find that 99% of their being is exactly the same, and only minor physical differences exist. Almost all of the biological systems that make up our bodies are replicas of each other by design, the only system that is not really a participant in this scheme is the Integumentary System (skin, hair and nails). Due to its variations, we have different coloured hair, skin and eyes.

Although, it tends to vary much more in fairer featured ethnicities. Meaning simply, hair and eye colour seems to vary much greater amongst races of humans with lighter skin, due to the lesser amount of Melanin (pigment of darker features). Melanin is the body’s natural protection against UV light in hotter climates. When we see how lighter featured people generally are concentrated around the colder Northern hemisphere, and darker featured people are concentrated from the Southern Hemisphere, it becomes clear how this is a major influence on our physical appearance. Look at Asia for example, the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans are generally much fairer than a Thai, Phillipino or Indonesian. Even in the Americas, native amercians in the US are much fairer than their Aztec and Mayan cousins in South America. Africans and Australian aboriginals are the darkest, and usually that would be because they come from the hottest and driest conditions. Europeans are the fairest, because they lived in the coldest extremes of northen Europe and the Arctic.

What this all means is that human beings should not be divided by race and gender, because these are not true identities. Racism and sexism are pointless and ignorant stances to take, but sadly it exists in great presence in our society still. In the future though, none of this will matter. Tell a racist white South African or Australian that his descendants will most likely be black due to the hot desert sun over thousands of years, and watch their heads explode. Likewise, what would all those Indians and Africans in Europe think when you tell them that they too will be white Europeans in a few thousand years? Shocked im sure, but if you believe in evolution as is proven, then it can not be denied, it will happen. Our bodies are simply intelligent machines, and should be treated as such, it doesn’t matter that they were built in different factories. We need each other.

SLEEP: No one is really sure why we sleep. Most people blindly believe however, that sleep gives the body a chance to recuperate from the day's activities. In reality the amount of energy saved by sleeping for even eight hours is tiny - about 50 kCal, the same amount of energy found in a piece of toast. A good way to understand the role of sleep is to look at what would happen if we didn't sleep. A lack of sleep has serious effects on our brain's ability to function.

Most of us would be familiar with the following after-effects of staying awake for a lot longer than 24 hours. We get grumpy, groggy, irritable and forgetful. After just one night without sleep, concentration becomes more difficult and attention span shortens considerably.

We have to sleep because it is essential to maintaining normal levels of cognitive skills such as speech, memory, innovative and flexible thinking. It means that sleep plays a significant role in brain development. Continued lack of sufficient sleep causes the part of the brain that controls language, memory, planning and sense of time to be severely affected, and practically shut down. Scientific proof grants that only 17 hours of sustained wakefulness leads to a decrease in performance equivalent to a blood alcohol level of 0.05% (two glasses of wine), which is the legal drink driving limit in Australia. Research shows that sleep-deprived individuals often have difficulty in responding to rapidly changing situations and making rational judgements. Sleep deprivation not only has major impacts on cognitive functioning but also on emotional and physical health. Disorders like sleep apnoea which result in excessive daytime sleepiness have been linked to stress and high blood pressure. It is also suggested that sleep loss may increase the risk of obesity, because chemicals and hormones that play a key role in controlling appetite and weight gain are released into the body during sleep.

Most people don’t realize that sleep actually occurs in a recurring cycle of 90 to 110 minutes, and is divided into two categories: non-REM (Rapid Eye Movement), which consists of 4 stages, and REM sleep.

Non-REM sleep 1) 2) 3) 4)

Light Sleep - During the first stage of sleep, we're half awake and half asleep. Our muscle activity slows down and slight twitching may occur. This is a period of light sleep, meaning we can be awakened easily at this stage.

True Sleep - Within ten minutes of light sleep, we enter stage two, which lasts around 20 minutes.

The breathing pattern and heart rate start to slow down. This period accounts for the largest part of human sleep.

Deep Sleep - the brain begins to produce delta waves, a type of wave that is large (high amplitude) and slow (low frequency). Breathing and heart rate are at their lowest levels Deep Sleep - characterised by rhythmic breathing and limited muscle activity. If we are awakened during deep sleep we do not adjust immediately and often feel groggy and disoriented for several minutes after waking up. Some children experience bed-wetting, night terrors, or sleepwalking during this stage

REM sleep The first rapid eye movement (REM) period usually begins about 70 to 90 minutes after we fall asleep, and we have around three to five REM episodes a night. Although we aren’t conscious, our brains are very active - perhaps more so than when we are awake. This is when most dreams occur, and our eyes dart around (hence the name), while our breathing rate and blood pressure rise. Luckily, our bodies are effectively paralysed though, which is said to be nature's way of preventing us from acting out our dreams and harming ourselves or others. After REM sleep, the whole cycle begins again.

There is no set amount of time that everyone needs to sleep, because it varies from person to person. Results from the sleep profiler indicate that people like to sleep anywhere between 5 and 11 hours, with the average being 7.75 hours.

"The amount of sleep we require is what we need not to be sleepy in the daytime."

Homeostasis “a living organism regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition.”

An organism may be what termed a ‘conformer’ or a ‘regulator’. Regulators try to maintain at a constant level over wide environmental conditions. On the other hand, Conformers allow the environment to determine the parameter. For instance, endothermic (warm blooded) animals maintain a constant body temperature, while exothermic (cold blooded) animals exhibit wide body temperature variation. Examples of endothermic animals include mammals and birds, examples of exothermic animals include reptiles and some sea animals. An advantage of homeostatic regulation is that it allows an organism to function effectively in a broad range of environments. Stability in an automatic regulation system requires additional energy. By example, one reason snakes may eat only once a week is that they use much less energy to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostatic regulation extends far beyond the control of temperature though. Animals also regulate their blood glucose, and the concentration of their blood. Mammals regulate their blood glucose with insulin and glucagon, which are hormones released by the pancreas. If the pancreas is for any reason unable to produce enough of these two hormones, the result is usually diabetes. The kidneys are used to remove excess water and ions from the blood, which are then expelled as urine. The kidneys perform a vital role in homeostatic regulation in mammals, removing excess water, salt, and urea from the blood. These are the body's main waste products.

Sleep timing depends upon a balance between homeostatic sleep propensity, the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode, and circadian rhythms which determine the ideal timing of a correctly structured and restorative sleep episode In Humans specifically, Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to regulate its internal physiology to maintain stability in response to fluctuations in the outside environment. The liver and kidneys help maintain homeostasis. The liver is responsible for metabolizing toxic substances and maintaining carbohydrate metabolism. The kidneys are responsible for regulating blood water levels, re-absorption of substances into the blood, maintenance of salt and ion levels in the blood, regulation of blood pH, and excretion of urea and other wastes.

Much disease results from disturbance of homeostasis, a condition known as homeostatic imbalance. As it ages, every organism will lose efficiency in its control systems. The inefficiencies gradually result in an unstable internal environment that increases the risk for illness. In addition, homeostatic imbalance is also responsible for the physical changes associated with aging. Even more serious than illness and other characteristics of aging, is death. Heart failure has been seen where nominal negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, and destructive positive feedback mechanisms then take over.

Diseases that result from a homeostatic imbalance can include diabetes, dehydration, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, gout, and any disease caused by a toxin present in the bloodstream. All of these conditions result from the presence of an increased amount of a particular substance. In ideal circumstances, homeostatic control mechanisms should prevent this imbalance from occurring, but, in some people, the mechanisms do not work efficiently enough or the quantity of the substance exceeds the levels at which it can be managed. In these cases, medical intervention is necessary to restore the imbalance, or permanent damage to the organs may result.

Energy conversion How and why we breathe, eat and need water, as well as how we as beings get our energy, is a process everyone should understand. Sunlight (direct and indirectly) as well as plant sugars are the driving forces behind our physical

state. Plants make the air we breathe from the light of the Sun (photosynthesis), Animals eat the plants in order to grow and maintain the energy to allow physical movement (glycolysis). The energy we each need in order to function is then determined by our Metabolisms.

Glycolysis: Most animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight. Plants use this energy to convert sunlight into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis. Starting with the molecules carbon dioxide and water, photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose and releases oxygen. These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. So when animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal also.

They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as glycolysis. Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells devoid of mitochondria and eukaryotic cells under lowoxygen conditions. Animals who live close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight. Instead, chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria form the base of the food chain.

Metabolism: Metabolism refers to the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. Such processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories, Catabolism and Anabolism. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism on the other hand, uses energy to construct the components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.

The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed into another by a sequence of Enzymes. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable but thermodynamically unfavorable reactions by coupling them to favorable ones. Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell's environment or signals from other cells.

The metabolism of an organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which it will find poisonous. For an example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. A further example is that the Koala can eat Eucalytpus leaves, which is poisionous to other animals. The speed of metabolism, the metabolic rate, also influences how much food an organism will require. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways between even vastly different species.

NUTRITION Nutrition is concerned with the practice of healthy eating. It is widely accepted that common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with good nutrition. It is often associated with Diet, which determines what foods we should eat, based on what Nutrients are in it. The Nutrients (elements and compounds) from foods we eat are ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream into the body and converted to the energy we need to maintain life. There are seven major classes of nutrients: Carbohydrates , Fats , Fiber , Minerals, Proteins, Vitamins and Water. Out of these 7 nutrients, we can form the categories of Macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and Micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and water, whereas the micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

Many people choose to limit what foods they eat for reasons of health, morality, environmental impact, or other factors.

Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees, by becoming Vegetarian, Vegan or Fruitarian. Individuals may choose to follow such a diet for ethical or moral reasons, or to try to gain some sort of claimed health benefit. Various forms of these diets may or not completely satisfy ordinary nutritional needs though.

A healthy diet is one improves or maintains optimal health. This usually involves consuming nutrients by eating the appropriate amounts from all of the food groups, which includes an adequate amount of water. Since human nutrition is complex, a healthy diet may vary widely, and is subject to an individual's genetic makeup, environment and health. For around 20% of the human population, lack of food and malnutrition are the main impediments to healthy eating.

Conversely, people in developed countries have the opposite problem, as they are more concerned about obesity.

Healthy eating is a balanced diet, where everything is in moderation. It’s okay to have some fatty or sugary food every now and then, as long as we eat good food the rest of the time. In regards to weight, exercise is also needed, you can’t just eat well. As long as we are active people, we will not become obese, as we will burn off these fats. One of the problems with most of us is, we are brought up to eat our largest meal for dinner. This means we are sleeping on all that energy that the food is giving out, which then doesn’t get used and instead gets stored up as fat. In ancient times, we ate our main meals in the middle of the day, that way we would burn it off during the day and have more energy at night. We should still have 3 meals a day, it’s just that dinner should be the lighter meal. A good example would be to have fruits, cereals and breads for breakfast, a full meal for lunch with meats, vegetables, and maybe rice or pasta, and for dinner a lighter meal, like soups or rolls and other toasted breads.

We are what we eat they say, so a lot of the effectiveness of our diet will be due to the quality of food we are putting into our bodies. All our food is of plant or animal origin, so it’s up to us to be capable of knowing how to recognise what is good and what is not. Try to avoid processed food as much as possible, because these products contain many chemicals that are potentially harmful towards your long term health. We can not afford healthwise, to be vigilant or lazy about our eating habits. Make the effort to buy raw foods, then cook them into a good hearty meal. Cooking can be very simple, all it takes is a few basic techniques. Unfortunately, even much of the so called ‘fresh produce’ at many of our supermarkets are not at all what the name implies. Much of the vegetables at supermarkets are weeks old before being put on the shelf for us to buy, and sprayed with a multitude of toxic pesticides. We also have no indiciation as to whether or not that food has had any exposure to Genetic Modifying anywhere during the process of its life. A lot of food is not clearly labelled or understood by the wider public. The fresher food is, the higher in energy and nutrients it is, and therefore much better for you.

We may often hear the expression ‘to be made with love’ in regards to the cooking of food. Because you have an energy field around you that changes with your emotions, when you are handling raw food a bit of that energy is absorbed into the plant or meat. Ancient shamans would ritually eat the raw bloody meat of certain animals, as they believed it held the spirit of that animal in it which made them possessed. Scientifically, we know raw meat releases certain endorphins in the brain. Anyway, try not to prepare food when in a negative emotion, as that energy will go into the food and ultimately back into yourself and other people. Food should be handled with respect, and prepared with love.

Blood Blood is the specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to our body's cells, such as nutrients and oxygen. Blood also transports waste products away from those same cells. The most abundant cells are red blood cells. Red cells contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates transportation of oxygen by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. We have however an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, using hemolymph and hemocytes as part of our immune systems. Blood performs many important functions within the body including:  

Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin which is carried in red cells) Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (eg blood lipids)

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Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid Immunological functions, including circulation of white cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45) Regulation of core body temperature Hydraulic functions

Blood cells are suspended in a liquid called blood plasma. This plasma, which comprises 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (90% by volume), and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, platelets (important forclotting of blood) and blood cells themselves. Blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated, otherwise inside the body it is actually a more violet colour. Blood is circulated around the body through the blood vessels of the Circulatory system. By the pumping action of the heart a process occurs whereby the arterial blood carries oxygen from the inhaled air in our lungs to the tissues of the body, while simultaneously the venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.

Blood accounts for 7% of a humans body weight, with the average adult carrying up to 5 litres at any given time. By volume the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma constitutes about 55%, and white cells constitute a minute volume. A healthy adult can only lose almost 20% of blood volume (1L) before the first symptom, which is restlessness, begins. At 40% of volume (2L) shock sets in, and eventually one can totally bleed to death, like on an ancient battlefield, a horrifying experience.

Blood is a sacred liquid, and considered to have the power of ones spirit contained in it. Among the Germanic and Celtic tribes of antiquity, blood was used during their sacrifices. Blood was sprinkled on walls, on statues of gods or on participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called Bleodsian in Saxon English. Unbeknown to Christians, the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming to ‘bless’ and ‘blessing’.

Cell Theory “The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth. The birth of the cell marked the passage from prebiotic chemistry to biological life” Cell theory is the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in all living things. This theory is one of the foundations of biology. In this theory, new cells are formed from other existing cells as a fundamental unit of structure, physiology, and organization in all living organisms. Therefore the cell is the fundamental unit of life. All living things are composed of one or more cells, or the secreted products of those cells like shell, bone and skin. Cells arise from other cells through cell division, and in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is produced from a single cell in a fertilized egg. The cell is also considered to be the basic part of the pathological processes of any organism.

Cells can be subdivided into further into either Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus, and are divided into Eubacteria or Archeabacteria. Eukaryotes however, have distinct nuclei and membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.

Classical Cell Theory had 3 main principles: 1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells, 2) Cells are the fundamental and structural unit of life and, 3) All cells come from pre-existing cells. Modern Cell Theory is a little more elaborate though, the generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

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The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.

All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.

Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.

Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.

All known living things are made up of cells.

Some organisms are unicellular, made up of only one cell.

Others are multicellular, composed of countless number of cells.

The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and sometimes called the building block of life.

Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. A typical cell size is 10 µm, and typical cell mass is 1 nanogram. Humans have an estimated 100 trillion cells. The vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all containing the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Therefore each cell is somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining, taking in nutrients, converting them into energy, which carry out specialized functions and reproduce as necessary. A cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities, yet have several different abilities:     

Reproduction by cell division: (binary fission/mitosis or meiosis).

Use of enzymes and other proteins coded for by DNA genes and made via messenger RNA intermediates and ribosomes.

Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting energy, molecules and releasing by-products. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is released and then used in metabolic pathways.

Response to external and internal stimuli such as changes in temperature, pH or levels of nutrients.

Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that is made from a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it.

Some prokaryotic cells contain important internal membrane-bound compartments, but eukaryotic cells have a specialized set of internal membrane compartments. Material is moved between these compartments by regulated traffic and transport of small spheres of membrane-bound material called Vesicles.

Prokaryotes differ from Eukaryotes since they lack a nuclear membrane and a cell nucleus.

Prokaryotes also lack most of the intracellular organelles and structures that are seen in Eukaryotic cells. There are two kinds of Prokaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea, which are similar in the overall structures of their cells. Most functions of organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the Golgi apparatus, are taken over by the Prokaryotic cell's plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells have three parts: appendages called Flagella and Pili (proteins attached to the cell surface), a Cell Envelope consisting of a capsule, a cell wall, and a plasma membrane, and a Cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.

Animals, plants and fungi are Eukaryotes, because as organisms our cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within membranes. The defining membrane-bound structure which differentiates Eukaryotic cells from

Prokaryotic cells is the nucleus. Many Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as Mitochondria, Chloroplasts and Golgi bodies. Eukaryotes often have unique flagella made of microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement.

Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times the size of a typical Prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes is that Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the Eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the Eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus." Other differences include: “The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present. The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA. Eukaryotes can move using cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.�

Cell division in Eukaryotes is different from organisms without a nucleus (Prokaryotes). It involves separating the duplicated chromosomes, through movements directed by microtubules. There are two types of division processes. In Mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically-identical cells. In Meiosis, which is required in sexual reproduction, one diploid cell (having two instances of each chromosome, one from each parent) undergoes recombination of each pair of parental chromosomes, and then two stages of cell division, resulting in four haploid cells (gametes). Each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the corresponding pair of parental chromosomes.

Eukaryotes appear to be monophyletic, and so make up one of the three domains of life. The two other domains, bacteria and archaea, are Prokaryotes, and have none of the above features. Because Eukaryotes do share some aspects of their biochemistry with Archaea, they are grouped with archaea in the Clade Neomura (a taxonomic group comprising a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor).

All cells, whether Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out, and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. The most important parts of a cell is the 1) Cytoskelton, 2) the Membrane, 3) Genetic Material and 4) Organelles (Mitochondrion, Proteins etc).

1) The Cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain a cell's shape, anchoring organelles in place. It helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division, and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The Eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The Prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.

2) The membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pump different molecules into and out of the cell.

The membrane is semi-permeable, it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signalling molecules such as hormones.

3) Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence.

RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add specific amino acids during the process of protein translation.

Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.

A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production as well as specific tRNAs. 4) The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions. There are several types of organelles within an animal cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.

Protein Biosynthesis: Cells are formed by a process called Cell division. Cell division involves a single cell, called a mother cell. Dividing into two daughter cells, this leads to growth in multicellular organisms (growth of tissue) and to procreation (reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic

cells usually undergo Mitosis, which is a process of nuclear division, followed by division of the cell, called Cytokinesis.

DNA replication is also required every time a cell divides, which require specialized proteins for carrying out the job.

Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process is called Protein Biosynthesis (synthesis) and involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional threedimensional protein molecule.

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located. Ribosomes are made of a small and large subunit which surrounds the mRNA. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code. This uses an mRNA sequence as a template to guide the synthesis of a chain of amino acids that form a protein. Translation is necessarily preceded by transcription.

Translation proceeds in four phases: activation, initiation, elongation and termination (all describing the growth of the amino acid chain, or polypeptide that is the product of translation).

In activation, the correct amino acid (AA) is joined to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). While this is not technically a step in translation, it is required for translation to proceed. The AA is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, it is termed "charged". Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF), other proteins that assist the process. Elongation occurs when the next aminoacyl-tRNA (charged tRNA) in line binds to the ribosome along with GTP and an elongation factor. Termination of the polypeptide happens when the A site of the ribosome faces a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). When this happens, no tRNA can recognize it, but releasing factor can recognize nonsense codons and causes the release of the polypeptide chain. The capacity of disabling or inhibiting translation in protein biosynthesis is used by antibiotics such as: anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, puromycin etc.

Mitosis: Mitosis is the process by which a Eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two identical sets. It is generally followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell

membrane into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of the components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the Mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle - the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.

Mitosis occurs exclusively in Eukaryotic cells, but may occur in different ways in different species. The sequence of events is divided into phases, which correspond to the completion of each set of activities and the start of the next.

These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides via Cytokinesis, and produces two identical daughter cells.

Cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, so "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "mitotic phase".

However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis do occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, and even in animals. Cytokinesis and Mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.

Mitotic phase and cell cycle: The Mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases, G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all three phases, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles.

However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and divides (M).

Interphase - After M phase, the daughter cells each begin interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

G1 phase - The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase till the beginning of DNA synthesis is called G1 (G indicating gap or growth). During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which had been considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. This phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those needed for DNA replication. Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. S phase - The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids.

Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase. The duration of S phase is relatively constant among cells of the same species.

G2 phase - The cell then enters the G2 phase, which lasts until the cell enters mitosis. Again, significant protein synthesis occurs during this phase, mainly involving the production of microtubules, which are required during the process of mitosis. Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase prevents the cell from undergoing mitosis.

G0 phase - The term "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Nonproliferative cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence is a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.

Evolution In biological definition: “Evolution is the process of change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms from one generation to the next”. It means that Genes are passed on to an organism's offspring to produce the inherited traits that are the basis of evolution. Mutations in genes can occur and produce a new or altered trait in individuals, resulting in the appearance of hereditary differences between organisms. New traits may also arise from the transfer of genes between populations, as in migration or intermarriage between human races. In species that reproduce sexually, new combinations of genes are produced by genetic recombination, which can increase the variation in traits between organisms. Evolution occurs when these heritable differences become more common or rare in a population. It is important to know that biological evolution is a physical process which occurs in the natural realm, therefore the mechanisms that drive evolution also control it.

Two major mechanisms that drive evolution: 1) The first is natural selection, a process causing heritable traits that are helpful for survival and reproduction to become more common in a population, and harmful traits to become rarer. This occurs because individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to reproduce, so that more individuals in the next generation inherit these traits.

Over many generations, adaptations occur through a combination of successive, small, random changes in traits, and natural selection of those variants best-suited for their environment.

2) The second is genetic drift, an independent process that produces random changes in the frequency of traits in a population. Genetic drift results from the role probability plays in whether a given trait will be passed on as individuals survive and reproduce. Though the changes produced in any one generation by drift and selection are small, differences accumulate with each subsequent generation and can, over time, cause substantial changes in the organisms.

All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits, and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups.

The funny thing is, how people often mistake the theory of Evolution for being anti-creationist. In my opinion it is not guilty of anything more than upsetting the power balance of science and religion in the common mind. The reality is these theories don’t actually cross paths if you look properly. At no point does the theory of Evolution aim to offer an account for the beginning of life itself, instead it notes an observed pattern in nature, here on Earth exclusively. What this means is that they don’t have to contradict each other. Personally, the accuracy of most modern theories is questionable anyway, such as the ideas that all modern humans came from Africa or that we descend from Apes.

Much like our recorded history, it’s very hazy and a subject of scholarly debate. Even if we are to be the sons of Gorillas, then it still won’t explain where all life in the universe comes from. So I say yes we were created, and yes we do evolve.

Dúile and dindsencha A very important concept to be considered when understanding the Earth, and the nature of the environment around you, is something called Dúile. The concept of dúile represents the manifestation of the individual human spirit and its interaction with the surrounding environment. This means that a dúile can be considered a part of our body that transcends the physical. It could be the effects that physical, mental or spiritual events have upon our being. The deities themselves were even thought to be perceptible as dúile. One could ‘feel’ the presence of Divinity when in a sacred place, such as a well, a lake or a cave. Megalithic structures must have had this same sort of a ‘feel’ to them, since they were said to be the homes of the gods. These sites were passage graves or houses of the dead and were covered with strange symbols that defy the conscious mind yet speak deeply to our subconscious selves. The symbols of the ancient priesthood and builders attempt to connect our spirit to the gods and to the honoured dead in such places. I believe that the speech of these ancient stones spoke deeply to our Celtic ancestors as they became married to the Lands surrounding them.

Each place also has what is called a Dindsencha, a story of place. The land is witness to everything and remembers all that has happened. This is what forms its particular Dindsencha, and the shaman would seek to know this story by connecting (listening) to it via frequency. Trees especially were considered repositories of memory, as was stone. By connecting to the land we can automatically feel any change to the energy in the area, making ourselves living guardians. The ancient Celts believed that each land has also its spiritual guardians, or Sluagh rith. These were spirits of the dead that the shaman would be constantly work with to protect an area. Whilst the spirit of a lands people exists forever in that land, I don’t however believe in faeries and elves.

Ecosystems and biomes An Ecosystem is a natural unit that consists of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a set of highly interrelated relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem."

Ecosystems can be bounded and discussed with a broad range of views, as it describes any situation where there is a relationship between organisms and their environment. If humans are part of the organisms, one can speak of a 'human ecosystem'. Since almost no surface of the Earth today is free of human contact, all ecosystems can then be considered as human ecosystems, or more neutrally as human-influenced ecoystems.

An ecosystem is much smaller than a biome. Conversely, a biome can be thought of many similar ecosystems throughout the world grouped together. An ecosystem can be as large as the Sahara Desert, or as small as a puddle or vernal pool. Ecosystems will fail if they do not remain in balance, as no community can carry more organisms than its food, water, and shelter can accomodate. Food and territory are often balanced by natural phenomena such as fire, disease, and the number of predators, where each organism has its own niche, or role to play.

We have affected ecosystems in almost every way imaginable. Every time we walk out in the wilderness or bulldoze land for a new parking lot we are drastically altering an ecosystem. We have disrupted the food chain, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the water cycle. Mining minerals also takes its toll on an ecosystem. We need to do our best to not interfere in these ecosystems and let nature take its toll.

As mentioned, a very similar term to an ecosystem is a Biome, which is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation.

Pollution and destruction Humankind has had some effect upon the environment since the Paleolithic era (circa 10,000BC), or when the ability to generate fire was supposedly acquired. In the Iron Age, the use of tooling led to the practice of metal grinding on a small scale and resulted in minor accumulations of discarded material probably easily dispersed without too much impact. Human wastes would have polluted rivers or water sources to some degree. However, these effects could be

expected predominantly to be dwarfed by the natural world. The first modern state-like civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, Persia, Greece and Rome increased the use of water for their manufacture of goods, increasingly forged metal and created fires of wood and peat for more elaborate purposes such as bathing and heating. Still, at this time the scale of higher activity did not disrupt ecosystems or greatly alter air or water quality.

The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were Arabic medical treatises written between the 9th and 13th centuries, by physicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben Luca), Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities. Around the same time, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. Air pollution would continue to be a problem there, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952.

This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the river Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the US until early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder. Take a look at the air over a city like Los Angeles today, or even Beijing and Rio De Janeiro, and then it will all become ‘clear’ to you, pardon the pun.

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them: 

      

Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, characterized by size PM10 to PM2.5, is produced from natural sources such as volcanoes or as residual oil fly ash from power plants. Diesel particles are another class of airborne particulate matter.

Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering.

Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.

Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.

Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste.

Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

Much can be done about this, but it all starts with government and big business. Governments like to get people to feel as though their humble houshold is the big polluter of the enviroment. The truth is, it is industrial waste and bad environmental management that causes the pollution. We have the technology in Solar, Wind, Tidal and Geo-Thermal energy to live subsistenly, but as long as the government will continue to work with oil companies and mining companies to suppress or slow down the progress of eco-friendly energy, we will see no change for a long time. They lie to us and tell us it is not powerful enough, or we are not ready, and that it is not cost effective (as usual, putting a

price on our very existence). When they say that it usually translates to them not having figured out a way to regulate and profit from it yet. If just 2 Australian states took up wind farms, it could power the whole country.

There is no need to spray our foods with deadly chemicals or to modify them genetically either. People should be encouraged to begin growing their own produce as much as possible or practical, because we need to rely less on big organizations who aren’t perhaps out for our best interests. The reason why we are now controlled and dominated by a money system and corporate world, is that we have lost our self sufficiency, we have been misled to think we need them to survive. It’s not the easy road to take but the simple truth is that you don’t have to buy food at the supermarket, you can grow it, harvest it and hunt it directly from Mother Earth’s soil. You don’t need drugs for most common ailments, just a healthy diet and lifestyle. Your Visa card doesn’t put air in your lungs.

“Only when the last tree has died and the last river has been poisoned and the last fish has been caught will we realize that we can't eat money”. – Native American Prophecy

Natural Medicine Herbal Medicine, sometimes referred to as Herbalism or Botanical Medicine, is the use of herbs for their therapeutic or medicinal value. An herb is a plant or part of a plant that’s valued for its medicinal, aromatic or savory qualities. Herbs produce and contain a variety of chemical substances that act upon the body. Herbal medicine is the oldest form of healthcare known to mankind, and has been used by all cultures throughout history. It was an integral part of the development of modern civilization. The Ancients observed and appreciated the great diversity of plants available to them. They respected nature because they knew well that plants provided their food, clothing, shelter and medicine, everything they needed for well being.

The use of herbs specifically is centred around the practices of Cooking and Healing. In Druidry, these two are the same subjects, because healthy eating is the core of all physical well being. We tend to think of doctors today as being a reaction to illness, meaning we don’t usually go and see doctors unless we already feel sick. Many doctors these days have questionable education, or are in the payroll of drug companies. Likewise, there are many great doctors who have had their discoveries or knowledge suppressed by the same companies. We can not always trust what the modern medical world tells us, so we need to be self sufficient in every way. Prevention is the best cure, therefore it is important that we each practice and learn the skills that enable us to maintain a healthy metabolism and diet, in order to prevent disease and other ailments from developing. The fresher your food is, the fewer chemicals used and a balanced diet is the key to healthy living (and exercise of course). Herbs can then be seen as an accompaniment to good health, a sustainer of well being.

Much of the medicinal use of plants seems to have been developed through observations of wild animals, and by trial and error. As time went on, each tribe added the medicinal power of herbs in their area to its knowledgebase. They methodically collected information on herbs and developed well-defined herbal pharmacopoeias. Indeed, well into the 20th century much of the pharmacopoeia of scientific medicine was derived from the herbal lore of native peoples.

Many drugs commonly used today are of herbal origin. Indeed, about 25% of prescription drugs dispensed contain at least one active ingredient derived from plant material. If it isn’t extracted from a plant, then it is synthesized to mimic a natural plant compound.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people, 80% of the world’s population, presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. Herbal medicine is a major component in all old cultures, such as Western Traditional medicine, Ayurvedic Indian, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, Traditional Oriental, and Native American medicine. Of 119 plant-derived pharmaceutical medicines, about 74% are used in modern medicine in ways that correlated directly with their traditional uses as plant medicines by native cultures. Major pharmaceutical companies are currently conducting extensive research on plant materials gathered from the rain forests and other places for their potential medicinal value.

Nature produces many types of plant, which we use to many different benefits. The Druids were doctors of their day in Celtic culture, and based on archaeological proof and traditional knowledge we know they were quite advanced in their practicing of this science. The ancient Irish are some of the first peoples ever known to have Hospitals as far back as

the Iron Age. Like most ancient cultures, the provision of curative medical treatment and sick maintenance was a part of tribal life. Monasteries tended to become local centres of medical knowledge, and their herb gardens provided the raw materials for simple treatment of common disorders. At the same time, folk medicine in the home and village continues uninterrupted, supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalists. Among these were the “wise-women,� who prescribed herbal remedies often along with spells and enchantments. It was not until the late Middle Ages that women who were knowledgeable in herb lore became the targets of the witch hysteria. There are 13 traditional ways to use herbs: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13)

Juice squeezed from herbs.

Mashing herbs into a paste.

Decoction or extracting the active ingredients by boiling down the herb in water.

Hot infusion (like hot tea)- Herb is steeped in hot water.

Cold infusion (like sun tea) - Herb is steeped in cold water.

Herbs ground into a powder and used as such or as compressed into a pill.

Herbal wine made by adding the herb to water and sugar and letting it ferment.

Tincture, made by combining ground herbs with alcohol, glycerin or vinegar and used internally.

Liniment - Made like a tincture except it is used externally.

Salves and ointments made by adding herbs to a medium such as petroleum jelly.

Syrups - Made by adding herb to a medium such as honey, sugar or glycerin.

Poultice - Herb is applied directly to a wound or body part and held in place with a cloth.

Herbal Oil - Usually made with common base oil, such as olive, almond, grape seed, or sesame oils. The herb is allowed to sit in the oil for a week. It is strained and bottled.

Herbal Medicine can be broadly classified into various basic systems: Traditional Chinese Herbalism, Ayurvedic Herbalism (Indian), Western Herbalism and Native American. Chinese and Ayurvedic Herbalism have developed into highly sophisticated systems of diagnosis and treatment over the centuries. There are even some Ayurvedic herbs that are very useful for reducing cholesterol and diabetes. Also, the popularity of Ginseng and Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo) is rising due to its beneficial effects. Western Herbalism is today primarily a system of folk medicine, taken from many cultural sources such as Greeks, Celts, Germans, Romans and Persians. The ancient Islamic world also had advanced medical practitioners, in fact a lot of what we know today is contributed by Arabs.

Methods of Use The follwing is a brief description of the methods used in traditional folk medicine and healing. With each method, you will find a guide on how to produce them. : a) Infusion: Infusions are basically a herbal tea. You let the herb steep in hot or cold water for a while, then either reheat and drink, or drink it cool. You can use infusions in a bath, as a wash and for many other uses.

Method #1 - Hot - Infuse 1 heaped teaspoon of dry herbs with one cup of boiling water. Steep for approx. 3-5 mins, and strain.

- Cold - put 1 heaped teaspoon of dry herbs in 1 cup of cold water and soak for 8-10 hours, strain and slightly warm before drinking.

Method #2 - (Chinese method) If you are using oyster shell, dragon bone or other minerals you have to add them to 6 cups of boiling water, simmer for 30 mins. If you have no minerals, or after the minerals have simmered for 30 mins, add your heavy roots and bark and simmer for another 20-30 mins. Then add any lighter twigs, fruits and leaves, simmer for another 10-15 mins. Finally remove from the heat and add any leaves and flowers, cover and steep for 1020 mins. Strain, it's ready to drink.

Method #3 - Steep 2 teaspoons of dry herbal mixture in 2 cups of boiling water for 10-15 mins.

Method #4 - Steep ½ oz - 1oz dried herbal mixture to 1 pint (600ml) of water for 10-20 mins, then strain and drink.

b) Decoction: A Decoction is used when a plant is not soluble in hot or cold water but will be released by simmering.

This is used for roots, heavy wooden plants. Make sure you don't use an aluminium saucepan, as the metal will leech into the tea. Glass or ceramic is best.

Method #1 - Use 1 teaspoon dried plant matter to 1 cup of water. Simmer for 5-20 mins. 5 minutes for shredded plant, and 20 mins for larger pieces. Strain while hot. Drink.

Method #2 - Use a handful of fresh herb, or 1 teaspoon of dried herb, simmer for 30 mins in 1cup of water.

Method # 3 - Take 30g (1oz) dried herbal mixture and 500ml (16floz) cold water in a pan. Bring to the boil and simmer for 10-15 mins. c) Compress: Also called Fomentation. This is used when the herbs are too strong to ingest, as the skin allows a smaller amount of the herb to be absorbed slowly by the body.

Method - Make a herbal infusion/decoction and soak a face cloth, or cotton cloth in this. Squeeze out excess liquid, and apply to the effected area. d) Capsules: Capsules are used when the plant is unpalatable to take as a tea, or for herbs which require small doses.

You can purchase empty capsules from most health food shops.

Method - Capsules come in 3 sizes, "0", "00", "000" being small, medium (normal) and large. A medium capsule will hold approx ½ teaspoon of herb. Fill the capsule with powdered herb. 1 capsule is equivalent to 1 cup of herbal tea. e) Bolus: A bolus is a suppository made from adding powdered herbs to cocoa butter to form a thick paste, which is then refrigerated. Once the bolus is hardened, bring it to room temperature, and it is ready to use. The cocoa butter will melt with the body heat releasing the herbs. You might like to wear old underwear to prevent staining as the bolus melts. f) Extracts: These are made to treat ailments such as strained muscles, arthritis or inflammation. It is similar to a tincture, but may be made using oil, vinegar or alcohol.

Method - Place 4oz of dried herbs of 8oz of fresh herb into a jar. Add 1 pint of Vinegar, alcohol or Vegetable oil. Shake the jar twice a day for 4 days for powdered herb, or 15 days for hole/chopped/sliced etc. herbs. Vitamin E or wheatgerm oil can be added to oil based extracts to help preserve them. g) Ointments: Ointments are used when the active principles of the herb are needed for longer periods of time, such as muscular aches.

Method #1 - Take 1 - 2 heaped tablespoons of herb and bring to the boil in vaseline, stir then strain. Use cold.

Method #2 - Melt Âź cup each of beeswax and vegetable oil in a double boiler until the wax is molten. Add a tablespoon of herbal extract (in an oil base), herbal infused oil or essential oils. If you wish to use herbs, use 1 tablespoon of dried herb, and strain through a heated metal strainer. h) Oils: Oils are used when ointments or compresses are not practical. Always store your oils in amber glass bottles to prevent sunlight from reacting with the oils.

Method - Take 2 oz plant matter to 1 pint of oil. Leave this to stand for 4 days. If you want this process to happen quickly, you can heat the oil in a saucepan for 1 hour. A small amount of Vitamin E or Wheatgerm oil can be added to help preserve the oil.

i) Poultice: A poultice is made from warm mashed herbs, which are applied directly to the skin. Used for inflammation, bites, boils, abscesses etc. You should apply oil to the area before applying the poultice.

Method #1 - Add hot water, apple cider vinegar, herbal tea, liniment or tincture to the desired herbs, and mash them into a paste.

Method #2 - In a saucepan bring water to the boil, suspend a sieve over the pan, and place into the sieve the fresh or dried herbs you will be using. Steam, these for a few minutes. Spread the softened herbs onto a cloth and apply to the affected area. Cover the compress with a bandage and leave for 2 hours. j) Salve: A salve is similar to an ointment Method - Take dried or fresh herbs and cover with water. Bring to the boil and then simmer for 30 mins. Strain and add to an equal amount of vegetable oil. Simmer until the remaining water has evaporated from the oil. Add enough beeswax to give the salve a thick consistency (Remembering that it hardens as it cools) and pour into a jar. k) Syrup: Syrups are used for coughs, congestion, sore throats etc.

Method #1 - Take 2 oz herb and boil in 1 quart of water until it has reduced to about 1 pint. While still warm ass 2 oz of honey and/or glycerine..

Method #2 - Take 600ml (1 pint) boiling water and 900g (2 lb) of sugar. Bring this to the boil. Take off the heat, stir in tincture (3 parts syrup to 1 part tincture)

l) Tincture: Tinctures are similar to extracts but are made using alcohol, allowing it to keep for longer periods of time. People with weak digestion may have trouble with tinctures.

Method #1 - Combine 4oz of powdered or chopped herb with 1 pint of alcohol (Vodka, brandy, Gin, Rum etc.) Shake daily for 2 weeks, strain and bottle.

Method #2 - Take a jar and place the dried herbal mixture into the bottom. Add alcohol to cover the herbs plus 1 inch. Leave sit for 2 weeks, strain. m) Herbal Bath: A herbal bath is goof for fevers and stress related conditions. A foot bath can be made for soaking tired sore feet, or for food conditions such a tinea, athletes foot and corns.

Method - Steep 200g of dried herb in cold water for 12 hours. Heat the infusion and then add it to your bath water. For a foot bath, steep 50g of herb with the method above, and add to a bucket of water. n) Inhalation: Place 50g of dried herb in a bowl or in the sink. Pour a litre of boiling water over the herbs. Cover your head with a towel and hang your head over the bowl/sink to inhale the steam. o) Eardrops: Slice garlic and place in a small amount of olive oil. Add a few lavender flowers. Leave sit for 2 hours then strain. Warm 1 tsp of oil by placing it over a cup of hot water. Put few drops into the ear and plug with cotton wool.

As the herbs are getting more and more popular, more and more manufacturers are supplying standardized herb extracts. A standardized extract means that the manufacturer has verified that the active ingredient believed to be present in the herb is present in the preparation and that the potency and the amount of the active ingredient is assured in the preparation. The problem is that, the action of the herb may be from a number of constituents and not from just one or two ingredients. Thus, the standardized preparation may omit some of the ingredients and we will lose out on the effect from the complex combination of the constituents

Substances derived from the plants remain the basis for a large proportion of the commercial medications used today for the treatment of heart disease, high blood pressure, pain, asthma, and other problems. For example, ephedra is a herb used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for more than two thousand years to treat asthma and other respiratory problems. Ephedrine, the active ingredient in ephedra, is used in the commercial pharmaceutical preparations for the relief of asthma symptoms and other respiratory problems. It helps the patient to breathe more easily.

Common herbs and their properties This particular list is based on the standard herbs I personally use in my cooking or healing methods, anything I usually have in my home. There’s no point making a list of wild and exotic herbs that are expensive and not readily available to you. My list is a refelction of my cultural background, tastes and the part of the world I live in. Many different herbs can treat and heal the same ailments, so it depends on what ingredients you have around you as to what you would use to cure.

Garlic - Garlic is a strong natural antibiotic in chopped or chewed form. It helps reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart attacks as it prevents the forming of blood clots. Garlic also contains anti-viral properties. Use in food: season to taste.

Tea: for six hours, steep six cloves in a cup of cool water Chamomile - This herb is known for relieving stomach distress, calming nerves, fighting infection, speeding healing processes, and preventing ulcers. Tea: Add 2 to 3 teaspoons per cup. Steep for 10 to 20 minutes. Use in up to three cups daily.

Gingseng - Ginseng is used to increase stamina, provide liver protection from harmful substances, and stimulates the immune system. When tested on animals, sexual activity increased. To use: follow packaging directions for capsules, tinctures, tablets, and teas.

Spearmint and Peppermint - Provides indigestion relief. Tea: add 2 teaspoons dried or 1 teaspoon of fresh per cup.

Steep for 10 minutes. Can be reheated. Drink up to 3 cups daily. Bath: place a few handfuls of fresh or dried leaves in a cloth bag and run it under water for a relaxing bath. Warnings: on rare occasions the fragrance of mint oil has caused gagging in children. Pure menthol ingested is poisonous. A teaspoon can be fatal. Do not ingest peppermint oil or menthol.

Ginger - Ginger may reduce the risk of heart attack by preventing internal blood clots. Also used for motion sickness.

To treat motion sickness, 30 minutes before departure take 2 or 3 500 milligram capsules. Tea: add 2 teaspoons of grated or powdered ginger per cup. Steep for 10 minutes. Drink up to 3 cups daily.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum) - Basil is used mainly in teas. The leaves are used to brew the tea. Hot basil teas are good for nausea, gas pains, dysentry, and correcting suppressed menstruation. Peppercorn and basil tea is used to reduce fever.

Clove (Syzgium aromaticum) - Clove is used in candies, spices, perfumes, and medications. The part of clove that is usually used is the bud. This can be used as a local anesthetic for toothache by applying the bud directly to the tooth or gum and chewing on it. Essential oil of clove can be used in the same manner. The essential oil makes up about twenty percent of the cloves' weight. The oil is also a powerful antiseptic.

Aloe Vera - Aloe vera is an extremely useful and versatile herb; it can be used to regenerate tissue, clear the throat, clean the colon, expell worms, promote menstruation, and clean out the digestive organs. The part of the plant that is usually used is the leaves. Aloe can regenerate tissue rapidly and well, and so it can be applied to burns, including radiation burns, and cuts and bruises. It can also be used to clear the throat, making it useful for singers and public speakers. To clear the throat, cut off a quarter-inch of a leaf. Put it in your mouth and chew for a few minutes, then swallow. An excellent herb for correcting digestive disturbances, aloe can be used to clean matter from the colon, stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, and bladder. It can also promote mensturation. Another use for aloe is to get rid of worms, but it takes several doses of aloe to do this.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officialas) - Rosemary is known as a potent tonic, and it was thought that the herb could bring happiness to the heart. It is a warming herbs and is used as a stimulant for the nervous system. It is also an antibacterial, antiseptic, antidepressant as well as a carminative. As an infusion, rosemary is stimulating tonic tea that improves concentration as well as the memory. The infusion is also used as a hair rinse for dandruff, scalp psoriasis and reinforces the colour of darker hair. Use the infusion as a gargle to soothe mouth, gum, and throat infections.

Infused oil is a useful remedy as well. It is most often substituted for the essential oil in massages. The essential oil is used in massages arthritis and muscle aches. The oil in a warm compress is exceptionally good for headaches. If diluted, the essential oil can be used for teething babies.

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) - Also known as Blue gum and Fever tree, eucalyptus can be used to treat bronchitis and asthma and to kill germs. The aromatic oil of the leaves and resin kills germs. Steam inalations are excellent in treating asthma and bronchitis. It is famous for its aroma, and can be used as an air freshener, in sachets, or in potpurri. Warnings: do not ingest eucalyptus oil, it is highly poisonous. Fatalities have been reported from ingestion of as little as a teaspoon. Keep away from children.

Olive (Olea europaea) - The parts used are oil of the fruit and leaves. Some of the medicinal properties are emollient, demulcent, laxative, source of linoleic acid; cold-pressed oil is used in salves for muscle pains, leaves in tea are astringent and antiseptic, may lower blood sugar in diabetes and dilate coronary arteries to improve blood circulation.

Onion (Allium cepa) -The part used is bulb. Some of the medicinal properties of onion are antiseptic, aphrodisiac, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and diuretic; rich in vitamin B1, B2, and C; stimulates the heart and reduces blood sugar.

Marijuana - Marijuana has shown positive effects on cancer, aids and glaucoma. It is so effective on aids patients via its ability to increase a persons appetite, as well as relieving nausea, allowing patients to regain weight. Marijuana reportedly helps glaucoma patients by reducing ocular pressure which can cause damage to the eye. It is the most effective treatment for chronic nausea, and it is not physically addictive. Marijuana is also a spiritual herb, used in ritual by artists and shamans, as its natural high promotes deep thought and happiness. Warnings: Coughing, asthma, upper respiratory problems, difficulty with short term memory loss, racing heart, agitation, confusion, paranoia, possible psychological dependence.

Honey - Honey is used for its antibacterial properties in treating wounds. Honey also is considered to have a calming effect on the mind and promotes sleep. Honey in a tea or liquid form can help with indigestion and has sometimes been used to treat cardiovascular disease and respiratory complaints. A thin coat of honey applied onto minor skin wounds and chapped lips will disinfect and heal.

Pepper – Pepper is useful in the stomach, large intestine and small intestines. Warms up middle our region, pushing energy downwards inorder to stop vomiting, eliminate dampness and sputum, or counteract toxic effects.

Salt – In its powdered forms salt is normally taken orally. It can induce vomiting, clear fire, cool the blood and counteract toxic effects. When having a sore throat, gargle some salt in a glass of hot water, it help to kill the bacteria causing the soreness.

Thyme – Not only a delicious herb in cooking, but Thyme is a handy cure for the common cold and all its symptoms.

Coughs, headaches, body pain, sore throats, indigestion and abdominal distention can all be treated using Thyme, which is easily made into a tea, or put into cooking.

Lettuce - There are many varieties of lettuce. Iceberg lettuce is widely available because it is easy to grow and has a good shelf life. However, it is almost worthless as food. Look for the dark leafed varieties. Romaine is a good choice. It juices well, but it has a very short shelf life.

Cabbage - Raw cabbage provides a rich source of vitamins and minerals as well as sulfur compounds. Drink cabbage juice within a minute as the essential elements immediately begin to oxidize. Use it in a mixture of vegetable juice. Do not store this juice. Juice it last and drink it fresh from the juicer.

Tomato - Both sweet and sour, quenches thirst, improves digestion, prevents constipation, detoxifies the liver, blood and the whole body, and reduces high blood pressure. In spite of its acidic nature, it has digestive enzymes that neutralize its acidity. It also decreases the acidity in the blood of those suffering from rheumatism and uric acid (gout).

Tomato is rich in lycopene, a vitamin that is hailed for its antioxidant action against prostate cancer. It also reduces risk of heart disease as has been seen in the Mediterranean diet. The consumption of tomato should not exceed one to two tomatoes per meal. To enhance lycopene, tomato should be eaten cooked. Warnings: Should not be taken by those with arthritis as it upsets calcium balance.

Chapter notes We affect Earth and Earth affects us. Understanding this connection in Druidry allows us to teach to the whole person, nurturing a deeper understanding of Earth materials and processes, and empowering them to act. Connection with the natural world leads to social action to protect and heal our planet from human activity. Connection with our planet allows us to embrace the connection with each other. Teaching in this aspect of the affective domain can help us motivate others to become responsible citizens who want a role in managing the human impact on our planet.

Know and feel the Earth, and do not be afraid by what you see around you, it’s all just an extension of you. We are one with nature, as we are all part of the Creator. It is not money that gives you all you need, it is the Earth. From the depths of the Earth grows the food you eat, and flows the waters you drink, and the air you breathe. The simple act of placing a seed in the soil and watching as it emerges and grows into a sturdy plant is a source of wonder and fulfillment we should all have the pleasure of knowing. The farmer planting 1,000 acres and the farmer planting one row in his garden experience the same wonderment and miracle of life as the earth renews itself each spring. Humans have an innate curiosity about their surroundings, which can be especially witnessed by a young children's natural connection before they are confined to books and classrooms for knowledge.

It’s amazing how many adults also have no understanding of their own bodily structure or functions, their own physical being. Most people wouldn’t in truth have a clue about the biological structure of reality, because the relevance of it was never explained to them, or they are too busy watching TV to care. The benefits of knowing are obvious, if you can’t use, function or heal your body, then you are leaving yourself vulnerable to illness. In other words, you are unable to look after yourself adequately if you don’t know how your body works. It’s disturbing how fewer younger people seem to have even the most basic cooking skills, or knowledge of healing. We have to stop allowing the education system to raise our children to be dependent on them, we must cease being followers of authority. You must learn to maintain yourself, as no one is going to do it for you.

Most people feel better when they spend time in the outdoors, in the sunshine and surrounded by beautiful flowers etc.

Fresh air and relaxation are big factors in that, but the biggest factor appears to be the connection with the Earth itself.

Direct contact with the earth, referred to as ‘earthing’, is the process of standing barefoot upon the earth, or some other way of connecting your flesh with soil (rubbing it on, burying parts of your body). It reduces stress, improves sleep, enhances recovery, restores normal biological rhythms, and even reduces chronic inflammation. It’s all quite simple when you understand the nature of our connection with the Earth, being that we evolved in constant connection with the Earth’s direct current and with frequencies that our biology has become ‘tuned’ to.

“It occurred to me that there might be a similarity between the human body and a TV cable,” he recalls. “The TV cable has hundreds of channels of information flowing through it. Similarly, the body has miles of nerves, blood vessels, and other channels that conduct electrical signals. When the skin is grounded, it might prevent the entry of ‘noise’ that could disturb physiological signaling.” Clint Ober

Chapter 4: Awen

Chapter 4: Intro No matter how much technology we develop, Life in the universe still remains true to itself, as a great illusion, a ride into the unknown. No matter the colour, creed or sex, inevitably we are bound together in this mysterious existence to the end. Earth is a vast system of vibrating energy, and each living thing has fields of energy around it. All natural matter phenomena are waves of energy tightly weaved together around atoms. There are also natural currents of energy that flow across the surface of the Earth, which we can channel into via the ancient Ley system, which I will teach you. The power of natural energy is limitless, because life is limitless. Through deep meditation, visualisation and trance, a human being can tap into natural energy, receiving its sustenance and revitalising strength.

Much of this chapter focuses on the disciplines of Physics and Chemistry. They reveal to us the building blocks of our universe, a world unseeable with our own eyes. As Druids, we can not work with the forces of Awen unless we know what they are and how they work. Tuning into those currents can be both beneficial and harmful if one doesn’t know what they are doing, that is if one’s mentality is not strong or clear enough. Opening your Chi or Chakras should always be approached with seriousness and caution. It is a grave mistake to leave yourself vulnerable to forces beyond your understanding, do not underestimate what you are dealing with. When you open the doors of dimensions and channels, you could severely affect your mind and body for the rest of your life. So be careful.

Awen is energy, the forces that create and sustain life. Our reality is then a network of energy channels and fields, all vibrating at different speeds, forces and frequencies. Each of us sustains and radiates our own energy field, which is vital for our well being. Changes in frequency, force or kind of energy can have an affect on our health or emotions.

Generally, when your frequency drops, you are more susceptible to negative emotions or poor health. Syphoning energy from the natural elements and forces is to open to a higher potential reality, and build one’s inner strength.

The immortal Goddess, she fills the vast, high and low places. She destroys spiritual darkness with her Light.

Rig Veda (X.127.2)

Particles In order to understand what Life is further, we have to first get right down to the smallest form of it. We can do this by learning from the science of Physics, which tells us that everything in nature is made of Particles and Atoms vibrating at different density levels. These Elementary particles or ‘Fundamental particles’ do not have any substructure, meaning they are not yet known to be made up of smaller particles. They are therefore one of the basic building blocks of the universe, from which even all other Composite particles are also made.

We have managed to reduce the laws which govern the behaviour and interactions of all types of matter and energy we are aware of, to a small core of fundamental laws and theories. Physicists in particular, use a system that’s based around the understanding of Elementary particles and their interactions, called the ‘Standard Model’. In this Standard Model, all elementary particles are either called Bosons or Fermions (depending on their spin…particles spin like little planets on their own axes). Particles with half spin are the Fermions, particles with full spin are the Bosons. Fermions are associated with Matter, as they contain mass, while Bosons are related to radiation, as they contain force (energy).

There are two types of elementary Fermions, called Quarks and Leptons. The Standard Model subdivides these Quarks and Leptons into groups of 12 each. Both groups consist of 6 particles, and their 6 corresponding Anti-Particles.

Together, Leptons and Quarks are the Fermionic ‘flavours’ (types) of matter particles which are known and accounted for.

12 leptons - 6 particles (e · μ · τ · νe · νμ · ντ) with 6 corresponding antiparticles, of which 3 are antineutrinos

12 quarks - 6 particles (u · d · s · c · b · t) with 6 corresponding antiparticles

Leptons form a family that are distinct from the other known family of Fermions, the Quarks. Each of the 6 Leptons are represented by a pair of particles called a weak doublet. One is a massive charged particle that bears the same name as its flavour (eg. Electron). The other is an almost mass less neutral particle called a Neutrino (eg. Electron Neutrino).

The electron, the muon, and the tau lepton carry an electric charge of –1, preventing them from participating in

electromagnetic interactions. The neutrino-type leptons, carry no electric charge either, which also prevents them from participating. Negative or positive electric charges depend on if they are particles or antiparticles. Matter particles and mediating particles carry these various charges to make them susceptible to fundamental forces (Bosons).

In our traditional cultural and early scientific view on what our world consisted of, we defined all matter to be Solid, Gas or Liquid. This was however a more Earth-centric way of looking at things though, not focusing on cosmic elements.

Matter can actually be in five different states, the other two being plasma (“an ionised gas, in which a certain proportion of electrons are free, rather than being bound to an atom or molecule”), and Bose-Einstein condensate (“a state of matter of bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near to absolute zero” (0 K or −273.15 °C). Matter in short is made of Atoms and Molecules, which consist of various Particles, which form the entire Universe as we know it.

Quarks are the only fundamental particles that interact through all four of the Fundamental Forces (“a mechanism by which particles interact with each other, and which cannot be explained in terms of another interaction”). Quarks and Anti-Quarks combine to form Hadrons, and never exist unbound from other Quarks. Among the Hadrons are the Proton and the Neutron, which are usually surrounded by a cloud of electrons, collectively called an Atom. Each quark can carry any one of three colour charges – red, green or blue (not actual colours of light). Up-type quarks (up, charm, and top quarks) carry an electric charge of +⅔, and the down-type quarks (down, strange, and bottom) carry an electric charge of –⅓, enabling both types to participate in electromagnetic interactions.

Pairs from each group (one up-type quark, one down-type quark, a down-type lepton and its corresponding neutrino) form what is known as a 'generation'. The corresponding particles between each generation are identical to each other, with the exception of their mass and a property known as their flavour. The 12 fundamental Fermionic ‘flavours’ are divided then into three generations of four particles each.

Each quark is assigned a baryon number, B = 1/3, and a vanishing lepton number L = 0. They have fractional electric charge, Q, either Q = +2/3 or Q = −1/3. The former are called up-type quarks, the latter, down-type quarks. Each quark is assigned a weak isospin: Tz = +1/2 for an up-type quark and Tz = −1/2 for a down-type quark. Isolated quarks are never found naturally, they are almost always found in groups of two (mesons) or groups of three (baryons), forming the Hadrons. Each doublet of weak isospin is what defines a generation of quarks.

Apart from Matter, our Universe is Energy (Force) also. Accompanying Fundamental Particles are the Fundamental Forces. Forces in physics are the ways that particles interact and influence each other. Electromagnetic force allows particles to interact with each other, and via magnetic fields and the force of gravitation, allows two particles with mass to attract one another in accordance with Newton's Law of Gravitation. The standard model explains such forces as

resulting from matter particles exchanging other particles, known as force-mediating particles (Bosons). When a forcemediating particle is exchanged, at a macro level the effect is equivalent to a force influencing both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been the agent of) that force. Force-mediating particles are believed to be the reason why the forces and interactions between particles observed in the laboratory and in the universe exist.

All force carrier particles are Bosons. They are named after Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose. While most bosons are composite particles, four bosons (the gauge bosons) are elementary particles not known to be composed of other particles. The only two bosons in the Standard Model that are yet to be discovered experimentally are the Higgs boson and the Graviton.

There are three kinds of gauge bosons: Photons, W and Z Bosons, and Gluons. Each correspond to one of the three Standard Model interactions, Photons are gauge bosons of the electromagnetic interaction, W and Z bosons carry the weak interaction, and the gluons carry the strong interaction. In quantum gravity, the yet to be verified Graviton of the gravitational force is also a topic of hot debate, as well as the mysterious Higgs Boson. Electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces are fused into a single unified field.

Grand Unification, grand unified theory, or GUT.

Fundamental Particles and Fundamental Interactions are the foundations of life, as we understand it physically. It will remain unknown for a long time as to whether there exists at this very purest level of life a form of consciousness and intelligence that we can identify with. We don’t know what exactly these Particles are, only what they do, and again, it is entirely up to our interpretation. Science is by no means always accurate, and we have a lot to learn as yet. When we say that Life is one and that we are all one, when we talk of a Great creative force, this is it for now…our Universe of Fermions and Bosons. Time, Space and Energy we accept as our eternal rulers in a vast system of force fields, to which we are but likened to antennas.

Atomic life It was long believed that Atoms were the indivisible components of the Universe, until the late 19th century when sub-atomic structure (particles) was found. The earliest references we have to the concept of Atoms go back to ancient India, in the 6th century BC. The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).

References to atoms in the West emerged a century later from a Greek called Leucippus, whose student Democritus, coined the term átomos around 450BC, which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", “something that cannot be divided”.

An atom is the smallest particle that comprises of a chemical element. Atoms consist of an electron cloud surrounding a dense Nucleus, where more than 99.9% of an atom's mass is. This nucleus contains positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (the surrounding cloud is made up of negatively charged electrons). When the number of protons in a nucleus equals the number of electrons, the atom will be electrically neutral, otherwise it’s an Ion and has a net positive or negative charge. An atom is then classified according to its number of protons and neutrons.

Electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by electromagnetic force. The force binds electrons inside an electrostatic potential surrounding the smaller nucleus, so that an external source of energy is needed in order for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force.

Electrons bound near the centre of the potential require more energy to escape than those at the exterior. Muons may also briefly form bound states known as muonic atoms.

By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. Hydrogen atoms, for example, always have only a single proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, sometimes called protium, by far the most common form), one neutron (deuterium) and two neutrons (tritium).The known elements form a continuous range of atomic numbers from hydrogen with a single proton up to the 118-proton element ununoctium. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive.

Matter is made up of various groupings and combinations of atoms with their orbiting electrons and protons, all of which oscillate about each other in a positive-negative vibratory movement, maintaining a fixed magnetic spacing from each other.

All atoms, and the ‘matter’ that they constitute through their cohesive groupings, are vibrating at different frequency rates dependent on their complexity and density; a low frequency allows a dense grouping of atoms, a higher frequency creates a less dense, more spaced-out and refined matter. This in turn reflects their distance from the Creative Thought-Centre; the refined matter of higher frequency vibration is nearer the high spiritual level of the Source, while the denser matter of lower frequency exists at the ‘outer edges’ of the evolutionary range farthest from the Source. Within this continuous spectrum, it is convenient to identify the three major divisions of vibratory frequency.

All things are made up of atoms. It is the movement, or vibration of those atoms, that make all things. The atoms that make up your world only exist because they are in motion and vibrating. Understanding the basis of vibration helps you to understand the natural order of all things. Even a rock puts out a vibration of density and strength that can be read. If it did not put out a vibration, it simply would not exist.

Chemical Elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is distinguished as a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons. In total, 117 Elements have been observed as of 2007, of which 94 occur naturally on Earth. The remaining elements not found on Earth or in astronomical spectra have been derived artificially.

The lightest elements are hydrogen and helium, which are believed to have both been created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe. An element is classified according to its Chemical properties (number of Protons) and Nuclear properties (number of Neutrons). Each is measured both by their Atomic Mass, and categorized on the Periodic Table with a unique Atomic number. In Chemistry, the Periodic Table lays out all of the elements observed enough to be named and identified by modern science.

The “Atomic number” of an element, is equal to the number of protons which defines that element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their nucleus, so the atomic number of carbon is 6. However, Atoms may have different numbers of neutrons in the Nucleus, which are known as the isotopes of that element. Different isotopes of a

given element are distinguished by their mass numbers. For example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is thus a mixture of 12C, 13C, and 14C atoms. Electrons can also contribute slightly to the atomic mass of a chemical element, because of the nuclear binding energy.

66 of 94 naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Some isotopes of various elements are radioactive and decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. For certain elements, all their isotopes are radioactive isotopes such as technetium (43), promethium (61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.The number of protons in an atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. By means of the Pauli Exclusion Principle, this then determines the atom's various chemical properties. So all carbon atoms, for example, ultimately have identical chemical properties because they all have the same number of protons in their nucleus, and therefore have the same atomic number. It is for this reason that atomic number rather than mass number (or atomic weight) is considered the identifying characteristic of an element.

The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of Chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systemize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behaviour. The table has also found wide application in physics, biology, engineering, and industry.

Before chemistry became a science, Alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures, and there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules as yet. With advances in the atomic theory of matter, a man named John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules.

Vibration All things send out their own vibration into physicality, and each thought and belief that is held has a vibration. Each vibration is significantly different. The vibration it holds at the moment of transition to solid form, determines its unique shape. Although no two snowflakes are alike, they are symmetrical and share certain qualities. The same is true of human form. When you move between the states of vibration and consciousness, you in turn raise your own vibration.

Each of these shifts in vibration may cause changes in the way you interact with your surroundings.

All the vibrations experienced collectively make up the whole, therefore we are a culmination of all the thoughts and beliefs that we have ever had. Although their effect fades with time, we still hold the vibration of every thought that we had. Beliefs are simply thoughts that we have repeatedly held, so we have effectively imprinted them over and over on our minds. It is difficult to remove a belief, even if it doesn’t serve us, because it has already been stamped into our field repeatedly by becoming habit. Remember however, that time is on your side, as new thoughts naturally hold a stronger vibration than older ones. This is a kind of safe guard because we are not yet masters of our thought process.

It serves us well to learn to become masters of our thoughts before making the final shift to higher dimensional levels.

The first step, begin by releasing the belief system that states you are not in control.

Density Levels There are three levels of density, the Physical, Mental and Spiritual realms. Similar to the concept of the 3 circles of Annwn discussed earlier, in that we imagine a circle with 3 inner to outer rings. We are dealing with the idea of body, mind and spirit, the spirit world being the centre of existence, then a world of thought, which leads into the 3rd dimension of our current physical home. It is also explained that while our conscious Earthly experience manifests at the densest level, all of the different densities co-exist and find expression in our bodies and the world around us.

The physical body has two well-marked divisions, the Dense Body composed of solids, liquids and gases, and the Etheric Body consisting of the four finer grades of physical matter. Every solid, liquid and gaseous particle of the physical body is surrounded with an etheric envelope, which in size projects about one quarter of an inch beyond the skin. Between the physical and the etheric vibration there is an important intermediate level: the Astral Realm, composed of lower-vibration etheric matter. This is the seat of our emotions, senses and memory, and the level on which our subconscious mind works. It is said to record all our thoughts and experiences into the Etheric world where it is stored in a celestial memory-bank, called the Akashic Records. In Hindu mysticism, this Akasha is thought to be the primary principle of nature from which the other four natural principles, fire, air, earth, and water, are created. These five principles also represent the five senses of the human being. These records have been referred to by different names: the cosmic mind, the universal mind, the collective unconscious, or the collective subconscious. The Astral Plane is usually the first level on which we arrive after the transition we call ‘death’.

On planet Earth we live within the dense physical level at a relatively low rate of vibration, restricted to the limited perception range extending from the low frequencies of sound (16 to 20,000 cycles per second), to the higher visible light-frequency spectrum. The light-frequency spectrum ranges from the lowest colour of red, moving up through orange, yellow, green, blue and violet to the point where our vision ceases at the ultra-violet level. As our visible sight ceases above this range, we are unable to see higher-vibration ‘matter’, it being totally invisible to us, even though it is in fact surrounding and interpenetrating our physical matter. In order to see higher vibrational worlds and matter, we have to be able to raise our own vibration levels up to that same level.

Unseen by us at our Earthly physical level, there are in fact entire worlds existing at higher vibration rates, possibly inhabited by beings we can neither see, hear, nor touch right now. Since their higher vibration rates cause their bodies to be less dense than ours, they are easily able to interpenetrate us on Earth without our even being aware of their presence. This often-puzzling idea can be readily understood if we bear in mind that all ‘solid’ matter is in fact composed of atoms with ‘spaces’ around them. Even in the hardest substance no two atoms ever touch one another, the space between two adjacent atoms being in fact enormously larger than the two atoms themselves. Orthodox physical science long ago put forward the possibility of an Ether which interpenetrates all known substances, the densest solid as well as the most rarefied gas; and just as this Ether moves with perfect freedom between the particles of densest matter, so does Etheric matter interpenetrate it in turn, and moves with perfect freedom among its particles.

Thus a Being in the etheric world might be occupying the same space as a Being living in the physical world; yet each

would be entirely unconscious of the other, and would in no way impede the free movement of the other. Though most of us cannot see the manifestations of higher vibration rates, they are often experienced by those who have developed, over many lives, a psychic sensitivity.

Waveforms: A wave, as briefly mentioned earlier, is “a disturbance that extends through space and time”, usually with transference of energy. In other words, waves are movement of particles that travel and transfer energy from one point to another. Waveforms are the manifestation of vibrations. There are two types of waveforms, Mechanical and Electromagnetic. Mechanical waves need a medium in order to propagate as they are said to have an origin or source that they move away from, like a musical instrument perhaps. Mechanical waves can not create themselves, they exist via a cause. Electromagnetic however, waves can travel without a medium, in a vacuum, where no concept of medium exists. Meaning, electro-magnetic waves are omnipresent.

“If all the parts making up a medium (object) were rigidly bound, then they would all vibrate as one, with no delay in the transmission of the vibration and therefore no wave motion (or rather infinitely fast wave motion). On the other hand, if all the parts were independent, then there would not be any transmission of the vibration and again, no wave motion (or rather infinitely slow wave motion).”

Waves may usually be categorized as either Longitudinal or Transverse, based on their movement direction.

Longitudinal waves are those with vibrations parallel to the direction of the movement of the wave, which includes most Sound waves. Transverse waves are those with vibrations perpendicular (right angle) to the direction of the movement of the wave, such as Light waves. A wave is also said to be polarized if it can only oscillate (vibrate) in one direction.

The polarization of a transverse wave describes the direction of oscillation, in the plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. Longitudinal waves such as sound waves do not exhibit polarization, because for these waves the direction of oscillation is along the direction of travel. Although a wave can be polarized by using a polarizing filter.

A wave is governed by the phase of vibration, and its position within the vibration cycle is different for adjacent points in space because the vibration reaches these points at different times. Are waves the force behind the phenomenon of time or life? Perhaps so, but the smallest form of it. Movement is what drives waves and defines our vision of time, so it is possible, but still too problematic to settle on as a theory.

All waves have common behaviour under a number of standard situations (movement patterns). The 6 ways in which all waves can experience are: Reflection (direction change from hitting a reflective surface), Refraction (direction change from entering a new medium), Diffraction (bending as they interact with obstacles in their path), Interference (superposition of two waves that come into contact with each other), Dispersion (splitting up by frequency), Rectilinear propagation (movement of light waves in a straight line).

Waves are measured by their Amplitude, defined as the “point of maximum disturbance in the medium during one wave cycle”. The measurement units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave. Waves on a string have an amplitude expressed as a distance (meters), sound waves as pressure (Pascals) and electromagnetic waves as the amplitude of the electric field (volts/meter). Amplitude may be constant, called a continuous wave, or may vary with time and/or position. The variation of amplitude is called the envelope of the wave.

Waves are characterized by crests (highs) and troughs (lows). There are

two velocities that are associated with waves. The first is the phase velocity, which gives the rate at which the wave propagates. The second is the group velocity, which gives the velocity at which variations in the shape of the wave's amplitude propagate through space. This is the rate at which information can be transmitted by the wave.

Examples of different waves include:      

Ocean surface waves: which are perturbations that propagate through water.

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, and gamma rays: making up electromagnetic radiation.

Sound: a mechanical wave that propagates through air, liquid or solids.

Seismic waves: in earthquakes, of which there are three types, called S, P, and L. Gravitational waves: which are fluctuations in the curvature of space-time predicted by general Relativity.

Inertial waves: which occur in rotating fluids and are restored by the Coriolis Effect.

A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a constant position. This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference between two waves travelling in opposite directions. As you can see, it is important to understand that not all waves are Electro-magnetic. There are different fields of study for each kind of wave, which are needed in order to be more accurate in distinguishing them from one another. For example, Acoustics (sound) is distinguished from optics (light) in that sound waves are related to a mechanical rather than an electromagnetic wave, because the transformation of vibratory energy only occurs via cause. That doesn’t make it any less important or powerful though, we know the Bardic shamans of ancient times were very well acquainted with the forces of vibration and particularly sound.

Electro magnetism Electromagnetic (EM) radiation, is a self-propagating (self-creating) wave disturbance in space which is the phenomenon perceived by the human eye as Light. EM radiation has an electric and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the direction of energy propagation. This radiation is then classified into types according to the frequency of the wave, such as (in order of increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

Electromagnetism is an infinite-ranged force, and much stronger than gravity. Therefore, it describes almost all phenomena of our everyday experience, from the impenetrability of macroscopic bodies, to lasers and radios, to the structure of atoms and metals, to phenomena such as friction and rainbows. It is the force that acts between electrically charged particles, creating our physical reality. This is the force we can tap into during meditation, which is a life giving

and renewing energy. Within these vibrations it was said that great wisdom resides, and different levels of communication, action and knowledge could be achieved by using the higher senses of the mind, such as Telepathy, Telekinesis and other Psychic abilities.

Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 1800s that scientists discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. In 1905, Einstein's theory of special relativity resolved the issue of the constancy of the speed of light, and also explained the photoelectric effect by theorizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons. In other words, only photons of a high-enough frequency, (above a certain threshold value) could knock an electron free from a nucleus. For example, photons of blue light may have sufficient energy to free an electron from metal, but photons of red light may not. More intense light above the threshold frequency could release more electrons, but no amount of light below the threshold frequency could release it. In 1927, Paul Dirac unified quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism, and the theory of quantum electrodynamics was completed.

We can take these pictures and measure our body’s frequencies because human beings are electromagnetic (ELM) energy. And our ELM energy vibrates or pulses. With every pulse, your ELM energy both broadcasts and attracts. Your energy field transmits your vibrations and magnetizes other similar vibrations into your energy field. You are constantly broadcasting your own energy and attracting other energy, around 1520 KHz ~ 9460 KHz.

Light There are two types of light, Visible and Ultraviolet. Visible light is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm), although the word light is sometimes used to refer to the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Light is composed of elementary particles called photons, and its three primary properties are Intensity, Frequency (wavelength) and Polarization. Light can exhibit properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is today an important research area in modern physics.

Wave–particle duality is the theory that all the information about a particle is encoded in its wave function, which is a complex function roughly corresponding to the amplitude of a wave at each point in space. This function evolves according to a differential equation (the Schrödinger equation), giving rise to wave-like phenomena such as interference and diffraction. Basically, the theory is that particles omit a type of frequency, they vibrate as well as interact with each other. Everything in our universe therefore vibrates at a frequency, which gives the impression of solidity. As a phenomenon this has been verified not only for elementary particles, but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. According to traditional formulations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, wave–particle duality applies to all objects, even macroscopic ones.

Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin colour in different regions of the globe. Ultraviolet (UV) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than soft X-rays. It is named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with frequencies higher than those that humans identify as the colour violet. UV light is typically found as part of the radiation received by the Earth from the Sun. Most humans are aware of the effects of UV through the painful condition of sunburn. The UV spectrum has many other effects, including both beneficial and damaging changes to human health.

The speed of light depends upon the medium in which it’s travelling, in a vacuum that is exactly 299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second). There are also many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of radiation. The primary example of sunlight is the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000K, peaking in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Other types include Incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared, and glowing solid particles in flames. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the infrared for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". The blue colour is most commonly seen in a gas flame or a welder's torch.

“In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th–5th century BC, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous” On the other hand, the Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theory of the physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. The basic atoms are those of earth (prthivı), water (apas), fire (tejas), and air (vayu), that should not be confused with the ordinary meaning of these terms. These atoms are taken to form binary molecules that combine further to form larger molecules. Motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity tejas (fire) atoms.

The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century BC, the Vishnu Purana correctly refers to sunlight as the "the seven rays of the sun".”

The wavelengths that are visible to the eye pass through the "optical window", (the region of the electromagnetic spectrum) which passes largely unattenuated through the Earth's atmosphere. Blue light is scattered more than red light, which is why the sky is blue. Atmospheric windows are defined by physical measurement. The "visible window" is so called because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. Near infrared (NIR) windows lie just out of human response window, and the Medium Wavelength IR (MWIR) and Long Wavelength or Far Infrared (LWIR or FIR) are far beyond the human response region.

A light-adapted human eye generally has its maximum sensitivity at around 555nm (Nanometres), in the green region of the optical spectrum. The spectrum does not, however, contain all the colours that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Brown, pink, and magenta are absent, for example, because they need a mix of multiple wavelengths, preferably shades of red.

The eyes of many species perceive wavelengths different from the spectrum visible to the human eye. For example, many insects, such as bees, can see light in the ultraviolet, which is useful for finding nectar in flowers. For this reason, plant species whose life cycles are linked to insect pollination may owe their reproductive success to their appearance in ultraviolet light, rather than how colourful they appear to our eyes.

Colour Energy Vibrations don't only come from noise, they also come from colours. It is quite startling that on our planet, experiments conducted in this field have not been followed up, and our civilisation pays no attention to such exploration. In fact colours can enormously influence the behaviour of human beings. Further, the vibrations emanating from these colours are essential for good mental balance, exerting their influence even while you sleep.

We are all moved by colour whether we are aware of it or not. Most of us know that warm colours like reds and oranges can stimulate and spur us into action, while the cooler colours like blues and violets can serve to calm and relax us. Colour could be called food for our emotions, and can increase a sense of well-being, lift the spirits, create a serene setting in which to explore oneself or clarify solutions to everyday problems. Colour actually exists in the mind, because our ability to perceive colour comes from the light and colour-sensitive receptors we have in our eyes. These receptors are called rods (receptive to amounts of light) and cones (sensitive to colours). Being able to see colour is a

sensation, like smelling freshly baked cookies or tasting a sour lemon. The smell or taste of these things differ for each person, and likewise, no colour is seen exactly the same by two people, because each person's rods and cones vary.

The retina is a thin neural sheet at the back of the eye that contains rods and cones. Between the retina and the optic nerves leading to the brain are a series of cells that create a lateral inhibition network of the light/dark signals from the photoreceptors. This “in between” actually filters away a lot of extra information generated by the photocells and gives the brain a "picture" of the edges of light and dark. These contrasts form a boundary while the brain to fills in the rest.

This is how we see black and white; colour vision is even more complex. Cones, light adapted photoreceptors, contain three different photo-pigments, red, blue, and green, each corresponding to a particular wavelength of light. Colour is actually made of a ration of three things: the ratio of red/green activation, blue response, and value or lightness of the light waves entering the eye. The brain analyses each of these visual inputs and generates a colour.

When we see coloured objects, the object is generated due to reality, but the colour of the object is not technically generated due to physical reality. When light strikes the object it absorbs most of the wavelengths of light, reflecting the corresponding colour one sees. For example, when light hits a tomato, it absorbs all wavelengths of light except for red light, which is reflected and then perceived by the eye. This is based on the fact that light consists of all colours. A deeper analysis shows that this explanation is not necessarily true, red is not always red. Referring to the earlier description of the anatomy of colour vision one should note that there are not the same number of photopigments in the eye as there are number of colours. In fact, the colour "red" is not produced only by light of "red" wavelength. There are the three different photopigments (red, blue, green) in the eye, and it is actually the activation ratio between each of these pigments that generates the unique signal, which our brain will determine as "red". However, when seen this way, colour is actually a mental construct and prone to variability due to the I-function and experience, and therefore, everyone views colour differently. This explains why two people, or even the same person may feel different emotions when looking at one painting. Our innate variability and individuality allow us to perceive light waves differently person to person and over time. Colour is only a mental construct. Colour associations are able to change over time allowing one person to feel different emotions when confronted with the same colour.

Sound Sound is a vibration that’s transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas, and is composed of frequencies capable of being detected by ears. It can travel through all elements of matter, but in humans our hearing is limited to frequencies between about 20Hz and 20,000Hz (20 kHz), with the upper limit generally decreasing with age. Earth's atmosphere and any physical phenomenon, such as fire, water, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces and is characterized by its own unique sounds. These vibrations can be measured through modern devices such as Hydrophones (water), Microphones (air), Ionophones (fire) and Geophones (earth). Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called Compression waves. Through solids, it can be transmitted as both Longitudinal and Transverse waves.

The speed of sound depends on the medium through which the waves are passing, and is often quoted as a fundamental property of the material. For example, in air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 1234.849 kmph, in fresh water 5335.136 kmph (both at 20 °C), and in steel about 21455.935 kmph. Common things can also travel faster than sound, such as a whip, or a jet. In Aerodynamics, a ‘sound barrier’ is the point at which an aircraft moves from transonic to supersonic speed.

Sound characteristics can depend on the type of sound waves (longitudinal versus transverse) as well as on the physical properties of the transmission medium. Whenever the pitch of the soundwave is affected by some kind of change, the distance between the sound wave maxima also changes, resulting in a change of frequency. When the loudness of a soundwave changes, so does the amount of compression in an airwave that is travelling through it, which in turn can be defined as amplitude.

Sound pressure is defined as the difference between the average local pressure of the medium outside of the sound wave in which it is travelling through (at a given point and a given time) and the pressure found within the sound wave itself within that same medium. A square of this difference (i.e. a square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time and/or space, and a square root of such average is taken to obtain a root mean square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa RMS sound pressure in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in the sound Pa) and (1 atm Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. Such a tiny wave oscillates between (1 atm (relative to atmospheric) variation in air pressure at an audio frequency will be perceived as quite a deafening sound, and can cause hearing damage.

RMS sound pressure sound pressure level Pa dB re 20 µPa Nuclear Weapon explosion approx 248 1883 Krakatoa eruption approx 180 rocket launch equipment acoustic tests approx. 165 threshold of pain 100 134 hearing damage during short-term effect 20 approx. 120 jet engine, 100 m distant 6–200 110–140 jackhammer, 1 m distant / discotheque 2 approx. 100 hearing damage from long-term exposure 0.6 approx. 85 traffic noise on major road, 10 m distant 0.2–0.6 80–90 moving automobile, 10 m distant 0.02–0.2 60–80 TV set – typical home level, 1 m distant 0.02 approx. 60 normal talking, 1 m distant 0.002–0.02 40–60 very calm room 0.0002–0.0006 20–30 quiet rustling leaves, calm human breathing 0.00006 10 auditory threshold at 2 kHz – undamaged human ears 0.00002 0 Source of sound

Other species have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these have evolved to produce song and (in humans) speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephony and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.

SOUND WAVE Energy: Frequencies have the ability to bring a myriad of changes, both positive and negative, to the body and elsewhere in nature. Among some of the beneficial changes are: increased vitality, circulation, calmness, well-being, personal growth and empowerment, energy, balanced emotions, harmonious personal and spiritual growth. Sound healing represents a natural, alternative, holistic approach to wellness for body, mind, and spirit. This is how it works:

1) The Principle of Resonance Matter is organized by waveforms and frequencies. We all know that if we have two violins that are tuned exactly the same, and we pluck a string on one of the violins, the plucked string will produce a field of sound energy, that will trigger the other violin's matching string to begin to vibrate, and produce the same sound. This is called "resonance," and it happens naturally.

Resonance is a basic principle that affects everyone and everything, all the time. This same principle applies for a person in need of physical healing, and/or mental and emotional transformation. The correct frequency reminds the body's energy field of its original blueprint, and brings it into harmony. When we are in the presence of a person who is expressing joy, the energy field of their joy brings our own joy to the surface, so we resonate together. This is true of other manifestations of this principle, in both positive and negative ways.

2) Cell Symphony Each cell takes part in the symphony of our body. Our role as a conductor is to orchestrate harmony. When a musician (organ or system), produces a sour note, we bring them back into harmony by helping them to retune their instrument, or refocus their attention. We don't cover up their disharmony or remove them from the orchestra. Each musician (or part of the body), is important in its Divine Expression for the creation of the symphony.

3) Sound Creates There appears to be a correlation between a specific frequency and the atomic weight of the elements. For instance, if the note of "C" is low in a person's voice, chances are the element of the zinc is also low in the body. The frequency of the note of "C" at the second octave is 65.40 cycles per second (hertz), and the atomic weight of the element of zinc is 65.37. So by listening to the frequency of the zinc the cells of the body will receive the vibration; and when the person eats foods that contain zinc, the body will resonate with this vibration and absorb the zinc. Not only will the body become more balanced, but the voice will improve; for it will produce all the notes in a more harmonious way.

Sound waves and emotion frequencies are based upon Sacred Geometry and the frequencies of minerals, vitamins, noble gases, amino acids and hormones. These frequencies balance and harmonize the Physical, Emotional, Mental and Spiritual bodies. These low frequencies, in the range of 15 to 33 Hertz, will sound like a cat's purr or an engine's hum, not musical. The different tones will help us achieve balance and eventually we will each hear our own harmonic symphony, creating peace in mind and heart.

Sound waves and emotion: While every organ and system present in the human body has its own keynote frequency, so too does every human emotion and feeling. This is true of momentary, passing emotions (a person feels anger after getting cut off in traffic), or for those emotions that become chronic (ie depression). So whether it be jealousy, love, bitterness, resentment, contentment or anxiety, every constructive or destructive emotion and feeling, has a signature frequency that links it to associated physical parts.

Since our emotions share energy with our physical body parts, it is extremely important that our emotional functions be healthy and balanced, for optimal health and well being are to be achieved. When emotional function becomes inflamed or exaggerated, the related physical areas can either become equally inflamed or depressed in function, because the emotion is encouraging an imbalanced flow of energy. Also, if a person is resistant to feeling, the related body area will experience the pressure of having to compensate for the related lack of emotion. In most instances, a person suffering from physical distress in an organ or body part will actually fuel the physical with their emotions.

First, a case of physical problems initiating emotional upsets. Consider a female client whose voice print registers poor physical support in the frequency of G#. Her health history reveals several relatives with gall bladder problems but she shows no sign of such a challenge. This woman's husband is a professional, his job requiring the couple to frequently entertain. Her daughter is a cheerleader, her son, a star player on the soccer and football teams at school. This client initially complained of never having time for herself because she was always chauffeuring and doing errands for her family. While she had a lack of physical frequency "hits" in the note of G# on her voice print, she did show a great deal of emotional stress in that note. In other words, she was compensating emotionally for a physical weakness she had

inherited. Her emotions, while uncomfortable, were literally creating enough energy to keep her digestive processes going. When this woman started to build physical G# energy through nutritional and lifestyle changes, her emotional stress diminished. Nothing much in her life had changed, since she still needed to chauffeur, plan and entertain.

However, she experienced a lot more strength and power personally when she didn't feel the need to balance the physical with the emotional. Amazingly, she consequently had the courage to speak her mind to her husband, discovering he was quite positively supportive to her needs and ideas ... and always had been.

With emotional frequencies as with physical frequencies, there is an interplay that takes place between people living together in a family or partnership arrangement. A husband who is a “fixer" will naturally team up with a wife who is a "worrier" since these emotions supply complementary yet contrasting frequencies that fill in a lacking energetic. Might seem an ideal symbiotic relationship as long as neither partner chooses to grow out of their stressful tendencies. Ah, but if the wife decides she has stressed herself enough to where she wishes to worry much less, she is likely to find resistance from her spouse, since to worry less means he will have less of the "worry frequency" available to him... unless he does NOT need it any longer because he chooses to take better care of his cardiovascular system.

Human beings are multifaceted, and it is the complex interaction between one's physical, mental, emotional and spiritual aspects that determines overall quality of life. The challenge comes in measuring that interaction effectively and accurately in each of us. Sound is a very powerful tool, because different frequencies, tones and sounds can induce different states to promote healing for the body, mind, emotions, and spirit. On a molecular level, our body is a system of vibrating atomic particles, in which we are the living receivers and transmitters of sound vibration. Some researchers claim that each of our organs vibrate at a different frequency. We can use sound frequencies to vibrate matter and promote healing and regeneration of the different body systems. These frequencies also shift etheric patterning to heal the emotional and mental causes of illness.

Hearing: Hearing is not a purely mechanical phenomenon of wave propagation, it is also a sensory and perceptual event.

When you hear something, it arrives at the ear as a mechanical sound wave travelling through the air, but within the ear it is transformed into neural action potentials. These nerve pulses then travel to the brain where they are perceived. Hence, in many problems in acoustics, such as for audio processing, it is advantageous to take into account not just the mechanics of the environment, but also the fact that both the ear and the brain are involved in a person’s listening experience.

The inner ear does significant signal processing in converting sound waveforms into neural stimulus, so certain differences between waveforms may be imperceptible. MP3 and other audio compression techniques make use of this fact. In addition, the ear has a nonlinear response to sounds of different loudness levels. Telephone networks and audio noise reduction systems make use of this fact by nonlinearly compressing data samples before transmission, and then expanding them for playback. Another effect of the ear's nonlinear response is that sounds that are close in frequency produce phantom beat notes, or intermodulation distortion products.

There are true psychoacoustic effects introduced by the brain. As an example, when someone listens to old crackly and needle-on-vinyl hiss-filled records, they soon stop noticing the background noise and enjoy the music. If a person who does this habitually appears to forget about the noise altogether, they may not even be able to tell you after

listening if there was noise present. This effect is called psycho-acoustical masking, and the brain’s ability to perform such masking has been important for the adoption of a number of technologies.

If a radio operator is straining to hear a weak Morse code signal in a noisy background, they would start to perceive hearing the pitch of tiny dots and dashes even when they are not present. This is called a Psychoacoustic phantom effect, and it plays an important role in any environment where people have heightened perceptions, such as when danger may be perceived to be near. The psychoacoustic phantom effect is conceptually distinct from hallucination, where the brain auto generates perceptions.

Meditation and channelling It’s impossible to overstate the importance of meditation, because the benefits are enormous, such as improved physical, emotional, mental and spiritual health, greater personal power, enhanced creativity, increased ability to enact ideals and an enhanced sense of purpose and well-being. Meditation involves the art of controlling the mind, and harnessing its power. In druidry, there are no such things as Prayer, Blessing or Invocation, only Meditation and Channelling. We do not pray to a god because we can’t believe a god decides the outcomes of events in our lives. We do not attempt to bless anything, as no human is capable of making something more divine than it already is, its a sacredness that is felt in the individual only. We do not invoke god, because such an entity does not exist to be called upon in the first place.

We may however ‘pray’ for someone, but this is in effect the act of directly channelling positive energy towards a person in ritual, which involves no intermediating force, unlike praying to a perceived God figure. We may also say that something is a ‘blessing’, or is ‘blessed’, but this is merely a way of saying that something is sacred to us. That is why Pagans use the saying ‘blessed it be’ a lot, meaning ‘may whatever we share be sacred’. Nevertheless, we meditate for our own well being, to achieve a wiser, happier and healthier life. It helps us to experience more out of this world, and find an Inner peace. It teaches us to love and respect life in all its forms, and to feel a part of it. There lies deep within the Earths crust a Love that all are entitled to, found in the sensation of wholeness.

Likewise, Channelling can be good for our personal well being, if it is done as a cleansing exercise. Although, most of the time channelling is more an exercise in communal benefit, performed in ritual centres marked along energy currents that flow across the surface of Earth (Ley Lines). If a strong current of high frequency can be tapped into, it can be harnessed and distributed around the surrounding land, or onto people. It can have great healing effects, enhance sexual vitality and help fertilize soil.

Raising vibration: Every part of the Universe consists of molecules whose centre contains an atom around which electrons and protons revolve. Each molecule of a different molecular structure vibrates at a different frequency.

The inside of a molecule is identical in makeup to the Universe, like how planets revolve around central suns, solar systems around galaxies, and galaxies around a central universal sun. Each of these molecules vibrates at whatever frequency seems appropriate for our existence. Druidry teaches that as we become more spiritual in nature, by thinking of the welfare of others and not power or greed for example, the higher our molecules will vibrate. In theory, it is possible for these molecules to vibrate so rapidly that the frequency becomes pure light - Awen.

In the elementary sense of the word, vibration is an oscillation, a back and forth movement. Everything in our universe is governed by vibrations and has been created through vibrations. All that you see around you is made of this indestructible vibrating energy. It can’t be destroyed, but it can be changed. This is an important realisation, because it means that your soul can raise its energies and experience other levels of existence.

As you begin to evolve spiritually, your molecular structure rises in frequency and your spiritual body begins to attract and absorb more Light. As light begins to fill the space within each atom, the orbiting speed of the electrons increases.

As your conscious awareness grows, so too does your light quotient. The vibrational frequency or rate of oscillation of each atom increases, resulting in a lighter, finer version of you. Your being begins to resonate with the finer vibration of higher realms, enabling you to enter into and experience other dimensions of reality previously hidden from the denser, third dimensional reality.

Emotions have unique vibrations just like colours and physical objects do. These emotional vibrations also go from higher/faster to lower/slower. When you are laughing and having fun, your body’s vibrations are lighter (higher and faster). When you are tired and sick your vibrations are heavier (slower and lower). When you are in love, you feel energized, high, like you’re ‘walking on a cloud’. That’s because your emotions are literally adding voltage and power, which lightens your body. When you’re negative and depressed however, you feel sluggish, low or heavy. You feel ‘down’, because your emotional vibrations are giving your body a slower, lower vibration. This is not speaking metaphorically either, this is scientifically measurable.

Feeling negative feelings 0.01 – 0.08 Hz *

Feeling love and other positive feelings 0.10 – 0.15 Hz *

Photograph of fingers of 2 people thinking negative thoughts about each other

Photograph of fingers of same 2 people thinking positive thoughts about each other

The Power of Thought: While spoken words manifest as acoustic vibrations, thought can also influence a human being on various levels. Thought is an actual vibration within your aura, which is created by your lower mental body. These are vibrations that you can control, whenever negative thoughts come up, simply send them into the light.

You will soon realize that with some patience you will succeed in becoming the master of your thoughts. It is important to deal with the now, the present, not with the past or the future. You live in the now, and so should your mind. You gain more control over your thoughts when you become involved in spiritual work. Develop a more positive view of life by becoming more optimistic, and instead of looking for mistakes, look for solutions.

The Brain is the control panel for the body and thought, and it works via waves and vibration. The normal waking operation of the brain is in the Beta State, which limits learning ability and full brain function. In this normal waking Beta State, the brain wave frequency is between 15 and 75 cycles per second, averaging 25 cycles per second. The mind is busy with about 60,000 thoughts per day passing fleetingly through consciousness.

The first level of meditation is the Alpha State, which facilitates faster and more complete learning. In this meditative Alpha State, brain wave frequency is between 7 and 14 cycles per second. Your mind becomes stiller, calmer and less busy, so that your ability to learn new information is enhanced. This Alpha State is often referred to as the Super Learning state by educators, or as The Zone by athletes, or The Groove by musicians and artists. Fewer thoughts occur but they are more focused and persistent. Most people's experience with meditation is limited to the Alpha State, but there are two deeper states where the mind gets progressively stiller.

The deeper meditative states begin to occur in the Theta State, where brain wave frequency is between 4 to 6 cycles per second. You start to achieve real stillness and silence, and joy is experienced as the mind achieves harmony with

its source. The mind is considerably less busy in this Theta State with very few thoughts occurring, and those that do occur are laser focused, intentionally chosen and consciously recycled to create a recurring subconscious affirmation.

Below Theta is the Delta State, in which brain wave frequency is below 4 cycles per second and can go as low as half a cycle per second, which is complete stillness and silence. It is in this state that a full transcendent consciousness or what some have called cosmic consciousness or divine consciousness is achieved, a state of bliss and power.

It often takes a lifetime of practice to attain the Delta State, but occasionally individuals are propelled into it 'by accident' and have inspirational, transcendent experiences that are almost impossible to describe. Similar to a NDE (near death experience), delta state is coincidently also characterized by no or very little brain wave activity.

Our minds can operate like unruly, two-year-old children with no attention span and no apparent focus if we let them.

Practicing meditation techniques will empower you to become more focused, more mentally powerful and more able to create a successful and happy life. Even if you only ever attain the Alpha State in your meditations, you will be healthier, happier, more purposeful and more capable of creating the life you desire to have for yourself.

Techniques: Meditation can be done in a variety of ways, sometimes in its simplest form of silent breathing exercises, where the main principle is to take long, slow deep breaths, closing our eyes as we focus only on feeling the air filling our lungs when we inhale. When we breathe in, we feel the oneness and love of creation, when we breathe out, we imagine all the tension and negativity leaving our spirits. Breathing is the core of all meditation techniques, without proper breathing we won’t achieve a relaxed state.

The trick is to maintain no thought or focus on just 1 thought. Naturally, when you first start to meditate you will find it difficult to shut your thoughts off. Don’t worry, let those thoughts come, but let them go just as quickly. Have the thought, then go straight back to your focus. It is useful to try to remember some of these thoughts in order to analyse them later on, this will help reveal your patterns. Over time, the more you practice meditation the easier it becomes.

The more you do it, the deeper you can go into the mind and the quicker you can get there. I personally tend to start having strong visions after I reach a certain level, or sometimes my body starts to feel light, and I get a gentle constant orgasmic-like feeling all over my body.

Sometimes an induced trance or deep state can be brought on by intense focus on visual art like Mandalas (spiritually geometric designs) or by meditating to music. I often practice to Indian classical music, Gaelic folk music, Arabic folk music, or Spanish Flamenco. It is even possible to channel the energy of music, because the frequencies of such instruments as the Veena, Sitar, Guitar, Violin, Oud, Mandolin, Pipes, Drums and others similar, are very strong and carry beneficial energies. It has been scientifically proven that certain music gives off life sustaining energy, a simple way to test this is to watch the growth and vitality in plants as they are exposed to different kinds of music. Western and Indian classical music tend to be the most effective in such experiments. Plants respond very well to positive energy, I once had an Orange tree I used to meditate with, and it produced the most succulent fruits I have ever tasted.

When I first moved into that house though, that tree was not in such good health. The power that music, dance or visual art have to inspire emotions and actions in us is one of humanity’s greatest gifts and highest achievements.

The art of dance can also be used to invoke trance states, be it in a spectator or the dancer. Dance and music go hand in hand, as dance is the movement to music of the body. Dancers can invoke in us a vision of divine beauty, like in Indian dances for example, or fiery passion, like in Flamenco, and seductive sexuality as in Bellydance. Dance can tell stories, acting them out in movements, and is subsequently an effective way of communication. A dancer may work themselves into a state of trance, if they use the movements as a meditation. Dance is something that brings joy, and is highly beneficial to our physical health. To see the fire in the eyes of a dancer, and to be awestruck by the beauty of their vision, is transcendent of this world.

Meditating with the elements and nature is also another way, connecting to such things as trees, water or fire. Again by focusing and channelling its energy, we can achieve the same effects as other forms. When locating a tree to meditate on, always look for one that is healthy, it is particularly good if it is baring fruits. Most importantly, I find that a certain tree will just appeal to you instinctively anyway, or you will be automatically drawn to one. It’s important to focus on the energy fields around elements, visualize it and then feel it entering your body.

The body positions used when meditating are aimed at allowing energy to flow through you. Generally, you should keep your spine straight, and do not cross any of your limbs unless sitting cross legged. You can lie down flat on your back, sit up or even stand up, whichever you are comfortable with. If not using a visual aid or element, then you would want to have your eyes closed. Basically, the idea is to be positioned in a way to receive energy, so you must have your energy channels open. Also, it is best to pick a good time. What I mean is, at certain times it is better to mediate than others, such as during a storm, rain, at dawn or dusk or on the full moon. During these times, Electro-Magnetic energy is usually lesser intense, and the earth is said to be in a state of flux.

The Ley system The ancient ancestors were well known for building great stone works, leaving a legacy all over the land. Most of the work dates back to the times of around 3000BC and before, which points strongly to the time of indigenous culture in Britain. Stonehenge for example, was not built by British Celts, called Britons, it was built by indigenous peoples whose name we have lost in time. The Romans called these people Picts, who were a northern Briton inhabiting the Scottish Highlands since before the arrival of Celtic culture and people in Britain. Enormous stone monuments that are still scattered all over northern and Western Europe today were actually built in the Bronze Age, not the Iron Age. All of these sacred places were erected along what is known as a Ley line.

Leys cannot be measured, because our present understanding is that they are conduits of seemingly infinite energy.

Such a phenomena only becomes revealed when we find many different sites or famous landmarks linked together in a straight line, alignments originally based on what our distant ancestors had perhaps found through psychic means, known as Dowsing. We could think of Leys then as neutral-zero null-lines, or the still point in the centre of the circle.

This is our major ancestral inheritance, a vast system of natural currents that distribute subtle and beneficial energy throughout the land. These currents are part of what is known as the Ley System. The purpose of this Ley system was to magnify the energy currents that ran through and across the body of the earth and then to channel them across the land. Marked along these Ley lines were many various sacred constructions such as standing stones, stone circles, tombs, burial mounds, cromlechs, brochs, Weems, hill figures and much later churches.

Ancient man possessed what is known as ESP (extra sensory perception). Heightened perceptions could mean they had the ability to do such things as move large masses of matter by use of sound and thought (‘Telekinesis’), manipulating vibration. A common folk belief is that giants were partly responsible for the placing of the stones, or that this Ley system could have the potential to be part of an even bigger worldwide system, whereby telepathic communication was enabled instantly all over the world at sacred centres.

Wet earth dampens electro-magnetic radiation (which usually bombards the brain), it allows the person a chance to receive other transdimensional energy and radiation. ESP is therefore favourable inside caves and potholes, which actually symbolizes or represents the vagina. Stone circles, cromlechs and holed stones (MĂŞn-An-Tol) were also symbolic of the vagina.

The sacredness of motherhood as kinship factor is an indigenous belief. Standing stones are phallic symbols and their planting in the ground was a symbolic penetration of mother earth. The erect phallus was a representation of the fertilising power of the sun and the life force that sustains it.

Women would ritually rub themselves against stones to fall pregnant or in prayer for courtship. Holed stones were associated with healing and revitalisation, the hole serving as a focus point for the energy current. Anyone who climbed through the hole would receive renewed vitality into the body, and as an ancient fertility rite, couples would often clasp hands through the hole.

One of the most interesting stone constructions is at Avebury, which looks rather like a sperm entering the ovum, but it is actually a serpent passing through the sun. In the middle of the sun are two stone circles, in fact the whole image is marked out in standing stones and is only visible from the air. Some larger stone circles (like the famous Stonehenge on Salisbury plain or at Calanais in Scotland) provide accurate calculation of the movements of the sun, moon and stars, equally placed apart at 2.72ft (megalithic yard). Similar to the hill figures and Nasca lines of South America, these images are laid out over a huge portion of land and are made for communication to the stars. Other colossal images are zodiacs like that of Glastonbury, Hertfordshire and Carmarthenshire, where every sign is marked out on the landscape accurately aligned with their constellations.

How to find Ley lines: There are no scientific instruments that can detect Earth energies easily yet, but using a technique called Dowsing (finding water), is the best way to locate them. Dowsing has been a tried and tested method of finding water for centuries, and there are even mining companies who hire dowsers to try and locate mineral deposits for them. Dowsing is done with a tool known as Divining Rods (two L shaped rods of steel), or sometimes its also known as Swing Rods, or Angle Rods.

You can make Diving rods out of two 20 inch metallic rods of fairly heavy wire, but even coat hangars will work to a degree. Bend the rods into an "L" shape, at about 5 inches (13 cm) from one end. For handles, a length of 1" dowelling, with a hole down the centre, or several cotton reels glued together will do very nicely. Hold one in each hand, while projecting straight outwards. Move slowly and if the two parallel and horizontal rods, separate or cross, theoretically you have water beneath that spot. But not just water, but moving water, meaning a stream.

There is also an element of belief involved, because remember in physics, faith is lack of resistance, whereas disbelief and fear are friction.

Therefore, whoever is holding the dowsing rods has to have a belief in its effectiveness to be a literal neutral and impartial and unbiased holder of the rods so that they can work. It is said that a truly gifted dowser can dowse for items through mental imagery, and seek using that imagery focused in their minds. It’s not magic, just the power of our minds, the ability to produce a vibration that is looking for a corresponding vibration and real article in the real world that is lost.

To find energy emitted from a standing stone is very simple. Walk across the face of the standing stone, with the tips of the rods slightly down from the horizontal, and concentrate your mind on finding the energy emitted from the stone.

You will find that the tips will swing gently either away from, or towards the standing stone. Follow the tips carefully,

and you will notice that the divining rods will take you in a smooth, bending wave. Everything emits microwave energy, and you can find this if you put two identical objects a few feet apart, like with wine glasses for instance. The band of energy is emitted from the top of the glasses and can be found as a band the same width as the glasses. If you follow the line along you can also find the waving bendy line. This is similar to the red line of unhealthy radiation in the bed below. Standing stones emit energies which form Ley lines (now more correctly called energy leys) and traverse the country, forming a highly sophisticated web of natural earth energies, intelligently controlled.

You have to keep moving when you tune into this type of energy. Make sure that the divining rods swing freely in their holders or hands. Once you become proficient, you can then use the wires in your bare hands which give a better feel.

Keep the points slightly down, as if they are higher than horizontal they will swing uncontrollably, or if they are too low they will be at their most insensitive position. Give the rods a brisk rub lengthwise with your free hand, which makes them more sensitive. Sometimes holding a piece of stone in one hand also helps us to focus the mind when tuning into a standing stone.

When you have had a little experience, try using just one divining rod, it will be much more accurate for you. Colouring the rods may help you separate out the different types of energies. For example, you could try using a white divining rod to pick out the healthy waves, and black to sort out the unhealthy ones, or blue to find the subterranean water which is beneath almost every standing stone. Colours help you tune your mind like a radio receiver. In order to find what a Ley line does, you have to follow the energy wherever it takes you.

Ritual: Rituals are performed to symbolically ‘act out’ spiritual consciousness. Rituals are events that are performed in groups or personal practices, they are helpful ways of conscious living. Many of us perform rituals without even knowing that is what we are doing.

For example, the act of washing/cleansing yourself and your surroundings (your house) is ritual. The act of eating is a ritual, even the act of making love is a ritual. Rituals can be on a daily basis, seasonal basis earth rituals or done simply when required.

The sacred circle is a designated area in which earth rituals take place. They are centres of power and energy where meditation and channelling is most effective, and are preferably built on Ley lines. The design above represents the trinity and the 8 fold wheel of the year, as a marker for each season is placed around the circle. The circle represents the womb and the sun (womb of life). Most commonly used are rings of fire or rings of stones. Fire represents the goddess, the stones represent fertility and the earth. The purpose of the ritual will decide the using of which elements, depending totally on freedom of choice and knowledge of elements and their properties.

Areas for earth rituals and elements involved must be chosen carefully, it is necessary to have some understanding of the Ley system and channelling before undertaking such a ceremony. The consequences of opening a negative Ley may cause illness, depression, accidents or unwanted spirits. However, in the event of a negative Ley it is necessary to use Dowsers. Dowsers are basically stakes with copper wire wrapped around them that are hammered into the earth at fixed points along the suspect Ley. This will reverse the polarity of the Ley and render it positive.

The Earth is witness to everything in history, its land is characterised by the spiritual manifestations of its power. You must read and know the land, to be a part of it so any imbalance within it registers in a conscious manner. Our thoughts mould the environment we live in, it is important to leave any place of ritual as natural as when you found it, do not damage a sacred site.

Radiation and attraction “As you sow, so you shall reap.”

The universe only has one function and that is to create, sustain and destroy. The rest, is our own reality which we create for ourselves through our thoughts. The world can be anything you want it to be, hell or heaven. It’s just a pity that so many view life as a struggle and think they are here to suffer rather than experience, because when we stop seeing the world as a dangerous, unforgiving, unfair or sad place it ceases to be so.

We become the effect of what we believe, everything is a result of our thoughts. How the mind perceives what the soul is telling it has the ultimate say in how well these pursuits in life are successful for us. This is exactly why we must be positive in our thoughts, because out of our thoughts all realities are created. Our thoughts are servants of the soul, understanding this process and how it works is a key to life.

Be who we really are, then do what we need to do in order to have what we want.

The law of radiation and attraction (karma) tells us to take responsibility for ourselves and our actions. Coming back to the golden rule of “Be free and don’t hurt people”, not only is it human to do so, but it is divine justice. The energy that you radiate out into the world, be it through conscious or subconscious thought, will ultimately steer events in your life.

We pursue the experiences of love, light and power.

Like a satellite dish, the direction you turn determines what comes into the dish of your energy field. What you attract into your field is your energetic food. It is literally what you are feeding yourself. Again, this is not speaking metaphorically, it is scientifically measurable in the old Newtonian way.

Creative Visualisation Creative visualisation is a meditating technique designed to dissolve blockages that we as humans naturally seem to set up in order to stop ourselves from our true desires. Using the law of karma, we must objectively listen to our ‘mental chatter’, it helps us to be conscious of our habitual thoughts, like old recordings. This whole process helps us to connect with our beingness, focus and facilitate our doingness and increase/expand our havingness in life.

This process is best done first thing in the morning after waking or just before sleeping. It is also beneficial to have a straight spine, as the energies flow much easier. The reason for this is that during these times our brain waves are deeply relaxed already, at the Alpha level, where our waves are slower. First of all you must know what it is you desire, which calls upon an analysis of your intention. This means you must be clear about how deeply you desire it, whether you believe you can do it and if you are willing to have it.

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Desire Belief Acceptance

Secondly, after setting your goal, create a clear idea or picture of it in your mind so that you can focus on it often. It is then up to you to give it as much positive energy as you can. However, if you don’t achieve these goals remember that goals change, you haven’t failed, just reassess the goal. You must be willing to let go so don’t become addicted to achieving it, the point here is just BE, don’t DO. So, Relaxation, Visualisation and Affirmation are the key processes to this technique of meditation. In meditation you: 1.

2.

Create your sanctuary Meet/Communicate with your spirit guide(s)

In healing meditation you can imagine a glowing golden light over the area of ill health, or Brighid’s fire inside of you warming your body. It is totally important to practice affirmations all the time, it helps to train your mind into more naturally positive thinking.

IDEAL SCENARIO In helping you to define your goals there is a simple exercise to practice in fantasizing. Write down on a piece of paper this question: If I could be, do and have anything I want, how would I describe my ideal situation in life?

Then proceed to put down these categories and answer accordingly as to what you would have, change or improve.

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Work/Career Money Lifestyle/Possessions Relationships Creative/Self Expression Leisure/Travel Personal Growth/Education World/Environment

Chakras

Chakra is the philosophical concept referring to wheel-like vortices which, according to traditional Indian medicine are believed to exist in the surface of the etheric ‘double’ of man (body double). The Chakras are said to be force centres or whirls of energy permeating from a point on the physical body. These rotating vortices of subtle matter are considered the focal points for the reception and transmission of natural energies. Hindu tradition believes the Chakras interact with the body's ductless endocrine glands and lymphatic system by feeding in good bio-energies and disposing of unwanted bio-energies.

There is a wide range of literature on the history and philosophy of Chakras. Besides the traditional Indian spiritual practices and religions, the concept of chakras have become popular in western culture amongst pagans and medical practitioners. Much of the original information on Chakras comes from the Upanishads (scriptures), which are difficult to date because they are believed to have been passed down orally, but believed to be approximately a thousand years before being written down for the first time, between 1200-900 BCE. 7 major Chakras or energy centres are generally believed to exist within the subtle body: 1.

2.

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Muladhara: Base or Root Chakra (last bone in spinal cord *coccyx*) Swadhisthana: Sacral Chakra (ovaries/prostate) Manipura: Solar Plexus Chakra (navel area) Anahata: Heart Chakra (heart area) Vishuddha: Throat Chakra (throat and neck area) Ajna: Brow or Third Eye Chakra (pituary gland) Sahasrara: Crown Chakra (pineal gland or third eye)

In Hinduism, the concept of Chakras is part of a complex of ideas related to esoteric anatomy. These ideas occur most often in the class of texts that are called Āgamas or Tantras. There are many variations on these concepts in the Sanskrit texts. In earlier texts there are various systems of Chakras and Nadis, with varying connections between them. Some traditional sources list 5, 6, 7, or 8 chakras. Over time though, one system of 6 or 7 chakras along the body's axis became the dominant model, which was adopted by most schools of yoga. This particular system may have originated in about the 11th century AD, and became widely popular quite quickly. It is in this model where Kundalini (coiled energy, forces of Shakti) is said to rise upward, piercing the various centres until reaching the crown of the head, resulting in union with the Divine. I describe it like so: Energy that was unleashed in creation, lies coiled and sleeping at the base of our spines. We are meant to arouse this energy, and cause it to rise back up through the increasingly subtler chakras, until union with God is achieved in the Sahasrara chakra at the crown of the head.

Sahasrara: The Crown Chakra Sahasrara is generally considered to be the chakra of pure consciousness. Its role may be envisioned somewhat similarly to that of the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones to communicate to the rest of the endocrine system and also connects to the central nervous system via the hypothalamus. The thalamus is thought to have a key role in the physical basis of consciousness. Symbolized by a lotus with one thousand petals, it is located at the crown of the head. Sahasrara is represented by the colour violet and it involves such issues as inner wisdom and the death of the body. Sahasrara's inner aspect deals with the release of karma, physical action with meditation, mental action with universal consciousness and unity, and emotional action with "beingness".

Ajna: The Brow Chakra Ajna (along with Bindu, also known as the third eye chakra) is linked to the pineal gland which may inform a model of its envisioning. The pineal gland is a light sensitive gland that produces the hormone melatonin which regulates sleep and awakening. Ajna is symbolised by a lotus with two petals, and corresponds to the colour white, indigo or deep blue. Ajna's key issues involve balancing the higher & lower selves and trusting inner guidance. Ajna's inner aspect relates to the access of intuition. Emotionally, Ajna deals with clarity on an intuitive level.

(Note: some opine that the pineal and pituitary glands should be exchanged in their relationship to the Crown and Brow chakras, based on the description in Arthur Avalon's book on kundalini called Serpent Power or empirical research.

Vishuddha: The Throat Chakra Vishuddha (also Vishuddhi) may be understood as relating to communication and growth through expression. This chakra is paralleled to the thyroid, a gland that is also in the throat and which produces thyroid hormone, responsible for growth and maturation. Symbolised by a lotus with sixteen petals. Vishudda is characterized by the colour light or pale blue, or turquoise. It governs such issues as self-expression and communication, as discussed above.

Physically, Vishuddha governs communication, emotionally it governs independence, mentally it governs fluent thought, and spiritually, it governs a sense of security.

Anahata: The Heart Chakra Anahata, or Anahata-puri, or padma-sundara is related to the thymus, located in the chest.

The thymus is an element of the immune system as well as being part of the endocrine system. It produces the T cells responsible for fending off disease and may be adversely affected by stress. Anahata is symbolised by a lotus flower with twelve petals. Anahata is related to the colours green or pink. Key issues involving Anahata involve complex emotions, compassion, tenderness, unconditional love, equilibrium, rejection and well being. Physically Anahata governs circulation, emotionally it governs unconditional love for the self and others, mentally it governs passion, and spiritually it governs devotion.

Manipura: The Solar Plexus Chakra Manipura or manipuraka is related to the metabolic and digestive systems. Manipura is believed to correspond to Islets of Langerhans, which are groups of cells in the pancreas, as well as the outer adrenal glands and the adrenal cortex. These play a valuable role in digestion, the conversion of food matter into energy for the body. Symbolised by a lotus with ten petals. The colour that corresponds to Manipura is yellow. Keys issues governed by Manipura are issues of personal power, fear, anxiety, opinion-formation, introversion, and transition from simple or base emotions to complex. Physically, Manipura governs digestion, mentally it governs personal power, emotionally it governs expansiveness, and spiritually, all matters of growth.

Svadisthana: The Sacral Chakra Swadhisthana, Svadisthana or adhishthana is located in the sacrum (hence the name) is considered to correspond to the testes or the ovaries that produce the various sex hormones involved in the reproductive cycle. Svadisthana is also considered to be related to, more generally, the genitourinary system and the adrenals. The Sacral Chakra is symbolized by a lotus with six petals, and corresponds to the colour orange. The key issues involving Svadisthana are relationships, violence, addictions, basic emotional needs, and pleasure. Physically, Svadisthana governs reproduction, mentally it governs creativity, emotionally it governs joy, and spiritually it governs enthusiasm.

Muladhara: The root Chakra Muladhara or root chakra is related to instinct, security, survival and also to basic human potentiality. This centre is located in the region between the genitals and the anus. Although no endocrine organ is placed here, it is said to relate to the gonads and the adrenal medulla, responsible for the fight and flight response when survival is under threat. In this region is located a muscle that controls ejaculation in the sexual act in the human male. A parallel is charted between the sperm cell and the ovum where the genetic code lies coiled and the kundalini. Muladhara is symbolised by a lotus with four petals and the colour red. Key issues involve sexuality, lust and obsession. Physically, Muladhara governs sexuality, mentally it governs stability, emotionally it governs, sensuality, and spiritually it governs a sense of security.

The chakras are thought to vitalize the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental nature. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance. The seven principal chakras are said by some to reflect how the unified consciousness of humanity (the immortal human being or the soul), is divided to manage different aspects of earthly life (body/instinct/vital energy/deeper emotions/communication/having an overview of life/contact to Awen/Shakti). The chakras are placed at differing levels of spiritual subtlety, with Sahasrara at the top being concerned with pure consciousness, and Muladhara at the bottom being concerned with matter, which is seen simply as crudified consciousness.

The Three cauldrons of Inspiration We associate emotional, physical and spiritual characteristics to different organs and bodily locations, knowledge with the head, emotions to the heart and vitality to the belly. These understandings subconsciously affect the way we move, our body language, our emotional responses and spiritual comprehension. Similar to the idea of Chakras, the cauldrons are simultaneously receivers and maintainers of energy. In the inspired practitioner, there are three cauldrons that affect the dispensing of inspiration and Awen.

The cauldron positions at first are the same in everybody.

The cauldron of warming is up, the cauldron of vocation is on its side, the cauldron of knowledge is upside down.

In most people the first cauldron is only operative, and the second is inverted over it, indicating a closed circuit of experience. In poets and other inspired practitioners the 2nd cauldron is turned on its side, as a receiver experience. In spiritual people the 3rd cauldron is also operative. The turning of the two upper cauldrons is rather mysterious. The position of 2nd determines your creative responsiveness, this can be demonstrated by anyone in love. It can also in turn activate the 3rd for those whose disposition is to follow a spiritual path. The alignment of the cauldrons is essential to the reception and distribution of inspiration, each acting as a vessel of nurture for the whole being. If one is inoperative, the rest will be impaired.

cauldron 1. Warming 2. Vocation 3. Knowledge

location

Belly/Womb Heart/Solar Plexus Head

health

Vitality/Physical Emotional/Psychic Spiritual

IDEAL POSITION: COIRE GORIATH (Warming) Operative in every person, the foundation vessel for maintaining energy and power. Preserving the cultural nourishment we receive in upbringing, providing the essential nurture we all require, upright in all living people.

COIRE ERNMAE (Vocation) Inverted for those who have no apparent gifts or skills. Positioned on its side in those aware of their gifts, like a satellite dish. In those fully enlightened it is upright. It can be turned by either sorrow or joy, it gives a rich selection of gifts for those its operative in. Sorrow has 4 divisions, longing, grief, jealousy and pilgrimage for god’s sake. Joy has 2 divisions, divine and human. Human can be classed as sexuality, health, long study or privileges. Divine is of course love.

COIRE SOIR (Knowledge) Originally inverted, it too can be turned by sorrow or joy (vocation may need to be fully operational before knowledge turns). Those who are spiritually operative or enlightened turn it upright, with the greatest artistic and spiritual gift capacity.

The Supernatural – spirit world The term supernatural pertains to entities, events or powers regarded as beyond nature, in that they cannot be explained by the currently understood laws of the natural world. Many people believe that the complexities and mysteries of the universe cannot be explained by naturalistic explanations alone, and argue that it is reasonable to assume that a non-natural entity or entities resolve the unexplained.

By its own definition, science today is incapable of examining or testing for the existence of things which are intestable and illogical. Science concerns itself with what can be measured and seen through observation, logic, and scientific reason. Proponents of supernaturalism claim that their belief system is more flexible, which allows them more diversity in terms of epistemology (ways of understanding knowledge). William Dembski writes: "For the theist attempting to understand nature, God as creator is fundamental, the creation is derivative, and nature as the physical part of creation is still further downstream In Druidry as with many ancient traditions, there is a high emphasis on the existence of spirits and the world of the dead. Ancients Celts believed that ancestors lived on in the Otherworld, only to die there and perhaps be reborn on Earth. The foundations of ancient Celtic houses were often set on top of or near burial grounds, we would put the skull underneath the ground to protect us from evil spirits and to keep our ancestors as part of our everyday lives. We viewed our Gods as being our great ancestors, but our human ancestors were just as important. Ancient Celts didn’t believe in spiritual death, only a physical one.

The fact is, too many people have and continue to claim strange events and encounters across the world, to dismiss their existence or fully explain rationally. Although, there are a lot of perfectly rational explanations for much of it, that still leaves a lot that is unexplained. Who knows what happens to our spirits when we die. All we know is that Life itself will never die, and if we started as a piece of the universe, so we will end as such, and in that way, yes we are immortal.

I don’t know if we come back as human beings, reborn into a new body. To do such would require your conscious state to continue after your body has died, the truth of which will prove a mystery for years to come. We may even simply evaporate and be absorbed into a natural entity or process, and continue our life as a cluster of energy without human consciousness. I confess even that I have had my own experiences with spirits, and seen things which I can not explain through rational thought. It is possible that other dimensions exist, and that non physical entities exist.

Dimensions In mathematics, the dimension of a space is roughly defined as ‘the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify every point within it’. Dimensions can be thought of as the axes in a coordinate system, which in a three-dimensional system run left-right, up-down and forward-backward. A set of three coordinates on these axes, or any other threedimensional coordinate system, specifies the position of a particular point in space. On surfaces such as a plane or the surface of a sphere, a point can be specified using just two numbers and so this space is said to be two-dimensional.

Similarly a line is one-dimensional because only one coordinate is needed, whereas a point has zero dimensions. In the physical world, according to the theory of relativity, the fourth dimension is Time, which runs before-after. An event’s position in space and time is therefore specified if four coordinates are given.

Another more relevant meaning of the term "dimension" is in Physics, and relates to the nature of a measurable quantity. In general, physical measurements that must be expressed in units of measurement, and quantities obtained by such measurements are dimensionful. An example of a dimension is length, abbreviated L, which is the dimension for measurements expressed in units of length, be they metres, nautical miles, or light-years. Another example is Time, abbreviated T, whether the measurement is expressed in seconds or in hours. Speed, which is the distance (length) travelled in a certain amount of time, is a dimensionful quantity that has the dimension LT −1 (meaning L/T).

Acceleration, the change in speed per time unit, has dimension LT −2.

Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative amount. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions (Cartesian coordinate system).

Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension". It is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, that movement in time occurs at the fixed rate of one second per second, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.

The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artefact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy). The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is PoincarĂŠ and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a fourdimensional manifold, known as space-time, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space.

Theories such as string theory and M-theory predict that physical space in general has in fact 10 and 11 dimensions, respectively. The extra dimensions are space like. We perceive only three spatial dimensions, and no physical experiments have confirmed the reality of additional dimensions. A possible explanation that has been suggested is that space is as it were "curled up" in the extra dimensions on a very small, subatomic scale, possibly at the quark level of scale or below.

5th Dimension In physics, the Fifth dimension is hypothetically an extra dimension beyond the usual three spatial and one time dimensions (4th). Physicists have speculated that the graviton, a particle thought to carry the force of gravity, may "leak" into the fifth or higher dimensions, which may explain how gravity is weaker than the other three fundamental forces. The Kaluza-Klein theory used a fifth dimension to unify gravity with the electromagnetic force, and now is seen as essentially a gauge theory with gauge group the circle group. M-theory suggests that space-time has eleven dimensions, seven of which are "rolled up" to below the sub-atomic level.

In 1993 the physicist Gerard 't Hooft put forward the holographic principle, which explains that the information about an extra dimension is visible as a curvature in a space-time with one fewer dimensions. It means, holograms are three dimensional pictures placed on a two dimensional surface, which gives the image a curvature when the observer moves. Similarly, in general relativity, the fourth dimension is manifested in observable three dimensions as the curvature of path of a moving infinitesimal (test) particle. Hooft has speculated that the fifth dimension is really the space-time fabric.

It has occasionally been stated the Fifth dimension is probability, meaning that the fifth dimension is the full amount of possibilities that could happen or, in other words, alternate realities. In 2006, an alternate theory was proposed by Martin Davies, which states that judging by the 3 spatial dimensions, and their counterpart, time, which allows movement around the 3 spatial dimensions, the 5th, 6th or a higher, dimension may be a 'time travel dimension' allowing the traversal of time.

Chapter notes This chapter revealed the structure of our reality, unfolded as particles combining to form atoms, which combine to make chemical elements and molecules, being pushed and fused together by waves of energy. Everything on Earth and in space is then created via different mixes of those compounded elements, including ourselves, who are almost entirely made up of just six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. We are still learning though, and forever exploring our realities. Humans have made this world complex to understand, but it is really quite basic when you look at the presented theories. Really anything is possible, who knows how many dimensions may co-exist unseen to our eyes, it may just require a frequency change to experience it. Each planet and star could be just Particles or Atoms themselves in a colossal super being or structure, which if true would make us pretty insignificant, and thus very vulnerable.

Working with the natural energies or forces of life may unlock our true potential abilities, and exceed our earthly limitations and boundaries. It takes many years of skill in deep trance like meditation and disciplined knowledge of the sciences to achieve though. I can not stress enough that even thinking about making oneself receptive to energies that are raw, extremely powerful or cosmic, is madness if the person knows or understands little. Only those who do not know the ways of the Spirit would attempt to approach the spiritual realm on human terms.

While the research of sciences can tell us how things are, and give them names, it still will never explain the question of why. That is something we can only explore through philosophy. This mysterious existence will forever enchant us, it reveals very little at a time, and is boundless. What we must remember now is, humanity can be greater than we are at our present state. But people have to take back their inner power as beings, for this revolution to begin. In chapter 2, it was important to teach you to see the universe around you, but with this chapter (and the previous), it was important to explain what you are really looking at.

Chapter 5: The Bard

Chapter 5: Intro There is a profound connection between art and spirituality. When a person is engaging in an artistic endeavour, they are participating in an act of creation. In that moment of creation, there is a natural connection between the artist and the Creator of all that is. In essence, the artist becomes the Creator. One of the reasons why we are here on Earth is to participate in the ongoing creative process of the universe. We are aspects of the Divine and we expand the wisdom and experience of the Creator through our own creative process.

This chapter focuses on history and the arts, the areas of expertise for Bardic Druids. It is important to understand however, that a practitioner who wishes to become a scholar of history, or an Artisan would at this point most likely seek out the traditional arts and history of their particular culture. For instance, I would more expect an English Druid to know the stories of his people, and practice the arts of his culture, rather than Celtic. Druidry has the benefit of being a path that can fit onto anyone’s culture and identity, because it’s individual like all of us. Having said that, if you aren’t Celtic, you may want to skip the history section in this chapter and research your own background.

All of my life, I have been a spiritual seeker fascinated by various cultures and traditions of the world. I have always marvelled at the amazing diversity that springs from different cultures and beliefs. There is so much beauty in the many ways to be a human. There have been wise ones and great healers in every culture. I have revelled in that diversity and found ways to weave those wisdoms into my life. These teachings have enriched me beyond measure. As a spiritual practitioner, I work with many different people with many different cultural and spiritual backgrounds. I feel it is important for me to work with each person in a way that honours that person’s unique perspective and background instead of trying to make them fit into mine.

I can not teach you to be a dancer, musician or painter in this book, which is a path for you to seek out in your own way.

So in this final section, you will learn about the language of Celtic Art. This is how to encode and symbolise sacred knowledge and messages, it is an ancient method of communication for those with trained senses to it.

Breathe in the world, breathe out music

Bardic and ovatic I define a Bard as a Druidic Artist, or a practitioner who’s more centred on creative pursuits, as well as one who incorporates or encodes teachings and philosophies into their art. As mentioned, the different roles of Bard, Ovate and Druid that were clearly defined in ancient times have gone, and can only really exist in relation to function and areas of specification of study and skill. All practitioners should have a comfortable understanding of fundamental modern science and philosophy (explained in previous chapters), but it is the layers on top of that which define a Druid as a Bardic or Ovatic one. There are 7 basic modern functions of the Druid in our culture, and the main areas of skill and knowledge related to each role is as follows: I) II) III) IV) V) VI) VII)

Artist: Performance, Literary, Visual and Culinary Arts.

Warrior: Martial Arts.

Philosopher: Philosophy and History.

Teacher: All subjects.

Scientist: Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Earth science.

Healer: Medicine, Nutrition.

Technician: Engineering and Technological fields.

Druids are taught philosophy first, then science and/or arts. It’s with philosophy that we first open ourselves to the path and begin our journey. When one concerns themself with the sciences, technical trades or healing they are what I call a modern Ovatic Druid. When one is of the warrior class, studies history and practices the arts, they are a modern Bardic Druid. Therefore I believe in two distinctly orientated paths of Druidry: the Ovatic Tradition and the Bardic Tradition. Many people however, may study various subjects that cross the seemingly Ovatic-Bardic border distinction, and consequently may prefer not to refer to themselves as either Bardic or Ovatic, but simply as Druidic. Generally speaking though, in most people there tends to be naturally the inclination towards either creative and expressive pursuits (arts), or technical and analytical pursuits (science), but not often both. Those who master both the path of Ovate and Bard are truly special people, and such wise masters of many skills are rare gems in this world.

There are no boundaries to what one learns in druidry, nor is it restricted to anyone of any race, gender and age.

Unlike the Freemasons and Wiccans, our path is not a segmented learning process, where so called ‘levels’ or ‘degrees’ exist, or are even more absurdly revealed to us by someone else. Learning is a natural process, an individual one, not a rigidly structured system. Again, these paths present a false image of liberty, they are institutions, factories of conservatism. There’s nothing glamorous about freemasons I’m afraid. When starting out on a path, ask advice from others on their own paths as to where to start your journey, they can help you forge your own way.

Bardic Tradition: In the old days we had the 3 paths of Bard, Ovate and Druid, which all fell under the term Druidry. The Bards were the artists, whereas the Ovates were like the scientists or practitioners, and the Druids were the philosophers and teachers. Today however, no such distinctions should really exist, as these traditions were eroded and changed throughout time. The Bard no longer travels from village to village singing the praise of heroes, delivering news and recording history, because in modern times the Bard has technology at their disposal, and politicians to scorn, not kings. Some recent famous bards are William Blake, Robert Burns, William Shakespeare, Percy Bysshe Shelley, J.R.R Tolkien, William Butler Yeats and Jim Morrison. Anyone whose art is more than mere entertainment, whose performance captures your imagination, making you forget you are being performed to, has that touch of magic you can't quite describe are true modern day bards.

In ancient times, the Bards formed a professional and largely hereditary caste of highly trained artisans and historians.

The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in the technical aspects of their arts. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official advisory roles. They also were chroniclers and messengers for the people, men and women of vision and creativity. Bards are responsible for transmitting energy through the arts, in particular music. Music and words are powerful sources of inspiration and energy, the emotion that music can capture will constantly cause people to relate to it. The bards were also credited for much of the survival of druidry throughout its oppressed years. A lot of the knowledge of the old ways was encoded into arts and symbolism, which slipped under the radar of the fearful Christian eye most of the time. Hence, Celtic people say that Brighid kept the fire burning through her bards.

As a modern Bard, I consider myself a messenger and a journalist for my community. Society and its politics are of a deep interest, and it is a bard’s duty and honour to inform and enlighten those around them. Through our art forms we keep the spirit of our ancestors alive, and inspire the hearts and minds of others to seek their truth and love. We provide our people with visions to spark their imaginations, and give to the world the beauty of creative expression. We are the heart of our peoples, carrying with us the stories and wisdom of our cultures. We are the keepers of a sacred and ancient flame that burns inside each of us, the radiators of Awen.

Bards use the Arts as the most important forms of expression in society. Art is to stimulate the human senses and mind, by transmitting ideas and/or emotions. Art is the use of skill and imagination in the creation of objects, experiences or environments that can be shared with others. It has been a part of human kind since the beginning. There are five categories of human arts as I see them:     

Performance Arts: Dance, Music, Theatre and Martial Arts.

Visual Arts: Painting, Drawing, Design (fashion/architecture/decorative), Handcrafts and Film.

Literary Arts: Writing, Poetry and Journalism.

Culinary Arts: Cooking and Brewing.

Sexual Arts: Kama Sutra, Sex Magic.

Even the area of history can be classed into the category of the arts, as it can be interpreted into almost any art form.

Being the repositories for a people’s culture and identity, it’s clear that a deep understanding of history is expected of a Bard. Sometimes, the mainstream version of history presented in today’s education systems is not necessarily accurate, as it is written from a largely one-sided perspective. It is the Bard who guards the truth, embodying the spirit of the ancestors. In this way, the tribe/community seeks its connection to the ancient ones through us, and seek answers from us in regards to the past.

9 gifts of the Cauldron: The cauldron is a sacred instrument to the Celt. It is the vessel of heat, plenty and inspiration, a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and rebirth. It is said in this metaphorical concept, that the waters between worlds are maintained in the cauldron, but the breath of the otherworldly fire heats those waters. Water and fire come together in their alchemical fusion to provide inspiration, the will to live that sustains us.

The cauldron is a symbol of inspiration, which is understood as the 9 gifts of the cauldron. This is a lore that is inextricably bound up with the Goddess Brighid (the Saraswati of Celtic culture), and sometimes it is also called the 9 fold sisterhood. In Brighid’s three aspects she promotes the health, livelihood and inspiration of the individual. The 9 inspirational gifts of Brighid’s Cauldron then provide a framework of 9 things that defines the Bardic way of life. We really could call them the 9 gifts of Brighid as well.         

Poetry – Sings and is filled with song.

Reflection – Maintains and is maintained.

Meditation – Preserves and is made strong.

Lore – Promotes and is enlarged.

Research – Requests and is filled with answers.

Great Knowledge – Gives and is replenished.

Intelligence – Arranges and receives arrangements.

Understanding – Nourishes and is given life.

Wisdom – Ennobles and is exalted.

Sacred Language of Symbolism The druidic tradition has always used symbology in script and picture for secret communication between each other.

Often there were messages left on stones that helped in the recording of information, these were written in symbolic languages that guarded it from those who were considered unworthy of such knowledge or to protect it from those who would destroy it, like raiding armies. The most familiar forms of written code were the Runic scripts, the ancient Greek alphabet and the Ogham. However, even certain shapes we find common everywhere we look today originally have their special meanings. Everything today that we see is constructed from these sacred shapes, you can’t escape them,

and they are the same symbols that are carved on tomb walls from 5000 years ago. Their meaning however has long been shadowed out of most people’s consciousness. Here are just a few examples of Druidic and Celtic interpretations of common geometric shapes and symbols:

The sacred language of symbols is fundamental to the Bardic/artistic traditions of the Druidic way. Still today, druids such as myself use symbology as a dominant form of communication. That is the difference between a Bard and an Artist, a Bard bases their artwork on the foundation of symbolism knowledge, whereas an artist, has no concept of encoding a sacred communication into their work.

Spirals represented the cyclical motion of life, the Awen spinning out into eternity. Also, anything which has 3 parts, or sides says a Triad is present in the design meaning. When a Triad is present it usually forms the basis for the whole symbol. Trinities occurring inside a circle, may represent Earthly realms, whereas trinities outside refer to Heavenly ones. For example, the inside trinity picture to the right could be taken to represent Mother, because the goddess symbol occurs inside the womb, which is a metaphor for ‘on Earth’.

Celtic Knotwork style art is generally symbolic of the interweaving paths of Sun and Moon, as the two lines cross and move around each other. You will also notice that most knotwork is not linear, meaning the lines do not terminate at any point or appear to have an end, which represents the immortality of the universe. The concept of the ‘endless knot’ also occurs in Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese, Nordic Viking and Indian Tantric art. Various interpretations of the symbol are:

     

The inter-twining of wisdom and compassion.

Interplay and interaction of the opposing forces in the dualistic world of manifestation, leading to their union, and ultimately to harmony in the universe.

The union of wisdom and method.

The inseparability of emptiness (shunyata) and dependent origination, the underlying reality of existence.

Symbolic of knot symbolism in linking ancestors and omnipresence and the magical ritual and meta-process of binding (Tantra, Yoga and religion).

Since the knot has no beginning or end it also symbolizes the infinite wisdom.

Runes The sacred runic scripts vary. Generally it is most often thought of as a more Nordic tradition to write runic stones.

However, in Wales they developed their own runic scripts known as the Caelbren. The Druids and early Christian monks were well familiar with runic scripts, but whether or not it was influenced by a Germanic source is not really known. You will notice that in some scripts, the characters bare resemblance to their Latin script equivalents. This to me would indicate that it was invented during a time in which Latin had already taken hold, and used only by certain castes.

Depending on what language you are encoding in, accents marks may be used in this script. There are no capital letter rules and grammar depends on the language in which it is encoding. This is totally a script used for encoding information from the untrained. As there are no equivalents of some letters, generally those new letters are incorporated into the script as their natural state. When translating from another language or encoding a message that is not in a Celtic language, the rune is an all purpose script that can be used quite easily. The reason why there are no equivalents of certain letters is that the language for which the script was used for (Saxon, Norse, Gaelic, Welsh), did not have those letters in their alphabets. I personally find the runic scripts much more preferable to the Ogham in as far as practicality goes, for the simple reason that most of the time I use English when encoding into script anyway, and the ogham does not allow for the insertion of previously non existent letters such as J, K, W, V, X or P to name a few.

The Ogham Unlike popular beliefs, the sacred script of the Ogham (ohm) was not the most common written code that ancient druids used. The fact is, Druids used Greek letters to write in the Iron Age. Ogham is actually an alphabet used primarily to represent the Gaelic language, and is a creation of the very early medieval period. It is thought to have been developed by earlier Irish scholars or druids for political, military or religious reasons, to provide a secret means of communication in opposition to the authorities of Roman Britain. The Roman Empire, which then ruled over neighbouring Britain, represented a very real threat of invasion to Ireland, which may have acted as a spur to the creation of the alphabet. Furthermore, in later centuries when the threat of invasion had receded and the Irish were themselves invading the western parts of Britain, the desire to keep communications secret from Romans or Romanised Britons would still have provided an incentive.

The Ogham is sometimes referred to as the Celtic Tree Alphabet, based on the tradition of ascribing names of trees to the individual letters. Some new agers falsely believe that each letter was symbolic, relating also to a colour, animal and month also, as if it was more than just an alphabet, but a cosmological system. This is of course fantasy, and much too much emphasis is placed on it by the majority of people, even after knowing that most scholars reject such a purpose for the Ogham. Here is the script for all intents and purposes:

Just like the Runes, which was developed later than the Ogham, there are certain letters of the modern western script that are not represented in these alphabets. This is simply because these alphabets are for Celtic languages. Gaelic has no words with the letters J, K, V, W, X, Y, Z in it, and other sounds are not represented in the Ogham because they can be found elsewhere in the Gaelic tongue, or can be created by using a combination of other letters. For example, a C or G can replace K, B or MH and BH can replace V, B can also replace P, DH or GH replaces Y, D replaces J, W is a Germanic sound, and X and Z also do not exist in Celtic languages. The main thing to remember is that it was not developed with the English language in mind. English wasn’t even existent back then, and the Saxons were a small tribe in northern Germany. It is important to forget all comparisons when dealing with the learning of this script because Celtic, Latin and Germanic languages are quite different.

The ogham is used for meditation also, and the mandala on the left was named after the legendary Finn McCool. Each letter of the Ogham represents a Celtic linguistic sound, which is accompanied by relative symbolism and used for divinatory purposes. The foundation of the written language was therefore built from the sounds of tree names. Because the Dipthongs were later medieval inclusions, it is possible that this was slightly misunderstood, which is why the sounds and tree names don’t seem to match as closely if you go by Gaelic pronunciation. Perhaps also, this was a Brythonic adjustment to the Gaelic Ogham. Grammatically, the line that runs through the centre of the letters stops between words, and generally there are no accent marks because they were also later additions to the Celtic languages.

It is in a very phonetic way that you must linguistically approach the Ogham.

It is virtually impossible to use the Ogham script as a normal alphabet for non-Celtic languages. If you were to translate from another language into the Ogham script it would have to be phonetically. Because there are absent letters, their sounds have to be recreated by imitating them with Gaelic letter combinations. This means that the spelling of the word in whatever language would drastically change, making it almost unrecognisable from the original. Unless you are

literate in a Celtic tongue, do not try to use the Ogham as an alphabet. If you are willing to improvise and add new letters and sounds to represent the absent ones, remember that only you will be able to understand it.

Numbers Numbers were also sacred to the druids, and each numeral had a reflective quality. Measurements and calculations formed the basis of a spiritual geometry, which was in turn used in many fields of excellence, where mathematics was required. 0 is not counted as a number, it means nothingness. The 9 numbers are as follows: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

One is the number of the individual, representing independence and attainment. Bards related this to unity and purity.

Two is the number of tact, diplomacy and close relationships. Bards related two to “as above, so below”.

Three is the number of communication, self-expression and the joys of life. Bards related this to the trinity and triads.

Four is the number of hard work, system and order. Bards related this to solidity.

Five is the number of freedom and variety, representing change and potential for expansion. There are 5 senses to the body and 5 elemental forces, the Bards related it to soul and karma.

Six is the number of home and responsibility, representing domesticity. Bards related six to time, allowing enough time for things to happen. Planting the seeds, and then waiting for them to appear.

Seven is the number of wisdom and understanding, relating to spiritual pursuits, intuition, study and contemplation. The Bards related seven to the moon and dreams.

Eight is the number of money and material satisfaction. The bards related it to purification of the yearly cycle.

Nine is the number of humanitarianism, compassion and giving. The bards regarded it as containing wisdom and knowledge gained through experience.

Like the Ogham, some falsely believe that numbers have a direct influence on our character. This is not true, numbers merely represent philosophies or understandings to us, they do not cause us to be or do anything. That’s the problem with the mainstream Neopagan or new age crowds, they like to read too much into it, they get carried away. Not everything has to be a mysterious ‘cosmological system’, this is the kind of thinking that causes many seeking a spiritual path to become confused and misled, and why there is so much contradictory rubbish out there doing way more harm than good.

Ancient Celtic history The story of the Celtic peoples started in early Iron Age Central Europe, around 1200 BC. Celtic society was a diverse group of tribal communities, and by around 500 BC they had split into several language groups and expanded as far west as Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula, as far east as Galatia (central Turkey), and as far north as Scotland. The first literary reference to the Celtic people, as Κeltoi, is by the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC. He says that the town of Massilia (Marseille in France) is near the Celts and also mentions a Celtic town of Nyrex (possibly Noreia in Austria). Another Greek philosopher Herodotus, seems to locate the Keltoi at the source of the Danube and in Iberia (Spain). The spread of the Celtic language and culture to Spain, Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, with the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to around 500 BC. Over the centuries of migration and cultural absorption, they developed into the separate ‘Celtic’ identities of Iberians, Gauls, Belgians, Galatians, Gaels and Britons.

The Celtic peoples were one of the great founding civilisations of Europe. They were the first European people north of the Alps to emerge into recorded history. The term is linguistic or cultural and not racial, as Celts are an Indo-European culture, and like most Europeans, are also descended from the prehistoric native stock. The ancestors of the Celtic peoples were the Urnfield cultures of the Bronze Age, who in turn descend from earlier Neolithic Danubians and IndoEuropeans (Kurgans). In modern times the Celts are divided between the Gaelic (Q) Celts - the Irish, Manx, and Scots, and the Brythonic (P) Celts - the Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons. Gaulish (Gallic), identified as a P Celtic language, died out around the fourth or fifth century A.D. Today only sixteen million people live in a Celtic country, and of these only 2.5 million speak a Celtic language, as do possibly a further one million outside the traditional Celtic areas, like the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

Invasion Myth: There is a simplistic mental image produced by reading textbooks, in which we envision waves of people hurling themselves across Europe, destroying all in their path and imposing their ethnic identity and DNA on the prior inhabitants. This is incorrect. DNA testing has revealed that present-day inhabitants of Europe and Britain are primarily descended from the early prehistoric or original inhabitants. It is true that a tribe or group of people may ‘win the war’ and impose their rule and their culture, which happened time and time again. But they intermarry, rather than annihilate, and the basic stock remains the same. Nevertheless, it is remarkable how widespread Celtic culture was in Europe (Spain, France, and Britain).

Despite the inaccuracy of the old beliefs, Celts did come to inhabit and dominate most of Europe. There were tribes after tribes of migrations, but they were in smaller numbers than initially thought, not some mass exodus. Archaeology has been turning itself in knots trying to locate these ‘invasions’ but there are so many problems distorting the truth.

The fact that the Celt is predominantly a cultural branch of Indo-European identity, means there is no unique genetic evidence to track them with, or to differentiate them from their other Germanic or Nordic brothers. Also, they weren’t really noted as invasions other than in mythology, which is metaphorical.

The truth is that they were mainly settlements. Celtic settlers no doubt used warfare to permanently establish themselves when they were met with resistance from natives, but they did not come for centralised imperialistic reasons like the Romans. Celtic peoples dominated Europe for over 500 years, but unofficially, because the Celts saw themselves as separate tribes and never proclaimed any empire as such. You must look at the Celt as being the seed of a flower that planted its roots into whatever land it found itself in. In other words, the Celts attached themselves to the peoples they found, absorbing and integrating them into their culture, which is why different kinds of Celts appear over different regions. It is on the continent that Celtic culture was at its purest and most dominant. The absorption of Celtic migrants into the populations of the native Irish and British wasn’t so much the case on the continent, in fact it was the other way around. This is because far more Celts were migrating and in bigger tribes, overtaking the native populations of mainland Europe. culture: It’s unfortunate that only things like war get recorded into history books, and so makes people assume that it was all that happened in the past. We have no recollections of events not related to war, only mythology which is at best 50% accurate and still very much focused on war. Ancient writers often dwelt on the terrifying effect an army of Celts had on their enemies. The numerous sounds of Carnyxes, the war cries and cheering, the rhythmic clashing of their weapons against shields and the gestures of naked and painted warriors in the front line. Their larger stature and

strange appearance was often enough to literally make an enemy wet his pants, not to mention their ferocious reputation in battle. The Celts were often spoken of as one of the ancient world’s most feared armies, and there was good reason for it too. Forgetting the propaganda and exaggeration of fantasy, they were in truth an incredibly warlike people and their ability to slaughter large amounts of enemies was unquestionable. This ability was also backed up by a fiery temperament and fearless attitude towards death. For the Celtic warrior, dying on the battlefield was the ultimately honourable death, it is a similar concept to the Samurai of Japan. The image of the Celtic warrior therefore, is the one that has endured through the centuries and come to represent the spirit of our people.

In appearance the ancient Celts were generally tall (average man around 6ft), with both men and women of great stature. Their hair colours were usually fair, most commonly blonde, red and brown. Many chiefs lime washed their hair, making it stand out alarmingly green and causing it to dry like dreadlocks or a horse’s mane. This is similar to how some of the ancient Germans dyed their hair bright red. Normally Celtic men and women had long hair, and the men also had moustaches. Celtic women would braid and plait their hair into various styles, wearing decorative pins or other forms of jewellery. Celts often tattooed or painted symbolic patterns and artwork on their bodies, particularly before going to war. Tattooing was a highly spiritual exercise, and both men and women could be found with body art.

Women in ancient Celtic society were equal, much more so than they are in western society today. Women could be leaders, Druids, warriors, and hold any high status in their communities. There was no concept of gender discrimination, and in fact women were almost considered more important than men. Often, the senior women of a tribe would make the final decision as to whether war would be declared, and sometimes they would stand side by side with their men on the battlefield themselves. Romans were just as terrified of Celtic women as the men, which has been noted in some ancient texts. When Septimus Severus' (a Roman Emperor) wife, Julia Domna, criticised the sexual morals of the Celtic women, the wife of a Caledonian chief, Argentocoxos, replied wittily: "We fulfil the demands of nature much better than you Romans. We consort openly with the best of men, while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst".

In character, writers of other cultures would comment that Celts were always high spirited and were an energetic people with a good sense of humour. They loved a good time and revelled in music and dancing, their bards were very highly respected. They were very artistic and creative, revered for producing expertly skilled and fine displays of craftsmanship and imagination. They were deeply intuitive people who were close to nature, people of the earth in a true sense. They were passionate believers in the super natural and the spiritual world. They cherished freedom, so

much so that Roman rule was doubly hard for the Celt to accept because they were very free thinking people. To some Celts, every stranger (who came in peace, of course) was usually a guest and their hospitality was warm. Sometimes food would be offered and a drink would be served before the guest was even asked their name.

Clothing: Clothing of the ancient Celts varied depending on the wealth of the person and the occasion.

We know that some often went naked into battle, wearing only weapons, body art and a helmet. This was intimidating to their opponent as well as boastful, believing that they had the protection of the gods. Chain mail was an invention of the Celts, and sometimes they did even wear a form of plated armour, but not very often.

However, war was not the norm in any society, it was also for the more elite warrior class rather than the average farmer. We know from classical sources that the Celts often wore ‘striking clothing’, very colourful and dazzling.

Often Celtic men wore a knee length tunic of a tartan or geometrical pattern, or sometimes just plain. Tunics were made from wool and dyed, and could be highly decorated with embroidery and fringing, again depending on the wealth of the individual. Celtic men wore trousers underneath their tunics most of the time, except in hotter weather. Cloaks would also be worn, and were usually of a tartan design, and fastened with brooches around the shoulders.

Most women wore longer tunics of the same kind of tartan and geometrical patterns or simply plain. Tunics were held up at the waist by a belt, made of gold, leather or even beads. The women also wore a thick shawl of animal fur or tartan around the shoulders, which was fastened together by a brooch. Men and women both wore shoes of mainly leather, which were not necessarily distinguishable from other contemporary cultures. Some of the wealthier warrior class could afford tall leather boots with woollen insides.

Celtic people loved to adorn themselves with jewellery also, which was similarly symbolic like the art of tattooing. Men and women wore all sorts of patterned armlets, bracelets and leg bracelets. The more jewellery one had, the wealthier they must have been, therefore it became a status symbol in society. Women often wore necklaces of precious ambers that were colourfully decorated in patterns. The ancient Celts were very good craftsmen with great imagination so jewellery was very beautifully and intricately designed with the typical Celtic patterns we still know of today.

Unlike popular beliefs, the Scottish Kilt that we see today is not at all an ancient form of Celtic clothing. Sadly it is a modern invention of the Victorian era (1800’s), as is the idea of a Tartaned clan system. It is not true that different clans wore different tartans so as to distinguish themselves from other clans. There would most likely have been common designs and colours peculiar to certain tribes, but this was not an ancient law, more likely it was due to the availability of dyes and believe it or not, fashion. Having said that, the Kilt has come to represent Scottish Highlanders today, as a modern symbol of Celtic culture, so in that way it is acceptable to claim it as Celtic.

The most potent symbol of Celtic people was the Torc, an open ended ring worn around the neck. There were also bracelets with this shape, and Torcs typically had sculpted ornaments, or animal heads on either end. This was the symbol of the warrior class, or the elite classes, as most other people were not able to afford such a piece. Torcs are a tradition that go back to 1200BC, to the earliest time of Celtic culture. In modern times it is very rare to see, but the modern day wearer of a Torc usually denotes Pagan, Druidic or Warrior connections.

The Gauls The Gallic tribes are probably the most famous Celts. When the early Greeks and Romans were writing about the Celts they were very rarely talking about Gaels or Britons, as contact with them was minimal. On the actions and movements of the Gauls and Belgae however, we know much more. The Gauls are one of the ancestors of modern day French, Belgians and Swiss. They had a significant influence on the populations of Northern Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, and of course much of Britain. The Gauls are the Celts of our history books, whose warriors defined an image of what we know today of this ancient culture.

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Redones Aulerci Diablintes Aulerci Eburovices Veneti Namnetes Andes Aulerci Cenomani Carnutes

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Senones Lingones Leuci Pictones Turones Bituriges Cubi Aedui Mandubii

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Sequani Rauraci Helvetii Santones Lemovices Arverni Ambarri Allobroges

Damnonii Novantae Selgovae Votadini Carvetii Brigantes Parisii (Br.) Deceangli Cornovii Corieltauvi Ordovices Demetae Silures Dobunni Catuvellauni Iceni Trinovantes Menapii Eburones Dumnonii Durotriges Atrebates (Br.)

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Regni Cantii Morini Atrebates (Fr.) Nervii Aduatuci Ambiani Veromandui Remi Treviri Caletes Bellovaci Suessiones Mediomatrici Unelli Baiocasses Lexovii Veliocasses Parisii (Fr.) Osismii Coriosolites Abrincatui

Bituriges Vivisci Petrocorii Cadurci Ruteni Nitobriges Elusates Volcae Tectosages

Invasion of italy: Gallic tribes invaded Northern Italy around 387BC, home to the Etruscan civilisation in the Po Valley. A Gallic army led by the Senonian chief Brennus, marched on the Etruscan province of Siena and attacked the town of Clusium. The Clusians, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help, though they were not allies or friends. Rome, weakened by recent wars, sent a delegation to investigate the situation. Negotiations broke down, resulting in Quintus Fabius, a member of a powerful patrician family, killing one of the Gallic leaders. The Gauls demanded the Fabians be handed over to them for justice. However, the defiant Romans not only refused, but, as Livy writes, "those who ought to have been punished were instead appointed for the coming year military tribunes with consular powers (the highest that could be granted)." The enraged Gauls promised war against the Romans to avenge the insult that they had been dealt, resulting in the Battle of the Allia and the subsequent siege of Rome itself.

The battle took place on July 18, 387 BC. About 24,000 Romans under Quintus Sulpicius fought against the Senones, who were about equal in number, under Brennus. The Romans, with six legions, took post on the Allia to check the advance of the Senones on Rome. In those days, a legion counted 4200 men, but was rarely fully manned. The Roman army was at this time a militia and very similar to a Greek phalanx battle line, with heavy hoplites in the centre (representing the richer Roman citizens) and extending to flanks with poorer and poorly armed conscripts (every soldier was required to supply his own equipment). When the Gauls attacked, the Roman flanks were routed leaving the Roman centre to be surrounded and slaughtered. Many of Rome's older citizens made up this centre and they would be sorely missed in the coming calamity. After annihilating the legions in at the river Allia, the Gauls marched on to Rome. They burnt the city to the ground, terrorising the population and laying siege to Capitol Hill. The Roman leaders were left with no choice but to pay a massive gold tribute to the Gauls for them to leave. When they failed to make the required weight in gold demanded, they complained that the Gallic chiefs were deliberately using faulty scales. Legend then has it that Brennus then threw his sword onto the scales, saying “Woe to the conquered�. It was a humiliating start to Rome’s history, and probably the incident that scared them into their imperialistic behaviour, viewing the Gauls as the biggest threat to their civilisation. For two centuries Roman armies fought the Celts and came off the losers most of the time.

Invasion of Greece: In 280 BCE a great army, comprising about 85,000 warriors, coming from Pannonia and split into three divisions, marched South in a great expedition to Macedon and central Greece. 20,000 of those, headed by Cerethrius, moved against the Thracians and Triballi. Another division, led by Brennus (not Allia leader) and Acichorius moved against Paionians, while a third division, headed by Bolgios, aimed for Macedonians and Illyrians.

Bolgios inflicted heavy losses on the Macedonians, whose young king, Ptolemy Keraunos, was captured and decapitated. However, Bolgios' contingent was repulsed by the Macedonian nobleman Sosthenes. Sosthenes, in turn, was attacked and defeated by Brennus and his division, who were then free to ravage the country. After these expeditions returned home, Brennus urged and persuaded them to mount a third united expedition against central Greece, led by himself and Acichorius. The army featured 152,000 infantry and 24,400 cavalry, but as a matter of fact, the actual number of horsemen has to be intended half as big. Pausanias describes how they used a tactic called trimarcisia, where each cavalryman was supported by two mounted servants, who could supply him with a spare horse should he have to be dismounted, or take his place in the battle, should he be killed or wounded.

In 279BC a Greek coalition made up of Aetolians, Boetians, Athenians, Phocians, and other Greeks north of Corinth took up quarters at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, on the east coast of central Greece. During the initial assault, Brennus' forces suffered heavy losses. Hence he decided to send a large force under Acichorius against Aetolia. The Aetolian detachment, as Brennus hoped, left Thermopylae to defend their homes. The Aetolians joined the defence en masse - the old and women joining the fight. Realizing that the Gallic sword was dangerous only at close quarters, the Aetolians resorted to skirmishing tactics. According to Pausanias, only half the number that had set out for Aetolia returned. Eventually Brennus found a way around the pass at Thermopylae but the Greeks escaped by sea.

Brennus pushed on to Delphi where he was defeated and forced to retreat, after which he died of wounds sustained in the battle. His army fell back to the river Spercheios where it was routed by the Thessalians and Malians. Both historians who relate the attack on Delphi, Pausanias and Junianus Justinus, say the Gauls were defeated and driven off. They were overtaken by a violent thunderstorm which made it impossible to manoeuvre or even hear their orders.

The night that followed was frosty, and in the morning the Greeks attacked them from both sides. Brennus was wounded and the Gauls fell back, killing their own wounded who were unable to retreat. That night a panic fell on the camp, as the Gauls divided into factions and fought amongst themselves. They were joined by Acichorius and the rest of the army, but the Greeks forced them into a full-scale retreat. Brennus took his own life, by drinking neat wine according to Pausanias, by stabbing himself according to Justinus. Pressed by the Aetolians, the Gauls fell back to the Spercheius, where the waiting Thessalians and Malians destroyed them.

Roman conquest: The Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in 58BC, on the pretext of assisting Rome's Gaulish allies against the migrating Helvetii (a Celtic tribe from Switzerland). With the help of various Gallic tribes like the Aedui, he managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. Caesar made use of the factionalism among the Gallic elites, favouring certain noblemen over others with political support and Roman luxuries such as wine. Attempts at revolt, such as that of Ambiorix in 54 BC, had secured only local support, but Vercingetorix,

whose father, Celtillus, had been put to death by his own countrymen for seeking to rule all of Gaul, managed to unify the Gallic tribes against the Romans and adopted more modern styles of warfare.

The revolt that Vercingetorix came to lead began in early 52 BC while Caesar was raising troops in Cisalpine Gaul.

Believing that Caesar would be distracted by the turmoil in Rome following the death of Clodius, the Carnutes, under Cotuatus and Conetodunus, made the first move, slaughtering the Romans who had settled in their territory.

Vercingetorix, still a young nobleman of the Arvernian city of Gergovia, roused his dependents to join the revolt. He and his followers were expelled by the nobles of the city, including Vercingetorix's uncle Gobanitio, because they thought opposing Caesar too great a risk. Undeterred however, Vercingetorix raised an army of the poor and took Gergovia, being hailed as king.

Vercingetorix and his army won some initial minor engagements with the Roman units led by Caesar and his chief lieutenant Titus Labienus. However, the Romans captured the capital of the Bituriges, Avaricum (Bourges), killing the entire population of 120,000. The next major battle was at Gergovia, where Vercingetorix defeated Caesar, inflicting heavy losses. However, the victory cost Vercingetorix many men, including many noblemen, and due to these losses he retreated and moved to another stronghold, in Alesia.

In the Battle of Alesia Caesar built a fortification around the city to besiege it. However, Caesar's army was surrounded by the rest of Gaul, and Vercingetorix had summoned his Gallic allies to attack the besieging Romans, so Caesar built another outer fortification against the expected relief armies (resulting in a doughnut-shaped fortification). The relief came in insufficient numbers, with estimates range from 80,000 to 250,000 soldiers. Vercingetorix, the tactical leader, was cut off from them on the inside and without his guidance the attacks were initially unsuccessful. However, the attacks did reveal a weak point in the fortifications and the combined forces on the inside and the outside almost made a breakthrough. Only when Caesar personally led the last reserves into battle did he finally manage to prevail.

This was a decisive battle in the creation of the Roman empire, and spelled the end to Celtic domination in Western Europe. Two major mistakes in generalship by Vercingetorix proved costly. Firstly he sent his cavalry away to get relieving forces, this meant that the Caesar had time to do anything he wanted. If the cavalry stayed, the Romans could only build there fortifications on the on the slopes or the hills. In 1 month the Romans had managed to build enormous siege works, leaving the Gauls trapped on the hill fort. His second mistake was to allow the Romans to occupy the hill fort, whereas he should have sacrificed every man he had to hold it, which would’ve been successful. Not even the relief force could break the defences, and it was then that Gaul had fallen. Vercingetorix surrended, was captured and then paraded through the streets of Rome and ritually executed.

As many as a million people (probably 1 in 4 of the Gauls) died, another million were enslaved, 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during the Gallic Wars. The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) 120,000 in all were slaughtered. During Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (present-day Switzerland) approximately 60% of the tribe was destroyed, and another 20% was taken into slavery. The Gaulish culture then was massively submerged by Roman culture, Latin language was adopted, and Gaul was absorbed into the Roman Empire, all the administration changed and Gauls eventually became Roman citizens.

In 260AD however, something odd happened, the Roman Empire's third-century economic and political crisis. The emperor Valerian was captured in battle against the Persians. Valerian's co-regent son Gallienus was left to rule alone. Postumus, a military commander in the West, perhaps the governor of Lower Germany, then made a break with Gallienus and established the Gallic Empire, an independent state composed of Gaul, Britain, and Spain.

Postumus seems to have been a very successful military commander up to the establishment of the Gallic Empire.

There is some debate over the nature of Postumus' rebellion. It apparently stems from a conflict between the generals of the western provinces. Postumus revolted over interference by Silvanus (another general in the west) with his command. It appears that Postumus did not have designs on the imperial throne, but remained content to have dominion over the Roman west. Gallic provinces broke with Rome frustrated by Gallienus' inability to protect the provinces from barbarian invasions. For seven years he ruled so beneficially that he restored Gaul to its former position, while Gallienus was wasting his time... all the people of Gaul were greatly attached to Postumus, because he had driven back all the German tribes and restored to the Roman Empire its former security.

In 263 or 264 (the historical record is unclear), Gallienus proceeded against Postumus in an attempt to recover the Gallic provinces and to avenge his son's death. Twice Postumus was on the verge of defeat and twice he escaped.

The second time Gallienus was shot in the back with an arrow while laying siege to a Gallic town in which Postumus had taken refuge. This wound forced Gallienus to withdraw his forces and the Gallic Empire remained undisturbed by the central empire for the rest of Postumus' reign.

In 269, a year of political turmoil within the Gallic Empire, saw the mutinous death of Postumus by his troops. This served as a signal to the Roman emperor Claudius II, who was able to bring Spain and parts of southern Gaul back into the Roman Empire. By early 274, Aurelian, the new Roman emperor successfully invaded the Gallic Empire, where it remained a part of the Roman Empire for several centuries more.

From the 3rd to 5th centuries, Gaul was exposed to raids by the Franks. This was at the time of the fall of the Roman Empire, when Germanic tribes were invading every corner of Roman territory. Frankish victory over the Gallo-Romans at the Battle of Soissons in AD 486, saw Gaul (except for Septimania) come under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of France. Gauls and Franks went on to form the kingdom of France, and the French and Belgians.

The Britons The Welsh word Brython, meaning an indigenous Briton, as opposed to an Anglo-Saxon or Gael, refers to the original inhabitants of what is now England, Wales and southern Scotland. They were never referred to by Romans as ‘Celts’, nor did they refer to themselves as such. There was some level of migration by Gallic and Belgic tribes from the continent to the east coast of Britain in the centuries before the Romans invaded, and there was already contact with the Gaelic Celts of Ireland. Today Britons are recognised as a culture that developed from the Indigenous people, but whom later adapted to new influences from the continent (via The Celts), and becoming essentially ‘Celtic Britons’. The ancient Britons at the time of the Roman invasion were a hybrid cultured people, but still largely of native stock. The arrival in Kent of the Belgae in the 1st century BC though, still requires explanation under any non-invasionist theory.

The Britons were speakers of the Brythonic languages.

Brythonic languages are believed to have been spoken on the entire island of Britain as far north as modern day Edinburgh in Scotland. Beyond this (the Scottish Highlands) was the territory of the Picts and Gaels. The Brythonic languages developed from Proto-Celtic (a common Bronze Age tongue), after it was introduced to the British Isles from the continent. The first form of the Brythonic languages is believed to be British. The major Brythonic languages today are Welsh and Breton, both of which survive as community languages. The Cornish language died out at the end of the eighteenth century, but attempts at reviving it started in the 20th century and are ongoing. Also notable, are the extinct languages of Cumbric, and possibly the extinct Pictish (although this may be best considered to be a sister of the Brythonic languages).

By the 8th century BC, there is increasing evidence of Britain being closely tied to continental Europe, especially in the south and east. New weapon types appeared with clear parallels to those on the continent, complex examples of which are found all over Atlantic Europe. Phoenician traders probably began visiting some of the British Isles in search of minerals around this time also, bringing with them goods from the Mediterranean. At the same time, northern European artefact types reached eastern Britain in large quantities from across the North Sea.

Roman Conquest: The Roman conquest of Britain was different to Gaul. Comparatively speaking, Britain was remarkable for its military character. It allowed for little civil development, and the island seems to have had no repose. Firstly, the warlike temper of the people and the trouble and time it took to subdue them turned the island into nothing more than a battlefield, a military zone. Also, the necessity to ward off other barbarians, such as the Picts, Irish and the Germans made it difficult to rest. Britain was also isolated from the rest of the empire, so as a province it was harder to administer.

The Romans didn’t exactly just invade, there is much more to it. The first attempt by Caesar to invade was made in late August 55BC. They failed to advance more than 1 mile inland, lasting a month before leaving. All the tribes of the south east were at war against each other, the Catuvellaunians, Trinovantes, Atrebates and Iceni. The Romans were asked to help fight the tyrannical Catuvellaunians, by Commios the chief of the Atrebates, who made an alliance with them out of fear. When he returned to his tribe he was captured and imprisoned, giving the Romans a perfect excuse to invade. On July 18, 54BC, the Roman army comprising of 5 Legions, 2000 cavalry, and 800 vessels (ships) landed at the Ictian port. Cassivellaunos led a united army of Catuvellaunians and Atrebates against them, after quickly sorting out their differences. Skirmishing battles took place between Cassivellaunos and Augustus Caesar, the two tribes retreating to their towns, which were pillaged and burnt.

The chief of the Trinovantes, Mandubratios, also made an alliance with the Romans following these events. Not only to save and protect himself but to take vengeance on Cassivellaunos, who killed the previous chief. The Romans were then attacked by the Cantiaci, ordered by Cassivellaunos, but they were beaten back, ending up with a peace treaty.

Commios was ordered to pay yearly tribute to Rome as well as hostages/slaves, and he was ordered to leave the Trinovantes alone by Augustus Caesar who left again in 54BC. What is amazing is that it wasn’t until 43AD that the Romans saw any real reason to invade Britain.

Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the status quo of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. His heir Augustus Caesar, prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. By 43AD however, the political situation within Britain was apparently in foment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester), and were pressing their neighbours the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Julius Caesar's former ally Commios.

In 43AD, Claudius mounted an invasion-force to re-instate Verica, an exiled king of the Atrebates, it was a pretext to an invasion of Britain. Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator, was given overall charge of four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, not counting the same amount in auxiliary numbers, probably Gauls. British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The battle raged for two days, but eventually the British were pushed back to the river Thames. The Romans pursued them across the river causing them to lose men in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force. Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his ‘victory’.

Late in 47AD the new governor of Britain, Ostorius Scapula began a campaign against the tribes of modern day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of south east Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself was defeated in one encounter and fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen, Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however given her own truce with the Romans and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced

by Aulus Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in AD 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Asia.

Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across Wales, famously destroying the druidical centre at Iona or Anglesey in AD 60. They destroyed groves and murdered on the altars their captives, which was clearly a psychological attack, as well as a physical one.

The Icenian king Prasatugus, who had ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman Emperor Nero in his will. However, when he died his will was ignored, possibly because the Romans, unlike the Britons, did not recognise daughters as heirs. The kingdom was annexed as if conquered, his wife, the Queen Boudicca was whipped and her daughters were raped.

Joined by the Trinovantes, who were also robbed of their land, an enraged British army led by Queen Boudicca (a druidess) was raised in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (Colchester), formerly the capital of the Trinovantes, but now a colonia (a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers) and the site of a temple to the former emperor Claudius, built and maintained at local expense, making it a resented sight. The terrified Roman citizens hid inside the temple, believing it to be their only hope. The British burnt it to the ground, along with the entire settlement, killing all inhabitants.

The 9th Roman legion was sent to relieve the settlement, but they were ambushed by the British and completely annihilated on their way there. The entire infantry was wiped out, and only the commander and some of his cavalry

escaped. When news of the rebellion reached Suetonius, he hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to Londinium (London). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of 43 AD, but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably, Roman officials.

Suetonius never considered giving battle there, considering his lack of numbers and the 9th Legions defeat, so he decided to sacrifice the city. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius. Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before 60 AD within the bounds of the Roman city.

Verulamium (St Albans) was next to be destroyed by Boudicca’s army, who were on their way to meet the main Roman forces returning from their campaign in Wales. An estimated 70,000-80,000 Romans were killed in the three cities by the British. Suetonius finally defeated Boudicca in the Battle of Watling Street. The crisis had led the emperor Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from the island, but Suetonius's eventual victory over Boudicca secured Roman control of the province. Despite what many believe, British resistance did not end with the defeat of Queen Boudicca’s revolution.

By 70AD, after many bloody battles the Romans manage to defeat the Brigantes, one of the most historical and important tribes in Britain. The conquering of the Brigantes opened up a gap to the far north, slowly bringing the Votadini, Novatae, Selgovae and Dumnoni into submission. By 85AD, the Romans were beginning to encounter the Picts in northern Scotland and their ferocious attitude for independence.

Around 120AD the emperor Hadrian built his wall complete with castles and watchtowers, separating Roman ‘Civilised’ Britain from Celtic ‘Barbarian’ Britain. In 162AD, massive invasions by the independent Pictish tribes of the Maetae and the Caledonians destroyed all in their path. The Romans bribed them to ‘be quiet’ for a few years, which they did, only to erupt over the border again in 182AD, again destroying and pillaging. These tribes constantly rebelled and invaded, undisturbed by the walls of the Romans. In 208AD the largest ever assembled Roman force was led by emperor Severus against the tribes of the north. Failing to achieve much, Severus dies and his son Antoninius fixes a peace treaty.

Like Gaul, Britain too separated from the empire for a short period. In 287AD Roman general Carausias became head of a fleet intended to suppress the Saxons and other Germans who had begun to raid the coasts. The emperor maximus accused Carausias of conniving for some reason or another, and he was ordered to be rid of. Revolting with his fleet, Carausias took possession of Britain and severed it from the empire. One of his followers, a man named Allectus murdered him in 294AD, probably for reasons of greed and jealousy, which were so common in the political side of this imperial game. In 296AD however, Constantius Chlorus led a Roman army against Allectus, killing him in battle and rejoining Britain back to the empire.

Although successful in his earlier years, Constantius was unable to subdue the Picts and Britons of the north, as more and more invasions were frequent from 306AD on. By 360AD, invasions of the Picts and the Scots ravaged the Northern Province so much that the Romans left within a further 4 years. Saxons also were ravaging the south east

coast. This whole period for the next 50 years or so was one of great unrest, and the gradual demise of the Romans in Britain, and the whole empire. In 369AD Theodorius was sent against the rebels, the Saxons retreating to the Orkneys, the Scots to Ireland and the Picts to the north.

In 383AD Maximus is proclaimed emperor, sending an army to repress the Picts and Scots. In 388AD Maximus was killed in battle in Gaul, leaving the Scots and Picts to invade the north again. It wasn’t until 396AD that the Romans, under Stilicho, managed to retake up position in the wall. It wasn’t long before the Romans troops again withdrew, leaving the Picts and Scots to invade in 402AD. 4 years later Germanic tribes like the Vandals and Alans were invading the empire on the continent. Roman soldiers had a general fear of being isolated and cut off from aid in Britain, should the empire be overrun by barbarians on the continent. It didn’t help matters when Gerontios, a Brythonic general who was one of Constantine’s men, tried to overthrow his power. However, Constantine won a great victory over the Germans and dispelled the fear of his soldiers. In 407AD Constantine led the Romans away to fight on the continent, they were never to return, Roman Britain was no longer.

The Gaels The Gaelic Celts began migrating from Galicia, Northern Spain around 800BC, settling on the west coast of Britain and mainly into Ireland. Galicia is still a state in modern Spain, and one of the seven recognised Celtic nations. The word ‘Galicia’ itself means ‘The Land of the Gaelic People’. Ireland of course, was already inhabited by peoples who had migrated there during the Stone Ages (starting around 10000BC). We know very little of the prehistoric Irish, but it was the Gaels who brought with them the Iron Age, and with it a new technology, new language and culture, which we associate with the Irish and Scottish today.

According to legend, the Gaels came from Scythia (more or less identified with the south of Ukraine, centre of Romania or Polish Galitzia, nowadays).

From there, they went to Egypt. Once their mission was fulfilled in Egypt, and after a brief return to Scythia, they went to Spain, which they conquered. The Gaels (also known as Milesians) were the sons of King Milesius of Spain. King Milesius had a brother named Ith, who discovered an Island. In the course of investigating whether it was the legendary Innisfail (Island of Destiny), Ith was wounded by the Tuatha de Danann (People of the Goddess Danu) and died on the journey home to Spain. Upon their arrival home, the remaining explorers found that King Milesius had also died.

His sons and their mother Scota, the daughter of the Pharaoh Nectanebus, then led a force that returned to punish the Tuatha de Danann for killing Ith. At first they attempt to invade Ireland but are beaten back, this was the first battle of Mag Tuiredh (Moy-tura). In the second invasion, the second battle of Mag Tuiredh, they succeeded.

The mother Scota was killed in the fight and her surviving sons, Eber and Eremon became rulers of the land. Eremon took the northern half of the Island while Eber took the south. The north-eastern corner was given to the people of their brother Ir who had also died in the fight, and the south-western corner was given to their cousin Lughaid, the son of Ith. The latest scientific facts prove that the ancestors of the Gaels actually came from Spain. Like any other Celtic tribe though, the Gaels could’ve been found many centuries before in central Europe before migrating west. The archaeological testimonies indicate that towards 9th century BC, influences pertaining to the Hallstatt culture (old Celtic) began to arrive in Galicia and North of Portugal, where it obviously continued to develop regionally into the

Gaelic culture. The Gaelic lands of Ireland and eventually Scotland were never conquered by Rome. No one is exactly sure why this was the case. During Roman occupation of Southern Britain, the Irish were known as pirates, who were constantly raiding the western coasts of Britain, like the Vikings did years later. Since that time Gaelic language in the past three centuries has greatly diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland, but there is a revival movement gathering pace. Gaelic is the oldest surviving European language that exists today.

Gaelic Scotland: Starting sometime around the 5th century AD, Gaelic language and culture spread from Ireland to the southwest coast of modern Scotland, where it may have already existed since Roman times. This area was known as Dál Riata, which is in the modern day Argyll peninsula. The Gaels soon spread out to most of the rest of the country, slowly overrunning the Picts (Scotland’s native people). This cultural and linguistic dominance in the area eventually led to the Latin name for Gaelic speaking peoples, Scoti, being applied to the state founded by the Gaels in the 10th century AD. This is when the ancient land of Caledonia, or also known as Pictavia, became ‘Scotland’.

This name implies that all Scots are Gaelic, which is not true. Gaelic Scots are only the Highland Scots, as the Lowlanders (south of Edinburgh etc) were British Celts who spoke Welsh up until the arrival of English many centuries later. Even the Highland Scots are really still Picts by blood, as the Gaels dominated culturally but intermarried with Pictish tribes. Nevertheless, Gaelic is symbolically synonymous with the Scottish Highlanders nowadays, whose clan systems, tartan dress, folk music and language still echo back to a distant Irish past.

Gaelic Mythology: Gaelic mythology is based on Irish folklore, which tells of 5 mythical invasions of Ireland (Eire in Gaelic). The invasions tradition begins with the Lebor Gabála Érenn (11th century text), which speaks of a race of gods called the Tuatha De Danann (peoples of the Goddess Danu). They are the fifth group to settle Ireland, conquering the island from the previous rulers the Fir Bolg. The Tuatha De Danann may be compared with the Titans and the Olympic gods of Greece.

The Tuatha De Danann were supposed to have come from the northern isles of Greece, where they had learned all the arts of magic. They brought four treasures with them from these parts: the Stone of Fal from Falias, which screamed under the foot of every rightful king, the Spear of Lugh, which came from Gorias, the Sword of Nuada, from Findias, and the Cauldron of the Dagda from Murias. The men were the Dagda, Lugh, Nuada and Dian Cecht, and the women were Danu, Brighid and Morrighu. There are also heroes who appear in myth, such as Cu Chulainn and Finn, but although of divine ancestry were in a different category than the gods of the Gaelic Celts. The story of the Tuatha de Dannan goes like this: The Tuatha Dé Danann were descended from Nemed, leader of a previous wave of inhabitants of Ireland. They came from four northern cities, Falias, Gorias, Murias and Finias, where they acquired their occult skills and attributes. They arrived in Ireland, on or about May 1 (the date of the festival of Beltaine), on dark clouds, although later versions rationalise this by saying they burned their ships to prevent retreat, and the "clouds" were the smoke produced.

Led by their king, Nuada, they fought the First Battle of Magh Tuiredh (Moytura), on the west coast, in which they defeated and displaced the native Fir Bolg, who then inhabited Ireland. In the battle, Nuada lost an arm to their champion, Sreng. Since he was no longer perfect, he could not continue as king and was replaced by the halfFomorian Bres, who turned out to be a tyrant. The physician Dian Cecht replaced Nuada's arm with a working silver one and he was reinstated as king. However, Dian Cecht's son Miach was dissatisfied with the replacement so he recited the spell, "ault fri halt dí féith fri féth" (joint to joint of it and sinew to sinew), which caused flesh to grow over the silver prosthesis over the course of nine days and nights. However, in a fit of jealous rage Dian Cecht slew his own son. Because of Nuada's restoration as leader, the Bres complained to his family and his father; Balor, king of the Fomor.

The Tuatha Dé Danann then fought the Second Battle of Magh Tuiredh against the Fomorians. Nuada was killed by the Fomorian king Balor's poisonous eye, but Balor was killed himself by Lugh, the champion of the Tuatha Dé, who took over as king. A third battle was fought against a subsequent wave of invaders, the Milesians, from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (present day Galicia and Northern Portugal), descendants of Míl Espáine (who are thought to represent the Goidelic Celts). The Milesians encountered three queens of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Éire, Banba and Fodla, who the island was to be named after. Éire is the origin of the modern name Gaelic name for Ireland Éire, and Banba and Fodla are still sometimes used as poetic names for Ireland.

Their three husbands, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, who were kings of the Tuatha Dé Danann at that time, asked for a truce of three days, during which the Milesians would lie at anchor nine waves' distance from the shore.

The Milesians complied, but the Tuatha Dé Danann created a magical storm in an attempt to drive them away. The Milesian poet Amergin calmed the sea with his verse, before his people landed and defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann at Tailtiu. When Amergin was called upon to divide the land between the Tuatha Dé Danann and his own people, he cleverly allotted the portion above ground to the Milesians and the portion underground to the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann were led underground into the Sidhe mounds by The Dagda.

The Tuatha Dé Danann fought against the witch Carman and her three sons. They are said to have brought chariots and druidry to Ireland.

Danu is called ‘mother of the gods’ because she is the Earth, and the personifications of gods (Tuatha De Danaan) are in human form. That is, we attribute their birth to come from the Earth, as we do. Therefore, it is purely metaphorical in meaning, based on the man-made gods representing a status no higher than superhuman. When I claim that Morrighu is my ancestor, what I would actually be saying is the Moon is my ancestor. It isn’t the representation of the gods we claim genetic lineage to, it is that which they personify we are children of.

The 3 Queens: Long ago, the Tuatha de Danann, children of the goddess Danu, ruled the land we know as Ireland. Legend has it that the Tuatha de Danann came to Irish shores not on boats and not marching on land, but as spirits who floated to their new home. Following their arrival, many wars were fought, but at long last the Tuatha de Danann defeated their enemies, the Formorians.

Hundreds of years of peace and prosperity followed.

And then one day the King of the Milesians, landed on Ireland's shores. Again war came to the land, but when the Milesians won, they offered half the world they inhabited to the spirits they had conquered, and so it is that to this day, the Tuatha De Danann inhabit the mounds beneath the earth.

King Cearmad, king of the Milesians, hoped to keep his land prosperous and peaceful. He knew that when their time came, each of his sons would rule the land for one year, as this was the custom of his people. Their wives, the queens of Ireland, would rule along with them. MacCuill, son of the hazel, wed the lovely Eire. MacCeacht, son of the plough, married another beauty, Fodhla, and their brother MacGreine, son of the sun, married yet another bonny lass, Banbha.

One day King Cearmad announced to the people that he wished to give their green and lush home a new name, a name that would reflect its people and their strengths. "Let us name the island after one of our queens," he announced to the people. "But which queen, then?" the people asked, and they looked at Eire, Fodhla and Banbha who, one after the other, graciously curtsied.

"Who indeed?" asked King Cearmad. "Each of our queens is more than worthy of this honour. Let the people decide."

And so the people began to keenly observe their three queens, watching to see which of the three was most graceful, which most elegant, which most generous, which most beautiful, which most honest, kind, intelligent, worthy of their lush island.

The queens walked among the people. They dressed in beautiful gowns and displayed their finest manners. They wore jewels in their hair and on their necks and wrists, and they smiled their dazzling smiles at everyone they passed. Not one unkind word did any of the women utter; never had the people seen such sweetness. They were generous, and friendly, and good.

"How will we ever decide?" the people asked, and since there seemed to be no answer to this question, King Cearmad finally announced a contest. "Tomorrow," he told his people and each of the queens, "the queens will walk from here to the gate of the Dun. Whoever reaches the gate first will be our winner."

The next morning, everyone rose at dawn, and each of the women prepared for her walk of many miles. They dressed in their finest gowns of silk and satin, jewels of gold, elegant shoes and shawls. The people looked in wonder at the sight of these elegant ladies walking with such stately grace out of the town gate. They lined the streets and riverbanks to observe their queens on this journey and murmured their approval. "Surely heroic Banbha will win," some of them whispered. "No, no," others said, "it is our brilliant Fodhla who is sure to win." Others laughed. "Watch Eire," they said, "what strength she has, like our island itself."

The women, gliding gracefully forward, looked at each other. They were keeping up a steady pace, but suddenly Banbha picked up her pace, and before long she was strides ahead of the other two. Fodhla quickened her step, and Eire followed, and soon they all three began to jog. They pulled off their fancy shoes and tossed these to the side of the road and dropped their shawls, for nothing would stop them now. After a while they lifted up their long skirts and flung them over their shoulders, and they picked up the pace again. They began to run, going a good clip, each one, with Eire passing Fodhla and both women passing Banbha, and Banbha running faster still and passing both women again.

As the women neared the Dun (castle), they were not only running -- they were racing, leaning forward, breathing hard.

On the riverbank, the people roared and cheered, laughing so hard at the sight they could barely see through their tears. Now a light rain began to fall, and the three queens began kicking up mud in their wake, splattering themselves and everyone as they sped for the finish. Their clothes tattered and ruined, their hair dripping with rain and perspiration, their nostrils flared like horses on a track, the queens neared Dun gate.

Through the gate they ran, one after another, and oh what a sight! Everyone was laughing, shouting, cheering, leaning forward to see who would win the race, with those three women splattering through the mud. It was beautiful Queen Eire who burst through the gate first, followed, one second slower, by Banbha. Then, only a second later, Fodhla came in. King Cearmad quieted the crowd so that he might make his announcement. "Our island will be known from this day forth by many names, he said. "Eire it will be at first, named for our beautiful winner, but year after year, our name will change, and sometimes we shall call our land Fodhla, other times Banbha, so that we always remember our strong, heroic queens." And so it was for many years.

The Picts The Picts were an amalgamation of incoming Celts from Europe and native, aboriginal peoples already populating Scotland. Over time, the two merged and so did their language. If this were the case, it would explain much about the enigmatic Picts, their mysterious language, and our lack of understanding of whom they were. It was the Romans that called them Picts, and not until the end of 2nd century AD did the first use of the term appear. It was a term that distinguished Roman British from Celtic British, and it literally means ‘painted people’, in reference to the Picts’ habit of tattooing themselves.

For a long time there was great mystery as to their identity, and they were thought to be a separate pre-Celtic culture of Britain. However, I am convinced that a ‘Pict’ is merely a term meaning a ‘Northern Briton’, one of the unconquered Celtic tribes of the north (Scotland). Like all ancient British, they descend from the Neolithic Atlantic peoples, but I believe they are cultural a remnant of a time when Gaelic culture was perhaps on the mainland of Britain. We know they predated the P-Celtic speaking tribes of the south, but we also know the Picts spoke some form of Celtic language. The names of major rivers (Deva - Dee) and (Tava - Tay) are Celtic names given to them by the Picts. Some early names, both tribal and of Pictish kings from the Irish annals, seem to show that they are clearly of some Celtic language.

The one thing we are sure of is that they were a mighty people who defied and defeated Rome. So hostile and warlike were the tribes of Scotland, that the Romans built 2 walls to keep them out. The Picts also slaughtered the Angles and hammered the invading Vikings back home centuries later, preserving a separate culture in Scotland until the arrival of Gaelic Irish. The extraordinary disappearance of their culture, customs, laws and art is a real question to be answered.

Within three generations of Scottish kings, the Picts were almost held in legendary status as a people of the past. It is the nagging story of an obscure genocide.

Pictavia - Caledonia: Pictavia was divided into seven kingdoms, which accord roughly to the Pictish foundation myth, the idea of seven sons dividing their father's kingdom into seven subkingdoms. A Gaelic source from St Columba, who writes in the Lebor Bretnach and the Lebor Gabála Érenn, reinforces this belief. He writes "Seven of Cruithne's (Gaelic name for Picts) children divided Alba (Gaelic name for Scotland) into seven divisions: the portion of Cat, of Ce, of Circinn, children with hundreds of possessions; the portion of Fib, of Fidach, of Fotla, and of Fortriu" Another quote from the early 13th century Latin text De Situ Albanie, claims that: “[Alba] was of old divided by seven brothers into seven parts. The chief (principalis) part is Enegus with Moerne [Angus & the Mearns], so called from Enegus, the first-born of the brothers.

The second is Adtheodle and Gouerin [Atholl & Gowrie]. The third part is Sradeern with Meneted [Strathearn & Menteith]. The fourth part is Fif with Forthreue [Fife & Kinross]. The fifth part is Marr with Buchen [Marr & Buchan]. The sixth is Muref and Ros [Moray & Ross]. The seventh is Cathanesia [Caithness] on this side and on the further side of the hill (ultra montem), for the hill called Mound divides Cathanesia in two. So each of these parts was then called and was in fact a ‘region,’ because each of them had in it a sub-region. Thence it is that those seven brothers aforesaid were held as seven kings, having under them seven petty kings (reguli)”.

Kingdoms given in light type are non-Pictish: Dal Riada = Gaelic settlement from Ulster, and Strathclyde, Gododdin, and Rheged = Brythonic (Old Welsh-speaking kingdoms).

One of the first geographical descriptions of Pictavia came with the survey of Britain carried out by the Greek Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. This included a fairly lengthy list of tribal names. In Cassius Dio's 3rd century writings, we find a division of the tribes of Pictavia into two main groups - The Caledonians and The Maeatae. In the same century, we have Eumenius referring to "Caledones and other Picts", but in the 4th century, Ammianus Marcellinus says that the bipartition is between the Caledonians and the Verturiones.

The Orkneys (Orcades) seem to have taken their name from a presumably Pictish seafaring and piratical tribe who lived there, known as the Orcs, often translated as "People of the Boar".

Other names of tribes can also be translated, such as the Cornavii - "People of the Horn", the Caereni - "People of the Sheep", the Lugi – “People of the Raven”, the Epidii being associated with the cult of Epona the horse deity and there also appears to have been a Northern bull-cult in the area around Burghead. We also have in translation the Smertae - “Smeared ones”, the Decantae - “nobles” and the Caledones – “Hard ones”.

Romans and Picts: Roman forces led by Gnaeus Julius Agricola entered Scotland for the first time in 79. The Romans met with fierce resistance from the local population of Caledonians. In 82 or 83 AD, Agricola sent a fleet of galleys up round the coast of Scotland, as far as the Orkney Islands. In 84 AD he defeated the Caledonian tribes at the Battle of Mons Graupius, due to superior tactics. Regardless of this victory, the Romans had failed to conquer Caledonia. They attempted to maintain control through military outposts and built a few roads, but were eventually forced to withdraw, concluding that the wealth of the land did not justify the extensive garrisoning requirements and the endless wars with the Picts.

In 197 AD, the northern tribes of Britain were confronted by walls and fortifications which had been wholly abandoned or else were held only by greatly weakened Roman garrisons. As a result, the Picts broke through and spread destruction all over the northern part of the Roman province. From a military point of view, the extent of the disaster was immense. Hadrian's Wall was overthrown so completely that in many places, when the time came for restoration, it had to be rebuilt from it foundations. Forts, milecastles and turrents all show that there were abundant traces of destruction at this time of about 197 AD. Southwards from the frontier, the network of forts covering the old Brigantian territory indicated the same conditions, even as far as York. The Picts broke through the wall more than once though.

In 296 AD, when its garrison was withdrawn for civil war, and again in 367-369 AD, by concerted attacks from land and sea.

It appears to have been evacuated after 383 AD, but Pictish raids into southern Britain continued long after the Romans had left, and eventually the Saxons were hired as mercenaries by the British to help fight off their invasions, as well as those of the Irish. The Picts were mighty sailors, and the Romans feared the Pictish Navy almost as much as the wild men who came down from the Highlands to attack the villages along the wall.

The Gaelic speaking Scoti (Scots) or more specifically, the Dál Riatans, arrived from Ireland from the late 5th century onwards, taking possession of Argyll and the west coast in the Kingdom of Dál Riata. The kingdom reached its height under King Áedán MacGabráin (r. 574-608), but its expansion was checked at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 by King Æthelfrith of Northumbria. Serious defeats in Ireland and Scotland in the time of Domnall Brecc (d. 642) ended Dál Riata's Golden Age, and the kingdom became a client of Northumbria, then subject to the Picts. A long period of instability in Dál Riata followed, where rivals fought each other in a kind of civile war for control over the kingdom. It was only ended by the conquest of the kingdom by Óengus MacFergusa, king of the Picts, in the 730s AD. After a third campaign by Óengus in 741, Dál Riata then disappears from the Irish records for a generation.

The Anglians (Northumbrians) expanding from their kingdom of Bernicia, seized the British kingdom of the Gododdin in the 7th Century, and the neighbouring Anglian kingdom of Deira (Bernicia and Deira later being called Northumbria), to become the most powerful kingdom in Britain. The Picts in the kingdom of Fortriu were then tributary to Northumbria until the reign of King Bridei, when the Anglians suffered a defeat at the battle of Dunnichen in 685AD, halting their expansion northwards. The Northumbrians would continue to dominate southern Scotland for the remainder of the Pictish period though.

In 768 AD, Dal Riata reappears, fighting against the Pictish king of Fortriu. This was led by a man named Áed Find, who at his death in 778 is called ‘king of Dál Riata’, as is his brother Fergus MacEchdach in 781. The Annals of Ulster say that a certain Donncoirche, king of Dál Riata died in 792, and there the record ends. Any number of theories have been advanced to fill the missing generations, none of which are founded on any very solid evidence. A number of kings are named in the Duan Albanach, and in royal genealogies, but these are rather less reliable than we might wish.

The obvious conclusion is that whoever ruled the petty kingdoms of Dál Riata after its defeat and conquest in the 730s, the conclusion is that Óengus mac Fergusa effectively destroyed the kingdom. It is unlikely that Dál Riata was ruled directly by Pictish kings, but it is argued that Domnall, son of Caustantín MacFergusa, was king of Dál Riata from 811 to 835 AD. He was apparently followed by the last named king of Dál Riata Áed MacBoanta, who was killed in the great Pictish defeat of 839 at the hands of the Vikings.

In 795 AD, a Viking raid on Iona, took hold of the Western Isles, Caithness and Sutherland. The Viking Age brought great changes in Britain and Ireland, no less in Scotland than elsewhere. Northumbria too succumbed to the Vikings, who founded the Kingdom of York. The king of Fortriu Eógan MacÓengusa, and king of Dál Riata Áed MacBoanta, and many more, were killed in a major battle against the Vikings in 839. The rise of Cínaed MacAilpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) in the 840s, in the aftermath of this disaster, brought to power the family who would preside over the last days of the Pictish kingdom and found the new kingdom of Alba.

It is well known that the Picts were one of Western culture's rare matrilineal societies, that is, bloodlines passed through the mother and Pictish kings were not succeeded by their sons, but by their brothers or nephews or cousins as traced by the female line. Kenneth MacAlpin was responsible for the event known as "MacAlpin's Treason". Kenneth was the son of a Pictish princess, which is how he inherited the crown in the first place. He murdered the members of the remaining rival royal houses, thus preserving the line for kingship of Alba for himself. We are certain that he possibly harboured a deep ethnic hatred for the Picts, because his father's kingship over the Scots had been earlier taken by the Pictish king Oengus, and ruled as both king of Picts and Scots. We must also be aware of the hostility of the time, the wars between Scots and Picts were often savage affairs.

In the reign of Cínaed's grandson, Caustantín MacÁeda (900–943), the kingdom of the Picts became the kingdom of Alba. The Picts, along with their language, did not disappear suddenly, instead a process of Gaelicisation, which may have begun generations earlier, saw the demise of Pictish culture and Old Caledonia. When the last inhabitants of Alba were fully Gaelicised, becoming Scots, during the 11th century, the Picts were forgotten by most people. Later they would reappear in myth and legend.

The Picts left many great stone monuments all over Scotland, large standing stones with beautifully designed artwork and symbols on them. Through these stones, we know for a fact that Pictish symbology was obsessed with animals. In hunting, the Picts believed that as they ate the animal its spirit mixed with theirs. These mysterious people still live on strongly in the blood of most Highland Scots today, but we still have much to recover from their story.

The fall of Rome The traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire is September 4, 476 AD, when Romulus Augustus (the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire) was deposed by the Germanic chief Odoacer. In fact though, Julius Nepos, (the legitimate emperor recognized by the East Roman Empire) continued to live in Salona, Dalmatia until he was assassinated in 480 AD. I must question the relevance of this date at all though, as The Goths who invaded Rome considered themselves as upholders of the direct line of Roman traditions, and that the Eastern Roman Empire continued until the Fall of Constantinople to the Turks on May 29, 1453 AD. Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, fought between the Romans and the Goths, and the death of Emperor Theodosius I in 395 AD, which was the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified.

During the 5th century, as the Western Roman Empire lost military strength and political cohesion, numerous Germanic peoples, under pressure from population growth and the invading Huns, began migrating en masse in far and diverse directions, taking them as far south as northern Africa and as far west as Britain. Over time, this wandering meant intrusions into other tribal territories, and the ensuing wars for land escalated with the dwindling amount of unoccupied territory. Wandering tribes then began staking out permanent homes as a means of protection. Much of

this resulted in fixed settlements from which many, under a powerful leader, expanded outwards. A defeat meant either scattering or merging with the dominant tribe, and this continual process of assimilation was how nations were formed.

For example, in Denmark the Jutes merged with the Danes, in Sweden the Geats merged with the Swedes. In England, the Angles merged with the Saxons and other groups as well as a large number of natives to form the AngloSaxons (The English).

It all started when back in 376 AD, the invasions of the Huns forced many Goths, led by Fritigern to seek exile into the Eastern Roman Empire. This was granted, but soon enough high taxes, Roman prejudice, and government corruption turned them against the Empire. The Goths began looting and pillaging throughout the Eastern Balkans. In the Battle of Adrianople in 378, Fritigern decisively defeated the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens, who died during or soon after the battle. By 382 a peace treaty was forged, in which the new Eastern Emperor, Theodosius I, signed a treaty with the Goths (later known as the Visigoths) that recognized their claim to the province of Thrace (modern day Romania).

Now as allies to Rome, and under a new leader Alaric, they accompanied Theodosius' Eastern Roman army to invade the West in 394, where at the Battle of the Frigidus, around half the Goths died fighting the Western Roman army under Eugenius and his general Arbogast. Theodosius had explicitly ordered the Goths to charge the usurpers army before he engaged his Roman soldiers, which was his deceptive way of weakening both the Goths and the Western Romans. Theodosius won the battle, but Alaric caught on to his plot. He knew at this point that the Romans sought to weaken the Goths by making them bear the brunt of warfare, in anticipation of a day when the Goths were weak enough to be completely subjugated.

Theodosius died in 395 AD, and soon after Alaric broke the peace treaty with the Romans. Alaric made several attempts at invading Italy after that, but was halted and decisively defeated at the Battle of Pollentia and later in the Battle of Verona. In time, he became an ally of the Eastern Romans again, agreeing to help them reclaim the province of Illyricum for the Western Empire. However, when other Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and the Sueves crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul, it was called off and Alaric was left with the expense of preparations for the campaign. The Roman general Stilicho persuaded the Roman Senate to reimburse Alaric, but the incident had caused a deep resentment in both the Romans and Goths towards each other.

Rome was attacked by the Goths, still led by Alaric I, laying siege to the city in late 408 AD. Starvation and disease rapidly spread throughout Rome, and they were forced to pay a large tribute to call off the siege. This happened twice during political disputes and Roman conspiring. Eventually a rival Gothic leader who was allied with the Romans, led an attack on the Goths, which would cause the 3rd and final siege and sacking of Rome by Alaric. on August 24, 410 AD. This was the first time the city had been sacked in 800 years (the Gauls in 387 BC), and its citizens were devastated. It was slaves that opened the Rome's Salarian Gate to let the Goths pour in and loot for three days.

Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently solely blamed in popular depictions for the decline of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century. I believe Germanic peoples are not the invaders of a decaying empire, but a people who were forced to co-operate into helping defend territory the central Roman government could no longer adequately administer, and to ensure their own survival. Individuals and small groups from Germanic tribes had long been recruited from the territories beyond regions just outside the Roman Empire, and some of them had risen high in the command structure of the army. Then the Empire recruited entire tribal groups under their native leaders as officers (they did this with the Celts also). Assisting with defence eventually shifted into administration and then outright rule, as Roman government passed into the hands of Germanic leaders. Odoacer, who deposed Romulus Augustulus, is the ultimate example.

Former Roman provinces now became successor states controlled by a nobility from one of the Germanic tribes.

Odoacer was followed by Theodoric the Great, a king of the Goths, who was regarded by Roman citizens and Gothic settlers alike as a legitimate successor to the rule of Rome and Italy. In reality, throughout the 5th century the Emperors of the Western Empire were usually figureheads, while the Eastern emperors struggled for their independence from military leaders. Rome was no longer the capital in the West, but it remained the West's largest city and its economic centre. It was later again sacked by another Germanic tribe called the Vandals in 455 AD for fourteen days, events that shocked the contemporaries and signalled the disintegration of Roman authority.

Ultimately, the fall of the Roman Empire was due to many reasons. The Germanic invasions, civil wars and native rebellions across their territories, the economic collapse, their debaucherous lifestyles, and corrupt governance all contributed to the demise of Rome. Rome was probably the biggest event in European ancient history, which still to this day resonates in many aspects of modern western cultures. Some say, the Roman Empire can even be linked to the conflict of identity between many European peoples. The centuries of continuous wars between the kingdoms of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland which followed surely give us an indication of the legacy which the Romans left in Britain at least.

Britannia after rome: Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. Picts were invading from the north, the Irish were raiding the west coasts and Germanic Angles and Saxons began to attack the south and east coasts of Britain. A Saxon incursion in 408 AD was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 there was a revolt by the people who expelled all the Roman administrators out of Britain forever. The Romans were totally gone, but they left the idea of a nation behind them. British warlords contended for power of this new nation, and the chief Vortigern was head among them. Britain was increasingly unable to defend itself against the attacks of the Irish and Picts, they had appealed to Rome twice and were helped but on the third time they were refused. The Britons then wanted to invite the Saxons in as mercenaries, under Vortigerns supervision around 455 AD. In exchange for this, the Saxons would have their maintenance.

Folk tradition talks says that the leader of the Saxons was Hengist, and he had brought with him his brother Horsa and his daughter, who Vortigern fell in love with. Vortigern composed a deal with Hengist that he could have his daughter in marriage and they would have the kingdom of Kent. An event called the ‘treachery of the long knives’ apparently took place, during a feast between British nobles and Saxon leaders. Each Briton was seated next to his Saxon counterpart, and on a prearranged signal ordered by Hengest, the Saxon nobles would turn around and stab their neighbouring Briton in the neck. The reasons for this are said to be that the Saxon leaders knew that they couldn’t fight the Britons on land in open battle, as that was mad and costly, and they were unprepared for such a task. So they needed to render the Britons politically unable to defend themselves by killing their leaders. After this incident the Saxons began to invade southern Britain.

There was no girl, or any such feast, and we certainly have no evidence of it taking place. What really happened was that after inviting the Saxons in, Vortigern failed to pay them, and so they revolted by annexing the kingdom of Kent.

The Anglo-Saxon chronicle states their were 4 battles between the Saxons and Britons, of which Vortigern was the leader of the first only, known as The Battle of Aylesford. Vortigern probably died in this battle, as did Hengist’s brother Horsa. No one is sure who won this battle, as it is not stated in records, but some scholars suggest a British victory.

The 2nd battle was in 457 AD, the Battle of Crayford, where there was a great victory for the Saxons. The 3rd was the Battle of Wippedesfleot in 466, which resulted in much bloodshed and slaughter on both sides, to the extent that hostilities abated for a while thereafter. Some historians believe it a Saxon victory, but the limited number of casualties is an indication that the battle was a minor one. The number of warriors involved more than likely had not reached 200 men. Somewhere around 493 AD was the Battle of Mons Badonicus, which was a decisive victory to the British. This is the battle at which the famous King Arthur is said to appear. For almost 60 years the Saxons were stopped dead in their tracks, and that is definitely not a myth, but unfortunately Arthur still remains a mystery.

Angles had begun to colonise the eastern coast of Britain for some decades, setting up the kingdom of Bernicia around 547 AD. Two years later came a disaster, the Bubonic plague, which ripped the heart out of the population, wiping out a third of Britain. This is possibly about the time of Arthur’s death also, which could be a reason why the Saxons again saw the opportunity to advance. Ceawlin became the king of Saxons in 556AD, conquering all of modern day Yorkeshire. The Saxons continued to have a string of victories, first in 571 at the Battle of Bedcanford, in 577 at Battle of Dyrham, and in 584 at Battle of Fethanleag. Slowly but surely the Anglo-Saxons overran all of eastern and southern Britain, setting up the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. The Battle of Catreath around 600 AD, was most recognised as the finishing point for the Britons in north, and the kingdom of the Gododdin.

Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, many battles took place, not only between Britons and Saxons but between the two rival Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Around 722 AD we hear of 3 battles with British victories, the Battle of Hehil, the Battle of Garth Maelog and the Battle of Pencon. Otherwise, the Saxons continued their domination for the most part. In 838 AD an army of Danish Vikings came to Cornwall and joined in by the British tribes in attacking the West Saxons, at the Battle of Hengestdun, they were however defeated. The Britons were gradually pushed west and they began to lose their native tongue and culture in the wake of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The Saxons and Angles eventually began to call themselves Engels in the south, which is where the term English derives from. The Saxon spread entirely across southern Britain, but the mountainous areas to the west (Wales) and the north (Scotland), remained Celtic, as did Ireland.

Viking Invasions: The motives driving the Viking expansion is a topic of much debate in Nordic history. The Norse population had outgrown agricultural potential of their Scandinavian homeland, and for a coastal population with superior naval technologies, it made sense to expand overseas. Sea raiding was far easier than clearing large areas of the Scandinavian forest for farm and pasture, especially in a region with a limited growing season. No such rise in population or decline in agricultural production has been definitively proven. Vikings also exploited a moment of weakness in the surrounding regions. For instance, the Danish Vikings were aware of the internal divisions within Charlemagne's empire that began in the 830s. England suffered from internal divisions, and was relatively easy prey given the proximity of many towns to the sea and easily navigable rivers. The lack of organized naval opposition throughout Western Europe very much allowed Viking ships to travel freely, raiding or trading as opportunity permitted.

In England the Viking Age began dramatically on June 8 793 AD when Norsemen destroyed the abbey of Lindisfarne, a centre of learning famous across the continent. Monks were butchered in the abbey, thrown into the sea to drown or carried away as slaves along with the church treasures. Three Viking ships had beached in Portland Bay four years earlier, but that incursion may have been a trading expedition that went wrong rather than a piratical raid. Lindisfarne was different, a devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island which shocked and alerted the all the royal Courts of Europe.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, after Lindisfarne and Iona, the Vikings continued on small-scale raids across England. There was great violence during the last decade of the 8th century on England’s northern and western shores. While the initial raiding groups were small, it is believed that a great amount of planning was involved.

During the winter between 840 and 841 AD, the Norwegians raided during the winter instead of the usual summer.

They waited on an island off Ireland. In 865 a large army of Danish Vikings, supposedly led by Ivar, Halfdan and Guthrum, arrived in East Anglia. They proceeded to cross England into Northumbria and captured York (calling it Jorvik), where some settled as farmers. Most of the English kingdoms, being in turmoil, could not stand against the Vikings, but Alfred of Wessex managed to keep the Vikings out of his country.

Alfred and his successors continued to drive back the Viking frontier and take York. A new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England in 947 AD when Erik Bloodaxe recaptured York for the raiders. The Viking presence continued through the reign of the Danish King Canute the Great (1016-1035), after which a series of inheritance arguments weakened the family reign. The Viking presence dwindled until 1066, when the Norwegians lost their final battle with the English.

The Vikings conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin and Limerick. The Vikings settled down and intermixed with the Irish. Literature, crafts, and decorative styles in Ireland and Britain reflected Viking culture very clearly, as they traded at Irish markets in Dublin. Excavations found imported fabrics from England, Byzantium, Persia, and central Asia. Eventually Dublin became so crowded that by the 11th century, houses were being constructed outside the town walls. The Vikings began their history in Ireland by pillaging monasteries on the west coast in 795 AD, then spreading out to cover the rest of the coastline. The north and east of the island were most affected, by 40 years of raids. By 830, the groups consisted of large fleets of Viking ships. From 840, the Vikings began establishing permanent bases at the coasts. Dublin was the most significant settlement, and it seems the Irish became accustomed to the Viking presence there over time. In some cases they became allies and also married each other.

There were two Viking nations at this point raiding the coasts of the British Isles, the Norwegians (Norse) and the Danish (Danes). The Norse in Ireland would come in conflict with the Danish, and the area around Dublin became part of the Danish kingdom that had been established in northern England. The Irish in 1014 AD united under the leadership of Brian Bóru and defeated the Danish at Clontarf, finally expelling the Norse for good.

The Vikings are thought to have led their first raids on what is now modern Scotland by the early eighth century AD. Their first known attack was on the Holy island of Iona in 794, the year following the raid on the other Holy island of Lindisfarne, Northumbria. In 839, a large Norse fleet invaded via the River Tay and River Earn, and reached into the heart of the Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. They defeated Eogán mac Óengusa, king of the Picts, his brother Bran and the king of the Scots of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, along with many members of the Pictish aristocracy in battle. The sophisticated kingdom that had been built fell apart, as did the Pictish leadership, which had been stable for over a hundred years since the time of Óengus mac Fergusa (The accession of Cináed mac Ailpín as king of both Picts and Scots can be attributed to the aftermath of this event).

By the mid-ninth century the Norsemen had settled in Shetland, the Orkneys, the Hebrides and Isles of Man and parts of mainland Scotland. The Norse settlers were to some extent integrating with the local Gaelic population in the Hebrides and Isle of Man. In 875, King Harald Finehair led a fleet from Norway to Scotland. In his attempt to unite Norway, he was able to subdue the the Viking rebels, and in doing so brought the independent Norwegians under his control, with many of the rebels having fled to Iceland. He found himself ruling not only Norway, but the Isles, Man and parts of Scotland. The Gallo-Vikings of the Hebredean Isles continued to act semi independently, in 973 AD forming a defensive pact with the King of Scotland. In 1095, King Magnus of Norway and King Edgar of Scotland agreed a treaty, whereby the islands would be controlled by Norway, but mainland territories would go to Scotland.

The Viking age proper in Scotland is generally considered to be in 1266 AD. In 1263, King Haakon IV of Norway, in retaliation for a Scots expedition to Skye, arrived on the west coast with a fleet from Norway and Orkney. His fleet linked up with those of King Magnus of Man and King Dougal of the Hebrides. After peace talks failed, his forces met with the Scots at Largs, in Ayrshire. The battle proved indecisive, but it did ensure that the Norse were not able to mount a further attack that year. Haakon died in Orkney, and by 1266, his son Magnus the Law-mender ceded the Kingdom of Man and the Isles, with all territories on mainland Scotland to Alexander III, through the Treaty of Perth.

Orkney and Shetland continued to be ruled as autonomous Jarldoms under Norway until 1468, when King Christian I pledged them as security on the dowry of his daughter, who was betrothed to James III of Scotland. The dowry was never paid, and the islands passed to Scotland.

The Vikings did not get everything their way. In one situation in England, a small Viking fleet attacked a rich monastery at Jarrow. The Vikings were met with stronger resistance than they expected, their leaders were killed, but the raiders escaped, only to have their ships beached at Tynemouth and the crews killed by locals. This was one of the last raids on England for about 40 years. The Vikings instead focused on Ireland and Scotland.

The Medieval Age Technically the Medieval age in Britain starts with the Anglo-Saxons arrival, but I tend to see it more starting around the arrival of the Normans, as it is this period (high middle ages) that we tend to be thinking of when we think of Medieval Europe. The Middle Ages conjures up images of knights, castles and feuding Kings, but we don’t realise it was the time when we saw the birth of modern European nations. It was a brutal time, ravaged with constant wars, political instability, and even a deadly plague. Most people don’t also understand that the medieval world was a highly oppressive one, it was a society where the rich had absolute power, and the poor were slaves. It was called serfdom, which meant that commoners were subject to the lords of the lands they lived in, and had virtually no rights. Religion was another major cause of oppression during this time, as the Church was morally and structurally corrupt to the core.

England: The story of the medieval kingdom of England starts with family betrayal, cultural genocide and political turmoil. It tells of the Norman conquest, and the destruction of old Anglo-Saxon England, including a civil war between two powerful brothers. In the early 1000’s, England was ruled by a Danish Viking, the King Canute, and was part of an empire that included Norway and Denmark. However, Canute went out his way to change absolutely nothing about Anglo-Saxon England. He appointed as his advisors mainly Englishmen, with the most influential one being the Earl Godwin, who was a total schemer. Canute’s son Edward succeeded him to the throne but soon realised that Godwin was in control. Godwin offered his daughter Edith in marriage to Edward, which he could not refuse without causing almost a civil war. Edward must have known as we do that Godwin had done this to get his grandchildren the crown.

Edward however, wasn’t playing the game though, he refuse to sleep with her. So as to not impregnate her, she was sent to a nunnery at Wherwell.

The breaking points came over the appointment of an archbishop of Canterbury, when Edward rejected Godwin's man and appointed the bishop of London, Robert of Jumièges, who was a trusted Norman. Matters would then come to a head over a bloody riot at Dover between the townsfolk and Edward's kinsman Eustace, count of Boulogne. Godwin refused to punish them, other Earls backed the King, and Godwin and his family were all exiled in September 1051 AD. Earl Godwin returned with an army the following year however, after defeating him, the king was forced to restore his title and send away his Norman advisors. Edward was now nothing more than a puppet king, turning to religion and being referred to as ‘the confessor’. The real trouble starts though, when Edward died without producing an heir in 1066 AD.

Harold Godwinson (Earl Godwin’s son) became king, in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan. However, William of Normandy and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne. Harold’s brother Tostig was a tyrannical lord of northern England, the other local lords rebelled against him and ultimately deplaced him. Needing the support of the northern lords, Harold goes against his brother. Harold then flees to Norway to get help from Harald Hardrada, the king of Norway, who also believes he has claim to the throne through Canute. Tostig and Harald then attempted to invade England with a large Danish force. The English under Harold Godwinson defeated and killed the Harald of Norway and Tostig and the Danish forces at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on september 25th, 1066 AD. It was such a decisive defeat, that of 300 ships that sailed, only 24 returned to Norway.

The English victory came at a great cost however, as Harold's army was now left in a battered and weakened state. A few days later, the Normans under William landed in Sussex and raided the local areas. Harold would once again have to fight for his life. The Normans and Saxons faced each other on October 14, 1066 at the Battle of Hastings. Almost the entire Saxon ruling class was wiped out at this battle, and it was a terrible defeat for the English. William was crowned king of England on Christmas Day 1066, but for the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the country and a Danish invasion. He led a campaign of terror and oppression against many communities, the violent genocide of a people. The lords who supported William in his invasion expected lands and titles in England, and so the Saxon ruling elite was completely displaced.

After the conquest, Ango-Norman and French political relations became very complicated and somewhat hostile. The Normans retained control of their holdings in Normandy and were thus still vassals to the King of France. At the same time, they were their equals as King of England. So, on the one hand they owed fealty to the King of France, and on the other hand they did not, because they were peers. In the 1150s, with the creation of the Angevin Empire, the Plantagenet family controlled half of France and all of England, dwarfing the power of the Capetians. Despite their dominance, the Normans were still technically vassals to France, and a crisis came in 1204 when French King Philip II seized all Norman and Angevin holdings in mainland France except for Gascony. This was one of the causes which led to the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) between England and France, the Anglo-Norman English kings tried to regain their dynastic holdings in France in the 14th century. In 1087 in France, William burned the town of Mantes (50 km west of Paris) after besieging it. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries by the saddle pommel.

On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons Robert and Henry, sparking strife between them.

The Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their direct ancestors had ruled the County of Anjou in France since the 9th century. The dynasty gained several other holdings over the centuries, building the Angevin (Plantagenet) Empire, which at its peak stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland. Henry was the first of the House of Plantagenet to rule England and was the great-grandson of William the Conqueror.

In total, fifteen Plantagenet monarchs, including those belonging to cadet branches ruled England from 1154 until 1485. The initial branch ruled from Henry II of England, until the deposition of Richard II of England in 1399. After that, two Plantagenet branches named the House of Lancaster and the House of York clashed in an English civil war known as the Wars of the Roses (1453–1487) over control of the house. After three ruling Lancastrian monarchs, the crown returned to senior primogeniture with three ruling Yorkist monarchs, the last being Richard III of England who was killed in battle during 1485. The last male Plantagenet, Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of Richard III's brother Clarence) was executed by Henry VII in 1499.

Scotland: In 1057 AD, Scotland was ruled by King Máel Coluim, who spent much of his reign conducting slave raids against the English, adding to the woes of that people in the aftermath of the Norman conquest. The monk historian Marianus Scotus tells us that "the Gaels and French devastated the English, and [the English] were dispersed and died of hunger, and were compelled to eat human flesh”. King Máel Coluim married the sister of the native English

claimant to the English throne, Edgar Atheling, and had given most of his children by this marriage Anglo-Saxon royal names. So in 1080, King William ‘the Conqueror’ sent his son on an invasion of Scotland. Máel Coluim submitted to the authority of the king, giving his oldest son Donnchad as a hostage. King Máel Coluim himself died in one of the raids, in 1093.

Disaster struck in 1286 when King Alexander III of Scotland died, leaving his 3 year old granddaughter Margaret (called ‘the Maid of Norway’) as his heir. In 1290, the Guardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Birgham agreeing to the marriage of the Margaret and Edward of Caernarvon, the son of Edward I, who was Margaret's great-uncle. This marriage would create a union between Scotland and England. The Scots insisted that the Treaty declare that Scotland was separate and divided from England and that its rights, laws, liberties and customs were wholly and inviolably preserved for all time.

While Margaret was travelling to her new kingdom she died, shortly after landing on the Orkney Islands around September 26, 1290. With her death, there were then 14 rivals for succession. The two leading competitors for the Scottish crown were Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale (grandfather of the future King Robert the Bruce) and John Balliol, Lord of Galloway. Fearing civil war between the Bruce and Balliol families and supporters, the Guardians of Scotland wrote to Edward I of England, asking him to come north and arbitrate between the claimants in order to avoid civil war.

Balliol was named king by a majority vote on November 17, 1292 and on November 30. He was crowned King of Scots at Scone Abbey. On December 26, at Newcastle upon Tyne, King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state. Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edward's demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to appear before him, and then ordered that he had until September 1, 1294 to provide Scottish troops and funds for his invasion of France. The Scots not only refused to do so, but they informed the French of English intentions and signed an alliance with them, by marrying John Balliol’s son to king Philip of France’s niece Jeanne de Valois.

This outraged Edward I, who began to make preparations for war. King John Balliol summoned all able-bodied Scotsmen to bear arms and gather at Caddonlee by March 11 1296. Several Scottish nobles chose to ignore the summons, including Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, whose father had his Annandale estate seized by John Balliol and reassigned to John 'The Red' Comyn. The war began in earnest with Edward I's sacking of Berwick in March 1296, followed by the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Dunbar and the abdication of John Balliol in July. The English invasion campaign had subdued most of the country by August and, after removing the Stone of Destiny from Scone Abbey and transporting it to Westminster Abbey, Edward convened a parliament at Berwick, where the Scottish nobles paid homage to him as King of England. Scotland had been all but conquered.

Revolts broke out in early 1297, led by William the son of nobleman Malcolm Wallace. Unlike as is portrayed in the film Braveheart, William Wallace was not a commoner, nor was there any proof of an incident of William’s wife being killed.

He began to lead a guerrilla war campaign, achieving victories in skirmishes at Loudoun Hill (near Darvel, Ayrshire) and Ayr. He also fought alongside Sir William Douglas the Hardy at Scone, routing the English justiciar, William Ormesby. Cities such as Aberdeen, Perth, Glasgow, Scone, Dundee, and all lands north of the Firth of Forth were freed by Andrew Moray however, not Wallace. Andrew Moray was also leading a brilliant guerrilla campaign against the English, and his force joined with Wallace at Stirling, where they met the English in battle.

The first key Scottish victory came on September 11, 1297, at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish army barely made 10,000 men, but managed to soundly beat an English Army of more than 30,000. Half of the entire English northern army was wiped out in that battle. This was followed by Scottish raids into northern England and the appointment of Wallace as Guardian of Scotland in March 1298. Edward invaded again in July, intending to crush Wallace and his followers, and he defeated the Scots at Falkirk. Edward failed to subdue Scotland completely before returning to England though.

Further campaigns by Edward in 1300 and 1301 led to a truce between the Scots and the English in 1302. After another campaign in 1303/1304, Stirling Castle, the last major Scottish held stronghold, fell to the English, and in

February 1304, negotiations led to most of the remaining nobles paying homage to Edward and to the Scots all but surrendering. Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305 when John de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroyston near Glasgow. Wallace was transported to London and tried for treason and the execution of civilians and prisoners at Westminster Hall where he was crowned with a garland of oak to suggest that he was the king of outlaws. He responded to the treason charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject". With this, Wallace asserted that the absent John Balliol was officially his king. Wallace was declared guilty. He was hanged, drawn and quartered, meaning: he was strangled by hanging but released while still alive, emasculated, eviscerated and his bowels burnt before him, beheaded, then cut into four parts.

His preserved head was placed on a pike on top of London Bridge. His limbs were displayed separately, in Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling, and Aberdeen as a warning.

Robert Bruce later came out of hiding in 1307, and the Scots flocked to his banner. He defeated the English in a number of battles, while his forces continued to grow in strength, encouraged in part by the death of Edward I in July 1307. By 1314, Bruce met Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn. Once again, the Scots were outnumbered by almost 3:1 ratio, with the total Scottish force around 6000 men. The English however were terribly defeated, losing almost 12,000 men, half of their army. This was the decisive victory that gave the Scots back their full independence and ended the first wars.

In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath was sent by a group of Scottish nobles to the Pope affirming Scottish independence from England. In 1327, Edward II of England was deposed and killed, apparently by a hot iron thrust up his anus. The invasion of the Northern England by Robert the Bruce followed, which forced Edward III of England to sign the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton on May 1, 1328, which recognised the independence of Scotland with Bruce as King. To further seal the peace, Robert's son and heir David married the sister of Edward III. The second wars started after Robert the Bruce's death. King David II, the Bruce’s heir, was too young to rule, so the guardianship was assumed by Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray. But Edward III, despite having given his name to the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, was determined to avenge the humiliation by the Scots and he could count on the assistance of Edward Balliol, the son of John Balliol and a claimant to the Scottish throne. Edward III also had the support of a group of Scottish nobles, led by Balliol and Henry Beaumont, known as the 'Disinherited.' This group of nobles had supported the English in the First War and, after Bannockburn, Robert the Bruce had deprived them of their titles and lands, granting them to his allies. When peace was concluded, they received no war reparations. These disinherited were hungry for their old lands and would prove to be the undoing of the peace.

The ‘disinherited’ landed at Kinghorn in Fife on August 6, 1332. The news of their advance had preceded them, and, as they marched towards Perth, they found their route barred by a large Scottish army. Caught in the murderous rain of arrows, most of the Scots didn't reach the enemy's line. When the slaughter was finally over, the Earl of Mar, Sir Robert Bruce (an illegitimate son of Robert the Bruce), many nobles and around 2,000 Scots had been slain. Edward Balliol then had himself crowned as King of Scots, first at Perth, and then again in September at Scone Abbey. Balliol's success surprised Edward III, and fearing that Balliol's invasion would eventually fail leading to a Scots invasion of England, he moved north with his army. By 1333, much of Scotland was again under English occupation, with eight of the Scottish lowland counties being ceded to England by Edward Balliol.

A series of Guardians kept up the struggle. In November, Edward III invaded again, but he accomplished little and retreated in February 1335 due to bad weather. He and Edward Balliol returned again in July with an army of 13,000, and advanced through Scotland, first to Glasgow and then Perth, where Edward III installed himself as his army looted and destroyed the surrounding countryside. At this time, the Scots followed a plan of avoiding pitched battles and evacuated the inhabitants of the lowlands as much as possible, moving them to the safety of the hills. Some Scots leaders, including the Earl of Atholl and the High Steward submitted to Edward at Perth.

By the end of the campaign, Scotland, although still independent, remained a virtual vassal of the Kingdom of England.

The power of the Scottish nobles, rested with land, and title controlled by the English Monarch. This remained thus, until the unification of the English and Scottish crowns in 1603, when the Kingdom of England, already in personal union with the Kingdom of Ireland since 1542, was inherited by James VI, King of Scots. The formal unification of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain was completed in the

Act of Union 1707. Up until this point, the English had dominated the British Isles, following the end the hundred years' war with France (1337-1453).

Wales: In the 1250s, Henry III of England and the young Edward I had attempted to conquer and hold down Wales. However, although much of Wales was subdued by Henry, the Welsh led by Llywelyn ap Gruffydd resisted the English invasion. Despite sending reinforcement armies to try and conquer the Welsh, the English were heavily defeated and ultimately lost the war. These Welsh victories led to the 1267 Treaty of Montgomery, which allowed Llywelyn to extend Welsh territories southwards. He also obtained English royal recognition of his title of Prince of Wales, although he still owed homage to the English monarch as overlord. Llywelyn repeatedly refused to pay homage to Edward in 1274–76 AD. This was due to the fact that Edward had broken the treaty by welcoming Llywelyn's brother Dafydd under his protection, who at the time was an enemy of Llywelyn. Edward then raised a huge army, almost half of which was made up of Welshmen who resented Llywelyn's rule, and launched his first campaign against the Welsh prince in 1276–1277. Having witnessed the defeats that he and his father had suffered against the Welsh, Edward had learned many lessons from these experiences and so he employed tactics that would counter the tactics of the Welsh.

After this campaign, Llywelyn was forced to pay homage to Edward and was stripped of all but a rump of territory in Gwynedd. Edward allowed Llywelyn to retain the title of Prince of Wales, and eventually allowed him to marry Eleanor de Montfort, daughter of the late Earl Simon, who he had recently captured using pirates that were under his pay.

Llywelyn's younger brother, Dafydd (who had previously been an ally of the English) started another rebellion in 1282 AD, and was soon joined by his brother and many other Welshmen in a war of national liberation. Edward was caught off guard by this revolt but responded quickly and decisively, vowing to remove the Welsh monarchy forever. The English suffered a row of defeats, the army of the Earl of Gloucester was ambushed and destroyed in the south, and in the north a large English force that was attempting to cross from Anglesey to mainland Wales was destroyed by the army of the princes of Gwynedd. The Welsh resistance suddenly halted however, when Llywelyn was killed in an obscure battle with English forces in December 1282. Snowdonia (Wales) was occupied the following spring and Dafydd was captured and taken to Shrewsbury, where he was tried and executed for treason. 200 years later, the Welsh Henry Tudor became king of England, his Anglicised son Henry VIII united Wales politically to England, ending the separation ever since.

Chapter notes There are problems that must be considered when speaking of history, and when considering the accuracy of information sources. It is important to keep in mind that no story is really the gospel, it is merely one interpretation of fact and understanding. The trouble is history books are always written by the victor, so it takes a lot of deeper searching to uncover the whole truth. Archaeology is discovering new secrets and facts all the time, and people are forming new theories and perceptions all the time, so we can only speak on present knowledge. The ancient world holds many hidden truths and history will constantly be turned upside down and debated for many years to come, until we are certain of the truth, such is the path of the Archaeologist and Historian.

Celtic peoples have a long history, a history that continues to evolve today. So many stories can not possibly be contained in one book. All the old Celtic lands saw substantial and massive migrations from the 18th century AD onwards. These people were partly lured away by the terrible conditions and starvation at home, as well as the promise of more reliable pay in the industrial cities of the British Empire, and the promise of land in the New Worlds of America and Australia. Many migrants, especially in Ireland and Scotland, were unwilling and driven away by lliards and landlords who put their own profit over the welfare of their people. Many Scots after the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 and resulting genocide of the Highland Clearances, were sold by their chiefs as slaves. This would be remembered by Scots as the betrayal of the ‘father’ (chief) selling their ‘children’ (clan), much in the same manner as the betrayal of African chiefs when they sold their ‘children’ for profit to European and Arabic slave traders. It wasn’t all smash and grab in Africa, there were sellers and buyers involved.

The union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland has not come easily, it took much bloodshed and heartache, the wounds from which are still present if you look hard enough. Even now, there exists to this day some relatively secretive separatist movements going on in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and to an extent Cornwall. The terrorism and violence in Northern Ireland and England over the past 40 years, is a testament to how unstable things

really are. The IRA (Irish Republican Army) has killed and wounded thousands in their bombing and guerrilla campaigns in Belfast and London, and their war against British occupation in Northern Ireland. Scotland too, has had a few incidents of terrorism stemming from resistance groups like the SNLA (Scottish National Liberation Army).

Some say the break up of the union is inevitable. Last year in the UK, it was supposed to have been a celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Act of Union. In fact it was more about dismantling it. The Scottish Nationalist Party is now running Scotland, Plaid Cymru is in coalition with Labour in Wales, and the nationalist Sinn Féin shares power with the DUP in Northern Ireland. Personally, I would like to see the independence of my motherlands (including England), so that our peoples may be free from an oppressive centralised system of government. It would be a first step in the direction of liberation for the masses, a move towards ridding ourselves of the corrupted elites who run the business we call the United Kingdom™, England & Co, Britain Incorporated. It would also be nice to be able to stand up in the world and be represented amongst all the other beautiful and diverse cultures. The reality is, the true British are the Welsh. Scots and Irish are Gaels and English are Anglo-Saxons. We should celebrate these identities, but it doesn’t have to be done with any nationalist sentiment behind it. What makes being English or Scottish great, is what makes the world a richer place to live in. I harbour no bitterness for the past, as I have learnt by knowing history that we all did our share of mistreating each other. England, whether some may like it or not, is too a Celtic nation because it has a Celtic past. Being separate countries doesn’t mean that walls have to go up and friendly cooperation has to stop.

“There is unstoppable momentum now behind the disaggregation of the UK, and time is running out for the political establishment in Westminster to respond. This country is changing - and, it has to be said, largely for the better, as the old centralised apparatus disintegrates before regional democracy. Now that the unionist parties in Scotland have all but given up, the UK faces a choice: adopt some form of federal solution, or prepare for political disintegration, on the lines of Czechoslovakia's "velvet divorce" in 1993. It is as serious as that. While (Prime Minister Gordon) Brown launches fatuous "Britishness" campaigns, the very fabric of the country he claims to love is being torn up and stitched anew”. - Iain MacWhirter, Guardian.

Ancient Celtic culture, in a classical sense, really ended after the medieval period. Although we continue to exist in our modern forms, we’re now absorbed into the yoke of such terms as English, French, Spanish, German, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. New identities were forged, when nations were founded. But with those new identities came new struggles, and rarely have Celtic peoples known times of peace. Surely all these endless wars and struggles have taught us something, and that would be that fighting over a perceived ownership of land is pointless, because nothing is defined, and no one owns the Earth.

Postface - afterwords The kind of life we are leading now will not go on forever, it can’t, because it is too destructive to our existence. Over crowded stressful cities mixed with inadequate waste management practices are not the way of the future. If we could reorganise civilisations into smaller communities, who were almost entirely and regionally self sufficient and ecofriendly, we may have a chance at securing the future of the human race. A population that is empowered, united and well educated is the key to improving our situation on Earth, along with enough inspiration and imagination to envision an ideal to work towards. It’s by no means the easy path to take, but it is the only real way to build a world that is going to be around long enough for love and truth to triumph. The concept of light versus dark, good versus evil is one of the oldest struggles known to man, and yet here we are, finding ourselves in the midst of this situation without most people even realising it.

So the future remains uncertain, or hard to predict at this point. Will there be another great war, a nuclear disaster? Will world economies come crashing into depression, and with it society breaks down? Either way, it doesn’t look promising for us at the moment. The best thing you can do for your own future and those around you, is to plan and prepare for all eventualities. Important then in education should be essential survival skills. I don’t think you’d find many who disagree that the ability to recognize edible from poisonous and to have an understanding of natural medicine is enriching and empowering knowledge for any person. Equally, the skills to be able to grow basic vegetables and find water are also very handy to know. You don’t have to be Bush Tucker Man, but you should empower yourself, as it all helps you have more control over your own life. The less you rely on others, the better off you are. I recommend as a great source of knowledge the SAS Survival Guide, as it details everything you need to know about survival as taught in the elite military forces of most armies.

We should not allow ourselves to become complacent based on the luxury of current non necessity, for the time may come when this isn’t the case. Economic collapse and war can happen very suddenly, and when it does, you don’t want to be one of the helpless masses rotting in a refugee camp, or waiting in lines for bread handouts and medical treatment. Trust me, you don’t want to be at the mercy of the government, because your government does not care about you or your loved ones. This civilization can not and will not last, so do not be fooled by the comfort of ignorance.

With the slow but inevitable demise of the Christian faith also, more free thinking people in this enlightened age are starting to question the shaky foundations upon which Christianity is based. More people are displaying an increasing interest in Pagan and other ancient traditions as an alternative to the faith that seems to have failed humankind.

According to the Australian Census between 1996 and 2001, Paganism grew by 144% and witchcraft, which the church wrongly condemned as devil worship, grew by 373%. The number of people who called themselves atheists also grew by 256% during the same period. All Christian faiths however, apart from a few sects, saw considerable decreases in percentage.

Bart Ehrman's book ‘Lost Christianities’, (the battle for scriptures and the faiths we never knew), was a provocative work which gives prominence to the early church fathers who had the ordacity to select scriptures for the bible, which were only acceptable to their own selfish agenda. Denying also future generations access to the many other texts they banned and burned, which are too numerous to mention. You see, the Bible was not written by any of the illiterate Apostles, even though the church would have us believe otherwise. What we know from Erudite scholarship, is that they were written by unknown authors with the epithets, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. These men wrote the Jesus story to accord with the political climate of the region in which they lived, and did so many years after Jesus' alleged existence. Professor Ian Plimer of the University of Melbourne summed it up when he stated "There is such an overwhelming volume of verifiable information from history, archaeology and even geology to show that Christianity is just another superstition clinging onto myths stolen from other cultures."

Even though Christianity took a lot from Pagan traditions, there is an enormous distinction between Christian and Pagan beliefs. Pagan is a philosophy, a virtuous way of life and our gods were purely mythological identities or personifications. In contrast, Jesus is presented in the church as an historical being who really walked the earth, performing fairy tale miracles, and that he will one day come again. The faithful fully believed and still believe this. A return to Paganism therefore signals in my opinion a return to a mindset when we respect nature, and believe only in

its power. For nature is where we find God in all her forms, we don’t need dogmatic religions to understand or be one with Her. Like most Bardic Druids, I venerate in my arts the Goddess Brighid, who is the symbol of Creativity, Fertility and Wisdom, and known as the fire of inspiration. My pantheon is a triad of Gaelic Goddesses, Brighid (of the Sun), Danu (of the Earth) and Morrighu (of the Moon), and so I guess I am the practiser of a kind of Celtic Shaktism. I also venerate a triad of equivalent Hindu Goddesses, Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. This is not because I am married to a Hindu as you may think, but rather was a cultural attraction and connection I made many years before. Sometimes, I even will honour the Egyptian Goddess Isis (of the Universe) as the Great Mother. In a sense, I see the Gaelic and Indian Goddesses I venerate as being two faces of one spirit, much in the same way as I do when I think in terms of humanity. My life is thus dedicated to the work of Goddesses Brighid and Saraswati, and so in my house they are honoured and manifested by the learning of wisdom, creative expression, and celebrations of beauty and love.

I also believe in the spirits of my ancestors, who are close to me always. I can look to them for guidance, strength and wisdom when I am in need, and my love of them fuels my resolve. Some people, usually White Australians, have a hard time understanding it when someone such as myself proclaims their Celticness above their Australianness. I love this country, it is my home and so yes I am proudly Australian by that definition. However, I am a European, or a Celt first. My reasoning is this; the term ‘Australian’ doesn’t represent my ancestors, who were Celtic for thousands of years before me being born an Australian. My Ancestral Identity therefore means much more, and carries much greater depth than any National identity ever could. We must be honest, the concept of Australian is not ethnic, unless you are indigenous to this land. For the rest of us, we just have to accept that at this stage in our history it is a political idea only.

What if we define it as a cultural identity then? Well, if one is defined by their culture, then a simple analysis of a few facts may clear this issue up for any remaining critics. In regards to myself: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

My physical appearance is European.

My parents were born in Europe.

I speak only European languages (English, French and Gaelic).

I eat predominantly a mix of European, Indian and Asian foods.

My spiritual practices and beliefs are mainly European, and partly Indian.

My families consist of Europeans and Indians.

The arts I practice derive from European cultures.

So I ask you then, which part of me would seem to be Australian (Aboriginal) in culture? I do eat Kangaroo, but I don’t think that is enough to go on sadly. If you want to be completely truthful, I would be considered more Indian than Australian in my culture. Australia is still at this point in time a European nation anyway, by law, common custom and majority ethnicity. It’s too early in this country’s history to have developed a unique culture yet, it takes many generations for such noticeable changes to surface. Even the accent is merely a very slight mutation of a southern English (London) accent. So, therefore I will not disregard the identity of my ancestral peoples, who fought so hard to retain their own languages, custom, history, wisdom and expression, for such a shallow political notion as a Nationality.

It isn’t about not letting go of some romantic image or myth, it’s about being respectful and educated enough to know exactly who my ancestors were, and to understand where I come from. I am Celtic because most of my ancestors were from Celtic nations, and because I practice today a culture based heavily on Celtic traditions. To ignorantly call myself an Australian, would be a slap in the face to my real ancestry and heritage.

All this will mean nothing in the years to come, when the old barriers will hopefully break down, and people can finally coexist with one another. If Human beings start to remember their interconnections, and return to the love and veneration of nature, we may be able to rid ourselves of this failed society forever. Furthermore, just by collectively changing our thoughts to positive loving energy, we will become a sustaining force for life in the universe, as opposed to a destructive one. Meaning, our energy fields will channel more life sustaining energies, less negative and destructive ones. We don’t just pollute the world with our actions, we cause probably more pollution with our thoughts.

So again it all comes back to the ultimate choice, love or fear?

This book has been designed to give you all the knowledge you need to begin on your own path to enlightenment and fulfilment in life. At the end of the day, only you know who you are, or what you want to be. Follow your heart, and judge what is right and honourable action by what you feel is the humane way to be. Appreciate the wonder and beauty of the world around you, try to understand it better so that you can make more informed and educated decisions in

your life. Become as self sufficient as practical, put the power over your life back in your own hands. To achieve a higher consciousness as a human, is to express each facet of our being with the highest love for ourselves, others, and the whole world. Love has always been the ultimate answer, that...is the secret of life.

MCGILLEMHAOIL of Dal Riata, of the Royal House of Moray, and Castle Sween.