Journal of the Dialogue between Science and Theology
DIA LOGO Volume 6 - Issue 1 - November 2019
Edited by Cosmin Tudor Ciocan
Dialogo is a Kaleidoscope of colours:
intricate ideas... unexpected people... beautiful! www.dialogo-conf.com
DIALOGO International Journal with biannual volumes on regard to the Dialogue between Science and Theology
Dialogo Journal is the intellectual property of RCDST (Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology), Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
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DIALOGO 2019 volume 6 - issue 1:
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology Organized by the RCDST - Romania in collaboration with Institutions from Slovakia - Pakistan - Switzerland - Poland India - Egypt - Uganda - Jordan - Turkey Argentina - USA - Canada - Germany November 2019
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Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this volume do not necessarily represent those of the Dialogo Organizers and are attributable only to the authors of the papers. Publication Series: Dialogo Description: (Multidisciplinary Journal for the Dialogue between Science and Theology) ISSN (CD-ROM): 2392 – 9928 ISSN (ONLINE): 2393 – 1744 ISSN (PRINT): 2457 – 9297 ISSN-L: 2392 – 9928
978-80-973541-0-7 & 978-80-973541-1-4
ISBN (PDF & HTML):
Editors: Fr. lecturer Cosmin Tudor Ciocan,
Ph.D. (Romania) - In-Chief - and Ing. Stefan BADURA, Ph.D. (Slovak Republic)
Series Publisher: RCDST (Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology) of
the “Ovidius” University of Constanta. Romania Volume6, Issue1 Title: The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology Dialogo-CoNF subtitle: DOI: Published by: (DOI issuer) Pages: Printed on: Publishing date:
2019 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1 Publishing Society - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina - Slovak Republic (baduras@itall.sk) 363 100 copies 2019, November 30
Note on the issue: This is the volume of our general topic, with articles gathered until November 2019 on 5 sections of research.
*All published papers underwent double peer review. *All published papers are in English language only. Each paper was assigned to 3 reviewers and went through two-level approval process. * The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not nec-
essarily represent the views of RCDST. Authors only hold responsability over their papers and content.
Open Access Online archive is available at: http://www.dialogo-conf.com/archive (articles will be available online one month after the publication releases). In case of any questions, notes or complaints, please contact us at: info(at)dialogo-conf.com.
Warning: Copyright © 2014, RCDST (Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology), Romania. All rights reserved. Reproduction or publication of this material, even partial, is allowed only with the editor’s permission. Unauthorized duplication is a violation of applicable laws. Dialogo by RCDST is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License This is in an Open Access journal by which all articles are available on the internet to all users upon publication.
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DIALOGO
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Dialogue between Science & Theology November 2019
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
Conference Sponsors and Parteners
Ovidius University of Constanta (UOC/Romania) www.univ-ovidius.ro
University of the Punjab (Lahore) www.pu.edu.pk
The Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi (UAIC/Romania) www.uaic.ro
“Vasile Goldis” Western University of Arad (UVVG/Romania) www.uvvg.ro/
The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Tech- Horizon Research Publishing, HRPUB - USA nology (ISCAST/Australia) http://www.hrpub.org/ www.iscast.org
Research and Science Today www.lsucb.ro/rst
Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology www.rcdst.ro
www.The-Science.com (Slovakia)
Maritime University of Constanta “Mircea cel Batran” Naval (UMC/Romania) Academy (ANMB/Romania) www.cmu-edu.eu www.anmb.ro
Global Ethics (Geneva/Switzerland) www.globethics.net
Faculty of Educational Sciences (WNP) Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland www.pedagogika.umk.pl doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1
Action-research in Contemporary Culture and Education – Practice & Theory (ACCEPT/Poland) www.accept.umk.pl
Centre for Research and social, psychological and pedagogical evaluation (CCEPPS/Romania) ccepps.univ-ovidius.ro
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Open Access Theology Journal www.mdpi.com/ journal/religions
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DIALOGO
6:1 (2019)
Dialogue between Science & Theology November 2019
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
Conference Sponsors and Parteners
Faculty of Medicine (UOC), Romania www.medcon.ro
Faculty of Theology (UOC), Romania teologie.univ-ovidius.ro
Faculty of Orthodox Theology (UAIC), Romania www.teologie.uaic.ro
Faculty of Theology (UAB), Romania www.fto.ro
Faculty of Psychology and Sciences of Education (UAIC), Romania www.psih.uaic.ro
Faculty of Psychology and Sciences of Education (UOC), Romania pse.univ-ovidius.ro
Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences (UAIC), Romania snsa.univ-ovidius.ro
Centre of Inter - Religious Research and Christian Psychopedagogy Alba Iulia - Saint Serge (CCIRPC)
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering (UOC), Romania fcetp.univ-ovidius.ro
Faculty of Law (UOC), Romania drept.univ-ovidius.ro
Christian Theological Institute after the Timotheus Gospel, Romania http://timotheus.ro/
Institute for Peace Studies in Eastern Christianity [IPSEC] Cambridge, MA 022380246, U.S.A. https://orthodoxpeace.org/
Volume published by
EDIS Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina Univerzitna 1 01026 Zilina Slovak Republic
RCDST Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology Ovidius University of Constanta Romania
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Dialogue between Science & Theology November 2019
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International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Christoph Stueckelberger Globethics.net Executive Director and Founder; Prof. PhD. (Switzerland)
Ahmed Kyeyune Islamic University in Uganda
Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia Directorate External Linkages/Institute of Language University of the Punjab; Head of Spanish Dpt. / Assistant Professor (Pakistan)
Ahmed Usman University of the Punjab (Pakistan)
Filip Nalaskowski
Mihai Valentin Vladimirescu Faculty of Orthodox Theology, University of Craiova; Professor PhD. (Romania)
Faculty of Educational Sciences - Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun; Dr. (Poland)
Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad University of Tabuk; Assistant Professor PhD (Saudi Arabia)
Lucian Turcescu Department of Theological Studies - Concordia University; Professor and Chair (Canada)
IPS Teodosie PETRESCU Archbichop of Tomis disctrict; Faculty of Orthodox Theology; “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania)
Francesco FIORENTINO Dipartimento di Filosofia, Letteratura e Scienze Sociali; Universita degli Studi di Bari «Aldo Moro»; Researcher in Storia della Filosofia (Italy)
Edward Ioan Muntean Faculty of Food Sciences and Technology - University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj–Napoca; Assoc. Professor PhD. (Romania)
Dagna Dejna NCU Faculty of Educational Sciences (Poland)
Altaf Qadir University of Peshawar (Pakistan)
Panagiotis STEFANIDES Emeritus Honoured Member of the Technical Chamber of Greece HELLENIC AEROSPACE IND. S.A. - Lead engineer; MSc Eur Ing (Greece)
Eugenia Simona Antofi “Dunarea de Jos” University (Romania)
Wade Clark Roof - deceased August 26, 2019 J.F. Rowny Professor of Religion and Society; Emeritus and Research Professor Walter H. Capps Center for the Study of Ethics, Religion, and Public Life; Director Department of Religious Studies - University of California at Santa Barbara (United States of America) Cristiana Oprea European Physical Society; member Joint Institute for Nuclear Research - Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics; Scientific Project Leader (Russia) Gheorghe Istodor Faculty of Orthodox Theology - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Nasili Vaka’uta Trinity Methodist Theological College University of Auckland; Ranston Lecturer PhD. (New Zealand)
D. Liqaa Raffee Jordan University of Science and Technology (Jordan) George Enache Faculty of History, Philosophy and Theology „Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati; Associate professor PhD. (Romania) Ahed Jumah Mahmoud Al-Khatib Faculty of Medicine - Department of Neuroscience University of Science and Technology; Researcher PhD (Jordan) Ioan-Gheorghe ROTARU ‘Timotheus’ Brethren Theological Institute of Bucharest (Romania) Akhtar Hussain Sandhu Department of History, University of the Punjab; Associate professor PhD. (Pakistan) Richard Woesler European University press, PhD. (Germany)
Dilshad Mahabbat University of Gujrat (Pakistan) Adrian Niculcea Faculty of Orthodox Theology, “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Tarnue Marwolo Bongolee Hope for the Future; Executive Director (Liberia)
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Coli Ndzabandzaba Rhodes University (South Africa)
Riffat Munawar University of the Punjab; Dr. PhD. (Pakistan) Hassan Imam Aligarh University, PhD. (India) Ioan G. Pop Emanuel University of Oradea; PhD. (Romania) Farzana Baloch University of Sindh Associate professor PhD. (Pakistan)
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DIALOGO
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International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Petru BORDEI Faculty of Medicine - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Khalil Ahmad University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)
Fouzia Saleem University of the Punjab, Dr. PhD. (Pakistan)
Maciej Laskowski Politechnika Lubelska; Prof. PhD. (Poland)
Mihai CIUREA University of Craiova, PhD. (Romania)
Muhammad Hafeez University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)
Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad University of Tabuk, Assistant Professor PhD. (Saudi Arabia)
Muhammad Shahid Habib International Islamic University; Lecturer Ph.D. (Pakistan)
Mirosaw Zientarski Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru, PhD. (Poland)
Muhammad Zakria Zakar University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)
Manisha Mathur G.N.Khalsa College; University of Mumbai; Assistant Professor (India)
R S Ajin GeoVin Solutions Pvt. Ltd.; PhD. (India)
Pratibha Gramann Saybrook University of San Francisco, California (United States of America)
Mustfeez Ahmad Alvi Lahore Leads University; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)
Adrian Gorea Concordia University, Montreal (Canada)
Radu Niculescu Ovidius University of Constanta; Assist.prof. PhD. (Romania)
Richard Alan Miller
Navy Intel (Seal Corp. and then MRU); Dr. in Alternative Agriculture, Physics, and Metaphysics (United States of America)
Fermin De La Fuente-Calvo De La Fuente Consulting (Corporative Intelligence) B.Sc. Physics and Professor PhD. (United States of America)
Maria Ciocan “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy; teacher PhD. (Romania)
Kelli Coleman Moore University of California at Santa Barbara (United States of America) Osman Murat Deniz Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi; Associate Professor PhD. (Turkey) Daniel Munteanu The International Journal of Orthodox Theology (Canada) Dragos Hutuleac Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava; Assistant Lecturer, PhD candidate (Romania) Shiva Khalili Faculty of psychology and education - Tehran University; Associate Professor PhD. (Iran) Mihai Himcinski Faculty of Orthodox Theology - „1 December 1918” University of Alba Iulia; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Richard Willem Gijsbers The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology - ISCAST (Australia) Flavius Cristian MaRCaU Constantin Brancusi” University of Targu Jiu; Phd. Candidate (Romania)
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Stanley Krippner Association for Humanistic Psychology, the Parapsychological Association; President; Prof. PhD. (United States of America)
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Sorin Gabriel ANTON Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi; PhD. (Romania) Sultan Mubariz University of Gujrat; PhD. (Pakistan) Gheorghe Petraru Faculty of Orthodox Theology, Iasi; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Rania Ahmed Abd El-Wahab Mohamed Plant Protection Research Institute; PhD. (Egypt) Rubeena Zakar University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan) Mihai GIRTU The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST); President Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Cosmin Tudor Ciocan The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST); Executive Director Faculty of Orthodox Theology - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Lecturer PhD. (Romania)
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DIALOGO
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Dialogue between Science & Theology November 2019
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Mihaela RUS “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Professor PhD. (Romania) Sónia Morgado Instituto Superior de Ciências Policiais e Segurança Interna, (ISCPSI); Aux. Prof., PhD (Portugal)
Muhammad Shahzad Aslam Universiti Malaysia Perlis; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan) Musferah Mehfooz Islamic Studies, Humanities Department; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan)
Jean FIRICA
University of Craiova; Assoc. Professor PhD. (Romania) Ahmed Ashfaq Assistant Professor PhD (Saudi Arabia) Shoaib Ahmad Siddiqi Faculty of Biological Sciences, Lahore Garrison University; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan) Rehman Ataur
Stefan Gregore Ciornei University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine; Assistant Professor PhD (Romania) Ahmed Kadhim Hussein Babylon University, College of Engineering; Assist.Prof.Dr.Eng. (Iraq) Muhammad Sarfraz Kuwait University, Department of Information Science, College of Computing; Professor and V. Dean of Research & Graduate Studies (Kuwait)
Lahore Garrison University; Senior Lecturer PhD. (Pakistan) Kuang-ming Wu
Abbasali Barati Al-mustafa International university in Qom; Professor PhD (Iran)
Yale University Divinity School; Senior Lecturer PhD. (Pakistan) Nursabah Sarikavakli “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Professor PhD. (Turkey) Laurentiu-Dan MILICI “Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava; Professor PhD. (Romania) Emad Al-Janabi “Al-Mussaib” Technical College; Asist. Prof. Dr. (Iraq) Sugiarto Teguh Budi luhur and AAJ Jayabaya; Lecturer PhD. (Indonesia)
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Mahesh Man Shrestha International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM); Lecturer PhD. (Nepal)
Amando P. Singun Higher College of Technology, Muscat; Lecturer PhD (Oman) Marian Gh. Simion Harvard University - Harvard Divinity School; PhD (United States) Amando P. Singun Higher College of Technology, Muscat; Lecturer PhD (Oman)
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DIALOGO
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Organizing Committee Cosmin Tudor ciocan - Scientific Programme Officer RCDST Executive Director and Founder; Lect. ThD. Faculty of orthodox theology, Ovidius University of Constanta (Romania) Mihai GIRTU RCDST President and Founder; Professor PhD. Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , Ovidius University of Constanta (Romania)
responsibles for session 1. Art and Literature Mihai Valentin Vladimirescu - University of Craiova; Prof., PhD (Romania) Radu Niculescu - Ovidius University of Constanta; Assist. Prof., PhD (Romania)
responsible for session 2. Earth Sciences, Ecology, Environment Cristiana Oprea - Dzelepov Laboratory for Nuclear Problems (DLPN) - JINR Dubna, Professor PhD (Russia)
responsibles for session 3. Social Sciences, Culture, Lifestyle Choices Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia - University of the Punjab; Assist. Prof., PhD (Pakistan) Miguel ALGRANTI, PhD (Argentina) - Instituto Universitario Nacional del Arte, Universidad Favaloro; Lecturer PhD (Argentina)
responsible for session 4. Law and Political Science Mihaela RUS - Faculty of Law, Ovidius University of Constanta; Assoc. Prof . PhD. (Romania) responsible for session 5. Philosophy of Science Osman Murat DENIZ - Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi - lahiyat Fakültesi; Assoc. Prof . PhD. (Turkey) responsible for session 6. Life Sciences Ahed Jumah Mahmoud Al-Khatib - University of Science and Technology - Department of Neuroscience; Dr. (Jordan)
responsible for session 8. Metaphysics and Communication Sciences Muhammad Shahid Habib - Lahore Garrison University, Prof . PhD. (Pakistan) Bruno MARCHAL - IRIDIA, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Prof . PhD. (Belgium)
responsible for session 9. Management, Marketing, Economics and Tourism Sónia MORGADO - Instituto Superior de Ciências Policiais e Segurança Interna (ISCPSI), Prof . PhD. (Portugal)
responsible for session 10. Bioethics Christoph STUECKELBERGER - University of Basel ; Founder and Executive Director of Globethics.net, Geneva ; Professor PhD. (Switzerland) responsible for session 11. Astronomy, Astro-Physics Valeriu Gheorge Cimpoca - “Valahia” University of Targoviste; Professor PhD. (Switzerland) responsible for session 12. History, Demography, Archaeology Akhtar Hussain Sandhu - University of Gujrat; Professor PhD. (Pakistan) responsible for session 13. Mathematics, Technology, Industry, Networking Anton LIESKOVSKY - Faculty of Management Science and Informatics, University of Zilina; Ing. PhD. (Slovakia) responsible for session 14. General Topic (Theology) Teodosie PETRESCU - Faculty of Orthodox Theology, Ovidius University of Constanta; Professor PhD. (Romania) Stefan badura - responsible for I.T. Publishing Society of Zilina; Ing. PhD. (Slovakia) doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1
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Welcoming Speech
INTRODUCTION Dear Reader, it is our pleasure to introduce you to this anyversary volume. This book contains all the accepted papers from the 10th conference organized by the Dialogo community of scholars, which is described below in more detail. We hope that all these published papers contribute to the academic society and provide interesting information for researchers worldwide.
I. Conference details: »» Conference full name: The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology. International Virtual Conference »»
Conference short name: DialogoConf 2019
»»
Conference edition: 10th
»»
Conference dates: November 3 - 12, 2019
»»
Conference web page: www.dialogo-conf.com
»»
Conference online archive: www.dialogo-conf.com/archive
II. Conference paper approval process: Each registered paper was evaluated in double tier approval process. 1. Scientific Committee evaluation (in average 2 reviews were prepared per paper). 2. Conference Editorial Board. Only papers recommended by these committees were accepted for online presentation at the conference and for publication in the Journal. Usualy they are a rate of 45% from the total submited papers.
III. Conference presentation: 1. General presentation As the chief editor and founder of Dialogo enterprise, I have started this endeavor with a lot of anxiety, for there were many failures regarding the same purpose and some other already internationally recognized. Still, I started this quest along with a few fellow researchers in my University [i.e., Ovidius University of Constanta, RO] from diverse fields of science. I was encouraged to propose our version of dialogue in this form, a virtual forum of debates and discussions, capable of bringing people from around the globe more comfortable and environmental-friendly; and I did. Now, after only five years and ten published volumes, I am grateful I had these colleagues beside me and also God, who blessed our proposal since it started with 21 professors. Now it reaches more than a hundred involved academics in a genuine and targeted dialogue. I could not be amazed by the considerable amount of questions these events usually rase, sometimes from the papers as the starting point of discussions,
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Welcoming Speech or just as an excuse for considering addressing such items to people who often taught such issues. Overall, I cannot be more proud that we achieve this aim of bringing people of such diversity of research fields, sciences, religious backgrounds, or spirituality in an academic arena for discussions and clarifications. Considering the phrase of Norman Vincent Peale, “Shoot for the moon. Even if you miss, you’ll land among the stars”, we, at Dialogo, are but proud to seeing this outcome on our endeavor. 2. Aim and Scope The Dialogo Journal is a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed academic journal published twice a year. Its aim is to study the theory and practice of dialogue between all types od sciences and any religious background, understood provisionally as: meaningful interaction and exchange between people (often of different social, cultural, political, religious or professional groups) who come together through various kinds of conversations or activities with a view to increased understanding on both these two ways of human reasoning, scientifical and religious/spiritual. The Journal is published by the Reseach Center on the Dialogue between Science and Theology of „Ovidius” University of Constanta, Romania, in partnership with several academic institutions and research centers from Romania and abroad. The conference is addressed to scholars from all over the world interested in communicating on topics of interest at the crossroads of science and religion. The participation of young scientists, graduates and students is greatly encouraged, one of the goals of the workshop being to offer the new generation an opportunity to present original new results and a chance to learn from the experience of distinguished researchers. Sincere thanks for: •
Scientific Committee for their volunteer work during reviewing.
•
Conference partners for promotional work and their contribution.
•
Editorial Board for enormous workload and patience.
Be welcomed to enjoy this accomplishment! See you again for the DIALOGO 2020 events! your host, lect. Ciocan Tudor Cosmin, PhD Executive Director of The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST) „Ovidius” University Constanța / Romania Scientific Programme Officer of DIALOGO international conferences E-mail: office(at)dialogo-conf.com
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Great minds discuss ideas; Average minds discuss events; Small minds discuss people. Eleanor Rosevelt
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DIALOGO
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CONFERENCES & JOURNAL
t h e Di a l ogue b et ween Sci en c e a n d Th eol ogy
Table of Contents Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 SECTION 1. Art and Literature & Religion Aspects of the Romanian Sacred Music during the Communist Oppression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Lois Paula Văduva
Hurezi* Painting - Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Ovidiu Felipov
Light, created and uncreated, wave and particle at the same time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Alina Cristea, Ovidiu Felipov
The Culture of a Stylistic Religious Ensemble. An Overview of the Churches and Monasteries built by the Great Humanist Constantin Brâncoveanu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Ovidiu Felipov
SECTION 3. Social Sciences, Culture, Lifestyle Choices & Religion Understandings of Theological Conversion in Interreligious Dialogue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, Osman Murat Deniz
Relationship between Religious Feeling and Clinical and Personality Traits in Elderly People. . . . . . . .70 Claudia Sălceanu, Mihaela Luminița Sandu
From Religious Icons to Popular Culture Icons. Two Case Studies (Bob Dylan and Madonna). . . . . . . .85 Nicoleta Stanca
Social Inclusion by the Method of the Social Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Filip Nalaskowski
The Family Environment. Valences and Malfunctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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Tabel of Content
DIALOGO 6.1 (2019)
November, 3 - 12 www.dialogo-conf.com The 10th Virtual International Conference on
CONFERENCES & JOURNAL
t h e D i al o gue be t we e n Sc i enc e and Theology Nina Stănescu
Is Religion the Missing Part in Leadership and Organization Citizenship Behavior Theories?. . . . . . 111 Ahed J Alkhatib, Boshra A. Arnout
Social-Religious Perception on Women Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Mihaela Rus, Mihaela Luminița Sandu
Challenges of the Romanian Orthodox. Diaspora’s priests in Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Liviu Razvan Dragomir, Maria Cristina Dragomir
Become trainer in the interreligious dialogue and mutual acceptance for theological teachers. Proposal for a Handbook Research; its necessity and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Fr. Lecturer Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, PhD
SECTION 4. Law and Political Science & Theology A lived experience of Syrian woman refugee in Jordan: sorrows and hopes between past and future, a case study using the phenomenological approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Ahed J Alkhatib, Ala’ Ahed AlKhatib
The arcane discipline present in the Eucharistic consciousness of the Church by protecting the Holy Eucharist against desecration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Maxim Marian Vlad
The Process of Integrating the Monastic Phenomenon into the Forms of Institutional Organization of the Church. Ecclesiological-Canonical Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Maxim Marian Vlad
SECTION 5. Philosophy of Science & Theology Philosophy of Infinity: is the Infinity-Point a Point of Endless or a Point of Contradiction Meeting? . . 177 Ahed J Alkhatib
SECTION 7. Neurobiology
& Theology
Divinity in dementia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Tabel of Content
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DIALOGO
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CONFERENCES & JOURNAL
t h e Di a l ogue b et ween Sci en c e a n d Th eol ogy Any Docu Axelerad, Alina Zorina Stroe, Silviu Docu Axelerad, Daniel Docu Axelerad
Combating Depression in Parkinson’s Disease with Melotherapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Daniel Docu Axelerad, Silviu Docu Axelerad, Alina Zorina Stroe
How religiosity affects Parkinson’s disease symptoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Daniel Docu Axelerad, Silviu Docu Axelerad, Alina Zorina Stroe
SECTION 9. Management, Marketing, Economics and Tourism & Religion The impact of poultry meat attributes in the consumers’ behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Irini Goga
Maritime Fair Trade. A new trend for the postmodern sustainable developed society. . . . . . . . . . 226 Maria Cristina Dragomir, Liviu Razvan Dragomir
SECTION 11. Astronomy, Astro-Physics & Theology Some Aspects of the Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Jalal H. Baker, Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad, Khalid Mustafa Syed, Nursabah Sarikavakli, Drugarin C. Victoria Anghel, Josephine Muncho
SECTION 12. History, Demography, Archaeology & Religion General considerations on the evolution of the interethnic, intercultural and inter-confessional dialogue in Dobrogea in the context of the national construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Andrei Ciornea, Lucian Bănescu
Distinct Cultural and Philanthropic Personality in Romanian Medieval Religious History, Anastasie Crimca. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Nina Stănescu
Acceptance of power or power of acceptance? Dilemmas and challenges of the Architect students arrested in the „Burning Altar” lot (1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
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A historical perspective on the authentic multiculturality of Dobrogea. The cohabitation of Turkish and Turkish-Tatar communities in Dobrogea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Lucian Bănescu, Andrei Ciornea
The confinement periplus of Archimandrite Arsenie Papacioc under the dictatorship of Carol II. . . . 300 Carmen Ciornea
SECTION 13. Mathematics, Technology, Industry, Networking & Religion “Old” and “New” Europe, as blue flame for European Union. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Dmitri Delistoian, Viorel-Bogdan Radoiu
SECTION 14. General Topic: Science and Theology in dialogue The Tolerance and The Need for Absolute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Nicolae Popescu
The Distinction between Science and Christian Orthodox Theology in Cosmology. . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Eugen GANȚOLEA
The Impact of Cosmic Forces on Human Mind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Pratibha Gramann GUIDE FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 23 - 31
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
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Aspects of the Romanian Sacred Music during the Communist Oppression Lois Paula Văduva
Department of Music, Emanuel University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 09 October 2019 Received in revised form 22 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.1
During the Communist regime in Romania, the arts were submitted to continuous control through specialized censorship services that focused primarily on the ideological content of the arts. Atheism was accepted as the ideology of the country, and as a result, all religious activities and manifestations were abolished. Despite this reality, religion continued to remain an essential part of the Romanian heritage, and several artists looked for ways to incorporate sacred themes in their art. The two principal ways in which the sacred was incorporated in music was through avoiding religious titles, while the content was sacred and by filtering it through the specific national Romanian Byzantine traditions. As a result, there are notable examples of religious music composed during the Communist regime.
Keywords: communism; oppression; sacred music; resistance; censorship; religious oppression;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Lois Paula Văduva. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Văduva, Lois Paula, ”Aspects of the Romanian Sacred Music during the Communist Oppression,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.1, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 23-31.
I. INTRODUCTION
Between the Two World Wars, Romania was characterized by a free-market economy, a competitive educational system, freedom to travel and study abroad, and a flourishing culture. During the Second World War, the pro-Nazi Government, followed by the Soviet take over, brought about a significant turn around in the progress of
Romania towards a democratic society and an ideologically free culture. Inspired by the Soviet model, the Romanian Communist authorities soon realized the significant potential that arts and culture could have in manipulating the population to accept the new political trend. Consequently, those who “were ready to ascribe their loyalty to the Communist Party could expect great rewards, while those who did not give in
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could expect heavy repercussions” [1]. During communism, the arts were submitted to continuous control and monitoring through specialized censorship services that focused primarily on the ideological content of the arts to the detriment of values and esthetic aspects. Confronted by such an encroaching censorship, the Romanian artists had few choices: a) continue to work while rejecting any compromise with the regime and face the threats of persecution or even death; b) reject the compromise and renounce their artistic activity; c) compromise with the regime, working as the official writers, composers, and artists; d) accept some compromises just to keep up appearances, taking a middle road between betrayal and open resistance, and e) emigration. The outcome of these alternatives was the emergence of two trends that dominated the Romanian cultural landscape: first, the official culture of the Communist propaganda and second, the underground culture that focused on esthetic value [2]. As we could expect, the new sociopolitical realities were mirrored in the cultural and musical life of Romania because some writers, composers, and artists succumbed to the threats of the oppressive regime. At the same time, as we shall examine, some Romanian composers and musicians used their genius to safeguard their beliefs and values. II. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
The scope of this research is to highlight some of the most important aspects of religious music during the Communist period in Romania when the new ideology went against religion and spirituality. Given the broad area of research on this topic, we have reviewed the available literature on the subject, summarizing the most important findings to provide a synthesized
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and analytical point of view. This paper is based on historical research methodology, to succinctly present the main issues that unfolded within the sacred musical trends during communism. Also, given the numerous examples of sacred music composed during this period, we have undertaken to limit the analyzed examples to just a few illustrative ones in this domain, as the goal of this research is to give a clear overview of this subject. The originality of this research consists of the musical analysis of one of the most illustrative sheet music regarding the veiled resistance against atheism in music. III. THE RELIGIOUS PARADIGM DURING
COMMUNISM
The first trend of the official culture transformed arts into instruments of indoctrination and political manipulation in the interest of the state. Art and music were given the mandate to help create “the new man” according to the Marxist and socialist ideology. The message that had to be conveyed in any artistic manifestation was the importance and relevance of social realism. This ideology was promoted by Stalin and imposed on all Communist countries in Eastern Europe. Further, this trend opposed modernism and avant-garde culture because they were anachronic and decadent. In this context, composers and musicians were faced with the dilemma of renouncing their preferred compositional trends out of fear of retaliation. Speaking about this trend, Speranța Rădulescu affirms that all the composers of this period were marked by the terror spread by the Communist regime [3]. A group of composers initiated an undercover movement of cultural resistance. They searched for creative alternatives to affirm the Romanian spirit that refused to
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be suffocated by the Communist Party. We can observe, however, that the Romanian cultural resistance was, to a certain degree, ambiguous in the sense that although it was not an openly declared war, on a deeper level, it betrayed a masked conflict [4]. This ambivalent nature of cultural resistance is well illustrated by the conflict between atheism and religion that was prevalent during these years. Thus, at the official level, atheism had been widely embraced as the ideology of the country. The official mandate was that, based on scientific grounds, religious beliefs, and practices should be completely eradicated from the Romanian society [5]. In this context, all religious activities and manifestations were frowned upon, religious celebrations such as Christmas or Easter were prohibited in the public sphere. One of the reasons for this was that “in order to prevent the prevalence of the opposition, both the legislation (religious and secular), and the ecclesial organization were designed in such a way as to ensure absolute control of the state over religious life” [6]. As a result of this ideology, music composed for religious events was banned in the Concert Halls, and Christmas carols, a national tradition, were no longer heard on the streets of Romania. However, in a more private sphere, despite such restrictions, religion continued to remain a significant part of the Romanian heritage, and consequently, it was challenging to persuade the Romanian people to renounce their belief. In this context, being faithful to their religious heritage, several artists looked for ways to incorporate sacred themes in their art, without being caught by the Communist authorities. One way through which the sacred was still used in music was by avoiding religious titles, even though the content was sacred. The chosen titles, such as “peace” or “harmony” given to various pieces, suggested ideas accepted by the authorities,
while under such cover, composers created music that was in accordance with their religious and artistic beliefs. For example, Ștefan Niculescu transposed sacred words into sounds in his third cantata, Răscruce (Crossroads, 1965). The avoidance of religious titles was a practice used in other countries under the Soviet rule, an example being the case of the Estonian composer Arvo Pärt. After leaving the country in 1980, Pärt declared that his work Summa was, in fact, a musical rendition of a Credo, but codified to avoid censure [7]. To a large degree, this veiled resistance was possible because the official censors did not have the needed musical abilities to discover the sacred themes included in the scores. From this perspective, the only real risk that the composers faced was the denouncement by a colleague, that would unveil the real content of music [8]. Another creative way of using sacred themes in musical compositions was by filtering it through the specific national Romanian Byzantine traditions [9]. Composers such as Paul Constantinescu, Doru Popovici, Sabin Drăgoi, Marțian Negrea, Ștefan Niculescu, and Viorel Munteanu combined Byzantine music with modern music. Essential works in this sense are The Requiem by Sabin Drăgoi (1957), The Requiem by Marțian Negrea (1957), Passacaglia for piano solo (1941), The Second Symphony (1956) and Concert for wind instruments and drum (1975) by Sigismund Toduță, The Christmas Oratorio (1947), The Easter Oratorio (1948), The Byzantine Sonata for cello (1940), Free Variations on a 3rd century Byzantine melody for cello and orchestra (1951) by Paul Constantinescu, Echos for solo violin (1977), by Ștefan Niculescu, Glasurile Putnei (The voices of Putna, 1980) by Viorel Munteanu, Timpul regăsit (Time retrieved, 1982) for chamber ensemble, Trei preludii pentru orgă (Three Preludes for the Organ, 1987), by Gheorghe Firca.
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IV. Veiled Resistance through Religious
music
In the following pages, we will present a few illustrative examples of music that contained sacred themes from among the works that were composed during the years of oppression. First, some musical compositions that were filtered through the byzantine tradition, that was regarded as national and valuable and was thus accepted by the authorities. Some composers that wrote music within the byzantine tradition were still not trusted by the Communist authorities. Paul Constantinescu, for example, had been surveilled by the Securitate, (The secret police agency) being suspected of a negative attitude towards the Communist Party. Even though the accusations against him were unfounded, they placed a shadow over his artistic career, and he was constantly watched in order to identify any hint of a negative attitude towards the regime. Since he was officially declared hostile towards communism, mainly due to his education and his ties with the church,[10], it is easy to understand the censorship towards his religious works, like The Easter Oratorio and The Nativity Oratorio. Secondly, specific musical compositions did not overtly declare their sacred content, and one illustrative example of such a work is Festum Hibernum by Alexandru Pașcanu. We shall succinctly present three religious musical works that are part of the first category, the creations that were filtered through the byzantine tradition: The Third „Byzantine” Symphony for choir and orchestra, by Doru Popovici, The Easter Oratorio and The Nativity Oratorio, by Paul Constantinescu. The fourth musical creation that we shall focus on is part of the second category, in which composers hid the reals meaning of their work: Festum Hibernum by Alexandru Pașcanu. The first musical work that we will look at
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is The Third „Byzantine” Symphony for choir and orchestra Symphony composed in 1954 by Doru Popovici. Given the circumstances, this particular composition, which includes sacred themes, could be considered an act of courage on behalf of the composer. Most significant, given the censorship of the time, is the fact that it represented an explicit recovery of the Byzantine heritage; thus, it could not be performed until 1968, when it was ‘officially’ registered [11]. This prohibited work, The Third „Byzantine” Symphony for choir and orchestra, uses citations from the works of Ioan Dumitru Petrescu, that were intended to be sung at Christmas, a forbidden celebration during communism. These musical citations, to remain faithful to the Byzantine tradition, are used only when the male choir sings a capella, in the second part. They also appear when the mixed and female choir, with a horn solo, sing in the fourth part. In the second part, the byzantine citation is a hymn: „Glory to God,” and in the fourth part, the horn interprets another byzantine hymn with the title „Hail, Land of Judea.” Both of these parts are written in a tripartite form. „In both of these situations, we notice a hieratic, austere music, in which the archetypal marker (in this case, the citation) is used within its cultural-historic context” [12]. Another composer that used the byzantine tradition in his music during communism was Paul Constantinescu, with the Easter Oratorio and the Nativity Oratorio. Through his creative ways of using specific elements of Orthodox Christianity, he is considered to be the founding father of Romanian byzantine music [13]. The Easter Oratorio was composed in 1946 and was composed in three parts: I. Presentation of the Last Supper, the betrayal of Judas and the arrest of Jesus; II. The judgment and condemnation of Jesus. This section contains 12 antiphons that are usually sung
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on the Holy Thursday, that are interrupted by words from the Gospels, that bear the dramatic action [14]; III. The passion, death, and burial of Jesus. This Oratorio is considered to be a „combination between the Western musical traditions and the specific local byzantine tradition, regarding both the structure and the means of expression” [15]. The melodies in this Oratorio are based on authentic sources but are used in a creative way, that proves the originality of the work. An illustrative example is the first appearance of the choir, with the song Aliluia molto Tranquillo, which is taken from the collection of Macarie, Irmologhionul. Paul Constantinescu harmonizes the song and varies it in terms of rhythm and ambitus [16]. In the last two measures of the song (ex. 1), we notice a summary of the harmony used by the composer, which illustrates the psaltic construction of the melody [17].
Ex. 1: Aliluia, Easter Oratorio by Paul Constantinescu Another illustrative example is the song Luminînda (The Light), taken from the songs of the Triod, by Ion Popescu-Pasărea. The song is interpreted by the baritone voice three times, using the expressivity of a hymn. The composer brings his creativity to the music by transposing the song in E flat (the original is in F) and uses the fundamental as a minor third, keeping the cadence on the sixth degree, but on the relative C Eolic (ex. 2).
Ex. 2: The Light, Easter Oratorio, by Paul Constantinescu. Another important vocal-symphonic work based on byzantine themes by Paul Constantinescu is the Nativity Oratorio (1947), with three parts: The Good News, The Birth, and The Wisemen. An essential aspect in the first part of the Oratorio is the way the characters are portrayed through the use of recitatives, thus the Evangelist has moments that have a specific narrative, the angel Gavriil is portrayed by a definitive melodic pattern based on a diminished fourth, while the women’s choir illustrates the crowd that accompanies the angel, providing an atmosphere of celebration [18]. The first part of the work closes through a coral recitative and is inspired by three byzantine sources from the Buna Vestire (Good News) Troparion. In the second part of the Oratorio, the composer again uses byzantine sources such as The song of the first clock and the song Hymn for the greeting of the Lord, written as a vocal quartet [19]. The last part of this work illustrates the contrast between the joy at the moment of the birth when the choir sings, and the moment of tension, illustrated by Herod’s evil (ex. 3). The climax of the Oratorio is the Hymn of the birth, in which the composer achieved the highest level of arranging a byzantine melody, both emotionally and in terms of the musical language used [20].
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titles. However, music – through its abstract artistic nature – could often hide from the ideological censure” [22].
Ex. 3: Herod’s evil - Nativity Oratorio, by Paul Constantinescu This song first appears in unison, the first phrase being interpreted by the grave voices, that have a narrative and lyric lyrical element. The second phrase (ex. 4) unites the whole choir in unison and reveals the polyphonic-modal essence of the melody. The end of the Oratorio is a powerful Hallelujah, that is a fulfillment of the lyrical evolution of the work. Vasile Tomescu believes that: „A piece of strong human resonance, the Nativity Oratorio has a right to be a part of the universal heritage of its genre” [21]. These examples show the ambiguity of the sanctions imposed during the Communist period in reference to the religious content in music. Paradoxically, the use of Byzantine traditions was encouraged and even promoted, since it was considered to be part of the country’s cultural past. Thus, themes that would otherwise be labeled as forbidden were blatantly used, and many composers profited from this situation to use a harmful ideology for noble purposes. On the other end of the spectrum, the Romanian spirit had always been linked with Christian traditions, and as a result, some composers tried to infiltrate sacred songs or carols into their work secretly. Valentina Sandu-Dediu argues that: «In a society by definition atheist, like the Communist one, it was not possible to declare in the titles of musical works a preference for religious
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Ex. 4: The second phrase from Hymn of the birth - Nativity Oratorio, by Paul Constantinescu. An illustrative example in this sense is the choral poem for mixed choir, Festum Hibernum, by Alexandru Pașcanu, composed in 1980. Pașcanu masterfully hid Christmas carols through the harmonic framework, and because the choir does not articulate words, only sounds, it passed the attention of the censorship. Festum Hibernum was considered at that time a mirror of a happy past, but also a ray of hope for a better future. We shall now highlight how the composer used Christmas carols, conveying a celebratory atmosphere of peace and joy. This masterpiece starts with eight measures in which we can hear the imitation of a blizzard, and the male voices interpreting this part evoke a wintery image in which we can imagine people looking for shelter from the cold frosty night. After these eight measures, a rhythmic pattern is established, through the use of sognali in a rhythm of eight fourths (ex. 5). After the beginning measures, the campane intervenes on a C, that prepares the entrance of the soprano on the same note.
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Ex. 5: Fragment from Festum Hibernum, by Alexandru Pașcanu. The first carol that we hear is the traditional Romanian O ce veste minunată (O, what a wonderful news) that is accompanied by the imitation of bells by the alto voices and the percussion that keeps the rhythm stable through the constant use of fourth notes. The next carol that is hidden in the harmonic framework is the Christmas Carol of the Star: Trei crai de la răsărit (The Three Wisemen from the East, ex. 6), whose melody is carried by the tenor voices.
While the tenor continues with this carol, the soprano voices overlap with a folkloric Christmas carol Pe cerul cu flori frumoase (On a sky with beautiful flowers). The modal harmonization, using parallel fourths, gives an archaic taste of the carols. Measure 47 marks the return of the carol O ce veste minunată (O, what a wonderful news), but after just a few measures, it disappears, and it is replaced by the sound of bells in intervals of fifths (soprano 1) and thirds (alto). In measure 54, the soprano voices chant the carol Domn, domn să-nălțăm (Lord, Lord to be exalted), after which in the next eight measures there is an atmosphere of peace, in p and a calm Adagio. In this sections, we can hear the carol Trei păstori se întâlniră (Three shepherds met, ex. 7). Measure 121 brings a peaceful atmosphere that prepares the atmosphere for the next section, in which we hear the carol O Christmas tree, at first in a nostalgic atmosphere, and then in a more joyful manner, after it modulates in C major. The 16th section is a moment that reaches the sublime. The carol O ce veste minunată (O, what wonderful news, ex. 8) is underlined, and it brings a moment of solemnity, which is strengthened by the sound of the bell. Besides the melody of the carol O ce veste minunată (O, what a wonderful news), other melodies can be heard. For example, there is a fragment from Trei păstori (Three shepherds) and a fragment from the Christmas folkloric piece Florile dalbe (The white flowers). This work ends that same way it started, bringing the journey of
Ex. 6: The Three Wisemen from the East - Festum Hibernum, by Alexandru Pașcanu.
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Romanian sacred carols to an end in a ppp dynamic, thus giving the work unity.
Ex. 7: Three shepherds met Festum Hibernum, by Alexandru Pașcanu
Ex. 8: O, what wonderful news- Festum Hibernum, by Alexandru Pașcanu The image that this musical work evokes is that of a window, opened by the wind, through which we can see a delightful winter celebration image, with people singing carols, enjoying themselves, and having quiet moments of reflections on the meaning of Christmas and people. The same wind that opened the window closes it at the end of the work, leaving us with just the memory of a joyous Christmas celebration Given the context in which Festum hibernum was composed, Alexandru Pașcanu declared that he wanted to illustrate the way people still wished to celebrate the Sacred celebration of Christmas, through the foggy window, that represented communism.
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Conclusions The musical works presented in this paper, as well as the many others that were composed during the communist regime, are a symbol of the genius and the courage of the Romanian composers to stand up for their faith and their commitment to composing according to the values they believed. The external socio-political pressures of communism cast a dark shadow over the nation of Romania, and it darkened the landscape of artistic and musical life. However, despite this darkness, many composers decided to be a beacon of hope and light through the music that they wrote, by bringing smiles on Chrismas Eve, through the hidden carols in a piece of music, or by openly presenting the religious Romanian musical tradition in the Byzantine heritage. These composers, alongside other musicians, were the faithful remnant that fought to create a new school of music, that would benefit the future generation of musicians, and the most persuasive proof of their effort are the accomplishments of Romanian music after the dark days of communism passed. References [1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
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Gallagher, Tom. Furtul unei națiuni, România de la comunism încoace (The theft of a nation, Romania since communism). Bucharest: Humanitas, 2004, 67 (translation by author). Simion, Eugen. Cultura în epoca totalitarismului, totalitarismului (Culture in the Age of Totalitarianism, paper presented the Colocviu Unesco 1997, published in Caiete critice I, no 4, 1998 Rădulescu, Speranța. Peisaje muzicale în România secolului XX (Musical Landscapes in XXth Century Romania). Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 2002, 68 (translation by author). Zaciu, Mircea. Interviuri (Interviews). Ed. Graţian Cormoş. Cluj-Napoca: Limes, 2007, 23-29 (translation by author). MacMurray, John. Creative Society: A study
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of the relation of Christianity to Communism. New York: Association Press, 24, 1936. [6] Negruț, Paul. Biserica și statul, o interogație asupra modelului “simfoniei” bizantine (Church and State, an Interogation on the model of the Byzantine “symphony”). Oradea: Ed. Institutului Biblic „Emanuel”, 2000, 133 (translation by author). [7] Eisel, V. Stephan. Politik und Musik. Musik zwischen Zensur und politischem Miβbrauch. Bonn: Aktuell, 1990, 90. [8] Sandu-Dediu, Valentina. Muzica românească între 1944-2000 (Romanian music during 1944-2000). Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 2002, 74 (translation by author). [9] Văduva, Lois, Romania’s Stalinization and its Effects on the Romanian Musical Universe, Ed. Muzicală, București, 2019, part 2, chapter 7. [10] Voicu-Arnăuțoiu, Ioana Raluca, „Paul Constantinescu, Parallel biographies,” Musicology Today, (January-April, 2010), http://www.musicologytoday.ro/BackIssues/ Nr.1/studies2.php [11] Sandu-Dediu, Valentina, op.cit., 74. [12] Ursu, Ileana, “Orizontul sacrului în muzica românească, Continuitate și creativitate” [The Sacred Horizon on Romanian Music, Continuity and Creativity], Muzica 25, no. 1 (1996) (translation by author). [13] Anghel, Irinel. Guidelines, Directions, Trends of Romanian Music in the Second Half of the XXth Century [Orientări, direcții, curente ale muzicii românești din a doua jumătate a secolului XX]. Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 1997,11 (translation by author). [14] Moisescu, Titus. Monodia bizantină în gândirea unor muzicieni români (The Byzantine Monody in the Thought of some Romanian Musicians). Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 1999, 56-57 (translation by author). [15] Hotoran, Anamaria Mădălina. Patimile și moartea Domnului în viziunea componisticii secolului XX – Genul Pasiunii (The Passion and Death of the Lord in the Componistic Vision of the XXth Century – The Passion Genre). Cluj-Napoca: Risoprint, 2008, 43 (translation by author).
Tomescu, Vasile. Paul Constantinescu. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală, 1967, 267. [17] Tomescu, Paul Constantinescu, 266-267. [18] Tomescu, Paul Constantinescu, 293. [19] Tomescu, Paul Constantinescu, 197 [20] Tomescu, Paul Constantinescu, 303. [21] Tomescu, Paul Constantinescu, 305. [22] Sandu-Dediu, Muzica românească, 74. [16]
Biography Lois Paula Văduva was born in Oradea, Romania, and did her undergraduate studies in Music Pedagogy at Emanuel University of Oradea, Romania, and her masters in Musical Art at the same University. She obtained her Ph.D. in musicology at the University of Arts “George Enescu”, Iași, with the thesis “The influence and control of socio-politics in music”. After completing her degree, she started teaching music history at Emanuel University of Oradea, Department of Theology - Music Pedagogy, where she is currently a Lecturer. She has published studies in the field of music history, such as The Influence of SocioPolitics in Music, Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 2019, and Romania’s Stalinization and Its Effects on the Romanian Musical World, Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală, 2019. Dr. Văduva’s main topics of research are the relationship between music and the socio-political context and music therapy.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 32 - 40
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
Hurezi* Painting - Case Study Assist. Prof. Dr. Ovidiu Felipov
The Faculty of Arts, Ovidius University of Constanţa România
article info Article history: Received 30 August 2019 Received in revised form 29 October Accepted 30 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.2
Keywords: Hurezi; Romanian iconographic art; Brâncoveanu; monastery; mural painting;
abstract
The iconographic program from Hurezi is one of the most important in the history of Romanian iconographic art. Although it is original, the painting from Hurezi is deeply anchored in the Orthodox tradition. Vegetable ornamental motifs are prominent in mural painting. Their rich repertoire, with different levels of styling, contributes to the delimitation of individual architectural segments, as well as to grand grandeur. What gives unity to decoration (pictorial or sculptural) is this abundance of motives, from various sources: inspirational Byzantine - Balkan, other Oriental - Islamic, and also Western-inspired. A particular note is borrowed from the realistic representation of the local flora, and its reproduction as concrete as in the Romanian folk art. The sustained effort of Brâncoveanu’s founders, painters from Hurezi, together with the end-of-season mentality leads to the crystallization of a new stage in mural painting in Wallachia, in the center of the Hurezi Monastery where the Church is located. The Hurezi painting workshop and the sculptor masters, painters, and woodcutters here have quickly become known throughout the country and abroad because of the beauty of their works. Hurezi style is found in many of the church paintings in Romania, but also in the surrounding. They become speakers on behalf of the founders and the great figures of their times, embellishing expression through the talent received from above, from God-Creator. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ovidiu Felipov. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Felipov, Ovidiu, ”Hurezi Painting - Case Study,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.2, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 32-40.
* Hurezi or Horezu Monastery, the most beautiful and refined example of Romanian architecture, the most important foundation of the martyr lord Constantin Brâncoveanu (1688-1714), erected in 1693, a true synthesis of the Romanian art. eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. INTRODUCTION
The iconographic program from Hurezi is one of the most important in the history of Romanian iconographic art. Although it is original, the painting from Hurezi is deeply anchored in the Orthodox tradition. In the main church of the Hurezi monastery, the murals of the nave include gospel items: the Emperor Feasts, the Passion Cycle, lessons and parables of the Savior on the Faith. The mural painting in the narthex describes the Akathistos, Synaxarion and the life cycle of the prophet Elijah and St. Constantine, the latter being the spiritual patron of the Parish and the Church itself. In the porch, in dialogue with the scene of the Last Judgment, there is a series of seven ecumenical synods and parables from the Gospel, enjoying wise life. A sophisticated and nuanced analysis of the Hurezi iconographic program could be summarized in the following fragment: “The repertory and structural origins of the iconographic program at Hurezi do not alter the fact that it is deeply anchored in the orthodox liturgical tradition, its expression of liberty and vitality. The genuine experimentation of this iconic tradition makes it guess the symbolic and spiritual meanings of space and perhaps structure the iconographic discourse on levels of understanding. The painting of the main church at the Hurezi monastery becomes a reference point for 18th-century painting in Wallachia” [1]. II. On the Constantin Brâncoveanu art
style
Many iconographic themes have been resumed but are meaningless. The sustained effort of Brâncoveanu’s founders, painters from Hurezi together with the end-of-season mentality leads to the crystallization of a new stage in mural painting in Wallachia, in the center of the Hurezi Monastery where the
Church is located. In the secondary places of the monastery, the pictorial teaching painted by order of John Alexander the Great - focuses on the Sacrament of the Mother of God, the true faith and the pilgrims of a monk, and the eremitical monastic life [2]. Vegetable ornamental motifs are prominent in mural painting. Their rich repertoire, with different levels of styling, contributes to the delimitation of individual architectural segments, as well as to grand grandeur. What gives unity to decoration (pictorial or sculptural) is this abundance of motives, from various sources: inspirational Byzantine - Balkan, other Oriental - Islamic, and also Western-inspired. A particular note is borrowed from the realistic representation of the local flora, and its reproduction as concrete as in the Romanian folk art. But the delicacy and beauty of votive portraits certainly prove the culmination of the artistic refinement displayed by the Hurezi Master Masters. They varied, tinted portraits with their well-known psychological characteristics, highlighting the founder’s prestige and richness. Many have been written on the “grand and old line of his family, both from his father and his mother”[3] which was painted “on this charming, beautiful and crafted narthex” [4]. Fragments of the votive inscription painted on the western wall of the narthex are located above the entrance door. Attempts to revive spiritual life by returning to the monastic organization in the monasteries founded by the Matei Basarab Voivode and Constantin Brâncoveanu Voivode in Câmpulung and Hurezi can be considered as princely initiatives of the same importance and having the same purpose as the cultural share of people or Orthodox patronage in Eastern countries. These leaders understand that by strengthening the monarchy, they can strengthen the Church, by fortifying it, they can fight the offensive in the Ottoman world
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or the Western world of reform and counterreform. Hurezi Monastery, through its artistic and spiritual dimension, has been a true distribution center for several models. “Monastic complexes in the Vâlcea area owe morphologies and constructive solutions that have crystallized in Hurezi. Even an older complex, such as Cozia, resembles Brâncoveanu premises, new buildings or elements added to existing ones. At Polovragi, Govora, From a wood, abbot houses or cells acquire access towers like those found at Cantacuzino or Brâncoveneşti residences. The churches in the Vâlcea area, painted during the Brâncoveanu period, are all due to the iconography and style of the painting from Hurezi” [5]. By integrating perfectly into the Romanian artistic community, Constantinos soon became the head of the great painting workshop at Hurez, a workshop which, through his training capacity, through the training of a large number of craftsmen and calfs, would transform into a genuine a school with an impressive irradiation capacity, far away the fame of the thriving artistic life of Wallachia under Constantin Brâncoveanu’s leadership. The monastic complex of Hurez or Hurezi, as it is known today, was at that time the most complex and of the largest size, with several churches and hermitages made and painted in the years 1691-1703. Here will be a true school of masters of painting and not only: here grew up and builders were built, stonecutters and woodcutters and polluters. The most important segment remains the painters, who will contribute to the consolidation and primacy of Brâncoveanu style. Constantinos will lead the team of painters who painted the great church of Hurez, the main monument of the ensemble, between 1693-1694. The team was made up of the masters Ioan, Andrei, Stan, Neagoe, Ioachim and will remain in the history of art thanks to their unique creation: an iconographic
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strategy specifically designed for this large edifice, “which had to present the authority and aspirations of the founder, classical and prescribed by the Hermini, has deliberately advanced some themes that revived the tradition of the militant painting of the era of Stephen the Great, Neagoe Basarab and Petru Rares. Two are the themes that the craftsmen relied on to formulate the content of ideas introduced by the voivode: the iconography of St. Constantine, the patron of the founder, and the votive painting” [6]. The life of Emperor Constantine is narrated on the eastern wall, it is of great size and plays, including the episode of the battle of the Milvus bridge, with the symbolism of the time. After Emperor Constantine defeated Maxentius, Christianity was established as a state religion in the Roman Empire. Thus, the creation of craftsmen is rather a laic narrative, with a symbolism similar to that of the Cavalcade of the holy cross at Pătrăuţi or the Siege of Constantinople at Moldoviţa. An exponent of an anti-Ottoman policy, Constantin Brâncoveanu recalled through this image the victorious power of the cross that led Constantine in the battle with Maxentius. Alongside this invocation of divine power for the liberation of the country, the votive picture introduces into Hurez’s iconography and arguments of a more direct political nature. Starting from the example of the votive painting in the Argeş Episcopal, Constantinos and his collaborators covered the walls of the narthex, which was to become a royal necropolis, with a massive cortege of characters: the members of Brâncoveanu’s family, also the Bessarabians and the Cantacuzines. The work in which Constantin Brâncoveanu is presented with the four boys and Mrs. Maria with the seven girls, the most important one in the votive painting, excites and impresses both through the magnificence of the ensemble and the precious beauty of the details. Excited by Hurez’s portraits, “Abcar Baltazar glorified at
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the beginning of our century the precision of the drawing, the clarity, the softness and the freshness of the color, his original harmony, stating that his admiration has changed into piety. In a special way, all the experts assessed the portrait of Miss Smaranda, with a pink and chubby face, whose eyes, like two beads of black light, overwhelmed, over two centuries, the eyes of the children in the paintings of Nicolae Tonitza” [7]. The portrait paintings of the voivode and the boyars portraying the narthex are added to the group of painters portraits on the porch. Here, on the eastern wall, alongside the portraits of the boyars of the stewards, Badea, Apostol, Cernica Ştirbei, were depicted holding in their hands the symbols of craftsmanship: Manea, the fortress’s fortress, Vucaşin Caragea, “the stonemason” and Istrate, “the woodcutter”. The craftsmen from Hurez are thus confirmed as their role as creators of spiritual values in the perspective of a new attitude towards art, characteristic of the modern times, which signified the cultural and art facts of Constantin Brâncoveanu’s age. Regarding the portico of Hurez, it must be stated that the eastern wall was preserved for the realization of a vast Judgment in which, as in the past, in Moldavia, there are camps of Turks and Tartars in the cortege of sinners, the enemies of Wallachia being resembling with the great damnations of mankind. Moreover, the Hurez Judgment has a large number of episodes of moral and social criticism, highlighting the vices of all kinds, the injustice and the oppression of the poor. From this moment on, the subject of Judgment, sporadically highlighted by Matei Basarab’s time, will benefit from a widespread in the painting of Wallachia, allowing the craftsmen to increase their enthusiastic themes and to claim the serious injustice of society.
III. The Position Hurez’s painting has
among the art schools
The great value of Hurez’s paintings was highlighted by the great Byzantinologist Charles Diehl when he wrote: “The strong Byzantine tradition is dominant in the Hurez monastery, perhaps the most beautiful monument in all of Romania (...) These frescoes are among the most remarkable Romanian art produced and, at the same time, they prove the continuity of Romanian art and Byzantine art, they show the extraordinary brilliance that gives to the arts the reign of Constantin Brâncoveanu” [8]. Besides the great church, other monuments have been decorated at the Hurez Monastery, which together allows the characterization of the painting center built within the impressive Brâncoveanu settlement. “Marin and Preda are the painters of the chapel painting (1696-1697), the painter was painted by Preda, Nicholas, and Ephraim (1699), the church of the Apostles was depicted by Joseph and Ion (1700).” Ierodiacon Joseph, the nephew of Archimandrite John, is formed in the environment of the painters who worked at Hurez - the starting point of Brâncoveanu style. It is mentioned in the context of commenting painted artists familiar with the art of book printing. Joseph’s activity can be traced to Bistrita’s church - porch, at the Hermitage of Hurez (1700), Surpatele (1706), Govora (1711), Păpuşa (1710), Alba Iulia Church (1716-1717), finally ends his activity in Râmnic, where he is the leader of the ward’s prints. Generally, it is the Hurez painting school to highlight the effects of ornamental effects, both through the execution of the figurative compositions and the enhancement of the decorative surfaces with floral motifs (at the Apostolic Hermitage, the decorative surfaces occupy about half of the total area of the walls). Narrative treatment
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is, in fact, characteristic, church pictures being more and more close to reality by embellishing them with elements from the environment, sometimes even with a note of fun. The concern for reality brings to classical iconography the representation of the psalms occasioning the execution of some scenes of life, with the beloved ones, the characters being dressed in the costumes of the time. It is also worth remembering the freshness of language and the somewhat natural energy of the expression that anticipates the rustication process of religious painting. After the decoration of the monuments of Hurez, the members of the workshop here, under the guidance of Constantinos, arrived at large craftsmen themselves, spread to the country to decorate other edifices, this phenomenon becoming characteristic of the first half of the 18th century. In direct connection with the decoration of so many founders, we must explain the explosive multiplication of icons. Made first of all to decorate the iconostasis, but also to decorate the cells, the boyars and princes, the icons have become a fashionable decoration item. With regard to their manufacture, reference is made to the presence of several workshops at Hurez, Târgovişte, Bucharest, Piteşti, Câmpulung, but also in other important cities of Wallachia. The takeover of decorative elements of Baroque origin referred to as a process in relation to the murals, is even more visible in icons, defining the preference for the Baroque thrones, with complicated architectures, for fanciful architectural backgrounds, for the sumptuous folds. With all this exuberance tendency, elements of decorative expansiveness are embraced by harmonious compositional schemes, that classical sense of the inner layout of the forms we identify in the case of architectural monuments, being present here as well. In the category of the most extraordinary executions of Brâncoveanu icons in the last part of the 17th century, we can mention the ones from Hurez (royal icons, feasts, apostles), which Session 1. Art and Literature & Religion
were of course made in the workshop that Constantinos owned. On September 30, 1694, the painters Constantine, Ioan, Andrei, Stan, Neagoe, and Ioachim finished painting the “Hopeful, Beautiful and Skilful Tile” of the great Hurezi church, inside of which was the pronaos of the Constantin Brâncoveanu water- by the craftsmen led by Manea. Along the west, north and south walls there is a gallery of portraits in the style with which the last decade of the 17th century has so well used to its contemporaries. The rich gallery of family portraits found in the nave of Hurezi Monastery presents Brâncoveanu’s desire to sustain the honor and descent of his ancestors, but at the same time shows his desire to impose himself in the eyes of contemporaries and posterity as a great founder. Brâncoveanu’s portrait shows him as a great builder of holy and country churches, a generous patron of culture and arts. Through the force of group unity, the portrait is an instrument of affirmation of authority and power. Brancoveanu’s portraits are meant to rebuild the image of the monarch who elevates his qualities and virtues. In the Brâncoveanu period, in accordance with the modern mentality, the creative personality benefited from an affirmation and a gradual evolution. Chroniclers of the time no longer acceptable to be just time registrars, expressing with their own sensibility, in their own subjective style, the events described. The artists, extremely aware of their professional strength, represented portraits, titles, and names on the walls of the churches they had built. Manea, the supervisor of plasterers, Pârvu Mutu at the Wood Filists with the brush and the palette of colors in the hand, Istrate, the carpenter, Vucaşin Caragea, the stonecutter at Hurezi, are faces, names, and creative personalities. Thus, the artist became recognized as a concept, but also an identity, in the medieval age. The modern age and the Renaissance mentality for the affirmation of
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the personality had an important impact on the creative consciousness of the craftsmen and artists of the country. A m o n g the disciples of Pârvu Mutu, we remember Radu and Stancu. Stancu appears painted alongside his master, Pârvu Mutu, in the woods of Philippeştii de Pădure. Radu, in his turn, had the portrait depicted in the church in Bordeşti (1700) and a self-portrait at Stelea Church in Târgovişte (1706). Constantinos, whom I spoke above, was the other great painter of the Brâncoveanu era. He was called to Wallachia by Serban Cantacuzino. On many occasions, it was suggested that he would have been more talented than Pârvu Mutu Pugravul. Constantinos is the one who brought to our country the Athonite style, being Constantin Brâncoveanu’s court painter. With this role, the artist organized a painting school at Hurezi. According to what we have found in the History of Fine Arts in Romania [9], the disciples of Constantine were numerous. We mention some of the most famous: Andrei, Ion, Stan, Ioachim, Neagoe. At Hurezi, the School of Painting was sent to painters throughout Wallachia. They participated in extensive works for holy edifices that have undergone restorations or additions. Thus, between 1703-1705, Ianache, Preda, Sima, and Mihai made the painting of the nave of the great church at the Cozia Monastery. Between 1711-1712, the craftsmen Simion, Andrei, Hranite, and Istrate painted the Polovragi Monastery. Ierodiacon Joseph signed the creations from the Govora Monastery, the Bistrita Monastery and Păpuşa Monastery. Stephen and Hranite worked at Surpatele (1706), and the painter Preda, around 1708, made the works of Mamul, Arnota, the Monastery of a Wood and the nave of St. Nicholas Chivarari Church in Fagaras. The names of the painters mentioned above appear on many of the achievements of these valuable artists, mural painters,
who decorated the walls of the brâncovenic edifices: churches, monasteries, palaces, mansions, merchant houses, clinics, libraries, schools, etc. As we remembered at the beginning of the work, the paintings on the walls of the edifices would send a message. This message should correspond to the wishes of the founders, so we can say that the two great artists and teachers, Pârvu Mutu and Constantinos, have taught their disciples and their descendants a special thing: to speak on behalf of the founders, embellishing the expression of the talent received from above, from God-Creator. The distribution of the iconographic themes remains the traditional, already predetermined one, but what is of special interest to us is the representation of the votive painting. The masterpiece of the Brancoven style, the mural painting within the Hurezi Monastery demonstrates a unitary style, capable of being so by conception and realization, even though many craftsmen participated in the execution of these extensive works. However, Constantinos’s merit is to be formed here, within this great cultural center founded by Prince Brâncoveanu, a real school of religious painting, the whose declared style becomes the post-Bessian late. Although the Greek origin, his signature confirms for centuries the local assimilation: “Constantinos din Ţara Românească”. It is evident, however, the influence of Pârvu Mutu on the crystallization of what was to be defined as the “brâncovenian style”. Its typologies, so fresh and fresh in aesthetic interpretation and formulation, created many followers and disciples to continue their work and to propagate this new concept for the realization of countless monuments later painted. At Hurezi, in the narthex, in the place for the votive painting, the iconographic situation brings the novelty of a preference for historical painting, a large number of
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voivodes of Wallachia being represented there, of which Brâncoveanu considers himself to be the last descendant. The battle scene - with a historical subject showing the battle of Holy Emperor Constantine the Great with rival Maxentius at the gates of Rome, including the appearance of the cross as a symbol and support - integrates the representation of the entire cycle dedicated to St. Constantine and supports the claim pleading for a narrative character of the composition: evident from historical painting, but also obvious secular features have been integrated here. The succession of the portraits of the Romanian rulers conveys unequivocally the idea of a hereditary dynasty of the Brâncoveanu family. The votive portrait shows an elegant composition, both in impersonating the characters and in characterizing them with the sumptuous vestments analyzed with the decorative pleasure of the detail, the silhouette of the silhouettes, the humble but safe attitude of them. What impresses is the firm attitude of the ruler, the beautiful faces analyzed in the expression of concern for rendering the personalized features of the “model.” It also notes the absence of accessories - jewelry, etc. - the composition being regulated by the vertical succession of the color strips and the garments, their repetitiveness on the horizontal, the musicality, the rhythm created by the head coverings in the much louder correspondence, the expressive succession of the hands. The composition center is usually occupied by the miniature of God’s place of worship. Particularly interesting is the presence of the open book, which the child at the forefront offers, in order to understand his importance and significance. The visual array is gorgeous and colorful in a range of blue and yellow ocher dotted with the discreet weight of an honest red. The most convincing expression of Brâncoveanu painting is found in the Hurezi Monastery,
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more precisely in the church and the chapel. Here the decisive role in profiling the images of the collective votive portrait was held by the steward Pârvu Cantacuzino. Of course, he was able to accurately describe the faces of the Cantacuzino family, working closely with the consecrated painter, and thus succeeded in correcting the ink of the Greek Constantinos. The votive painting presented at Hurezi, which reveals the cooling of relations between the two great families in the epoch, is not singular. There is another telling painting in this respect. Painting by Pârvu Mutu between 1695-1696, it is found inside the church of Sinaia Monastery, founded by the back of Mihai Cantacuzino. The votive portrait here depicts Prince Constantine Brâncoveanu with his back turned from the entire Cantacuzino family. Of course, the painter Pârvu Mutu, in full agreement with the founder Mihai Cantacuzino, repulsed the ruler, who, as the historians have said, was present at the conquest of this church (!). V. Dragut’s inscriptions show that painter Constantinos and his disciples at Hurezi, in the porch of the main church, made the faces of the craftsmen responsible for building the edifice there. In other works, Constantine and his disciples, perhaps due to lack of time, felt that the signature on the wall (eg the Princely Church of Târgovişte) was sufficient. Considering the above, we must not forget that Pârvu Mutu and Constantinos, along with their disciples, expressed through the penile the deeply humanistic and Renaissance thinking of Brâncoveanu’s age. As messengers of ideological, religious, political, and cultural programs, they have made the ideas of the founders, plastic and particularly accessible. In the same sense, the other craftsmen, for example, the stonemasons and the woodcutters, expressed their way of life, completing the significance and meaning of Brâncoveanu art. Their portraits and selfportraits determine the appreciation of
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these values of the society of the age. [6]
CONCLUSION The development of ecclesial murals is due to the evolution of society (secular or clerical). As a result, it was possible to set up real painting schools, supported by the gentleman and his close friends. Pârvu Mutu initiated valuable painting programs in the Romanian school, improving cultural heritage inherited from predecessors, bringing innovations such as the collective votive portrait, the expressiveness of the human figures, the appreciation of the creative artist, plus the opening of the road to the easel painting. All this is a rarity for the European art of its time. On the other hand, Constantinos painted new elements from the Athenian painting in Brancovean art. His pictorial programs have exceeded the Byzantine hermeneutics. However, he adapted them to the local humanist current, which was shy, shy, but progressive, on these lands. These painters have become speakers on behalf of the founders, embellishing the expression of the talent received from above, from God-Creator. REFERENCES [1]
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
Nicolau-Golfin, Marin, Art History, (Bucharest: Ed. Didactică și Pedagogică, 1968), p. 48, 1968. Le Goff, Jacques, Medieval Western Civilization (Bucharest, , Editura Ştiințifică şi Enciclopedică, 1970), p. 26, 1970. Theodorescu, Răzvan, Constantin Brancoveanu between the “House of Books” and “Ievropa”, (Bucharest, Ed. RAO, , p.16, 2012), .16. Ibidem. Nicolau-Golfin, Marin, Art History
[7] [8]
[9]
(Bucharest, , Ed. Didactică și Pedagogică, 1968), p. 54, 1968. Vatașianu, Virgil, The history of feudal art in the Romanian Lands, vol.1 (Bucharest, Editura Academiei Române, 1959), p. 75, 1959. Idem, p. 78. Drăguț, Vasile, Romanian art. Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque (Bucharest, , Ed. Meridiane, 1982), p. 398, 1982. Oprescu, George (coord.), History of Fine Arts in Romania (Bucharest, Ed. Meridiane, 1968), p. 71, 1968
Biography Ovidiu Felipov I was born on October 27, 1982 in Tulcea / Romania. I started my studies in the plastic arts in 1997 as follows: 1997-2001 I attended the courses of the Tulcea High School of Arts. In parallel with the Art High School from 1998-2001 I attended the courses of the Popular School of Arts in Tulcea. Between 2001-2005 I attended the courses of the Faculty of Arts in Constanta. After completing the bachelor’s degree program in 2005-2007 I attended the masters courses in Nazi Art as the precursor art of Contemporary Advertising Art. Between 2012-2019 I graduated from the Doctoral School at Ovidius University in Constanta. As jobs that I have activated so far I can list the following: 2005-2019 Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Arts in Constanta 2010-2010 Art Director - Smart Logistics
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SRL 2007-2009 Art Director - Advertising Zone SRL 2006-2006 Art Director - Piatra.ro SRL 2004-2006 Art Director - Kunckers Design SRL. Since 2006 I am a member of the Union of Plastic Artists from Romania.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 41 - 48
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Light, created and uncreated, wave and particle at the same time Assoc. Prof. Alina Cristea The Faculty of Arts, Ovidius University of Constanţa România
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ovidiu Felipov The Faculty of Arts, Ovidius University of Constanţa România
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 12 October 2019 Received in revised form 20 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.3
We confess in the Creed that God is light, and His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, is light from the light. There is no prayer without even a reference to light. The initial light, after the Christian conception, is a reflection of the uncreated divine energies, a sign of the presence and fullness of the divine creative grace. “The difference between the light of the first day and that of the fourth day,” says Saint Basil the Great, is this: the first was the very essence of light, the second was carried by the astral bodies. But the light and something else are the luminators; the Creator it fills them with light and suspends them in the vicinity of the world”. As a primordial element in creation, light is the first that has been praised by the praise of the Creator Himself, as it is said in Holy Scripture: “And God saw that light is very beautiful” (cf. Acts I, 4). The word “enlightenment” goes far beyond the simple idea of seeing around and creates, with each example, its own structure. The light that comes from above has a unique quality in nature, as in philosophy, it penetrates even the darkest corners of the spirit, even if it is only a ray. The meaning of “enlightenment” becomes synonymous with revelation, whether we are talking about the world of ideas, the mental, the intellectual or the spiritual. However, light also has scientific definitions and is at the center of the most remarkable explorations of the truths of Creation. The demonstration, in 2015, of Einstein’s theory, according to which light behaves as a wave and a particle at the same time, meant an extremely important turning point, on the border between science and religion. Beyond the scientific demonstration and the experiment itself, the quantum understanding of light brings to attention another paradigm of wave-particle duality, that of mystery. This mystery probably made Einstein declare in 1916 that for the rest of my life I would like to think about what light is. As His invisible thoughts are seen from the creatures (Rom, 1, 20), we can believe that this mysterious wave-corpus duality is the natural phenomenon by which we can understand, or rather accept, believe in, the mystery of the unmixed union of his nature. God with the human, in the person of the Savior of Christ. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Light; wave; particle; Creation; Einstein; physics; religion; science;
Copyright © 2019 Alina Cristea & Ovidiu Felipov. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Cristea, Alina, and Ovidiu Felipov, ”Light, created and uncreated, wave and particle at the same time,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.3, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 41-48.
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Multidisciplinary JOURNAL on th e D ial o gu e b e t we e n S ci e n c e a nd T heology
I. INTRODUCTION
We confess in the Creed: God is light, and His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, is light from light: “For as long as I am in the world, I am the Light of the world” (John IX, 5). There is no prayer without even a reference to light, and the examples are numerous. We’ll only play a few. “God is the Distant Light and Being (St. Basil the Great) or the Three-Glow in Light (St. Simeon the New Theologian), to whom we pray for light the garment of my soul, the Giver of light. And in Doxology we sing in Your light we will see the light (Psalm 35), words with profound meanings, which are the basis of the great Jesuit theology of light and of the uncreated energies that Saint Gregory Palama defended and formulated in the 14th century. One is the light that is not seen on earth except by the saints, the light that cannot be understood and another, the created light, the daily light that we all see in the Lord’s mercy. This created physical light, with its impressive depths, can give us an earthly impression of the uncreated light ”[1]. The initial light, after the Christian conception, is a reflection of the uncreated divine energies, a sign of the presence and fullness of the divine creative grace. “The difference between the light of the first day and that of the fourth day,” says Saint Basil the Great, is this: the first was the very essence of light, the second was carried by the astral bodies. But the light and something else are the luminators; the Creator it fills them with light and suspends them in the vicinity of the world “. As a primordial element in creation, light is the first that has been praised for the praise of the Creator Himself, as it is said in the Holy Scripture: “And God saw that light is very beautiful” [2]. The “essence of light” is the first light, the uncreated light, and the one given to the “astral bodies” is always the concern of the people regarding the walk of the universe, the path and significance
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of the planets, the extent, the age and the mystery. In modern times it is called astrophysics. Light has, no matter what the science analyzes it, a directly, intrinsically link with Creation. Without light, life, as we know it, cannot exist. The light has always been a challenge for plastic artists, painters and sculptors, especially for those who play religious themes in their works. The theme of light and its symbolism is one of the great chapters of human spirituality of all times and of all peoples. The astral cult has been the most widespread in the history of religions, and the respective literature, which remains to this day, contains aspects of real wealth and beauty. The most important deities, which have marked the mythologies of the world, are connected with the light (sun, lightning, moon), dimensioning the archetypal collective mind and the space in which the myths meet, the basic data of the stories of mankind. Whether we refer to myths, or whether we enter the temple of the great works of art, the light will always be directly connected with the “up”, and the viewer will be, at each time, at the other end of the balance, that is “down”. Thus, the light that comes “from above” will always coexist in a complex paradigm; the word “enlightenment” goes far beyond the simple idea of seeing around and creates, with each example, its own structure. The light that comes from above has a unique quality in nature, as in philosophy, it penetrates even the darkest corners of the spirit, even if it is only a ray. The meaning “to enlighten” becomes synonymous with revelation, whether we are talking about the world of ideas, the mental, the intellectual or the spiritual, that is, the soul. The divine light is also contained in the Law, which is a guide to the souls of the righteous: “As the law is a good candlestick and the law a light, and the exhortations that give the teaching are the way of life” (Prov. VI, 23).
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He who walks according to the Law and the will of the Lord follows the right path and will be led to the joy of a happy day; in this way “The law is the pillar of my feet and the light of my paths” (Ps. CXVIII, 105). On the contrary, those who do not do good works, those who walk against the Law of God are in great confusion and ignorance, as the prophet Isaiah tells us: “Woe to those who say good evil and good evil, who call darkness light and light darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter! Woe to those who are wise in their eyes and knowledgeable in their thoughts! “ (Isaiah V, 20). Imagine entering a gothic, stern and majestic cathedral: columns thicker than the trunk of a hundred-year-old oak, mercilessly rise in semi-darkness, the ceiling is encrusted by impressive arches in size and grace, the sculptures look into - an apparent void, wrapped in the mystery that has been around for centuries, and in niches there are paintings and altars containing so much beauty that they seem to need no spectator. The footsteps echoed too hard on the stone floor, inlaid with only partially guessed symbols. A single ray of light, perfectly defined, enters through one of the ornate windows and draws its imprint somewhere on the floor. You feel God. The quality of the light perceived thus seems to be different from the one we normally know, it is the light of the high at the border of creation, and this awareness usually places the viewer in a sensitive state, far from the practical reasoning, stimulates them that area of the subconscious that responds to the miraculous intention. The entrance to a church is obviously more than an entrance into a physical space, more than just a wall opening.
Ex foto1: The Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem At Orthodox churches and Catholic cathedrals (much more visible), the portal is an architecturally enriched door to express the importance of entry. A church portal, symbolizing Christ who said: “I am the door”, therefore, signifies not only an entrance into a building but the entrance into the Christian community and all that it represents. The portals of medieval churches, decorated with images of heaven and earth, may be better known, but each church door remains a powerful sign of human inspiration in connection with the divine. Access to this “other space” could not be left to chance and, according to history, the more impressive it is, the more prepared the believer is for the experience that awaits him inside. II. Religion and science, the most
important coordinates of spirituality And if we find out from the Christian religion that light was in the beginning, astrophysics holds the same. The first great theory of the existence of light was the Big Bang theory, in which, abstracting, light is seen as the primordial matter of the Universe. The two fields, religion and science, are two of the most important coordinates of spirituality and the relation of the individual to the seen and unseen environment. With the help of art and philosophy, man has tried, from the oldest to explain his misunderstanding, miracle, things beyond his immediate understanding. The two areas have been and still are perceived or presented as contradictory. “Faith does not deny science, but often inside voices of science, there are negative voices about faith. A particular case is that of physics (a field of which I am a researcher in nuclear physics), which has remarkable success in understanding and describing the universe
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based on the fundamental forces and the elementary constituents of matter and radiation (light). This understanding is indeed impressive, obviously from a practical point of view, of technology, where fundamental discoveries such as electromagnetic waves, X-rays, laser, transistor, and integrated circuits, superconductivity, light diodes (all crowned with Nobel prizes for physics) have led to practical applications that have now become every day “[3]. However, regarding this success of physics, beyond the area of everyday life, the most important dimension is the conceptual one, which is a sophisticated mathematical apparatus (quantum field theory for laws at sub-atomic level) and which led to theoretical predictions that were validated by the experimental discovery. According to the cited source, examples are the mediators of the so-called weak nuclear force, which govern sub-nuclear disintegrations, the W and Z bosons (which are quantum equivalent to light, with the mass distinction) or the Higgs boson, discovered in 2012, at CERN. Another extremely important conclusion of the last decades refers to the theory that the strength of the fundamental forces and certain indicators that characterize matter (such as the masses of up and down quarks) have values characterized by a socalled “fine-tuning”. This means that small variations of these values lead to a universe completely different from the one we live in, a universe in which the existence of life would be impossible. In support of the idea that there are no incompatibilities between science and religion, the fact is that some of the world’s most outstanding physicists, with the help of which we have managed to understand the universe today, were faithful. Some examples would be: Faraday, Newton, Maxwell or Charles Townes (inventor of the laser). This perception of incompatibility originates in a blunt collision
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of mentalities, that is, a rigid interpretation of science and belief. The paradox is that both are questioned with the same device: the question. Professor Anton Andronic provides the perfect example in this regard: “The research character is as strong in science as in science - see the example of Thomas the“ unbeliever ”, who asked to put his hand in the wounds of the nails and the spear, and Jesus Christ offered him the opportunity, appreciating his sincere desire to be convinced by all possible means. The Savior’s resurrection was concrete, not abstract, and Thomas was justified in finding it. We need faith in unbelief as a sound doubt about something specific. The question “do I do what I do now?” Is just as valuable to a true researcher as it is to a true Christian. Only by asking this at every step do we make progress, both in science and in faith. And of course, in both the road is not straight, but winding; we make mistakes (unfortunately, in the faith) - it is important to recognize them and to return to the principles of reference. In both, the knowledge of the “method” is vital “[4]. Nor can science work without faith. Every scientist believes in the existence of laws of nature, in axioms and definitions, in the strength of the forerunners, who have proven theories and thus laid the basis for future research. These laws of nature are, in fact, laws determined by Creation, unchanged since then and which we have taken as such. The scientific researcher, whether we are talking about physics or religion, will lean with the same respect and fervor on the material to be analyzed, understood and assumed and will believe with the same selflessness in its mission. “I believe that God has given us at Creation the ability to understand the universe, in addition to the control of the earth (Acts 1:28). In fact, any researcher must believe in his ability to understand the physical world; otherwise he would not try to
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research it. This ability is also underlined by the miraculous way in which certain purely abstract mathematical concepts are applied in nature, shaping the reality, which physicist Eugen Wigner (Nobel prize in 1963) said was a wonderful gift, which we do not understand, nor we deserve, and for which we must be grateful ”[5]. Essence, like religion, is not a collection of well-established truths, but, on the contrary, it is a continuous search or, rather, a search paradigm. The road is just as important as the destination, says an old Chinese proverb, and so are the research and research, at any level. The only difference is how we choose to relate to this aspect. Freeman Dyson, one of the great scientists of the twentieth century, noted that “there is a distorted picture of science because it is learned in school that science is a collection of well-established truths. In fact, science is not a collection of truths. It is a continuous exploration of mysteries. Everywhere we explore the surrounding world, we find mysteries ”. Moreover, if the physics of the twentieth century produced a true revolution in the understanding of the universe, it brought to light many mysteries, that is, fundamental aspects that remained unintelligible, being accepted (acts of “faith” in science) as “principles of quantum physics - that is, axioms, fundamentals that cannot be proven - such as: quantum statistics (FermiDirac, Bose-Einstein), uncertainty principle (Heisenberg) or wave-corpus duality (Einstein, de Broglie) ” . According to the quoted source, astrophysical observations and models show that 95% of the composition of the universe is still unknown to us. Our ability to describe the physical world is impressive, but it only applies to 5% of the universe. “This capacity is also affected by a conceptual shortcoming, that the gravitational force could not yet be understood from the quantum point of
view, as are the other fundamental forces (electromagnetism and strong and weak nuclear forces). Even if these shortcomings might be momentary and will be overcome by the discoveries of the future, science will not be able to give us words like these: “bypass evil and do good, seek peace, and follow in its footsteps” (Psalm 33:13), words which can only come from our reporting to God. As not from the values of science, but from his reporting to God, Maxwell was able to declare: Happy is the one who sees in the work that makes him today an intimate part of a much greater thing and a testimony of the work of Eternity. [6] III. “In the beginning, it was light”
At the crossroads between religion and science there is a place of worship, cathedral, church or trout. We do not think that the statement is wrong, considering all the aspects that the ascension of such a settlement implies. The shape, but also the size of all the architectural elements, placed in the work after a long analysis and thought, with respect to the rules regarding the safety of the construction, dimension the perception of the viewer on the work. Or, rather, “put it in the light.” Inside the holy place, whatever its size, the light may seem like a wave, like a ladder that you are mad to climb high. Outside it is a true ornament, an aura made up of several beams of light, as happens when the sun’s rays break the ceiling of clouds and seem to bless the earth from afar. The light beam passing through the window may have different intensities, depending on the specific times of the day, but the perception is the same: it seems to be attained, it seems to have acquired materiality. The subject of the materiality of light has attracted the interest of scientists for all time, no matter how complex or simplistic the material basis at hand was. Materiality, materialization, dematerialization, teleportation - all these
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topics have constituted so many serious research directions, which connect all the great humanistic fields, starting from religion, passing through science and reaching up to the attempt to render some explanations in the cinematographic science-fiction. Understanding the idea of the materiality of light, especially the one that spatially adorns the places of prayer, from those of impressive dimensions to the humblest, is extremely important for all of us, to change the paradigm of understanding of things that surround us and even for strengthening the spiritual connection within the Christian unity. The period is also favorable. During this time, when it seems that rules and definitions are being abandoned, in which “the search for an essence becomes less and less useful, the hierarchy of genres is abandoned, the notions of subject, of figuration, of craft, of technique and even those genius, talent, personal invoice are about to suffer the same fate ”[7], the process of knowledge undergoes a similar change. There appear “new ways of investigation, new ways of research, the sociology of art, psychoanalysis, structuralism ... Aesthetics abandon their normative character to make room for scientific research and experience. The value itself is discussed. Leaving the absolute she wants to be problematic ”[8]. Thus, in this age when the classical axiological foundation is diluted, where the principles and rules undergo important or disappearing permutations, understanding the materiality of a phenomenon that until now was miraculous becomes extremely important. Moreover, a concrete connection is created between the spectator’s imagination and possible materiality of hitherto virtual reality, if we are allowed to say so. Depending on how each of us relates to God, the perception of light receives consistent or more fragile attributes, called or named forms, concrete or spiritual
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substance. Specifically, the physicists of the present have succeeded in demonstrating the dual nature of light. IV. Light, wave and particle at the same
time.
Ex foto2: EPFL Experiment: Light - particle and wave. Credit: Fabrizio Carbone/EPFL The year 2015 represented an important gap in the research on this phenomenon of the materiality of light. This year, the researchers found that “the light behaves both as a particle and as a wave. Since the days of Einstein, scientists have been trying to directly observe both of these aspects of light at the same time. Now, scientists at EPFL have succeeded in capturing the first-ever snapshot of this dual behavior. Quantum mechanics tells us that light can be observed simultaneously as a particle or a wave. However, there has never been an experiment capable of capturing both natures of light at the same time; the closest we have come is seeing either wave or particle, but always at different times. Taking a radically different experimental approach, EPFL scientists have been able to take the first-ever snapshot of light by observing both as a wave and as a particle. The breakthrough work is published in Nature Communications ”[9].
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This research started from Albert Einstein, who hypothesized that light is not just a wave, but a flow of particles. Until 2015, each of the two states had been demonstrated separately, but never together. A research team led by Fabrizio Carbone at EPFL conducted an experiment that uses electrons (which result from a UV emission that hits a metal surface) to capture the image of light. The researchers captured, for the first time, a single image of light that behaves simultaneously as a wave and a stream of particles. In their study, published in the journal Nature Communications, the Swiss researchers conducted a novel experiment in which they used electrons to create an image of light. Using a state-of-the-art electron microscope - one of only two currently available in the world - the authors of this experiment were able to make the first quantum photo of light. The experiment consisted of designing a laser beam on a microscopic metallic nanowire. Thus, the light traveled that thread, as a wave, from one end to the other. When the waves met those moving in the opposite direction, they formed a “stationary wave” that emitted light itself, but in the form of particles. Then, by designing an electron flow in the vicinity of the nano-wire, the Swiss researchers managed to capture an image that simultaneously presents the dual nature of light - wave and particle. The technique used to make this image could also be used in other fields of activity, such as the development of extremely fast computers, which will be able to explore and analyze the quantum states of materials. The wave behavior of light can be clearly seen when the light is refracted through a prism and decomposes into different colors, depending on their wavelengths. The light can be seen behaving as a particle - such as radiation-propelled photons, emitted by materials such as uranium, or when gases in high Earth’s atmosphere
are hit by solar winds and produce boreal aurorae above the poles. “This experiment shows that, for the first time, we can film quantum mechanics - and its paradoxical nature - directly,” says Fabrizio Carbone. In addition, the importance of this pioneering work can extend beyond the fundamental science and to future technologies. As Carbone explains: “Being able to imagine and control quantum phenomena at the nanometer scale as this opens a new path to quantum computing.” CONCLUSION Beyond the scientific demonstration and the experiment itself, the quantum understanding of light brings to attention another paradigm of wave-particle duality, that of mystery. “This mystery probably made Einstein declare in 1916 that for the rest of my life I would like to think about what light is. As His invisible thoughts are seen from creatures (Rom. 1:20), we can believe that this mysterious duality of the body-wave is the natural phenomenon by which we can understand, or rather accept, believe in, the mystery of the unmixed union of his nature. God with the human, in the person of the Savior of Christ ”[10]. REFERENCES [1]
[2] [3]
[4] [5] [6] [7]
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Dr. Anton Andronic, Light, depth of Creation, 2015, https://www.cbrom.de/ index.php/spiritualitate/articole/133-luminaprofunzime-a-creatiei. The Bible: Genesis I, 4. Dr. Anton Andronic, Science and Belief, 2015, https://ortodoxiatinerilor.ro/emisiuniradio/stiinta-religie/21227-stiinta-si-credintaanton-andronic. Idem. Ibidem. Ibidem. Roger Berger, Sign Mutation (Bucharest, Ed. Meridiane, 1978), 119.
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Ibidem, 120. Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, The first ever photograph of light as both a particle and wave, 2015, https://phys.org/ news/2015-03-particle.html. [10] Dr. Anton Andronic, Light, depth of Creation, 2015, https://www.cbrom.de/ index.php/spiritualitate/articole/133-luminaprofunzime-a-creatiei [8] [9]
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 49 - 56
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The Culture of a Stylistic Religious Ensemble. An Overview of the Churches and Monasteries built by the Great Humanist Constantin Brâncoveanu Assist. Prof. Dr. Ovidiu Felipov The Faculty of Arts, Ovidius University of Constanţa România
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 12 October 2019 Received in revised form 20 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.4
Through those made in the field of culture and spirituality, “helped by Romanian and foreign scholars, Constantin Brâncoveanu created a new period of cultural, artistic and spiritual revival” [1]. Thus, it can be concluded that a glorious age for both the people and the Romanian Church was the one dimensioned by the actions and rule of the great martyr of the Romanian nation, Constantin Brâncoveanu. Because this era has decisively influenced later developments, the term is used extensively and to describe the works of art of its time. The Brancovean art of the 17th-18th centuries included all the artistic manifestations, both within the religious framework: painting, sculpture, construction, engraving, silverware, embroidery, manuscripts, icons - and in general the entire furniture required for a church settlement civilian: palaces, royal houses, mansions. All this artistic variety has been subordinated to features specific to the style: the uniqueness of the constituent elements that may belong to a certain historical period, the geometry revealing their connection to Antiquity, the use of the presentation of the Saints or of the prophetic figures in the mosaics. As a general feature of this period, we mention the richness of the decorative conception of the stone sculpture from the porches, where the space-separating balustrades disappear and where the monumental portals depict an unusual profusion of the vegetation as an authentic climax of Brâncoven’s ornamentation. Under the rule of the great humanist Constantin Brâncoveanu, the construction and religious painting of the churches was raised to the rank of art, being the master of a world in full economic rise, a world he manages to make conscious of his spiritual dimension first and foremost. The Brâncovenian pattern left traces and created history from the life of the great humanist, after his death, but long afterward. Many of the founders were high hierarchs, rich personalities of monastic clergy, societies, nobility, etc., which built up monumental post-Bronze monuments, either becoming models for a whole series of places through them or by taking some important brâncovenesc monument.
Keywords: Hurezi; Romanian iconographic art; Brâncoveanu; monastery; mural painting;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ovidiu Felipov. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Felipov, Ovidiu, ”The Culture of a Stylistic Religious Ensemble. An Overview of the Churches and Monasteries built by the Great Humanist Constantin Brâncoveanu,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.4, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 49-56.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. INTRODUCTION
The end of the seventeenth century came to the Romanian lands under the sign of the flourishing of Brâncoveanu times, whose peak was represented by the majestic architectural ensemble of Hurez [2]. The Brancovean era opens in the 18th century, but it must be noticed that within a few years there have been significant changes in the artistic taste, changes in which the shape of edifices has been modified, defining first of all the enrichment of the ornamental appliance. The signal was given by the great Bucharest builders: the churches of St. John “Grece” (1703, edifice destroyed in the nineteenth century) and St. George New (1703-1706). Althoughaffectedbyfiresandearthquakes in the last century, then transformed neogothic, St. George’s New Church allows, on the basis of the research of the stamps and of the scientific, archaeological data offered so far to restore its importance in the history of the Wallachian architecture, being unquestionable the most important ecclesiastical foundation of Constantin Brâncoveanu. The triconc plan, with a spur on the nave, features an oversized pronaos in width, preceded on the western side by a spacious porch with stone columns. The overall resemblance to the large church at Hurez is obvious, which is easily explained, if we know that the same team has worked here, headed by Manea, the bricklayer, with Vucasin Caragea, the stoneworker, and Istrate, the woodcarver. The innovation was that the Bucharest building had a crossshaped narthex and four large columns of support in the center, as well as columns with a generous decoration with vegetal elements. At the same time, the columns of the porch with springs in the torsade gave the façade a special look, in which Baroque inspiration is easily observed. “A similar decorative fast characterizes the church in Doiceşti (Dâmboviţa County), built in
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the immediate vicinity of the Brâncoveanu courts, in 1706. The beautiful porch, with torsade columns and trilobal arches joins, for the composition of facades, perennials painted in frescoes “[3]. The church of the Antim Monastery, founded by scholar Metropolitan Antim Ivireanu, from 1713-1714 represented a step further. The columns of the porch here have blooming bases and composite steps that represent the main element of the façade decoration, which we know were plastered and painted with phytomorphic motifs. Inside the interior, along with the classical murals, it is worth highlighting the appearance of a full stone temple enriched with floral motifs, the execution of which appears to have been the founder himself. This being said, in the last years of the reign of Brâncoveanu, the church of the Antim monastery confirms, even more, the preoccupation for the stone-carved ornamentation, whose prevalent vegetal motifs allow the confluence of the Baroque suggestions with those of a wider Oriental origin to emerge. Although raised a few years after the death of Constantin Brâncoveanu by the first Phanariot prince, Nicolae Mavrocordat, the Văcăreşti monastery, erected in 17161722, can be considered a true document of Brâncoveanu architecture, gathering all the great experiences of the previous epoch. The great church of the monastery illustrates the shapes similar to the church of St. George New, taking over the idea of the vaulted pronaos in the cross. The columns, executed in stone, admirably preserved, are dressed from bottom to top in a decorative festive lace with vegetal pearls, forming themselves stunning masterpieces of stone carvings. The very large Cerdacus has trilobal arches and stone columns whose tall bases are decorated with vegetal cartridges, the spindles being wound in the upper edges, but the chapters are in the Corinthian style.
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Speaking of the Vacaresti monastery, it is time to say that it is the largest monastic ensemble of the century, offering both a program and a composition a faithful interpretation of the Hurez Monastery. Cumulating monastic and domineering functions, it has a vast rectangular enclosure, at the center of which the powerful volume of the great church rises. In the eastern corners there is the royal house, a small copy of the Mogosoaia palace and the abbey house respectively, and the western corners are marked by identical shapes of the kitchen and the bakery. On the center of the western side, there is the depot tower framed by two cells of cells “[4]. In the time of Constantine Mavrocordat (1729), a wall was built in the center of the eastern side, and a two-story gallery was built between the two houses, with arcades on brick columns. In Moldova, the church of the Monastery of Mera (Vrancea County), built in the year 1706 by the ruler Antroh Cantemir, though reminding of the forms of Dragomirna, makes sensitive, by treating the porch and the decoration of the facades, the Wallachian influence we recognize in the Precista church Focsani (1709-1716), at the church of the former Făstaci monastery (Vaslui County), founded in 1721 and also at the church of St. Ilie in Iasi (until 1740). Naturally, in Wallachia, where the Brâncovenian architectural heritage was received with more skill, numerous ecclesiastical monuments erected during the 18th century are defined both by taking over and interpreting the forms that have become classical as well as by the intensive use of the decorative apparatus elaborated during Constantin Brancoveanu. Particularly important and important are the churches of Bucharest: Creţulescu (1720-1722), Stavropoleos (1724-1728), whose porch with flowered columns and trapezial railings seem to have been made by craftsmen who
also worked in Vacaresti, Elefterie Vechi (1741-1744), Olari (1752), also the church from Brădeştii Bătrâni (Dolj County, 1751), the church of the Balamuci hermitage (Ilfov, 1752), the church from Brezoaiele (Ilfov County, 1715) stone columns close to those of Doiceşti, as well as the church of Berislăveşti hermitage (Vâlcea County, 17531754). It has been mentioned above that the eighteenth century is defined, among other things, by a genuine explosion of small and medium-sized initiatives as a reaction to a powerful and irreversible social development phenomenon. Dozens and dozens of churches built by village people, merchant guilds, or small country-andcountry craftsmen unequivocally portray the ambition of affirmation. Although most often they start from Brâncoveanu models, the country craftsmen give a natural expression to the constructions built by them, just like in the case of the church of the Aninoasa monastery (Arges county, 1722-1729), the church of the former Tezlui monastery (Dolj, 1753) , the Church of the Voivodes of Almăj (Dolj County, 17871789), the church of St. Nicholas of Cerneţi (Mehedinţi County, 1794) or the church of St. Nicholas Belivacă from Craiova (1794). Sometimes, the absorption process in the peasant environment is so great that the edifices built are at the limit between the religious architecture and folk architecture. This class includes the churches of Mihăieşti (Valcea County, 1756), St. Nicholas of Păuşeşti-Măglaş (Valcea County, 1778), Chiciura (Valcea County, 1780), Murgaşi (Dolj County, 1807-1811), The Voivodes of Olanesti (Valcea County, 1820). It is worth mentioning that all these monuments are built with a bell tower on the pronaos and a porch, with brick columns, in the decoration of the exteriors intervening both the motif of the rectangular arches and rectangular panels, as well as a rich decoration depicted
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in whose configuration we find both iconographic themes with a religious or even profane character, as well as a plantinspired decoration [5]. Deeply rustic as a formal and decorative expression is a group of monuments characterized by “taking over an archaizing typology. Monounavates, without turrets, with porches on robust brick columns, these churches are also characterized by the exuberant painted decoration of the facades. This group includes churches such as those from Pietreni-Costeşti (Valcea County, 1700-1701), a monument surprise by the triple eastern apse, Comanca-Pietriş (Valcea County, 1735-1736), St. Nicholas of Olăneşti Valcea, 1716-1718), Domneştii de Sus (Argeş County, 1776-1777), Calinesti (Valcea County, 1775) “[6]. In Transylvania, in the meantime, the Baroque style was emerging, style cultivated by the official Austrian architecture and dictated in an orderly manner, first of all with the help of churches raised in a fast campaign, in most important cities: in Cluj (1718-1724) in Brasov (1718), in Sibiu (1725), in Târgu Mureş (1728-1750), etc. A sober, elaborate architecture is presented by the Jesuits Church in Cluj. On the western façade there are two solid towers, among which there is a large frontage surrounded by volleys. It is important to note that the crown elements are just above the cornice, because under the cornices the composition of the façade is relatively harmonious, even if the edges of the towers are highlighted by tall pillars with their own cornices. The interior, basilical, with tributaries on the edges, offers a gradual sequence of plans and scenographic effects assisted by varied pilastratura, shells, and garlands, corrugated curtains of the tribunes, everything developed and realized according to the Baroque decorative grammar. A more demanding Baroque architecture features the Roman Catholic cathedral in
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Timişoara, built in 1736-1754 and attributed, without any documented grounds, to the great architect Emmanuel Fischer von Erlach. “The Church of Timisoara is conceived on a basilical structure with the transformation of the side ships into chapels, the eastern side being endowed with transept and chorus. The western façade is framed by two towers not too high, including a fronton, pierced by a window, which gives the crown a uniform and balanced expression. Modification of facades is varied consisting of pillars, cornices, window frames with triangular fronts or in a circle segment “[7]. At large, the facades are balanced, the architectural composition is one of Baroque inspiration. A small edifice protects the entrance, which introduces into the sober articular volume a pictorial accent, diminishing from monumentality. Under the direction and plans of the Viennese architect Franz Anton Hillebrandt, the Roman Catholic cathedral in Oradea was built in the years 1750-1779, being a large basilica with three ships and a transept with tribunes on the west and above the side of the ship. The western outer part is surrounded by two pebble towers, which gives the robust composition a specific baroque dynamics, but the proportions are generally calm, leaving an early mosquito with neoclassical architecture (especially in the register at the center of the western façade). The Armenian church in Dumbrăveni (Sibiu County), with beautiful proportions, with a clear and elegant rhythm of the pyramid, brings to the facade the novelty of niches in which there are statues of saints, two statues being found on the attic of the two western towers, filling the absence of the central front “[8]. The Romanian environment in Transylvania presents a Baroque architecture of Austrian origin that was introduced with the help of the united church whose
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episcopal residence in Blaj was enriched with a cathedral designed by the Viennese architect Anton Eckhardt Martinelli and executed in the years 1738-1765. The Blaj Church, of the mono-type type, is vaulted with ordered hemispherical chambers along the longitudinal axis, in an orientation reminiscent of the classical Orthodox architecture. The exterior is framed by two massive towers, with a fronton between them. The Orthodox Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Lugoj (1759-1766; 1800-1806) holds two towers in the western façade and a high central ledge which was reserved for the icon of the patron. However, in general, the Orthodox churches have as favorite single-tower versions on the western side, as in the case of the Orthodox Cathedral in Oradea (17741780) built by the architect Iacob Eder, who was asked to mold the Baroque forms on a cultic program type Orthodox, in which the naos’ design was provided with small side apses [9]. The Orthodox Church of Bethus (1784-1909) together with the orthodox church in Oradea, have close shapes with a further movement in the composition of the western exterior due to the rounding that they hold on to the tower. Ulitmate from a plastic point of view quite well, through pilasters that rise up to the cornices, the exterior gains an extra expressivity through the skillful distribution of windows with semicircular struts. Much more significant is the rapid adaptation of the Baroque architecture to the traditions and the severity of the Orthodox Romanian environment, both by subjecting a spatial specific program and by simplified analysis of ornamental grammar. In many of them, the Baroque architecture was obliged to submit to triconc type plans, whether the lateral apses are rewritten to the outside, as to the Orthodox churches in Prejmer (Brasov County, 1769), Turcheş (Brasov County, 1783) , Dîrste (Brasov
County, 1783), or that the lateral apses are concealed by the walls, as in the Church of the Holy Spirit of Vărădia (Caraş-Severin, 1754). Often in the western façade, there is a porch like Cernatu (Brasov County, 1783), Feldioara (Brasov County, 1788), Şag (Timiş County, 1792), Teliu (Brasov County, ante 1794), Cristian Braşov county, 1795). In Moldova, where the first half of the eighteenth century appeared to be particularly receptive to the suggestions of Brâncoven’s architecture, starting with 1761, a sudden opening to the forms of the Baroque architecture was observed. “This year, the churches of Sf. Gheorghe of the old Metropolitan Church, Saints Theodori and Talpalari were built in Iaşi, buildings that, beyond the planimetric and spatial variations, capture the unity of the decorative concept of Baroque expression. Of the triconc plan (with the hidden side apses in the church of St. George), the three churches have a bell-tower on the west side, which, on the ground floor, houses the porch “[10]. The decoration of the columns of the portico, specific to Baroque, is in full balance with the architectural plastic of the edifice, which first resorts to a twisted belt, reminding us of Dragomirna, and secondly, the rhythm created by the pylons with the plugs Corinthian bastards, along with the frames of the windows projected with triangular fronts, recall the baroque exterior of the Golia church. In addition, several types of corrugated ribbons are mixed to leave the taste for oriental ornamental cartridges to be deciphered. The reference to the Orient is not a random one, because the interpretation of the Baroque elements, even if they use some models in Moldova, such as Dragomirna and Golia, is visibly marked by that version of the baroque, which had appeared in the meantime on the banks of the Bosphorus, in those decades when the Ottoman Gate was making
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desperate efforts of emancipation and Europeanization. Unlike the severe and authoritative Baroque imposed by the Austrian administration in Transylvania, the Baroque of Moldova is “exuberant and lively, with a remarkable fantasy in the handling of decorative morphology. Three other monuments from Iasi soon followed: Raducanu church in Târgu Ocna (1762), church from Horecea near Cernăuţi (1766), built by logger Cilibiu, to whom is also responsible the church from Golăieşti (Iaşi district, 1774 ), the church from Bălăneşti (Neamţ county, 1768), the church of St. Nicholas from Târgu Ocna (1772), the church from Berzunţi (Bacău county, 1774), the church from Doljeşti (Neamţ county, 1774), the church from Scoposeni (Iasi County, about 1770) and the church in Herţa (Botoşani County, ante 1804)”. At these monuments we find many common plastics, sometimes used economically, as in the church of Scoposeni for example; but sometimes with an obvious pleasure of abundance, as is the case with the Golayeşti church. [11] It is worth noting the rich decor of the exterior and especially the way of plastic expression in the corinthian inspirational capitals, to which the contamination with the Ottoman interpretation is acknowledged, a concrete example being Laleli Djami of Istanbul (1763). Thus, it is reminded that the wells that decorate the entrances in the Iaşi monasteries Spiridonia and Golia (from 1765-1766) bear the stamp of the same Baroque Ottoman expression, and the Turkish inscriptions are decisive in this respect. It can be said, therefore, that during the eighteenth century in Moldova the ecclesiastical architecture succeeded in an original monumental plastic synthesis, skillfully exploiting the traditional heritage in which baroque elements had been assimilated for a long time, and at the
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same time appealing to the new Baroque suggestions, some of which are certainly part of Transylvania, but most of them are from the fast and picturesque world of the Bosphorus. In Moldova [12] there were also buildings with a simple appearance but very representative for the way in which the country workers respected the classical canons, alongside the monuments on whose face the baroque lay blooming to adorn it. Therefore, the Assumption Church of Causani, near Tighina, built in 1765-1771, is recommended as a half-buried vessel, closely signaling the foundation of Vasile Lupu in the village of Chilia, namely the church of St. Nicholas. Contemporary, the crystalline hermitage church (1766) is a small, monolithic vaulted edifice with hemispherical caps arranged in the tab and possesses on the southern side a belltower with a cerdac on the ground floor, a composition of a widespread in the Moldavian church architecture, especially the one of the century 17th century. A similar tower also has the church of the Rughi (Bessarabia) monastery, dating back to 1777. But here the plan is triconc type, and the exterior is decorated with two rows of prolonged rows, referring to the Galata. Expression as an ancient monument is the church in the cemetery in Sucevita (1772), “edifice of rudimentary charm, which surprisingly resembles characteristic shapes for the XV-XVI centuries in Moldova, with the design of the counterfoils and the rigorous division of the interior, having a room interposed of the graves between the nave and the narthex “[13]. Taken as a whole, all these buildings from Brancovene “both secular and cult reveal a striking diversity. What unifies them is the ornamental apparatus as well as the modulation of the various materiality of a unitary decorative repertoire, either in a restrained manner, limited by several areas
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of articulation (window and door frames, pedestals or railings) and on the contrary, overflowing the entire surface of the fairy. , in painted interlaces, as in Stavropoleos, or in watermarked stuccoes, as in Fundenii Doamnei ”. From this repertoire, the catalyst of the Brancovian style is the column: of western origin, repeatedly mimicking the Corinthian order through the capital - acanthus leaves (more or less bent), sometimes twisted, alternating their twist - as in the case of the loggia of Mogoşoaia or the porch of St. George’s Church in Bucharest - with a picturesque dynamic effect. The specificity of the Brancovan column consists of the reduced height of the spindle (ignoring the classic eight-diameter ratio), counterbalanced, instead, by a prismatic pedestal with plant decorations. The structure in which that type of baroque column is invariably inserted is the arch, consisting of a series of arches in a brace, and unified, in the pedestal area, by a parapet with a sumptuous lace made of acanthus. This type of arch became the stylistic mark par excellence, a kind of pars pro toto of the Brancovan style, summarized, by this artifice, almost invariably in the interpretations of the twentieth century. In addition to the architecture, a favorite area of identification in the Brancovan genre is that of the funeral sculptures, which were, in the same way, aulic and provincial. At this time, there is an interesting autonomization of the ornament (loaded, in past centuries, with symbolic meanings), which thus becomes the actual surface of the tombstone. The flowering, to a similar extent, of the decorative impulse could also be understood as a symptom of decay; Certainly, however, Brancovan decorativism corresponds to a predilection, more general at the time, for overloaded rhetoric and discursivity. One explanation could be the paradoxical assertion of the defensive position of a society pursued
by frustration. After almost two centuries of assimilating a vernacular-Levantine aspect, the “Brancovan style” is adopted, recovered and listed as a national standard. The architect Ion Mincu, the founder of the Romanian School of Architecture, has the merit of having initiated the debate around the “national style” in architecture, later joining famous names such as Nicolae Ghica-Budeşti, Cristofi Cerchez or Petre Antonescu. Undoubtedly, the direct contact with the monuments of the (post) Brancovene era - indeed the church of Stavropoleos, which is restored by radically altering its tower - had an important role in Ion Mincu’s innovative approach. We must not lose sight of the fact that the “neo-Romanian style” is part of the larger phenomenon of European nationalisms and regionalisms, primed in the first half of the 19th century and exacerbated by the historical eclecticism from which “1900’s art” flourishes. In this context, the pavilions that the young Kingdom of Romania installs in the Universal Exhibitions had the noble mission to materialize the national identity, especially through the architecture - the language most appropriate in any ideology of edification, of building a nation. In a first phase, certain elements of “Brancovan style” - especially the curb, the arch, the twisted column or the decorations with acanthus stones - predominate in a heteroclite style, in which there are also elements of “Moldovan style” (such as the discs ceramics) and, possibly, peasant architecture suggestions. Gradually, the so-called “national style” accommodates allogeneic components, specific to Western Europe, the most brilliant example being the building of the Bucharest School of Architecture (Grigore Cerchez, 1912), whose façade is literally a catalog of architectural reasons, in which “Brancovian loggia” has a privileged place. “In the second phase of the national style”, consumed in the interwar decades, the emphasis is shifted from the historical
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heritage to the ethnic element. The details of “Brancovan style” do not disappear completely; more discreet, however, they are lost, often distorted, in a paradoxical setting, which accommodates the generic peasant house to the rigors of urban living. By an irony of fate, “the Brancovan style goes beyond the threshold of World War II, being encompassed by what is right, extremely stylized and devoid of any intrinsic connection - in the very gear designed, among other things, to dismantle it. The proof is that there are some details lost on a facade of the Stalinist quarter in the Capital”.
CONCLUSION „To communicate is to have a free space in the horizon of ideas, to accept, at the ideological level, dialogue, understanding, compromise, change” [15]. These aspects were well understood by Brâncoveanu, who was an excellent communicator. The great humanist has managed to combine culture, religion, art and social, creating a unique style. The “brâncovenesc” style, analyzed in its factual reality, evades a strict delimitation, impossible to chronologically limited (only) to the quarter-century of the reign of Constantin Brâncoveanu (1688-1714). The transition from the stylistic expression of the Cantacuzine era (1679-1688) to the next one is as remarkable as the continuity of the Brâncoveanu epoch with that governed by the first Phanariot princes (1714-1730) is evident. Therefore, the “Brâncovenian style” can not be displaced from a relatively unified half-century, which begins with Şerban Cantacuzino and ends with Constantin Mavrocordat. In this stylistic conglomerate, on the other hand, the “post-bourgeois” stage of dissemination and simplification (ruralizing itself) goes even beyond the 19th century. After almost two centuries of assimilation of a vernacular-levant in aspect, the “Brâncoveanu style” is adopted, recovered and repertoire as a national standard. The architect Ion Mincu, the founder of the Romanian School of Architecture,
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has the merit of initiating the debate about the “national style” in architecture, later adding illustrious names such as Nicolae GhicaBudesti, Cristofi Cerchez and Petre Antonescu. Undoubtedly, the direct contact with the monuments of the (post) Brâncovenian era - for example Stavropoleos church, which it restored by radically changing its tower - had an important share in Ion Mincu’s innovative approach. The Brâncoveanu style is basically the basis of what we call today “national style”.
REFERENCES Runcan, Nechita, Studies of theological and patristic theology, vol. VII (Iasi, Ed. Vasiliana, 2014), 179-180. [2] Diaconescu, Mihai, Orthodox churches and monasteries in Romania (Bucharest, Editura Alcor, 2006), 55-57. [3] Ibidem. [4] Idem, 437-438. [5] Drăguț, Vasile, Romanian art. Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque (Buharest, Ed. Meridiane, 1982), 443-445. [6] Idem, 443. [7] Idem, 444-445. [8] Idem, 445. [9] Curinschi Vorona, Gheorghe, History of architecture in Romania (Bucharest, Editura Tehnică, 1981), 113-119. [10] Vatașianu, Virgil, The history of feudal art in the Romanian Lands, vol.1 (Bucharest, Editura Academiei Române, 1959), 131-137. [11] Idem, 139. [12] Henry, Paul, Monuments in Northern Moldova. From the origins to the end of the 16th century (Bucharest, Editura Meridiane, 1984), 52. [13] Gheorghiu, Mihai, Monasteries and churches in Romania (Bucharest, Editura Noi Media Print, 2005), 66-69. [14] Cristea, Alina, “The Innocence of the Medusa - The Exile in the City of the Self. An Anthropology of Exile”, 6th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Science & Arts SGEM 2019, no. 6, issue 6.1., (April 2019): 304. [1]
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Understandings of Theological Conversion in Interreligious Dialogue Fr. Lecturer Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, PhD Assist. Prof. Osman Murat Deniz, PhD Department of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Çanakkale, Turkey
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 15 August 2019 Received in revised form 4 October Accepted 5 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.5
Conversion is a word with a variety of meanings. It also has various significations, from the exchange between different currencies, to job conversion or the change of career path, to the change from one religion, political belief, viewpoint, etc., to another – all these types of conversion have mutual methods and shared purposes. They are all requiring malleability, the capacity of exchanging old things for the new ones, openness to different, the will to adopt something new or at least different, and the legerity of giving up on the old things. All these requirements are always easier said than done, and therefore conversion is not for all types of characters and personalities, some being more stable and fundamental, thus resistant to renewal. There is no religion, on the one hand, that does not promote conversion and thus use proselytism to do it. On the other hand, same religions that believe conversion (to their own faith) is an act of God, a sign that everyone should embrace and leave whatever religious belief they might have previously, consider it as a ‘sin’, an act that should be forbidden, the conversion/leaving for other, diverse religion. How is it regarded by religions and scientific thought and at what point it became obsolete?
Keywords: conversion; religious experience; pluralism; Christianity; Islam; Judaism; religion; philosophy;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Tudor-Cosmin Ciocan, Osman Murat Deniz. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ciocan, Tudor Cosmin, and Osman Murat Deniz, ”Understandings of Theological Conversion in the Interreligious Dialogue,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.5, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 21 - 37.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Introduction
Conversion is indeed a word of a multitude of meanings. With same engagement and power of speech religions are all addicted to conversion and thus they all emerged and promote a certain kind of theology of conversion. Even if religious conversion is appointed as the primary source of conversion, there are still, besides this, other types of conversion that follow same path and they all were discussed by specialized writers. For example conversion of knowledge, of Consciousness, of Heart, intellectual conversion, moral one, etc. Sometimes regarded as a virtue that follows a divine call, other times stigmatized as a sin that aim to corrupt the heart of a believer. When deemed as a virtue blessings and promises follow it very closely for all those who obey this divine call to end their perdition which depict their previous state. On the contrary, when regarded as sinful, conversion is always doomed and nearly pursued by damnation from the divinity. It is surprising how the same ‘divinity’ asks for a conversion in the first place and then condemn it when it is repeated. Following the path of this ongoing conversion, it is rather peculiar to observe the endless chain of blessings-damnations that follow conversion to its bitter end. Let’s imagine a guy that was baptized in a religion (A) from childhood without any personal involvement in it. When becoming aware of his religious Self, same person decides to convert to another religion (B) that resonates with himSelf. In this frame, all his acquaintances from (A) will frighten him with terrible enforcements if he leaves (A). Also, people from (B) encourage him to convert, a.k.a. move on to a better, genuine/proper belief. They (B) leave him know that, in case of an accomplished conversion, he will be blessed and redeemed, ensuring everlasting life through this choice he made. Furthermore, if he eventually comes to a point of re-
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conversion to (C), those ‘men of God’ that encouraged him to convert in the first place, tell him now that conversion is a sin and God will have no mercy on his soul if he is to be corrupted by conversion. However, people from (C) assume now the same position of (B) when he converted from (A) to (B). As you can easily see in this story of repeated conversion, this act is fluctuating and rather unstable as a religious concept as a role played with subjective bias. II. How Theologians Define Conversion
For most Catholics, the word “conversion” means first and foremost “change of religious affiliation,” and “convert” is primarily a noun, designating someone who joined the Catholic Church as an adult, either from some other Christian denomination, or from some other religion, or from no religion whatsoever. For many Protestants, especially evangelicals, conversion means first and foremost “experience of redemption from sin,” and convert is primarily a verb, usually in the past tense and passive voice, describing a personal experience of “having been converted” at a particular point in their lives when they “first accepted Jesus Christ as my personal Lord and Savior.” For social scientists of religion, conversion is a psychological experience of dramatic religious change, usually involving both a change of religious attitude and of religious affiliation, to be studied and accounted for. [1] A. Type of religious conversion: the fated
acceptance of a vocation to holiness
As stated in almost all religious theology, becoming… (whatever the name of the appointed religion is) is more than just onetime conversion experience; it is a lifetime of ongoing conversion. Thus, a conversion is admissible under two circumstances by
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all religions: 1. that conversion is a one-time experience, and 2. that it is one-way act, from heterodoxies/dissidents to the implied religion. Any other possibilities are forbidden and seen as acts of heresy, thus considered a sin that is followed by punishment from divinity (or its human substitute) – but this is another case we are not engaging right now for debates. Bernard Lonergan saw in it more than a simple act of moving from a religious group to another, he implied that ‘conversion’ has more to do with authenticity and selftranscendence. “Religious conversion is being grasped by the ultimate concern. It is otherworldly falling in love. It is total and permanent self-surrender without conditions, qualifications, reservations. But it is such a surrender, not as an act, but as a dynamic state that is before a principle of subsequent acts. It is revealed in retrospect as an undertow of existential consciousness, as a fated acceptance of a vocation to holiness, as perhaps an increasing simplicity and passivity in prayer. It is interpreted differently in different religious traditions.”[2] There are some key-words in this text, rather poetic, that caught our attention when speaking about conversion (from a Catholic point of view). Firstly, the conversion is an attempt of total self-surrender, where an individual cannot refuse or deny his call from divinity to engage religiousness in that specific path that is opened before him. This particular surrender has all that is necessary to make an individual take a leap of faith, non-rational, unconditional, without reservations. He simply cannot ask for argumentations, explanations and has none of these in return to offer to those who ask why? That is the reason why Lonergan compares conversion with falling in love, irrational, but total and fully engaged. Conversion is not learning, like learning calculus, taking precautions, considering alternatives and
giving arguments. The motif of acceptance or denying it is that self-surrender of conversion is the answer to an intimate call, one made inside each heart by God, the Source of this call – “I would not have looked for you if you had not found me”. Thus it is a privilege that you actually hear God’s voice and should consider this call as your vocation to holiness, even more intimately related to your nature, your reason of being and that is undeniable for you, “it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks” (Acts 9.5). This is a theology based on a Catholic distinction St. Augustine makes between operative and cooperative grace, the former is God’s work over individual, a change of heart from stone to flesh; operative grace is religious conversion. While the latter is the effectiveness of conversion, the gradual movement towards a full and complete transformation of the whole of one’s living. [3] This makes the difference between surrender (passive) and dynamic state (active), both defining conversion as an act of self-transformation. For that matter [being irrational as falling in love, and surrendering to this inner call], it is almost impossible and indisputable to call that specific religious target of conversion wrong, bad or evil. It is practically an intimate relationship that bounds these two, individual and his divinity who’s calling for him, and no one can label with those tags a love that is true and profound. Certainly, anyone can label as evil someone, but cannot say the same for within a relationship. For example, a carnivorous is mischievous, but in relation to its offspring, it is good and positive. In ‘love’s case things go the same, a partner can be good – as suitable and opportune – for one, regardless of his life of crime that he might live outside that relation. That is the reason for this theology of conversion refrains from hindering or creating directives as to where religious conversion should be directed, or
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from which affiliations one should abstain. In the religious pluralism perspective, any possible route is acceptable and rather good if one feels the inner call for self-surrender into it. B. Religious conversion under pressure
Secondly, there is religious conversion under pressure, without any personal surrender or a strong will to do it. This is the well-known cases of the population that were converted to another religious denomination due to a political agreement or of a case of conquest. “Throughout history, leaders of religious and political institutions have cooperated, opposed one another, or attempted to co-opt each other, for purposes both noble and base, and have implemented programs with a wide range of driving values, from compassion aimed at alleviating current suffering to brutal change aimed at achieving longer-term goals, for the benefit of groups ranging from small cliques to all of humanity.”[4] Thus, we know about the Idumeans were forced to convert to Judaism, by threat of exile or death[5] under the Hasmonean Kingdom. Also, during the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, forcibly converted the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest[6]. Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms[7]. In spite of the official declarations coming at one time from the Christian religious leaders that Christianism is to be a religion fully and willingly embraced so that its aim targets the salvation of soul, there were other official declarations that which legalizes and authorizes the practice of forced conversion. In the first case, Pope Clement III declared that “We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them (i.e., Jews) to be baptized as long as they are unwilling and refuse. Howeve, if anyone
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of them seeks refuge among Christians by reason of faith, after his willingness has become quite clear, he shall be made a Christian without subjecting himself to any calumny”[8] Pope Innocent III pronounced in 1201 that if one agreed to be baptized to avoid torture and intimidation, one nevertheless could be compelled to outwardly observe Christianity: “[T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of the sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives the sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ...”[9]. In his letter to King Philip Augustus of France (1205), Innocent III formulate ecclesiastic policy to urge implementation of the conversion of Jews to Christianity, naming this justification “...it does not displease God, but is even acceptable to Him, that the Jewish dispersion should live and serve under Catholic kings and Christian princes until such time as their remnant shall be saved...”[10]. Another similar case of conversion other than a ‘fated acceptance of a vocation to holiness’, due to other “external terrestrial events”[11] may be the interfaith marriage for example. Now, since there are considerably other
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cases of conversion of faith then it is desired by most religious declaration, we cannot deny their valuable contribution to the religious maintenance and welfare since a conversion, for the community, is still a conversion, with or without ‘the heart’ involvement. This makes the ‘theology of conversion’ even more intricate and hard to be officially declared as unique and unanimous. Due to those various circumstances of other than to be desired form of conversion, and considering the ‘external events’ e.g. matrimony, conquests of territory, conversion on a larger scale (of a nation) we can declare this a particular case of theological conversion – but only in regard or relative to the first one. While considering the ‘fated acceptance of a vocation to holiness’ / ‘the change of heart’ relative to the conversion under pressure, similar we will consider the inner conversion a particular case of it, since statistically speaking the process of the outer conversion is quite rarely followed by an inner conversion. Nonetheless, a theological conversion, it doesn’t make a strong point/ rule for considering it for a theology/ policy of conversion. So a conversion is not a spiritual event, unless it is a conversion from atheism to some theological belief, or a conversion from a literal reading of some sacred text to a non literal reading of some other sacred text, although the key issue here would be the passage from literalism to non literalism, and some religion can, for some people, better manage that difference. (prof. Marchal Bruno) Thus, in this case, the conversion does not reach an inner feeling or an esoteric desire of ‘changing hearts’, instead this conversion is a brutal change aimed at achieving longer-term goals, for the benefit of groups ranging from small cliques to all of humanity. Nonetheless a conversion of religious membership.
C. How does the conversion work?
Unlike other conversions (intellectual, moral, consciousness, and other), this one (religious) implies all others and therefore ends in a lot of conflicts, internal and external. “Intellectual conversion is the radical change in my intellectual horizon when I move from the world of immediacy, or perceptions, to the world as mediated by meaning, as revealed to me in the processes of experiencing, understanding, judging, and believing. Moral conversion is the radical change of my criteria for decision making from satisfactions to values… “Religious conversion is not just a process of becoming “religious,” but a totally radical reorientation of one’s entire life, of one’s very self.”[12] The radicalness of religious conversion can be facilely seen in all the proselytes’ reactions, behavior, and social engagements; their intransigence to any deviation from the core teachings of their new religious environment is well-known and usually used to defend it ‘vigorously’. There are oral knowledge and recent scientific studies over the difference regarding the practices and voluntary implications between those who are ‘born’ into a certain religion and those who convert to it. The moral force and the vitality of practicing that religion daily is the basic need for those who convert, while for the others is usually optional or at the most a daily routine. We both encountered dissidents of our religions converted to them in USA and we were positively amazed of how they live our faith, passionately and more intense. It would be difficult to dispute our universal attraction to religion. However, if we all possess this disposition, why do some people never become converted? Why do some lose their faith while others gain faith in adulthood? Clearly, there are individual differences that require explanation and our main thesis in this regard is that not all
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religions are for all kinds of people. If not so, it would not be necessary to have lots and lots of them (religious beliefs); one would be more than enough to fulfill our religious basic need. Instead, we have many types and a variety of religious beliefs and behavior; whence the impression that all religions are necessary because each one addresses another type of people, characters and personalities. D. What kind of person can subdue a
conversion?
III. Conversion as a Religious Experience
Speaking of characters and personalities an important question here would also be if the conversion is for anyone, or, in another form, can everyone subdue a conversion? Well, since conversion means firstly ‘to get rid of something and replace it with something else, totally different and apparently new’, we need to sketch a profile of those who can bend their life to a change so crucial. Mobility is the basic feature that the personality of the potential convert should have. He must, therefore, be malleable, open, why not quite impressionable and I say this because someone who is not necessarily curious to find news, can be at least impressed by them when they appear on his ‘visual’ horizon. It is the least he can accept, if not then we shall catalog him as rigid and inflexible, devoid of artistic sense and the feeling of pleasure (of whatever nature it is). He is also censored and even oppressive, because a person who closes himself towards alternatives, will soon make of it his own creed, the only viable and finally the only one capable of ordering your life; consequently such a belief can only be a revelation, a great breakthrough, worth sharing and, why not, even imposing on others. And so we have reached the type of fundamentalist, extremist and incapable of dialogue in the interreligious sphere, who does not accept the change as a psycho-
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social reality, neither for him nor for others. Thus, speaking about the religious conversion, a person should be very mobile, for if he is not searching for something new and thus his rate of openness is higher, at least when he encountered it, he should not deny it, so his rate of regeneration and improvement needs to be higher. In this regard, being open, mobile, for some is a virtue and a way of progress, for others it is against nature and even sinful. from the Muslim Perspective
Conversion experience and spiritual transformation are one of the most perplexing and complicated incidents that can happen in one’s life. It can change a life forever. Conversion is etymologically linked to the Latin word conversio. In Latin conversio is usually used to translate two Greek terms indicating spiritual change: epistrophê and metanoia. Epistrophê indicates the backward motion by which the human soul returns to its original abode or the immutable One. Metanoia designates a forward process of repentance and irreversible spiritual rebirth. [13] In Islamic literature, “when applied to a non-Muslim who identifies himself with Islam, the term ihtida - which means to arrive at righteous guidance, identifying oneself with the right - is used rather than conversion, and the person who commits ihtida is called muhtedi. The term ihtida denotes entrance to Islam whereas conversion is used in a wider sense to refer to entrance to any religion.”[14] When applied to a Muslim who does not identify himself with Islam anymore, the term irtidat – which means apostasy, rejecting the faith of Islam after having accepted it - is used. The experience of conversion will differ
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according to a person’s religious tradition, the nature of the religion, his/her culture, gender, age, profile and so on. Conversion has an individual nature but nevertheless we can identify six conversion motifs: (1) Intellectual conversion – the person seeks knowledge about religious or spiritual issues. A person can find his or her religion intellectually unsatisfying and may later change to another religion. This example of conversion is negligible. Because those conversions which need intellectual capacity are very few and beliefs above reason can be found in every belief system. (2) Mystical – Involving some specific religious experience, a sudden and traumatic burst of insight, induced by visions, voices, or other paranormal experiences (3) Experimental – involves active exploration of religious options. (4) Affective – stresses interpersonal bonds as an important factor in the conversion process. One is converted due to being loved and nurtured by a group or the leaders. (5) Revival – uses crowd conformity to induce behavior. One is converted in the context of revival meetings feature emotionally powerful music and preaching and (6) Coercive – one is managed and forced into conversion by several means.[15] Conversion, therefore, can be admitted as a particular form of religious experience. Firstly, the effects of conversion are life-changing and the consequence of conversion on an individual level is almost always a greater and truthful understanding of faith. The person becomes assured of genuine God. “Conversion, as lived, affects all of a man’s conscious and intentional operations. It directs his gaze, pervades his imagination, releases the symbols that penetrate to the depths of his psyche. It enriches his understanding, guides his judgments, reinforces his decisions.”[16] Secondly, it is an experience within the scope of a religious community in
which converts are welcomed with love. Moreover, religious conversion and mystical experience are very similar. Main difference is that while conversion involves partly voluntarily to leave behind the previous sinful life, as a self-surrender conversion mystical experience by its nature necessarily does so. “Reflection on mystical experience together with reflection on conversion could be a foundation and basis of a theology of the future.”[17] According to several psychological and sociological researches there are special personality characteristics and predisposing conditions that may make pre-converts prone to conversion experiences compared to other individuals.[18] American sociologists John Lofland and Rodney Stark in their work suggest that dramatic religious changes follow a common pattern. For all kinds of conversions an individual must: “1. Experience enduring, acutely felt tensions 2. Within a religious problem-solving perspective, 3. Which leads him to define himself as a religious seeker; 4. Encountering the Divine Precepts at a turning point in his life, 5. Wherein an affective bond is formed (or pre-exists) with one or more converts; 6. Where extra-cult attachments are absent or neutralized 7. And, where, if he is to become a deployable agent, he is exposed to intensive interaction.”[19] Understanding and evaluating the behaviours and feelings of the converts can be disputable. Human behaviours are complicated, subtle and sometimes specious. They can be rightly understood when placed within a social and emotional context, so that distinguishing internal spiritual effects from external social forces is having importance to determine how a person might have acted without inner and external causes. William James wrote, “to say that a man is ‘converted’ means, in these terms, that religious ideas, previously peripheral in his
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consciousness, now take a central place, and that religious aims form the habitual centre of his energy.”[20] That means conversion experience is a new understanding of self, a progressive change in convert’s outlook of life and living. Hope, happiness, security and resolve are the characteristic emotions of conversion. If we read narratives of people who were the subjects of conversion were in a state of imbalance: we see that after the conversion experience they reach the mental level in which they realize a sense of emotional and spiritual balance in their lives. For James there are five features of an affective conversion experience: 1. A loss of all the worry: the certainty of God’s grace and activity in a person’s life and a feeling of overwhelming harmony and completeness. 2. Perceiving truths not known before: the mysteries of life become lucid but unutterable in words. 3. Objective change which the world often appears to undergo: ‘an appearance of newness beautifies every object.’ 4. Ecstasy of happiness: ‘No words can express the wonderful love that was shed abroad in my heart. I wept aloud with joy and love. 5. Saintliness: living a life of moral goodness.[21] As stated by William James, conversion can be described but its reliability can only be justified by its results, “a happy relief and objectivity, as the confidence in self gets greater through the adjustment of the faculties to the wider outlook.”[22] Before the conversion experience, the recipient probably might have some philosophical and theological objections to the legitimate religious understanding of his/her time or the current system of ideas. Before his conversion Jonathan Edwards labelled the Reformed dogma of predestination as horrible but thereafter he wrote: “God’s absolute sovereignty and justice, with respect to salvation and damnation is what my mind seems to rest assured of, as much
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as of any thing that I see with my eyes.”[23] According to Walter Conn, religious conversion is beyond embracing new religious teachings, veritas, ethos and practices, it is rather “the radical reorientation of one’s entire life that occurs when God is allowed to move from the periphery to the center of one’s being. When this radical religious conversion is seen from the perspective of total self-surrender, the relativization of human autonomy is stressed.”[24] So Conn’s vertical conversion indicates a transformation of the individual, religious or not, and the reconstruction of the self in accordance with seek after transcendence. Lewis R. Rambo argues that conversion does not involve simply psychological affairs because it is essentially theological and spiritual. There are operative forces, but the meaning is religious to the convert. “Interpretations that deny the religious dimension fail to appreciate the convert’s experience and attempt to put this experience into interpretative frameworks that are inappropriate, even hostile, to the phenomenon.”[25] Conversion reveals Abraham’s God who is omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent, wholly good, the Creator and Sustainer of all things etc. When considered from this aspect, conversion means “a radical shifting of gears that can take the spiritually lackadaisical to a new level of intensive concern, commitment, and involvement.”[26] Consequently, religious conversion is a spiritual experience through which the convert became aware and convinced about the long-awaited transformation of his/her self-identity. During the conversion process theology may help the person to fulfill the secular and spiritual needs through religious sensation such as “the feeling of unwholeness, of moral imperfection, of sin, to use the technical word, accompanied by the yearning after the peace of unity.”[27]
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The matter is whether conversion experience roots in outside the individual or inside the individual. This philosophical problem can’t be evaluated here easily. Because it is primarily dealing with the problem of proving the validity of religious experience. Within the boundaries of mere reason, we may just say, it’s hard to say that conversion is based on religious experience. Because religious experience, if it is authentic, already contains conversion. For most of the believers of all religions and the convert himself or herself conversion is to be understood metaphysically as the act of God revealing himself through religious experience. But for unbelievers and secular minds it will be understood psychologically as an activity of a confused mind searching the truth and finally somehow achieving the heavenly answers that lead to the personal salvation. In Islam tradition, “guidance is bestowed only by Allah, the only source of guidance: ‘He who Allah leadeth, he indeed is led aright, while he whom Allah sendeth astray they indeed are losers’ (7.178). ‘Then Allah sendeth whom He will astray, and guideth aright whom He will. He is the Mighty, the Wise’ (Ibrahim 14.4) (see also 2.120; 10.35; 17.97; 18.17). However, Allah does not force people to accept righteous guidance; rather, he expects individuals to make their own preferences through their free will (irada).”[28] Prophets invites people to divine guidance: ‘And thus have We inspired in thee [Muhammad] a Spirit of Our Command. Thou knewest not what the Scripture was, nor what the Faith. But We have made it a light whereby We guide whom We will of Our bondmen. And lo! Thou verily dost guide unto a right path’ (42.52); ‘Go thou unto Pharaoh Lo! He hath rebelled’ (79.17). All human beings are born with fit’rah, the nature (of Islam). So, conversion to Islam can also be viewed as a return to
that state, to the pure nature. “The formal ceremony usually involves the recitation of the shaha’dah, the profession of faith, in the presence of witnesses, followed by the practice of the other Pillars, most notably sala’t (prayer). For males, circumcision is often required, and in some communities the practice of adopting a “Muslim name” is common.”[29] Conversion in Islam indicates “a radical call to reject evil and all that associates the human with the divine, and on this foundation engages the convert in the task of personal and social transformation.”[30] Conversion is radical, complete and decisive. As Judaism and Christianity, Islam also demands renunciation and a new beginning. It demands not merely acceptance of a ritual or ceremony, but the commitment of the will to a theology, in fine, faith, a sinless new life in a new religious community, ummah. Conclusion To be properly converted necessitates acceptance of all components of the religion in question. If an individual convert to another religion, because it is that religion’s beliefs, rituals, and practices that are attractive to him, he is religiously converted. But if he or she converts to that religion because of some social or economic causes, he is not religiously converted; because religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam are composition of certain beliefs and acts. They are a way of life. They are a matter of faith and conviction. In order to become a believer, it is necessary to accept all its basic teachings with one’s heart and soul. References [1]
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R. T. Lawrence, “Conversion, II (Theology of)”, in New Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/ encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-andmaps/conversion-ii-theology, accessed at
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9.4.2019. Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology, 226. [3] Ibidem. [4] “Forced conversion”, Wikipedia, Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_ conversion, accessed 15.10.2019. [5] Flavius Josephus, Antiquities 13.257–258. [6] “Forced conversion”, Wikipedia. [7] Abraham Joshua Heschel; Joachim Neugroschel; Sylvia Heschel. Maimonides: A Biography. Macmillan, 1983, p. 43. ISBN 9780374517595. [8] Robert Chazan (ed.), Church, State, and Jew in the Middle Ages, West Orange, NJ: Behrman House, 1980, p. 31. [9] Ibidem, 103. [10] Ibidem, 171. [11] This part of the paper was written after debating and long dialoguing with professor Marchal Bruno (Mathematician at IRIDIA, Université Libre de Bruxelles), during the conference in November 2019 to whom I am sincerely most grateful. [12] Walter E. Conn, The Desiring Self: Rooting Pastoral Counseling and Spiritual Direction in Self-Transcendence, New York: Paulist Press, 1998. [13] Matteo Soranzo and D. Robichaud, “Philosophical or Religious Conversion? Marsilio Ficino, Plotinus’s Enneads and Neoplatonic epistrophê”, ed. Simona Marchesini, Simple Twists of Faith: Changing Beliefs, Changing Faiths, Verona: Alteritas, 2017, pp. 135-166, 140. [14] Ahmet Albayrak, “Conversion”, The Qur’an: An Encyclopedia, ed. Oliver Leaman, New York: Routledge, 2006, 152. [15] Lewis R. Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, London: Yale University Press, 1993, 14-15. [16] Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology, 131. [17] William Johnston, The Inner Eye of Love: Mysticism and Religion, New York: Fordham University, 2003, 59. [18] Libby Ahluwalia, Understanding Philosophy of Religion, UK: Folens Publishing, 2008, 37. [19] John Lofland and Rodney Stark, “Becoming [2]
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a World-Saver: A Theory of Conversion to a Deviant Perspective”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 30, No. 6 (December 1965), pp. 862-875, p. 874. [20] William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature, New York: Routledge, 2004, 155. [21] Ibid, 194-202. [22] Ibid, 157. [23] Avihu Zakai, “The Conversion of Jonathan Edwards”, The Journal of Presbyterian History (1997-), Vol. 76, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.127-138, p. 128. [24] Walter E. Conn Christian Conversion: A Developmental Interpretation of Autonomy and Surrender, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2006, 30-31. [25] Lewis R. Rambo, 10. [26] Ibid, 2. [27] W. James, 159. [28] Ahmet Albayrak, “Conversion”, 152-153. [29] Gordon D. Newby, “Conversion”, A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2004, 49. [30] Peter B. Clarke, “Conversion”, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, ed. Richard C. Martin, USA: McMillian, 2003, 163.
Biographies Ciocan Tudor Cosmin, born in Constanta/ Romania in 1977, I have attended several theological and psychological schools (BA, MB, PhD), obtained my PhD in Missiology and Doctrinal Theology in 2010. I was ordained as orthodox priest in 2002. Highschool teacher from 1998, then Professor assistant and Lecturer from 2012, I have written more than 30 papers on theology and psychology, along with 4 single author books in the past two decades. In 2013 I have started a multidisciplinary program aiming to engage scholars from different files into friendly and academic
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debates with theology and in the same year a Research Center was founded in Ovidius University with researchers from 11 fields. in lest then 1 year I manage to gather people from around the globe around this idea and so we have started Dialogo Conferences project. In 2014 I received a Fulbright scholarship and I spent the summer California and 4 other States in USA, gathering data and understanding how religious pluralism is possible at a high level of involvement; in the same time I made friends from many different countries and religions that are now involved in this project or another, helping in his endeavor. Osman Murat Deniz, born in İzmir/Turkey in 1974, I have graduated from the Marmara University, Faculty of Theology in 1997. I obtained my PhD degree in Philosophy of Religion in 2010 at Ankara University. I was ordained as assistant professor in 2013 at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. In 2014 I participated in a Fulbright program on Religious Pluralism in the UCSB. I continue my studies especially on faith and reason, religious epistemology, religious pluralism and the metaphysics of morals.
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Relationship between Religious Feeling and Clinical and Personality Traits in Elderly People Claudia Sălceanu
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
Mihaela Luminița Sandu
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 11 July 2019 Received in revised form 14 October Accepted 15 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.6
Although aging is a biological process, genetically determined and mediated by environmental factors, one of its main characteristics is the gradual dissolution of the human personality. As physiological changes occur and exert a great impact on the physical and mental health of individuals, many old people search for comfort in their relationship with God. Furthermore, due to the reduction of their professional activity, going to church may become, for elderly people, a way of continuing their social life, which they embrace during the last years of their life. A sample of 79 old people, aged between 73 and 86 years, have been assessed with: Clinical Assessment Scales for Elderly people and Autonomy Questionnaire (Cognitrom, Cluj-Napoca, 2012), Religious Feeling Questionnaire (Lupu & Calcan, 2003), Rosenberg’s SelfEsteem Scale and a Moral Values Questionnaire (Sandu & Nadoleanu, 2012). The main objective of the study is to identify the relationship between the religious feeling and some clinical and personality traits in elderly people. Nonparametric correlations were made and the results show that there are strong correlations between religious feeling and depression, mania, self-esteem, and moral values. No significant correlations were found between religious feelings and anxiety, fear of aging, paranoia, and autonomy. Explanations of the results and practical implications of the study are discussed in the end. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: religious feeling; anxiety; depression; fear of aging; paranoia; mania; selfesteem; autonomy; moral values; elderly people;
Copyright © 2019 Claudia Salceanu & Mihaela Luminița Sandu. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Citation: Salceanu, Claudia and Mihaela Luminița Sandu, ”Relationship between Religious Feeling and Clinical and Personality Traits in Elderly People”, DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.6, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 21 - 37.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Introduction:
Aging represents an ensemble of processes that a living organism undergoes at the end of its development [1]. Aging is a natural process, a law that governs the life of all living creatures. As all developmental stages, it has a series of developmental tasks that ensure its specificity, although old age is being often referred to as a stage of decline and loss. These developmental tasks represent a framework that allows people to study and to better understand development at old ages [2]: keeping physical health; adjusting to physical infirmity or permanent damage; adjusting to the loss of friends and life partner; forming new emotional bonds; shifting roles between parents and children, while adults become care-takers for their older parents; seeking and keeping social relationships; using in a satisfactory manner the remaining time; integrating retirement in a new lifestyle. Understanding the aging process requires a multidisciplinary approach, related to life cycles and biological, psychological, social and cultural factors [3]. Biological regression is characterized by [1], [4], [5]: losses in length and quality of sleep; changes in nutrition habits, avoidance of heavy meals and preferences for dairy, fruits and vegetables, caused by digestion problems; brain degeneration, neural losses, decreasing neuroplasticity, cerebral atrophy; diminished functioning of the immune system; changes of bone and muscular tissue, causing moving difficulties; obvious changes in the appearance of the skin, hair, silhouette; emergence of chronic affections, like cardiac diseases, strokes or diabetes; critical decreases of sight, hearing and equilibrium. Psychological regression is marked by memory impairment, limitations of argumentative skills, lack of flexibility in beliefs and attitudes, changes in verbal
skills, severe damage of writing skills, especially for very old people. Emotional development is characterized by [5]: increased reactivity to change; a certain tendency to negativism; manifestations of primitive affects; concerns for physical health, that tend to increase after the loss of the life partner; pessimism, anxiety, inhibition, frustration, anger, a feeling of hopelessness and futility, strong religious feelings; a feeling of accomplishment due to children and grandchildren’s achievements; attention deficits; simplification of life plans; preservation of self-confidence; decreasing of the social responsibility; introversion caused by communication difficulties and feeling of weakness and inability; fear of diseases and death; personality disorders in very old people. Negative emotions and personality disorders in old age people. Emotional development in elderly people is characterized by a series of specific traits [5]: •Increased reactivity to all environmental changes and a tendency of denial; •Primitive emotional manifestations, an increase in emotional instability; •Living a feeling of self-satisfaction, related to both personal achievement and family members achievements; •An increased emotional distress that comes mainly after the death of the life partner; •Anxiety, frustration, and depression become stronger and long-lasting; •Inhibition, pessimism, negativity, feelings of futility, marginalization, persecution, irritability or dissatisfaction that may lead to arrogance and contempt. Visible changes in personality traits regard [5]: • A simplification of life plans; • Preserving self-confidence, at least
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• • •
• • •
until serious illness are installed; A decrease of social responsibility, due to retirement; Increased interests for trips, cultural shows and exhibits; A general state of tiredness and exhaustion, caused by the general involution of all psychological abilities; Introversion caused by communication difficulties; Fear of disease and death; Personality disorders.
II. CLINICAL AND PERSONALITY TRAITS
IN ELDERLY PEOPLE
Anxiety. Defined as an emotion, anxiety is characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts and different physical changes [6]. Anxious feelings are quite intense; they may last for a long time and have a negative effect on thoughts, behavior and general health [7]. The same author emphasizes that most common physical anxiety symptoms include hot and cold flushes, shaking, racing heart, chest pains or struggling to breathe. As for the psychological symptoms, these include: a constant need to check things, persistent worrying ideas or a racing mind full of thoughts. Although socio-economic factors, therapy methods and diagnostic tools must be taken into account, it seems that anxiety disorders are more common among elderly people than it was expected [8]. And given the growing number of elderly people in Romanian society, we feel that concerns about their physical and mental health and well-being should be a primary concern for researchers and institutions. Depression. American Psychiatric Association defines depression as a mental illness, with negative effects on thinking and behavior [9]. It causes feelings of sadness and loss of interest in all the activities that
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a person once loved to do. Although it is a common mental illness, depression may lead to many emotional and physical problems, decreasing someone’s ability to function both professionally and in the family life. According to American Psychiatric Association, the symptoms of depression may include mood swings, sadness, loss of energy, changes in appetite, sleeping problems, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, difficulties in thinking or decision making, thoughts of death or suicide. Psychological literature shows various studies concerned with the risks and symptoms of personality disorders at old age people. Some studies show that, on one hand, age biases in the assessment of anxiety and depression, and on the other hand, masking effects of other risk factors vary with age [10]. For example, risk factors like emotional responsiveness, emotional control and psychological immunization to stressful experiences must be taken into account. Furthermore, the use of maladaptive strategies is associated with depressive symptoms [11]. Fear of aging. There are a few aspects to be taken into consideration. First of all, time is usually considered one of the most precious assets one can have. Although young people may feel they have all the time in the world to accomplish whatever they want, for old people, this is not the case anymore. Romanian people usually think that since they’ve gotten old, it is supposed that they should suffer. Second, we live in a society where people are judged by their appearance. Media is providing with all kinds of recipes for “eternal” youth and for prolonging one’s life and physical shape. Wrinkles or white hair are a bad thing for one’s social status and prestige, and therefore they should be hidden beneath make-up or cut of through treatments of surgery. Third, Romanian society is divided into
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social classes, and due to their economic status and income, not all people can afford these remedies for aging. And it is in this context that fear of aging can be explained. Furthermore, for really old people, that lose their friends and family and have to confront with solitude and an imminent perspective of death, fear of aging could be really stressful. Studies show that fear of aging and of death are associated with poor physical health, low self-esteem, little purpose in life and poor well-being [12]. Paranoia. This term means excessive suspiciousness or jealousy, combined with an exaggerated fear of harm, usually based on limited evidence [13]. Although it is not a common disorder, paranoia seems to increase with age, especially after age 75 [14]. Paranoid ideation includes thoughts like [15]: • Delusions (meaning believing different kinds of things that are neither true, nor real); • Hallucinations (meaning seeing or hearing things that are not there, especially at night); • Disorganized thoughts or speech (meaning saying or thinking things that seem bizarre and illogical to other people). Studies about the development of psychotic symptoms in late life show the following implications of these symptoms [16]: • Delirium – a common condition of mental function, caused by the stress of severe illness, surgery or hospitalization; • Drugs, alcohol and other substances – delusions , hallucinations or other forms of psychosis can be a secondary effect of medication; • Disease – there are some physical health problems that can interfere with brain function, leading to brain
damage and even minor strokes that can also cause psychosis symptoms; • Depression – many people with major depression symptoms may experience psychotic symptoms; • Dementia – is characterized most commonly by delusions of theft, spousal infidelity, abandonment or persecution; • Delusional disorder and schizophrenia may have similar symptoms with dementia, delirium or other conditions that affect thinking. Since for old people it’s not uncommon to have vision and hearing problems, it does not come as a surprise that some of them may experience delusions, hallucinations and paranoid thoughts, mostly related to their physical health condition. Mania in old age is a syndrome that involves emotional vulnerability, related to neurologic lesions that affect specific areas of the brain [17]. Thus, mania is associated with late-onset neurologic disorders [18]. Such a diagnostic requires a careful clinical assessment and follow-up, since it may be difficult to establish sometimes, due to the presence of several other comorbidities that can overlap the symptomatology [19]. For example, although not so often diagnosed, mania is associated with vascular risk factors [20], vascular-based late-onset depression [21] and bipolar disorder [22]. Mania can be pharmacologically treated, but with lower doses for older people due to their slower metabolism and sensitivity to side effects [23]. Self-esteem is an expression of someone’s needs and desires [24] and it represents the evaluation of one’s happiness, worthiness, achievement and self-confidence [25]. This term is used to define different complex mental states pertaining to the way one views oneself [26] and it refers to an individual’s subjective
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evaluation of his or her worth [27]. This means that self-esteem is not necessarily an objective measure of one’s talents and abilities. Thus, it involves complex feelings like self-acceptance and self-respect. During people’s lifetime, the development of self-esteem is not linear but has some periods of stability and some periods of decline. Studies show that during childhood, it is relatively high; it drops during adolescence, rises gradually in adulthood and then declines in old age [28]. Studies show that approximately one-third of the elderly people have low self-esteem and that this low level is influenced by factors like career, marital status, and history of health problems, residence, education and income [25]. Thus, self-esteem becomes an important aspect of the adaptive process, especially being linked with the quality of adaptation, well-being, life satisfaction and health [29]. Autonomy. During people’s lifetime, autonomy declines or grows while individuals develop competences and abilities. Basically, autonomy refers to self-governance and self-regulation. It is essentially the ability to take care of one’s own person. For elderly people, due to so many physical, psychological and social transformations that occur, we can speak of a certain level of dependence which can be defined as a forced relationship with another person, an object, a group or an institution that provides for different types of needs [30]. Clues of installment of dependence in elderly people may be: inadvertent clothing, micturition, substance abuse, movement difficulties, weight loss, isolation, aggressive behavior, frequently losing one’s way or difficulties in finding the way back home, difficulties in obtaining supplies, lack of tidiness in one’s home, difficulties in paying the bills, etc. Moral values may be considered one of the foundations of human development.
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The moral is related to what people think to be right or wrong in their behavior or in their relationships with others. Moral also refers to what they feel like is needed in order to achieve happiness in life. So, basically, morality contains [31]: • beliefs about the nature of the human being; • beliefs about ideals, about what is desirable or worthy; • rules regarding what ought to be done in different real-life situations; • motives that incline people to choose the right or the wrong course. Due to the accelerated socio-economic and technological changes in today’s society, people often have to adjust to new life situations. Most of the problems our society has to deal with can be closely related to values [32]. Thus, researchers consider values as a central construct for many psychological, social and humanistic sciences, especially because moral values are express ideas and meaningful concrete practices about what a good life means [33]. So, it can be emphasized that moral values relate to responsibility, pure heart, and obligation. The concept of moral values is difficult to define, but they have certain characteristics in common, such as [34]: they relate to different hierarchies and preferences, they are relatively stable, they can manifest through behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs, they exist but not always manifest, and they have a certain social causality. Religious Feeling. Religion influences values, moral experience, and social organization, as well as concepts of health, illness, dying and death [35]. Although religion and spirituality are similar concepts, there are certain differences between them. While religion is perceived as more institutionally based, spirituality refers to the immaterial and intangible. Thus,
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spirituality cannot be associated with an organization. Moreover, spirituality usually can be related to experiences, thoughts or feelings. Schleiermacher portrays religious feeling as an eternal and universal state of consciousness, which cannot be generated by individuals, the world or anything within it, but must have a transcendent whence, namely God [36]. Empirical observation shows that the level of religious participation in older people is greater than in any other age group. They attend religious services more often, and this may be due to the fact that the religious organization is one of the greatest supports outside of the family. Studies show that people who are religious tend to benefit from their religious activities [37] as they develop: • a positive and hopeful attitude about life and illness; • a sense of meaning and purpose in life; • a greater ability to cope with illness and disability; • a better maintained physical functioning and health; • a better developed social network. So, it seems that religious older people are less likely to develop depression, anxiety, or any other mental illness than those who do not use religious coping mechanisms. Furthermore, religion is known to promote different types of health practices (like interdiction regarding tobacco or alcohol use). Thus, religious people are less likely to develop substance-related disorders. And last, but not least, religion encourages people to offer social support, for instance, to play an active role in their social community as caregivers. III. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
The main objective of the study is to
identify the relationship between the religious feeling and some clinical traits (anxiety, depression, fear of aging, paranoia and mania) and some personality traits (selfesteem, autonomy and moral values) in elderly people. We stated the following hypotheses: H1 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and anxiety; H2 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and depression; H3 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and fear of aging; H4 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and paranoia; H5 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and mania; H6 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and self-esteem; H7 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and autonomy; H8 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and moral values. IV. SAMPLE, INSTRUMENTS AND ETHICS
A sample of 79 old people, aged between 73 and 86 years, have been assessed with: Clinical Assessment Scales for Elderly people and Autonomy Questionnaire (Cognitrom, Cluj-Napoca, 2012), Religious Feeling Questionnaire (Lupu & Calcan, 2003), Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale and a Moral Values Questionnaire (Sandu & Nadoleanu, 2012). All participants are residents of the city of Constanța, that receive specialized
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social assistance. A written consent for this research was obtained from all participants, as well as a consent from the management of the institution where the research was conducted.
Trait
Spearman’s Rho N
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
Anxiety
79
-.041
.719
Depression
79
-.236*
.036
V. RESULTS
Fear of aging
79
-.070
.540
We used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test to establish the normality of the distribution of the scores. The results are shown in the table below:
Paranoia
79
.089
.434
Mania
79
.256*
.023
Self-esteem
79
.244*
.030
Autonomy
79
-.118
.302
Moral values
79
.234*
.031
TABLE I.
NORMALITY TESTS FOT THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES
Trait
As results show, we obtained statistically significant correlations (p=.05) between the religious feeling and depression, mania, selfesteem and moral values. No statistically significant correlations were found between religious feeling and anxiety, fear of aging, paranoia and autonomy.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistic
df
Sig.
Religious feeling
.130
79
.002
Anxiety
.117
79
.009
Depression
.147
79
.000
Fear of aging
.133
79
.001
Paranoia
.143
79
.000
Mania
.095
79
.075
Self-esteem
.097
79
.063
Autonomy
.136
79
.001
Moral values
.084
79
.200*
VI. DISCUSSION H1 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feelings and anxiety.
Based on the values shown above, we used Spearman’s Rho to verify the existence of statistically significant correlations between the assumed variables. We used a synthesized table of the statistical data in order to show the results we obtained for all 8 hypotheses.
TABLE II.
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RELIGIOUS FEELING AND CLINICAL AND PERSONALITY TRAITS
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Although our results show there is no significant correlation between anxiety and the religious feeling, we can observe the statistically negative relationship between the two variables. This negative correlation is supported by a large amount of qualitative studies that explain the decrease of anxiety in response to religious feelings [38]. It seems that spiritual meditation, relaxation and the positive mood that the religious feeling induces has a deep impact on the evolution of anxiety and other negative emotions. Everyday life experiences show that it is possible for people to turn to religion as a way of coping with anxiety, through prayer, meditation or other practices. More
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and more people who deal with real-life circumstances (like chronic pain, severe disability, terminal illnesses) may find great comfort, peace, and hope in their religious faith and feelings [38]. This is the most common area of research regarding the relationship between these two variables. The results are supported by many studies that found lower levels of anxiety in patients with high levels of spiritual well-being: in advanced cancer patients [39], [40], incurable cancer patients [41], heart failure patients [42] or hemodialysis patients [43]. Thus, it becomes clear that the improvement of spiritual health counseling for individuals may help them be able to cope with their illness and, even, death. Religious feeling compensates for many losses caused by stress and anxiety, like the loss of meaning in life, feelings of indifference, no sense of the future. The emotional area, the spiritual and religious behaviors become means of fulfilling individual’s needs of attachment and communication [44]. H2 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feelings and depression.
Our results show a significant negative correlation between depression and religious feelings (p=.05). This means that the higher spirituality is, the lower is the depression. As shown in the introduction, aging may induce depressive symptoms, like sadness or misery, unexplained tiredness, fatigue, feelings that even the smallest tasks are impossible to do, feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness caused by imminent death. In other words, older people are vulnerable to the effects of various physiological and psychological problems, as they face mental and social problems due to declining physical strength, the effects of diseases, the disintegration of personality and inadequate social support. This stressful way of life influences the development of depression.
Furthermore, the loss of the spouse or of close friends may also be an influencing factor of depression. Swinton argues that loss and rediscovery are central concepts of both depression and spirituality [45]. Spirituality helps depressive people find a purpose in their life. This rediscovery brings back hope and vigor to face the difficulties of life [46], showing people either they are not alone, or that there are other people in worse conditions than they are, or there may be others that still need their support or experience. Spirituality has been shown to be associated with fewer depressive symptoms [38], [47], higher likelihood of depression remission [48] and lower likelihood of depression onset [49]. But, spirituality is a very multifaceted and complex factor that can play a protective role in the relationship with depression, by its therapeutic nature. If we are to look at it as meditative and contemplative activity, that tries to seek a meaning to life, or as a desire to transcend connection, it becomes clear that its expression is widespread across all living human societies, regions, ideologies, orientations, and practices [50]. So, on a general human level, we can expect spirituality to be a shield against depression and other negative influencing factors. High religious feelings may offer people the possibility to gain positive motivation and energy, which can then allow them to be part of something important. People could gain a new purpose in life and may be able to use their expertise and experience for the greater good. Being involved in social and community activities may bring a series of benefits for elderly people: (1) positive effects on the cognitive function, as social activities keep people sharp and mentally engaged; (2) good emotional health, as connecting with others allows elderly people to keep a positive mood, which blocks the installment of the depression; (3)
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improved physical health; (4) restful sleep; (5) increased longevity. Possible ways of being socially active at old age may include joining a club, become a volunteer, enjoy lifelong learning opportunities, reach out to their own family, try out new technologies or events pick up a part-time job. All these represent, in fact, both opportunities and protective factors from depression and other negative emotions. H3 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feelings and fear of aging.
Our results show there is no significant correlation between religious feelings and fear of aging. Nevertheless, the negative correlation shows that a high religious feeling means a low level of fear of aging. The scores obtained by the participants show mostly low levels of this scale. The results are supported by those from the first hypothesis since the fear of aging regards an anxious attitude towards the natural aging process and its effects on family of personality. Although aging is a critical stage of life, we feel that there are other types of fear, even more powerful than the fear of aging. It is the case of the fear of death which is caused by the inevitability of death approaching. The sample we investigated was made up of people from 73 to 86 years old. Since the chronological beginning of the stage is 65 years of age, we may explain the results by the fact that our participants already have some experience in adjusting to all kinds of involution that this stage includes. Furthermore, the fact that they are institutionalized people may have a positive influence on the fear of aging. All our participants are surrounded by specialists that keep them under observation and help them with everything they need. This may help alleviate anxiety and fear of aging. Still, it is important to emphasize that
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due to the invariable nature of the stressful factor causing the fear of aging, elderly people are more likely to try to emotionally avoid this situation or to use the religious feelings in order to cope with these uncontrollable situations [51]. H4 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and paranoia.
Our results show no significant correlation between paranoia and the religious feeling, explainable by the fact that while paranoia means suspicions regarding other people’s motives and even delirium, the religious feeling means a warm opening toward other people. People with high spirituality are not afraid of others and do not question their motives. They are usually empathic and tend to offer other people support in their experiences. Some authors suggest that religious experience could represent attempts made by these patients to interpret their anomalous experiences [52], meaning that they are able to cope when facing distressing events such as hallucinations or delusions. But, there are authors that support the idea that religious preoccupations and delusions may develop in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or psychoses [37]. These results also support our next hypothesis. H5 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and mania.
Our results show a positive and significant correlation between mania and religious feeling. A possible explanation may be the fact that in traditional psychiatry, mania often reflects a deep spiritual emergence, dissolution of ego, or a higher state of consciousness [53]. Viewed as a spiritual awakening, mania can be seen in some cases as people are being called by the spirits to become healers or seers, for example. This
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usually takes place in traditional cultures that have a strong connection to the living spirit of the earth. Although in western cultures this does not apply to the situation, in some cases, it is safe to say that the environment and culture provide meaning and context for the manic experience [53]. We believe that once a stage of acceptance of the current situation is reached, old people tend to embrace the thought that is God’s will that things should happen’ in a certain way. This gives them a great feeling of relief and a different perspective over life. Some of our participants said they feel protected by a divine light, and as long as they feel that grace, nothing can hurt them. They see themselves as being above suffering, above other people’s problems, in a state of inner peace that they like to share with others. We believe they experience grandiosity, as their ego gets over-inflated in order to counteract the fear of feeling out of control. Furthermore, the fact that depression and religious feeling are negatively correlated (hypothesis 2), supports these explanations, since in the case of bipolar disorder, mania and depression are at opposite poles. Although our participants do not have a diagnostic of bipolar disorder, we think that these results can be explained at the impulse level. Based on Szondi’s circular vector, mania may be expressed in a negative and morbid form, in a physiological and normal form or in a sublimated and socially accepted form, which can be the religious feeling. H6 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and self-esteem.
Our results show a significant positive correlation between religious feelings and self-esteem. The results are supported by both the confirmed hypotheses above, as well as by other studies. Self-esteem allows certain action dispositions, like action instead of running from life, respect the
facts rather than avoid or deny them. Self-esteem also means selfresponsibility, self-acceptance, realism, and consciousness, the willingness to stand in the presence of one’s own thoughts, feelings and actions [54]. It is possible for people with high religious feelings, spirituality and self-esteem that are connected by the fact that they feel at home in the universe. They have desire, peace, and harmony with oneself, which is a precondition of peace and harmony with everything else [54]. Other possible and more grounded explanations concern the relationship of high self-esteem with the following ideas: • High self-esteem allows people to be themselves. An advantage of old age is exactly the fact that people tend not to care so much about what other people think about them. They can act naturally, be in consonance to what they think and feel. Old people tend not to be so careful at what they say or do because they are less afraid of social judgment. They can allow themselves to have their own purpose, set of values, a vision of life and goals to achieve. They can manifest freely and do not feel the constant need to adapt their views, values and behaviors to meet the expectations of others. • High self-esteem allows old people to learn from their experiences. Decisions usually are based on opinions and beliefs. Some of these beliefs may be wrong, but high selfesteem allows people to cope with setbacks. • While low self-esteem people tend to adopt other people’s opinions in their desperate quest for their approval, old people with high self-esteem can easily defend their opinions, or they may concede if they feel that is the
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case. • High self-esteem is related to higher resilience and to better coping mechanisms. • As people grow older they understand the idea that nobody could ever know it all. In youth and adulthood we strive to prove our knowledge, our competences and abilities, in order to gain social recognition. After the retirement from their professional life, people focus on what is important to them and what they feel passionate about. Although they may share their experience and knowledge, they may discover that there are so many things that they still have to learn and that this does not trouble them. These explanations also support the explanations of the confirmed hypotheses above. As low self-esteem in old age may lead to depression, high self-esteem can support the life satisfaction and a state of general well-being.
significant correlation between moral values and religious feelings. This relation can be explained by the fact that since birth we are taught what is good or bad, what is right or wrong, based on religious concepts of these values. So, the more people regard these biblical values, the greater their religious feeling is. Spirituality is considered in terms of religious experience, moral values and aesthetic principle [55], which means that it is based on the understanding of the human being as unity, morality, and beauty. Besides religion, education and the social environment are crucial factors that influence our moral value systems. Moral values are reflected in people’s education and reactions. The spiritual world of humans is formed within the religious secular system [55]. The moral component of spirituality is based on the concept of freedom of will and free acceptance, free and conscious choice of the man and the ability to bear responsibility for it.
H7 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feeling and autonomy.
Our research has some limits that may have influenced the results, as follows: the sample was made up almost entirely out of women; we did not take into consideration both the health problems and diagnostics of the participants and their religious orientation. We used a convenient sample, based on the subject’s availability.
We discovered no statistically significant correlation between religious feeling and autonomy in our sample. But we can observe the negative relation between the two variables, which means that when autonomy is low, the religious feeling is high. This could be explained by the fact that when old people tend to feel unnecessary, unimportant, worthless or socially rejected, they tend to turn their hopes and establish a strong relationship with God. This allows them to find the peace and the harmony that society denies them. H8 – We presume there is a significant correlation between religious feelings and moral values.
Our results show a positive and statistically
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VII. LIMITS
CONCLUSION The main objective of the research was to identify the relationship between the religious feeling and some clinical traits and personality traits in elderly people. We chose anxiety, depression, fear of aging, paranoia, and mania as clinical traits and self-esteem, autonomy and moral values as personality traits. We discovered significant correlations
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between the religious feeling and depression, mania, self-esteem and moral values. The results show that religion appears to be a psychological necessity for mankind. According to the findings, spiritual and religious behaviors reduce negative emotions such as depression, and strengthen their self-esteem, mania and moral values. We emphasized the fact that spirituality and religious beliefs facilitate coping with problems in everyday life. Religious beliefs, in reality, provide people with a sense of control over various conditions. Studying an individual’s spirituality implies further investigations, based on cognitive and behavioral components. They are determined by certain factors, like the type of community (rural-traditional), profession, personality profile, social and historical evolution of society, economic factors, etc. The Romanian society offers few chances for old people to revitalize their life after retirement. The lack of specialized institutions that can take over when members of the families are not available or do not have time or the competence to handle their old relatives, and engage old people in specific activities based on their age and capacity is a crucial factor. The only institution that allows other roles to activate and creates a new microsystem is the Church. This is the reason why Romanian old people adapt more difficult to this stage in their development and it is why personality and behavior issues are hard to manage. Thus, these results are also important in the sense that government, social services or medical services should pay attention to these religious aspects when interacting with old people and should create more opportunities for elderly people.
References Fontaine, Roger. Psychology of aging (Psihologia îmbătrânirii). Iași: Ed. Polirom, 2008 [2] Hutteman, Roos; Hennecke, Marie; Orth, Ulrich; Reitz, Anne K., and Specht, Jule. “Developmental Tasks as a Framework to Study Personality Development in Adulthood and Old Age”. European Journal of Personality 28 (2014): 26778. https://pdfs.semanticscholar. org/8e a4/21f552761296ffff74ee89949d50228e1bfa. pdf, DOI: 10.1002/per.1959 [3] Muntean, Ana. Psychology of human development, 3rd edition (Psihologia dezvoltării umane, ediția a III-a). Iași: Ed. Polirom, 2009 [4] Papalia, Diane E.; Wendkos Olds, Sally, and Duskin Feldman, Ruth. Human Development (Dezvoltare umană). București: Ed. Trei, 2010 [5] Crețu, Tinca. Psychology of ages, 3rd edition (Psihologia vârstelor, ediția a III-a). Iași: Ed. Polirom, 2009 [6] Feldman, Adam. “What to know about anxiety?”. Medical News Today, 2018, h t t p s : / / w w w. m e d i c a l n e w s t o d a y. c o m / articles/323454.php [7] Kirwan, John. “Anxiety – What you need to know”. The Journal, https://depression.org. nz/is-it-depression-anxiety/anxiety/ accessed on 10.05.2019 [8] Kirmizioglu, Yalçin; Doğan, Orhan; Kuğu, Nesim, and Akyüz, Gamze. “Prevalence of anxiety disorders among elderly people”. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24 (9): 1026-1033, https://doi.org/10.1002/ gsp.2215 [9] American Psychiatric Association.”What Is Depression?”, https://www.psychiatry. org/patients-families/depression/what-isdepression, accessed on 10.05.2019 [10] Jorm, Anthony Francis 2000. “Does old age reduce the risk of anxiety and depression? A review of epidemiological studies across the adult life span”. Psychological Medicine 30(1): 11-22 [11] Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan, and Aldao, Amelia. [1]
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“Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms”. Personality and Individual Differences 51(6): 704-708, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.012 [12] Missler, Marjolein; Stroebe, Margaret; Geurtsen, Lilian; Mastenbroek, Mirjam; Chmoun, Sara, and Van Der Houven, Karolijne, 2012. “Exploring Death Anxiety amond Elderly People: A Literature Review and Empirical Investigation”. OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying, 64 (4): 357-379, https://doi.org/10.2190/OM.64.4.e [13] Davies, Joan. “Paranoia in the Elderly”. In Mental Health and the Elderly. A Social Work Perspective, edited by Francis J. Turner, 115135. New York: The Free Press, 1992. [14] Butler, Robert, N., and Lewis, Myrina, I. Aging and mental health. 3. St. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby, 1982 [15] Kiran, Chandra, and Chaudhury, Suprakash. 2009. “Understanding delusions”. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 18 (1): 3-18, doi:10.4103/0972-6748.57851 [16] Reinhardt, Michael M., and Cohen, Carl I. 2015. “Late-life psychosis: diagnosis and treatment”. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(2): 1, doi: 10.1007/s11920-014-0542-0 [17] Shulman, Kenneth I., and Hermann, Nathan 1999. “The nature and management of mania in old age”. The Psychiatric clinics of North America, 22(3): 649-665, retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/10550860 [18] Shulman, Kenneth I., and Hermann, Nathan 1999. “Bipolar disorder in old age”. Canada Family Physician, 45: 1229-1237, https:// w w w. n c b i . n l m . n i h . g o v / p m c / a r t i c l e s / PMC2328575/?page=1 [19] Singh, Priti; Pandey, Nisha M., and Tiwari, Sarvada C. 2015. “Late-life mania: A brief review”. Journal of Geriatric Mental Health, 2(2): 68-73, DOI: 10.4103/2348-9995.174269 [20] Aggarwal, Ashish; Kumar, Ramesh; Sharma, Ravi C., and Sharma, Dinesh D. 2010. “First Episode Mania at 75 Years of Age”. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 32(2):144145, doi: 10.4103/0253-7176.78514 [21] Cassidy, Frederick, and Carroll, Bernard J.
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2002. “Vascular risk factors in late onset mania”. Psychological Medicine, 32: 359362, DOI: 10.1017/S0033291701004718 [22] Brooks, John O., and Hoblyn, Jennifer, C. 2005. “Clinical Case Conference: Secondary Mania in Older Adults”. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162: 11, retrieved from https://ajp. psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi. ajp.162.11.2033 [23] Young, Robert C., and Klerman, Gerald L. 1992. “Mania in late life: focus on age at onset “. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149 (7): 867-879, DOI: 10.1176/ajp.149.7.867, retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/1609864 [24] Shahbazzadegan, Bita; Farmanbar, Rabiollah; Ghanbari, Atefeh; Roshan, Zahra Atrkar, and Adib, Masoumeh. 2009 “The Effect of Regular Exercise on Self-esteem in Elderly Residents in Nursing Homes”. Journal of Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, 8(4): 387-393 [25] Franak, Jafari; Alireza, Khatony, and Malek, Mehrdad. 2012. “Self-Esteem Among the Elderly Visiting the Healthcare Centers in Kermanshah-Iran. Global Journal of Health Science, 7(5): 352-358, doi: 10.5539/gjhs. v7n5p352 [26] Bailey, Joseph A. 2nd. 2003. “The foundation of self-esteem”. Journal of the National Medical Association, 95(5): 388-393, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2594522/ [27] Orth, Ulrich, and Robins, Richard W. 2014. “The Development of Self-Esteem”. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5): 381-387, DOI: 10.1177/0963721414547414 [28] Robins, Richard W., and Trzesniewski, Kali H. 2005. “Self-Esteem Development Across the Lifespan”. Current Dirrections in Psychological Science, 14(3): 158-162, https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00353.x [29] Alaphilippe, Daniel. 2008. “Self-esteem in the elderly”. Psychologie & Neuropsychiatrie du vieillissement. 6(3):167-176, doi: 10.1684/ pnv.2008.0135 [30] Neamțu, George (coord.). Tratat de asistență socială (Social Work Treatise). Iași: Ed. Polirom, 2003
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Edwards, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Phylosophy, New York: Macmillan, 1967 [32] Türkkahraman, Mimar. 2014. “Social Values and Value Education”. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116(2014): 633-638, doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.270 [33] Veugelers, Wiel. “Moral Values in Teacher Education”. In International Encyclopedia of Education (3rd Edition), edited by Penelope Peterson, Eva Baker and Barry McGaw, 650-655, Elsevier Science, 2010, https://doi. org/10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.00635-7 [34] Voicu, Bogdan. “Valorile și sociologia valorilor” (Values and the sociology of values). In L. Vlăsceanu (coord.), Sociologie (Sociology), 249-294, Iași: Ed. Polirom [35] Laird, Lance D., and Barnes, Linda L. “Religion and Healing”. In International Encyclopedia of Public Health (2nd Edition), edited by Stella R. Quah and Kristian Heggenhougen, 514-519, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2008 [36] Dumbreck, Geoffrey. “Schleiermacher and Religious Feeling”, Series Studies in Philosophical Theology, 49, Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2012 [37] Kaplan, Daniel B., and Berkman, Barbara J.: “Religion and Spirituality in Older People”. In MSD Manual Consumer Version, retrieved from https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/ older-people%E2%80%99s-health-issues/ social-issues-affecting-older-people/religionand-spirituality-in-older-people# [38] Koenig, Harold G.; King, Dana E., and Carson, Verna B. Handbook of Religion and Health, 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012 [39] Whitford, Hayley S., Olver, Ian N., and Peterson, Melissa J. “Spirituality as a core domain in the assessment of quality of life in oncology”. Psycho-Oncology, 17 (2008):1121-1128, doi: 10.1002/pon.1322 [40] Garssen, Bert; Visser, Anja, and de Jager Meezenbroek, Eltica. “Examining wheter spirituality predicts subjective well-being: How to avoid tautology”. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2016, 8(2):141-148, https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/rel0000025 [41] Lobb, Elizabeth A.; Lacey, Judith; Liauw, [31]
Winston S.; White, Lesley A.; Hosie, Annmarie, and Kearsley, John H. “Making sense of a diagnosis of incurable cancer: The importance of communication”. The International Journal of Whole Person Care, 2015, 2(1):4-20, http://ijwpc.mcgill.ca/article/ view/88 [42] Bekelman, David B.; Dy, Sydney M.; Becker, Diane M.; Wittstein, Ilan, S.; Hendricks, Danetta, E.; Yamashita, Traci E., and Gottlieb, Sheldon H. “Spiritual Well-Being and Depression in Patients with Heart Failure”. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 2007, 22(4):470-477, https://link.springer.com/ article/10.1007/s11606-006-0044-9 [43] Taghipour, Behzad; Mehravar, Fatemeh; Nia, Hamid S.; Hasani, Seyed A., and Alahyari, Zahra. “Association between death anxiety and spiritual intelligence with the spiritual health and quality of life in hemodialysis patients”. Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Sciences, 2017, 4(2):26-32, http://jnms. mazums.ac.ir/ [44] Safavi, Mahbobe; Oladrostam, Niloofar; Fesharaki, Mohammad, and Fatahi, Yadegar. “An investigation of the Relationship between Spiritual Health and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in Patients with Heart Failure”. Health, Spirituality and Medical Ethics, 2016, 3(2):27 [45] Swinton, John. Spirituality in Mental Health Care: Rediscovering a Forgotten Dimension. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2001 [46] Sharma, Pulkit; Charak, Ruby, and Sharma, Vibha. “Contemporary Perspectives on Spirituality and Mental Health”. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 2009, 31(1):16-23, doi: 10.4103/0253-7176.53310 [47] Sternthal, Michelle J.; William, David R.; Musick, Marc A., and Buck, Anne C. “Depression, Anxiety, and Religious Life: A Search for Mediators”. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 2010, 51(3):343-359, https:// doi.org/10.1177/0022146510378237 [48] Bosworth, Hayden B.; Park, Kwang-Soo; McQuoid, Douglas R.; Hays, Judith C., and Steffens, David C. “The impact of religious practice and religious coping on geriatric depression”. International Journal of
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Geriatric Psychiatry, 2003, 18(10): 905-914, https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.945 [49] Ellison, Christopher, and Flannelly, Kevin. “Religious Involvement and Risk of Major Depression in a Prospective Nationwide Study of African American Adults”. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 2009, 197(8):568-573, DOI: 10.1097/NMD. ob013e3181b08f45 [50] Zimmer, Zachary; Jagger, Carol; Chiu, ChiTsun; Ofstedal, Mary B.; Rojo, Florencia, and Saito, Yasuhiko. “Spirituality, religiosity, aging and health in global perspective: A review”. SSM-Population Health, 2016, 2:373-381, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.04.009 [51] Taghuabadi, Mina; Kavosi, Ali; Mirhafez, Seyed R.; Keshvari, Mahrokh, and Mehrabi, Tayebe. “The association between death anxiety with spiritual experiences and life satisfaction in elderly people”. Electronic Physician, 2017, 9(3):3980-3985, doi: 10.19082/3980 [52] Huguelet, Philippe, and Koenig, Harold G. Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009 [53] Schwarcz, Benjamin. Transformational Coaching and Psychotherapy. Retrieved from https://www.alternativedepressiontherapy. com/mania-or-spiritual-awakening.html [54] Branden, Nathaniel. Self-Esteem as Spiritual Discipline. Retrieved from http://www. nathanielbranden.com/self-esteem-as-aspiritual-discipline [55] Erenchinova, Evgeniia, and Proudchenko, Elena. “Spirituality and Moral Values”. SHS Web of Conferences, 2018, 50, https:// doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20185001050. Retrieved from https://www.shs-conferences. org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2018/11/shsconf_ cildiah2018_01050.pdf
psychology, psychology of advertising, social psychology, psychological assessment. Representative publications: 1) Psihologia dezvoltării umane (2015), Craiova: Ed. Sitech, ISBN 978-606-11-4604-8; 2) Personality Factors and Resistance to the Manipulation of Advertising (2013), Elsevier Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 127, p. 5-9; 3) The influence of computer games on children’s development. Exploratory study on the attitudes of parents, Elsevier Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 149, p. 837 – 841; 4) The Evolution of Human Values – A Comparative Study of Values in Adolescents and Emerging Adults (2019), Postmodern Openings, vol 10, no.2, p.74-83; 5) The Educational Failure in an International School (2017), in C. Ignătescu, A. Sandu & T. Ciulei (Eds.), Rethinking Social Action. Core Values in Practice, p. 755-760. Sandu Mihaela Luminița, Lecturer PhD, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania. Graduate of the Faculty of Psychology and Social Assistance at the Andrei Saguna University of Constanta and of the Faculty of Sociology, Ovidius University in Constanta; I am a Doctor of Social Sciences at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Sociology and Social Work, Lecturer at Ovidius University from Constanta, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences. My field of interest is social psychology, work psychology and judicial psychology.
Biography Sălceanu Claudia, Lecturer PhD, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania. Domains of interest: developmental
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
From Religious Icons to Popular Culture Icons Two Case Studies (Bob Dylan and Madonna) Nicoleta Stanca, PhD
Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 1 August 2019 Received in revised form 10 October Accepted 15 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.7
This article compares the characteristics of religious icons to those of popular icons, the latter having developed since 19th century under the impact of industrialization, mass production and circulation of the media. Both categories, according to critics, convey significant messages of faith, bind believers in a community of faith and grant special powers to those who believe in them. These features could be illustrated by examples in the category of celebrity culture and worship (Bob Dylan and Madonna). The iconic celebrities in the new Olympus, as the case studies show, may share in beauty, wealth, a status of superlative beings, a type of isolation or confinement in an artificial environment, a special destiny, a spectacular life narrative, secrets in their past life, a capacity for change, but above all, a sense of metamorphosis ensuring them the status of mythical creatures and ultimately a prophetic aura, which makes adepts worship them.
Keywords: religious icons; popular icons; celebrity worship; postmodern prophecy; hybrid identity; Bob Dylan; Madonna;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Nicoleta Stanca. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Stanca, Nicoleta, ”From Religious Icons to Popular Culture Icons. Two Case Studies (Bob Dylan and Madonna)” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.7, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 21 - 37.
Introduction It is interesting how religion and popular culture interact, since, according to Ostwalt, the sacred and the non-sacred interact with no fixed boundaries. The theoretician gives two directions in this respect: on the one hand, religious authorities are becoming more attentive to highly popular cultural
manifestations (e.g. the sacred texts are interpreted in the context of modern concerns) and on the other hand, popular culture forms – literature, music, film – are vehicles of religious images, symbols, and categories [1].
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I. From Religious Icons to Popular
Icons
The term “icon” comes from Ancient Greek, eikón, which means “image” or “likeness”. It shows three-dimensional objects or two-dimensional images of those objects, which are visible, concrete embodiments of the myths, beliefs, and values that form a culture’s mindset [2]. The icon is used in three contexts. The first one shows the religious part of the term: a Holy picture of Jesus, Virgin Mary or a saint. The second utility of the word icon is to transform objects into signs that everybody can read and understand (school zone sign, stop sign). And the last use of the term is to describe someone or something widely and uncritically admired, especially when somebody or something symbolizes a movement or field activity. Icons referred originally to religious objects developed in late medieval times in Eastern Europe as a means of communicating beliefs of faith to illiterate populations of believers [3]. They “express deep-seated, significant messages of faith, bind believers together in a community or belief, and impart magical powers to those who venerate the icon” [4]. In the 19th and 20th centuries, a similar role is fulfilled by popular icons in the realm of secular beliefs and values, reaching large groups of people. As a consequence of industrialization, mass production and the development of the media, a wide acceptance of popular icons could be signaled. According to Ciugureanu, a popular icon is invested with meaning by the people who believe in it. The icon acts upon its believers, shaping them according to its symbolical meaning and it fulfills its special mission for which it was created [5]. According to Dennis and Susan Hall, in their study American Icons: An Encyclopedia of the People, Places, and Things that Have
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Shaped Our Culture, an icon should have the following characteristics: it generates strong responses, stands for a group of related things and values, has roots in historical sources, is usually successful in commerce and it can be employed in visual art, film, music and other media. An icon generates strong responses; people identify with it, or against it, and the differences may reflect generational distinctions. Marilyn Monroe, for instance, carries different meanings for people who are in their teens and twenties than for people in their sixties and older. An icon stands for a group of related things and values. John Wayne, for example, is the image of the cowboy and traditional masculinity and conservative politics. An icon has roots in historical sources; it may supersede a prior icon; it reflects events or forces of its time. The log cabin has been an enduring American icon, with meanings and associations evolving from the colonial past through the present. An icon can be reshaped within its own image, or extended in update images. The railroads and trains, for instance, have shifted from associations with high technology and the modern, to conveying ideas of nostalgia and a retreat from high technology. An icon can be employed in a variety of ways, and used in visual art, music, film, and other media. For example, references in text or graphics to Hemingway add meanings to every artistic text in which they appear. An icon is usually successful in commercial activity. Every advertising campaign, every corporation hopes to become “the next Mickey Mouse, the next Las Vegas, the next Golden Arches” [6]. Aaron Betsky comes up with other qualities that an icon must possess. For instance, an icon should have “wowsyndrome”. He defines this concept as the ability of an icon to create strong responses from people and he also adds that for an icon it is important to maintain his/her/its
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appearance. Besky claims that “icons are made not born. Since icons are repositories of meaning, what contributes to the making of an icon varies from time to time and from place to place” [7]. Another characteristic that Besky found relevant is that “icons are also subject to marketing and advertising. Together with corporate public relations, advertising influences who becomes an icon” [8]. Icons can have a major impact on films, music, and fashion, setting trends and attracting fans and adepts. Another feature is the ability of an icon to catch the attention of the public or mass media rapidly. Besky defines this quality as the “wow syndrome” – the ability of the icon to create strong responses from people [9]. Icons also create ways for communication [10]. To catch the attention of the public an icon must keep his/her/its appearance. Icons do not need to be the most well-known or the most popular items—they have to be beautiful. The use of the word “beautiful” suggests subjectivity and a certain looseness in their definition. Beauty as a requirement makes perfect sense. The main purpose of an icon is to embrace a group of values, obtain powerful reactions, reflect an essential quality of a specific time or place and make connections between different traditions and ages/ eras. It also serves as a bridge between the past, the present and the future [11]. Moreover, Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause consider that icons can be classified into six categories: pure personal icons, functional personal icons, pure local icons, functional local icons, pure cultural icons, and functional cultural icons. The widest spreading is among the objects that are purely expressive or pure icons, and those which function more than a simple symbol, i.e. functional icons. Popular icons can also be classified according to the nature and number of a group. Personal icons are associated with an individual or a
small group (e.g. a family). Local icons are objects which have importance for a small community, town or place. Cultural icons represent the totality of beliefs and values of a cultural field. Pure Personal Icons: they are objects which have no function other than to symbolize a meaning important to an individual and the small group immediately surrounding him. For example a photo of a family or a tattoo. Use: minimal (audience too small) except as clues to identifying more significant icons in the other groups. Example: a lot of family photographs might suggest the nuclear family is back. Functional Personal Icons: they are objects which have a function in addition to their symbolic meaning for an individual or a small group. Example: a child’s security blanket. Use: they are used in understanding and reveling beliefs in an imagined setting. Pure Local Icons: they are objects which have no function other than to symbolize a meaning or belief important to a small community or town. Example: the statue of city founder. Use: these icons are especially useful in discovering fundamental cultural beliefs and values being translated into a local forum – for example, the statue of Joe Founder reflects the American myths of individual freedom, the frontier and the idea of exploration. Functional Local Icons: they are objects which have a use in addition to their symbolic role of representing beliefs and values meaningful to a small community, group or town. Example: local radio stations. Use: they are often valuable guides to the meaning and significance of local rituals as well. Also, the number and intensity of meaning associated with these icons is often an indicator of how cohesive and meaningful the group identity is at any given moment. Pure Cultural Icons: they are objects with no function other than to symbolize
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significant beliefs and values meaningful to important cultural subgroups and/or the culture as a whole. Examples: the American flag, Mount Rushmore, the Statue of Liberty, the skyline of New York City. Use: as pure icons are developed solely for the purpose of symbolizing cultural myths, beliefs, and values, they are especially useful guides to the way a cultural interprets its own beliefs and values. Pure icons are the closest to conscious articulations of the cultural mindset and are thus very powerful, very obviously exploited and manipulated to bind the culture together, and very resonate with emotional meaning. Times of cultural stress result in these icons being replicated, displayed and attacked. Functional Cultural Icons: they are objects which have a use in addition to the expression of emotional and/or intellectual meanings important to an entire culture and/or to sign sub-groups within the culture. Examples: cars, telephones, computer games, toys. Use: since functional icons are objects developed for a purpose other than their iconic role, there is an element of unconscious resonance and choice invested in the growth of their significance. This means that functional icons are more likely to be accurate reflections of what a cultural mindset is as opposed to what that mindset thinks it is [12]. With reference to popular culture, Gregor Goethals identifies three functions of the term “icon.” The first focuses on the icon belonging to the religious field. The main purpose of icons is to give people hope and belief that their prayers are listened to. For the faithful it is important to have a connection with God. So, contemporary icons function in the same way, linking the individual to larger symbolic communities [13]. The second function claims that the traditional icon gives rise to questions: “people can use traditional icons to answer moral questions by simply contemplating
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the images they are presented with” [14]. Moreover, he gives an example to emphasize his claim. “The existence of dandruff shampoo poses the question of whether people want less dandruff. If it is yes, then the answer to the problem is the dandruff shampoo” [15]. The last function points out the idea that an icon represents a heroic human, a celebrity seen as an icon. An icon embraces the ideas of power of beauty, cheerfulness, strength, and hope. As a result, the icon becomes a role model for us to look up to. He also adds that “if icons foster belief or hope to be like the icon, then it is possible to conclude that if an icon is a celebrity, then that status too becomes possible for the rest of us” [16]. II. Popular Icons and Celebrities
Mass media contributes to the creation of icons. The media has the power to influence people’s opinions and actions towards celebrities. Joshua Gamson explains in a detailed manner the impact that media texts can have on people. He sees the celebrity “as entertainer and claims that early texts promoted a closer publiccelebrity relationship by emphasizing the celebrity’s ordinariness or real lives” [17]. Gamson provides four elements of the celebrity text: mechanisms for capturing images increased, the acceptance of the celebrity as a commercial enterprise, the invitation of the audience to increase its knowledge and power, and an increasing amount of self-consciousness and irony of celebrities [18]. Pierre Brunel, in his study on 20th-century myths, discusses the celebrity as a modern myth constructed in magazines articles and pictures, with contrasting characteristics, admirable and scary at the same time. The star system is connected to the glorious decades of Hollywood and then, this new Olympus has come to include all types of
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celebrities. Among the common traits of these idols heavily advertised in the media, Brunel mentions: beauty (through clichés in presentations); wealth (revenues, sums of money and a luxurious lifestyle); a status as models of social superiority; a life in isolated, closed circles/ living environments (they choose their friends, lovers in similar social circles); fate playing an important role in their lives; simplified versions of their life narratives and their nature; the ugly truth beneath glamour and the ephemeral nature of celebrity; the chameleon-like nature, the capacity for metamorphosis and their hybrid character [19]. Chris Rojek is interested in his volume on celebrity in the relation of the public with the celebrity constructed through the media, a relation which he calls “para-social interaction” [20]. Like Nachbar and Lause on icons, Rojeck considers that celebrities offer a sense of belonging, acknowledgment and meaning. There are three forms of “celebrity worship:” ascribed celebrity (from bloodline), achieved celebrity (from personal achievement) and today’s living form of celebrity (from cultural production through newspapers, magazines, PR departments and electronic media) [21]. Elevation, immortality and magic are associated with “celebrity culture”. For example, rock concerts generate ecstasy, comparable to rites of magic because even if organized religion may give the impression it has declined, there is a strong belief in the spirituality of Nature and in the struggle between good and evil. Moreover, celebrity reliquaries include all sorts of item and artifacts, houses as shrines, such as Graceland – Elvis Presley’s home in Tennessee – like a pilgrimage place, and even famous cemeteries, Père Lachaise in Paris or the Hollywood graveyard in Los Angeles being among the most popular destinations [22].
III. Case Studies A. Bob Dylan – an iconic contemporary
prophet
Among the celebrities we have theoretically defined in the previous sections of the article, there are some iconic figures or even what Mark W. Flory calls “postmodern prophets” [23]. He uses the concept “prophetic stance” [24] to describe the common element between Hebrew and postmodern prophecy, illustrated by the like, works and performance of a celebrity, namely Bob Dylan. The prophetic stance is more than the mere “prophetic voice,” the former comprises the social position and the status as mediator of the prophet and the nature of prophecy for constructing meaning. The prophet is a mediator for God’s message. Initially, the prophet is reluctant (Moses claimed a speech impediment and Jonah was thrown overboard and swallowed by a whale), then they become engaged and passionate. Furthermore, the prophet appears not only as a simple messenger but as “possessed” [25]. Their relationship with God is one of submission, the message imposing responsibility upon the prophet and people. The prophecies originating in the Hebrew tradition refer mainly to salvation (out of the bondage in Egypt and through the wilderness into the Promised Land). Thus, what is interesting for our comparison to contemporary prophecy is the fact that the prophetic stance is not about prediction but about repentance and the expiation of sins, about the return to God or facing the consequences. The prophet implicates the audience in the divine desire for justice and mercy: “back to their covenantal relationship and commitment to justice and mercy” [26].
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The mediatory role of the postmodern prophecy acts in the context of the contemporary rejection of metaphysical absolutes, such as God, the good, Truth, Justice, etc. There is a similar kind of openness in the case of postmodern prophecy, this time not through the open nature of the source (God) and the goal (the judgment), but through means of achieving it: multireferentiality, fragmentation, pastiche, rejection of canons, genres, boundaries and promotion of otherness, freedom and the absence of determinate meaning. In both traditional and postmodern prophecy, the audience is involved in the creation of meaning. Being rooted in the past, postmodern prophecy also involves a strong ethical impetus, thus showing its affiliation with the traditional one [27]. “Dylanology” involves a lot of confusion about decoding the message of Bob Dylan’s songs and lyrics. His works over the last five decades – songs, books, paintings – have shown a variety of styles and genres, often with roots in folk and blues traditions. The song “It’s All Over Now, Baby Blue” (1965) displays, according to Flory, the use of invective, narration, aphorism, inversion, subversion [28]. The old prophets used to perform in order to persuade. In the case of the American artist, he would “whine, cajole, seduce, admire, thank, despise, disdain, put down, put up with, exhort, and much much more” [29]. Naturally, it is impossible to separate the lyrics from the music and the performance itself. The lyrics in the 1960s, in songs such as “Blowin’ in the Wind” (1963) or “The Times They Are a-Changin’” (1964), have been associated with the Civil Rights Movement and the anti-war movement in the US, through their political, social, philosophical and literary influences, against pop music and in accordance with counterculture movements. As Brunel remarked in his interpretation
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of celebrities, Bob Dylan has a chameleonlike nature, assuming various personae, e.g. a working-class and itinerant young man, and advocate of progressive politics, an electric rock adept, a rock dandy and an introspective artist, to mention only a few. Each of his masks has preserved its own integrity, in perspective, each valid, on its own. This is how he attains the status of a postmodern prophet: the openness of his different perspectives turns into the very message he wants to transmit [30]. Dylan “attains an elusive and protean identity,” “a palimpsest of identities” [31]. This is the deep meaning of performance through which the artist becomes prophetic; the game of identities confronts the audiences. B. Madonna – the iconic “Madonna” look
Another chameleon-like icon, a female one this time, is Madonna. She “offers new models, all Madonna but each differentiated through her costume and accessories – Boy Toy Madonna, Material Girl Madonna, Thin Madonna, Madonna in Drag, S&M Madonna, and so on” [32]. Madonna exerts a strong influence over her worshippers. Like a Virgin album and the film Desperately Seeking Susan established “the Madonna look” since 1985 [33]. Receiving the Boy Toy label initially, she popularized a fashion style embraced by fans: crucifix earrings, fingerless lace gloves, short, navel-exposing blouses, and black lacey garments, a “flashy trash” clothing style [34]. Macy’s, the famous American department store, organized in 1985, the Madonna Land, selling Madonna-style clothes and jewelry. Her videos exploited both the sexuality of her body and face and the idea of self-control. Madonna’s image has been considered a site of semiotic struggle between forces of patriarchal control and feminine resistance, of capitalism and the subordinate, of the adult and the young [35]. She finds pleasure in her own sexuality and
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usurps the masculine gaze and the power of the voyeur, which gives her a sense of empowerment. Like a Virgin (1985) makes reference to religious love (Christ’s survival in the wilderness, the wilderness of the Old and New Testament), romantic love, sexual experience, and street wisdom. Like a Prayer (1989) plays on Gospel music, religious symbols, and secular imagery, while Express Yourself (1989) focuses on gender and sex constructs. Throughout the 90s, she has been a symbol of sexual liberation, of the fight for AIDS victims, homeless people, women’s rights and the salvation of rainforests. The “Blond Ambition” tour and the “Girlie” show in the 90s are products of huge advertising and marketing campaigns. Madonna’s use of religious iconography is intended to give freedom from ideological oppositions: “I have always carried around a few rosaries with me. One day I decided to wear (one) as a necklace. Everything I do is sort of tongue in cheek. It’s a strange blend – a beautiful sort of symbolism, the idea of someone suffering, which is what Jesus Christ on a crucifix stands for, and then not taking it seriously. Seeing it as an icon with no religiousness attached. It isn’t sacrilegious for me” [36]. Her image in relation to the religious iconography has been discussed as a subverter of the pattern of the virgin-martyrs and even the Virgin Mary’s model, as paragons of femininity understood in traditional terms (beauty, chastity, and sanctity) [37]. In conclusion, Madonna has been controlled by the will to power, has cultivated an aesthetic of excess and shock and she has used fashion and sexual identity to challenge the mainstream society and to reveal race, class, religion, gender as social constructs. Her identity, her self, her look, and even her body could be easily modeled according to her own wish. Her use of religious icons has not been to support or attack Christianity
but to make her own meanings out of the symbolic systems available. Conclusion All in all, contemporary society is characterized by a visible presence of the religious element. But the search of the sacred takes multiple forms. These popular religious manifestations – the popular icons – are playful, contesting and challenging, commercial, and above, they offer spaces for expressing difference and release from fears and creativity. Large categories of people have worshiped Bob Dylan and Madonna, to refer only to the two examples used in the essay. Pure cultural icons and Proteus-like by nature, these personalities “express deep-seated, significant messages of faith, bind believers together in a community or belief and impart magical powers to those who venerate the icon” [38].
References [1] in Clark, Terry Ray and Dan W. Clanton Jr., eds. Understanding Religion and Popular Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 2012. 9. [2] Nachbar, Jack and Kevin Lause. Popular Culture: An Introductory Text. Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1992. 170. [3] Nachbar and Lause 171. [4] Nachbar and Lause 171. [5] Ciugureanu, Adina. The Boomerang Effect. A Study in Twentieth-Century American Popular Culture. Constanța: ExPonto, 2002. 85. [6] Hall, Dennis, and Susan Grove. American Icons: An Encyclopedia of the People, Places and Things that Have Shaped our Culture. Group Inc.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Xvii. [7] in Stanley, Marshica. “Characterization of Popular Culture Icons in LIFE and TIMES.” 2008. <https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/umi-uncg-1646. pdf>. 19. [8] in Stanley 20. [9] in Stanley 20. [10] Stanley 20. [11] Stanley 20.
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[12] Nachbar and Lause 172-174. [13] in Stanley 9. [14] in Stanley 9. [15] in Stanley 9-10. [16] in Stanley 10. [17] in Stanley 25. [18] in Stanley 25. [19] Brunel, Pierre., coord. Miturile secolului XX. București: Univers, 2003. 270-282 [20] Rojek, Chris. Celebrity. London: Reaktin Books, 2001. 51. [21] Rojek 51-73. [22] Rojek 51-73. [23] Flory, Mark W.. “Postmodern prophecy: Bob Dylan and the practices of self-subversion.” Understanding Religion and Popular Culture. Eds. Terry Ray Clark and Dan W. Clanton Jr.. London and New York: Routledge, 2012. 203. [24] Flory 204. [25] Flory 205. [26] Flory 206. [27] Flory 207-208. [28] Flory 209. [29] Gezari qtd. in Flory 209). [30] Flory 210. [31] Lebold qtd. in Flory 210. [32] Robertson qtd. in Ciugureanu 96. [33] Fiske, John. Reading the Popular. London and New York: Routledge, 1997. 96 [34] Kellner, Douglas. 317. Cultura media. Iași: Editura Istitutului European, 2001. [35] Fiske. 97 [36] Madonna in National Times, August 23/29, 1985:10 in Fiske. [37] Ciugureanu 88. [38] Nachbar and Lause 171.
Place in Contemporary Irish Poetry) (2014), The Harp and the Pen (Tradition and Novelty in Modern Irish Writing) (2013), Duality of Vision in Seamus Heaney’s Writings (2009), articles in academic journals and book chapters on Irish-American identity, literary studies and popular culture. She has been a co-editor of conference volumes, the most recent being: National and Transnational Challenges to the American Imaginary (2018). She is a member of ESSE and EAAS and an alumna of the Multinational Institute of American Studies, New York University (NYU).
Biography Nicoleta Stanca is Associate Professor at Ovidius University Constanta. She has published four book-length studies: Irish-Romanian Cultural Connections. Travellers, Writers and Ambassadors (2019), Mapping Ireland (Essays on Space and
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 93 - 101
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Social Inclusion by the Method of the Social Projects Filip Nalaskowski, PhD
Nicolaus Copernicus University Faculty of Educational Sciences Toruń, Poland
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 25 October 2019 Received in revised form 3 November Accepted 5 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.8
The malady of the academic didactics is the problem of linking theory and practice. As the research shows, despite the fact that there is included in the curriculum of student training, the graduates enter the market not properly prepared for taking further actions. First of all, let’s notice changes in our society. More and more cultures, more and more religions, bigger potential for conflict, and at best isolation. The main task for students is to try to implement projects that integrate society. The method which I offer puts the main pressure on the independent actions of the students, accustoming to managing people and facing the problems of local life. Moreover, the most important task which I set to myself, is to sensitize young educators to the problems of human life from live perspective and not only based on the theoretical knowledge. The task is to devise, prepare and carry out the social-making projects. In my article I am going to explain in details the didactic method prepared by myself. Additionally, I will illustrate already taken actions by the specific examples. The idea concerns the social education classes for the 2nd year of the educational branches. It links in a unique way the practical actions with the need of searching for the theoretical perspectives as well. The classes based on this formula have been successfully carried out at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland for a period of six years.
Keywords: didactics; method; social education; culture; religion; social issues; Poland;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Filip Nalaskowski. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Nalaskowski, Filip, ”Social Inclusion by the Method of the Social Projects,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.8, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 93-101.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Principles of the Organisation and
Tunning Classes
A. Introduction
The alternative form of classes based on projects from Social Education design by me has managed to be established in the student’s plan. I have already been carrying out this idea for six years and I can say that we have managed to work out the effective form of action, which I deeply believe is worth promoting. In total, around 300 projects have been carried out up till now. To begin with, I would like to mark that it is a different offer but not an easier one for students. However, as I strongly believe – it is not worth engaging in easy problems because either someone else has already solved them, or no one will be beneficiary of them and surely we will not be remembered for facing them. I similarly explain this aspect to my students by telling them that the only thing I require from them is to be brilliant… B. Origins
The motivation for changing the existing form of classes and caring out this educational experiment will be presented below. Due to the post which I hold, I often hear from the students about the shortage of practice, active attitude, or classes which would give the practical preparation for the educational profession[1]. The shortage in this field causes fear and uncertainty in taking educational actions. However, on the other hand, it can be heard from the educators – practitioners that the studies did not prepare them effectively to this profession and all the competences they gained were from taking action by themselves. The complaints concerning today’s youth
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are widely visible in various mass media, such as television, or during talks with colleagues. It was Plato[2], who complained about a rising generation as the one which was not promising. The perfect example of such an attitude is the phrase – “when I was young…”. Frankly speaking, I myself let luck into the trap perceiving younger generation, including my own students, as the one without initiative, bored, and lasting into the apathy. However, I put effort in doing the research concerning this activity by carrying out the comparative experiment which results have surprised me deeply and were different from the estimated ones. As it appeared the youth showed exactly the same activity as the generation thirty years earlier. The difference was the energy from actions estimated other fields. The trivial conclusion said that in order to muster more energy from the youth the only essential thing is to make them interested and involved. It was the attempt that I also made. The last reason had personal character. I was fed up with running the classes according to the imposed pattern. This model, irrespective of the subject, is about to repeat the same content, tasks and discussions with each group of students. This task is made with two or three groups. In case of eight such groups, there is a risk that the tutor starts running them automatically, as a routine and making them boring. Having a conviction that I want to change something, especially in the last of the aforementioned elements, I decided to search for the formula of classes that would keep active both me and my students. C. Aims and Rules
During the first classes of Social Education, I inform my students about the character and the course of the classes showing precisely the assumptions and aims of their future tasks.
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First of all, let’s notice the changes in our society. More and more cultures, more and more religions, bigger potential for conflict, and at best isolation. The main task for students is to try to implement projects that integrate society. They will help counteract social exclusion. They will cause the inclusion of groups and individuals into the social mainstream. On account of the fact that the classes refer to Social Education, their basic condition is the assumption that the project must refer directly to people. It is unacceptable that the situation analyzed refers only to some material fragment of reality, which might influence people. The projects need to be aimed at people. Moreover, they need to be good. It means as a result that the action taken needs to lead to the improvement, not only change, but the improvement for better. What is also worth emphasizing is the fact that this improvement is expected to take place in the mental sphere. In other words, thanks to the projects some social group is supposed to start thinking about some aspect in a different way and this change should be fairly permanent. Provided that the aforementioned demand referred to the social aspect of the classes, its educational aim is to motivate to take action. Referring to the theorists of the subject[3] and practitioners I recommend to my students to take their works only as the motivation for taking actions. They are supposed to take into consideration social forces and human forces and making them release. They are supposed to show the direction not to give the final result. The success in such actions will consolidate their beliefs as future educators that there is a huge potential in every human being which needs to be released and properly directed in order to achieve the educational success. The perfect situation is the one which assumes within the project that it is in the capacity of those to whom it refers to that
they can achieve their aims by themselves only with the use of proper support. The last of the postulates is supposed to prevent the superficiality of students’ actions – namely of sham. What I keep telling to my students is the statement that they will no longer be, but the effects of this project are supposed to be visible. I run the class for four months. After this period of time students are assessed. The condition of receiving a positive assessment is to present that the project took place for some time or led to the permanent change in mental sphere. I put young educators in two functions. They are either those who push the first stone from the hill starting an avalanche of changes or those who lead in the relay race and need efficiently to hand the baton over. Some of the projects took place for four years, some of them have been carried out until today despite the fact that the people who started it have already finished their studies and forgotten about the project itself. D. Organization
As I mentioned before projects are carried out within the Social Education subject at the Faculty of Education at the University of Nicolaus Copernicus. This course is run for the full-time students of a second year. The students are divided according to their numbers. There are usually around 25 students in each group. Each student is obliged to participate in 30 hours of the course. The classes take place each week in winter term. The vital aspect of the successful running of the course is to guarantee the students continuous supervision and the possibility of consultation. That is why from the very beginning I encourage students to keep contact with me. We exchange e-mails, I inform them about my office hours (twice a week for two hours) and offer meetings just
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after the classes. On account of the specific dimension of this course every year I ask for permission to join the groups to the authorities of the faculty. Because of the fact that most of the classes are supposed to be designed for the discussion during which we solve the problems concerning the projects, it is essential for the students to take part in them. The first classes are designed for organizational issues. I present to the students the idea and the way of carrying out the project. For year I have used for this purpose the multimedia presentation. I discuss with the students the conditions of receiving the assessment and some possible changes of the dates of the classes (caused by putting the group together). From week to week students are asked for preparing various kinds of homework. Firstly, they need to divide into groups and name them. These names are not only something extra to the group itself, but they appear to be an important organizational tool, which facilitates communication. The essential issue is the number of task groups. I do not set the exact number, but only suggest that the groups should not be smaller than four and not bigger than six people. From my experience I know that such groups are big enough to take great or even complicated initiatives from the one hand and they are, on the other hand, small enough in order to share the responsibility and close relations within the group. The second classes are to present a team and its name. However, the majority of time is dedicated to the presentation of the earlier chosen and carried out projects and discussion their details. During these classes, students are supposed to prepare a few (3-5) suggestions of the project which they would like to carry out. At least one more class are dedicated to
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the choice of the project and working out the idea. Later on, there are 8-9 working meetings. During these meetings each of the groups is to report to the realization of the tasks. We try together to solve the emerging problems and it is a proper time for me to correct and supervise their actions. The term finishes with the presentations of each task group and assessing their actions. Depending on the number of projects around 2-3 classes are dedicated to this stage. During the classes students have 18-22 minutes to present their projects. Their task is to show the process and realization of the project with its final result. The vital element is to present the final diagnosis and the prospects of project duration. The presentation usually takes the form of multimedia presentation or a film. The suggestion concerning the presentation is to prepare “a show” which would make the viewers interested. I give assessments in my office hours as there is no enough time during the classes and office hours seem to be a perfect time to do such things.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Organizational classes Presentation of the chosen Project Choosing Projects Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Working meetings Project presentations Project presentations Project presentations, ending
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E. Practical tasks
The correct realization of the project requires the performance of some marginal tasks in view of social and educational priorities. The priorities mean the conformity with the aforementioned aims and assumptions. Other tasks mean the diagnosis. After choosing and accepting the idea it is essential to check its correctness. As the experience shows most of the errors and failures in the projects are due to their wrong diagnosis. The diagnosis needs to answer some strategic questions: Does the person we want to work for really need our actions? It is possible that we only assumed that driven by popular knowledge or stereotypes. Are we able to carry out this project? This issue refers to our competence, time of realization, possibilities of getting an administrative permit, the willingness of cooperation with us all social entities. Is the place chosen for the realization of the project appropriate? It can appear that the untested conditions might make impossible the realization of the future tasks or there might exist a better alternative for them. For the proper carrying out of the diagnosis, it is essential to take a closer look at the literature concerning this subject. It is the first time that students at the this stage feel the need for the theoretical backgrounds of the subject. Next stage is to search for the sponsorship. Students usually need some financial support for realizing the required tasks. As I emphasize from the very beginning, there is a total ban of using their own money or their parents’ financial support. That is why, students are obliged to search for other forms of financial support.
It is a kind of test for young educators who needs to search help outside the university, or education for the sake of their projects. It is an excellent way of testing their determination and perseverance. The last task concerning this stage is the contact with media. It often happens that students’ initiatives enjoy local popularity, not only by media. It is important to present the project in a way which will be interesting and worth showing. In the course of a few years, I noticed around 250 press mentions concerning my students’ projects. As far as the media are concerned, I also pay attention to one aspect. Despite the fact that students need to co-operate with the media, students themselves need to answer the question whether their project should be publicized or not and it is not a matter of its media attractiveness. The problem is far more complex. It can happen that the project which students carries out should not be done publicly as it can be working to the interested disadvantage. It can happen that the projects are carried out with the authorities permission or informally, so the publicity can act against the realization of this task and the students themselves. Moreover, there are some limitation made by me. First of all, students searching for the target group cannot use the lists of charity organizations (such as Red Cross, Caritas etc.) or they cannot go directly to schools while searching the appropriate youth groups. One of the tasks required from students is to find out by themselves those who need the diagnosis, or intervention, but not using the ready ones. Secondly, there is prohibited to take strictly charity character of the actions. Students are supposed to help not to give the ready product. Next, there should not be involved in other institutions within the projects. There is a temptation among students to join in already existing projects of other organizations. They cannot do that! Their task is to build their own
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project from scratch. Finally, any holiday motives should not be used or overused in the projects. It is a matter of time when the projects are carried out (October, November, December, January). The idea for the project needs to be universal, which means it can be carried out in any time of a year. What is more, there is a risk that taking holiday motives by more than one group can lead to fullness of the subject, especially in the case of Christmas… F. Theoretical tasks
Apart from the presented practical tasks there need to be the requirements based on theoretical assumptions[4]. From the very beginning, I make my students aware of the fact that no matter which project they carry out, there has already been someone who did it before. Every aspect, no matter whether it considers social groups, methods of group work or individual, or characteristic of the specific circles, its description can be found in the books. That is why, after the stage of diagnosis, it is so essential to acquaint with the subject in literature. What I give to my students are not only the suggestions but the order to interfere in the sensitive social organism. With proper experience, it is easy to make a mistake and despite of good intentions such actions can act against those whom we want to help. As Sigmund Bauman said: “the theory is essential in order not to act as a money with a razor”[5]. Theory helps to minimize the risk of incompetent actions. The fruit of these actions is „theoretical set” which students are supposed to present in the middle of the term. This is the reconstruction of the necessary realization of the following tasks and theories used. It usually consists of several pages where students convince me of their knowledge about theoretical background of their challenges. The assessment of this stage is
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part of the final assessment. As I have already mentioned, this task is really unique in its character. The content of the tasks presented is really various, the same as the specificity of their actions. That is why, there is not any pattern that could be used in assessing their theoretical part, as they differ too much. G. Bases of Assessment
Each of the students receives a couple of grades in the course of the term. Undoubtedly, the most important is the grade for the project. What is evaluated here: the idea for the project, carrying it out, diagnosis, the duration prospect, and its social result. All these components are part of the grade for the project. The second grade is the composition of the created documents. First of them is the aforementioned “theoretical set”, second, it is a draft of the project. Next element is the grade for the archives. The archives are proof from the realization of the project. Most often, it is a box to which the participants put all the objects connected with its realization. There can be found, handwritten notes, correspondence with the authorities, photos, elements of the presentation. It seems incredibly difficult to make these archives and important part of the project from which we can see emotions and devotion towards the task. That is why, I sometimes find in these boxes tickets, open bottles of mineral water, or even toys. The grade from this stage with the presentation described above is those which come last. Taking into consideration all grades I give the final assessment. Moreover, students are obliged to attend the classes which are one of the components of the final grade. Each student needs to take part in 26 out of 30 classes. I need to admit that thanks to such a solution and additional occasions for
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consulting and meeting me, make their final effects really high. Failures of this subject belong to the rarity. H. Tools
For a couple of years of running Social Education, I have managed to prepare some tools which seem to be very helpful. First classes are supposed to explain to students the nature and shape of these classes. To achieve this aim I use a specially prepared multimedia presentation. It seems to be much easier for the confused students to understand the aim and principles of carrying out the social projects, which they have never dealt with, by means of graphical forms. It is a 25-minute presentation, full of drawings made by myself, and then talk about the aims, stages, preparations, essential points, possible mistakes and errors, and the ending. Finally, I inform them about the bases of the assessment and the ways of contacting me. The second of the prepared in advance tools is the draft of the project. Groups are supposed to fill in a questionnaire which I prepared and in which they need to specify the most important stages of the project. Contact data plays an important role here. Next to come, is to specify the substantive assumptions, such as: where and when the project is going to take place, what are the aims and to whom it is addressed, what is its duration prospect, information about sponsors and media contacts. The questionnaire in such a form is very helpful for efficient coordination of the projects. Moreover, it can be very useful for the future confrontation of assumptions with the final results of the actions. II. EXAMPLES OF THE PROJECTS
As it was mentioned at the beginning,
around 300 projects have been already carried out. That is why, the presented examples are only to show the spectrum of ideas and actions, not the whole picture of them. A. Renovating the tenement
In 2016 a group of students decided to renovate the tenement with the occupants of the buildings. First of all, students found the very dilapidated buildings in a nearby of our faculty, whose most occupants belonged to the so-called excluded social group. There were many heavy drinkers and petty criminals who did not pay rents for many years. Students started their project by organizing the meetings with the occupants of this building during which they convinced the occupants to renovate the staircase of the building. The crucial success was their conviction that they can and should do that. The problem was based in their mental belief that it should be the administration of the building which should take such actions. They set who was responsible for what and decided about the date of starting the works and its plan. Students managed to arrange a discount in the building wholesale company and helped in collecting money. With other occupants they brought all the materials to the building. On the set date all the occupants started renovating, cleaning and painting the staircase of their tenement. After two days of work the effect was amazing. Everything looked new and clean. B. Fruit vs. Fast-food
One of the groups of students decided to change or to show how to change eating habits of the youth. As they found out by themselves most students of the gymnasium eat at least 3 times a week in fast food bars. According to the opinion of specialists such conduct damages their health, especially among teenagers.
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Students organized a kind of happening during which they showed the students the alternative ways of eating. Thanks to the help of the sponsor they bought 1800 pieces of various vegetables and fruit – carrots, mandarins, apples and bananas. They asked students in the neighborhood of such bars to hand out the fruit and vegetables to those who wanted to eat something in the bars. Each fruit was ready to eat – washed and had a leaflet informing about its high nutritional value. The action took place within 5 days in different parts of the city. Young people dressed in special clothes and having banners handed over all the products with the leaflets. According to the independent observers and journalists taking part in it, almost half of the youngsters resigned from eating in the fast-food bars during that day. C. Fitness in nursery school
Having heard about the recent discussion about the exclusion of young mothers, students decided to change this situation. Thanks to their effort they managed to rent a place and hire a professional fitness trainer, who agreed to work for free. Next, they gathered through grapevine and door to door method, a group of thirty young mothers who because of lack of time could not afford to any activity. Finally, they involved the students from early school specialty, who were supposed to take care of the children while the mother was practicing. The whole action which took place was organized in the way that young mothers were divided into 2 groups 10 mothers each and could come once a week in the afternoon with their children to the nearby school. While they were practicing (60 minutes), their children were looked after by the students. Young mothers were given a chance to become fit and first of all, they
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managed to get away from important, but monotonous maternal duties. D. Dancing Exchange
Thanks to the incredible popularity of dance programs on TV, it was the reason for making a project about this issue in 2017. The group of students decided to organize a specific dance course. They started by putting posters and leaflets in the poorest and identified as the most dangerous parts of town. People who knew dances as hiphop and breakdance where invited to take part in it for free. During the first classes the second purpose of the course was revealed. Apart from the course concerning the aforementioned dances which was supposed to be run by the guests themselves, the second part consisted of the course of the traditional ballroom dances, which was run by a professional instructor. Thanks to such actions taken, the underprivileged youth could learn something about traditional ballroom dances and become the instructors in the dances which they were familiar with. Such a strategy allowed to incorporate some educational message as well. First of all, there was the integration of students’ environments with those living in “slums”. Secondly, they managed to overcome the stereotypes concerning two groups. Thirdly, thanks to such combination, they managed to present to the excluded group of youths the mainstream through traditional ballroom dances. References [1]
[2] [3]
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Dewey J. (1904). The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education. In Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, (pp. 9-30). Stone, I. F. (1988). The Trial of Socrates. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. Fisher E.A. (2009). Motivation and Leadership
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[4] [5] [6]
in Social Work Management: A Review of Theories and Related Studies, Administration in Social Work, 33, 347-367 Act of 12 March 2004r. On Social Assistance (Dz. U. Nr 64 poz. 593*, z poźn. zm.) Bauman Z. (1998): Work, consumerism and the new poor. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Bibliography Aguilera-Barchet B., A higher education for the twenty-first century: European and US approaches, Crussels 2012. [2] Act of 12 March 2004r. On Social Assistance (Dz. U. Nr 64 poz. 593*, z poźn. zm.). [3] Bauman Z. (1998): Work, consumerism and the new poor. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [4] Brockbank A., McGill I., Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education, New York 2007. [5] Dewey J. (1904). The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education. In Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [6] Dochy F., Segers M., Sluijsmans D., The use of self-, peer and co-assessment in higher education: A review, [in:] Studies in Higher Education, 24 (3), 1999. [6] Ediger M., Project methods in the social studies, [in:] College Student Journal, 31 (3) 1997. [7] Frey K., Die projektmethode, Weinheim 1996. [8] Fisher E.A. (2009). Motivation and Leadership in Social Work Management: A Review of Theories and Related Studies, Administration in Social Work, 33. [9] Fried-Booth D. L., Project work, Oxford 1988. [10] Hannan A., English S., Silver H., Why innovate? Some preliminary findings from a research project on ‘innovations in teaching [1]
and learning in higher education, [in:] Studies in Higher Education, 24 (3), 1996. [11] Helle L., Tynjälä P., Olkinuora E., ProjectBased Learning in Post-Secondary Education – Theory, Practice and Rubber Sling Shots, [in:] Higher Education, 51 (2), 2006. [12] Hosic J. F., Brief guide to the project method, New York 1926. [13] Knoll M., The project method: Its vocational education origin and international development, [in:] Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(3) 1997. [14] Kolmos A., Reflections on Project Work and Problem-based Learning, [in:] European Journal of Engineering Education, 21 (2) 1996. [15] Lawrence K. Y., Some Refinements on Peer Assessment of Group Projects, [in:] Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 26 (1) 2001. [16] Morgan A., Theoretical Aspects of ProjectBased Learning in Higher Education, [in:] British Journal of Educational Technology, 14 (1) 1983. [17] Przybylska E. (red.), Teaching adult educators in continuing and higher education: Qualifizierung von Weiterbildungspersonal Neue Wege in Europa, Torun 2006. [18] Robson C., How to do a research project : a guide for undergraduate students, Malden 2007. [19] Stevenson J. A., Project method of teaching, Toronto 2007. [20] Stone, I. F. (1988). The Trial of Socrates. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. [21] Wnuk-Lipińska E., Wójcicka M., Quality review in higher education, Warsaw 1995.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 102 - 110
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The Family Environment Valences and Malfunctions Lecturer Nina Stănescu, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 26 July 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.9
Keywords: family; domestic violence; conflict; relationships; religious education;
abstract
The family is a dynamic system, which undergoes constant changes. Its members develop and evolve together, adding new elements that enrich their family life. The family system never remains the same; it changes from one moment to another, depending on the events that occur inside and outside the family. Our contemporary society is faced with the phenomenon of domestic violence, with the increase of extra-marital relations, consensual unions, divorces, the separation of the classical families. Children’s reactions to such situations take various forms: affective (anxiety, depression, obsession, phobia, insecurity), characterological (aggression, detachment, over-sensitivity), cognitive (school performance failures), psychosocial (family conflicts, rebellion against parents, attempts to weaken the dependence bonds). The frequency of these familial and social phenomena is influenced by the industrialization and urbanization processes, by the increase of the education level and women’s emancipation, by economic causes, unemployment, poverty. Sociological studies conducted over the recent years have highlighted the frequency of an environment stabilized on tension and conflict, in family relationships. The most frequent forms of violence – this physical abuse to which one family member is subjected by another member – take place between spouses and between parent and child (children); child abuse (including sexual abuse) is explained by psychological and social factors and evidently by a lack of moral, religious education. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Stanescu Nina. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Stanescu, Nina, ”The Family Environment. Valences and Malfunctions,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.9, ISSN: 23931744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 102-110.
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I. INTRODUCTION
A coherent, balanced, secure family environment satisfies the needs of safety, love, assertion, belonging and prestige. Certain stressful events, misunderstandings, failures, illnesses challenge this unity, balance, and harmony of family life, but the cohesion resources, derived from the quality of interpersonal relations, allow family members to overcome these difficult situations and to restore the unity, balance and harmony of the family life. The ethical-moral dimension is a compulsory part of the religious education that begins to take shape within the family. It is represented by the so-called seven years of home education, an eloquent aspect discussed by Laurentius Dumitru in his work, ‘Hristos și tinerii’ (Eng., Christ and the Young People) [1]: “My son, when was the last time when you told me that you loved me? Returning home one day, if your mom asks you this question, do you know what to answer?! You haven’t told her this for a long time since you were little... Now you’re big. You don’t even want to tell her this anymore, you’re embarrassed, even though you tell this to your girlfriend all the time, although your relationship started only several weeks ago. You know very well that saying I love you is not just a piece of information, that’s why you keep repeating it to her... In fact, you love your mom! Although you don’t think much about it, in your soul you know that it means a lot to you.” According to E. Durkheim, education is an eminently social function, which is confused with socialization. Education is what transforms an associative biological individual into a member of a community, ensuring the internalization of “fixed” behaviors as “normal” ones, respectively as behaviors that “are found, if not in all individuals, at least in most of them” [2].
Therefore, the novelty that education creates in the individual consists of a set of repeatable, relatively stable and predictable behaviors, in agreement with “a system of ideas, feelings and habits that express in us not our personality, but our group or the different groups to which we belong (...). They all form the social being, and the purpose of education is to establish this being in each one of us” [3]. However, after Durkheim, sociologists and psychologists have noticed that the production of the social self is associated with the concomitant evolution of the personality on a singular trajectory. The individual “proceeds” simultaneously to identify himself/ herself with the group and to differentiate himself/ herself in relation to it; socialization, as the process of creation of the social being, is necessarily related to individualization, as a process of producing the “personal self”. II. ANALYSIS
Education has the role of preparing man as an active element of social life, as a labor force and as a subject of social relations The selection and transmission of values from society to the individual must be done on the basis of pedagogical principles and in accordance with certain psychic particularities. Given that the pace of accumulation of values is increasingly intense, the principles by which selection and transmission are made are continuously restructured. Education has the role of preparing man as an active element of social life, as a labor force and as a subject of social relations. The aims of a type of education at the beginning of this millennium are of a person in a socio-cultural three-dimensionality:
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A. Personal dimension:
- a free and responsible person, capable of assuming his own life project, integrating into him the aspirations and desires, the real possibilities; - a person who wants to make sense of his life; - the person who respects the dignity of the other and is interested in developing his own dignity; - a person aware of his own qualities and limits; - a person who learns to be happy, discovering the reasons for happiness and within his being. B. The social-community dimension:
- a person who builds relationships with others, in the spirit of solidarity and tolerance; - a person open to others, aware of the value that others have and able to contribute to the development of the community of which he is part; - a person who wants to communicate and seek solutions to problems, along with others; - a person who has principles of life, able to dialogue with others, to live together with others in a climate of respect, solidarity, and acceptance of diversity; - a person who knows how to integrate responsibly into the community; - a person integrated into the culture of his people, at the same time open to other cultures, capable of accepting and respecting others. C. The ethical-moral dimension:
- a person who respects the rules, the laws; - a person capable of providing, through
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his own example of life, models for others; - a person who promotes and acts in the spirit of the values of humanism and faith; - a person who has a belief in life, capable of giving up his own interest in favor of others; - a person who respects others tries to understand them, empathically experiences the joys and sufferings of others. The first and most solid social contacts of the child are established within the family. Thus, the family is the most important agent of socialization. The first intimate relationships are established with the mother, father, brothers and / or other members of the family. Family relationships serve as prototypes for later ones. The family has many important roles in the early socialization of children, besides the obvious ones of caring and raising them. The child spends his first years of life “within the family”, the place of many teachings both in the field of different biological functions and in the ways of communication, of the rules regarding the relations between human beings as ways of acting and behaving, which are admitted, tolerated or rejected by the social group. In his family, the child learns to use the world of objects, signs and especially his language. He becomes familiar here, as well, with the material substrate of society, as well as with the social rules and values of his environment. As they grow older, children find moral guidance to be very important, regardless of what their parents believe. Rules, and not the interest of being rewarded for their observance, become important. At this stage, people trust a higher authority to define what is good and bad and, as a result, show a greater interest in rules. In other words, legality is morality and vice versa. An accidental behavior is completely different from an intentional one. Morality is
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not always a choice between good and evil; it can sometimes be a choice between good and good. The question that arises then is: “What is best?” Behavior is guided by principles such as “what is best for most.” The violation of the law is justifiable if the law is considered to be incorrect, in the light of higher principles. An important observation regarding moral judgment is that it does not necessarily lead to moral behavior. The ability to think in a post-conventional manner does not necessarily mean that people will behave in accordance with high moral principles. Soldiers, for example, may behave in a manner that they see as “immoral” if requested by their superiors. In such cases, the action does not coincide with the individual moral judgment. And studies have shown that the ability to make increasingly sophisticated moral judgments is not strongly associated with actual behaviors. Many people are able to make very complex moral decisions but still have immoral behavior (by conventional standards). Developing a moral conscience and judgment is important first and foremost because they are proof of one’s ability to regulate one’s own behavior. The individual develops as if he is less controlled by the others and more and more by himself capable of self-control. This ability is an indication of the development of selfperception. An important role in the family is the climate of the family. A deficient family environment presents the risk of disadvantaging or hindering the normal development of children. In the prophylactic and therapeutic intervention, it is useful to know the characteristics of the family environment, in order to prevent and remedy the conflicting relationships unfavorable to the balance of each family member, especially children. The main causes of a dysfunctional family
environment are: tensions and conflicts in the family life that lead to violence in particular; differences in the models of money use (in this case, money becomes a means of family domination, from a source of power, love, social status); alcoholism; abuse in all its forms; divorce. When cohesion resources cannot face stressful events, the environment stabilized on tensions and misunderstandings generate family desertism, a phenomenon that seriously damages the intra- and intergenerational relations. The sociological studies conducted over the recent years have highlighted the frequency of a tense and conflicting environment in family relationships, in the economically advanced society; Roger Mucchielli and other psychologists and sociologists labeled this phenomenon as “family desertism”. Through their dynamics, intragenerational relationships (parents, grandparents, children) and intergenerational relationships (parentschildren, parents-grandparents, grandparents-grandchildren) communicate by confronting opinions, beliefs and mindsets. The coexistence of age and kinship generations determines the establishment of both positive (attraction, love, understanding, solicitude, respect, friendship) and negative (hostility, possessiveness, separation, hatred, indifference) relationships. In extreme situations of misunderstanding and conflict, the family may break up and experience the trauma of separation, which affects every family member, especially children. Divorce is a complex psychosocial phenomenon; it represents the final dissolution form of the conjugal life, changing the life of partners and of their descendants. It creates conflicting stages, conflicts, frustrations and dissatisfactions whose effects extend
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beyond the court. Divorce is the legal form of marriage dissolution or the dissolution of marriage by court decision [4]. As I. Mihăilescu [5] states, divorce is, in fact, the last stage in a process of erosion and dissolution of the family couple. Divorce negatively influences the moral socialization of children, leading to deviant patterns of behavior [6]. A severe form of family desertism is (real or apparent) family abandonment. Real abandonment is present in situations such as separation in fact, divorce, nonrecognition and abandonment of children, disinheritance. The apparent abandonment is present in situations of willful or forced neglect of family relationships, marriage being a formality. The phenomenon of family desertism in general and family abandonment in particular affect the unity and balance of the family, both materially, existentially and morally, psychologically, generating misunderstandings, tensions that mark the attitudes included in the abandonment neurosis syndrome. At the psychological level, the conduct of those affected by family desertism is characterized by severe and complex manifestations. The tense and conflicting atmosphere alters (decompensates) the needs of affective security (to love and be loved), communication, belonging, prestige, social self-assertion, mutual respect, selfconfidence and confidence in others. Two extreme situations are created: terrorization through violence and absenteeism - the inability to communicate, both of which are equally harmful to the physical and mental health of family members. In order to illustrate the above-mentioned issues, we will present some conclusive aspects regarding, in particular, the issue of family violence, from research carried out at “St. Sava”’ Children’s Foundation,
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from Buzau, within the “Family violence” Emergency Center [7].
Fig. 1. Structure diagram for the variable: Have you ever been or are you being punished in unusual ways? Regarding the punishment of children in unusual ways, although most subjects denied that they had habitually gone through this situation, a high percentage stated that they had suffered at least one such punishment (tied, locked up).
Fig. 2. Structure diagram for the variable: Have you ever been beaten so hard that you needed care? Regarding the physical punishment that entailed (medical) care, we noticed an increase in the number of those who have experienced it at least once; two children
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answered that they had undergone such punishment very often.
Fig. 5. Structure diagram for the variable: How often does one or both of your parents drink? Fig. 3. Structure diagram for the variable: Do you feel the need to have someone to share your problems with? 60% of the children investigated do not find inside their families the security of confessing themselves; not even a child was satisfied in the family in this regard.
Fig. 4. Structure diagram for the variable: Are there many conflicts between your parents? The presence of permanent conflicts between parents was noticed in a significant percentage of the investigated families (40%). Only one child did not notice the existence of conflicts between parents.
The majority of children noticed that alcohol was consumed very often in their family. Only 17% have never seen their parents drink alcohol. Most of the investigated children do not consider their childhood difficult. However, a significant percentage (i.e. 40%) said that they had a difficult childhood. This questionnaire is only a first investigation of possible abuse and trauma situations. However, their existence is confirmed by further psychological, medical and other investigations. The social worker is the person who detects the possible (probable) existence of such situations and proposes possible measures to prevent trauma or specific measures to protect the child. People who come to this Emergency Center benefit from the following services: - medical assistance: consultations and ensuring the proper medication. - psychological assistance: psychological counseling of the victims as well as of the whole family to ensure a proper climate. - social assistance: drawing up social investigations following discussions with the victims as well as following the move to their home.
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- coordination of daily activities through educational, recreational programs, as well as maintaining the connection with the school (where appropriate) so as not to interrupt the educational activity. - providing accommodation for victims of domestic violence for a period of maximum of 14 days. They are divided into two bedrooms with four beds in each room. - providing free meals: preparing the necessary food for three daily meals plus two snacks. - ensuring the security of the victims during the hospitalization period by two day and night supervisors who come in the voluntary regime. - the reintegration into the family and society of the abused persons. providing religious assistance (confession, guidance, psychological rehabilitation). In the case of the Emergency Center “Family Violence” within the Sf. Sava Foundation in Buzau, it is operated on the basis of the following principles: - Equal opportunities for each family member; - Respecting the dignity of each; - Ensuring privacy for any beneficiary; - Ensuring confidentiality; - Recognition of the value of each being and mutual respect between family members. The functions of the Emergency Center are as follows: -Receiving-evaluation-output information; - Temporary multidisciplinary assistance; - Data archiving; - Providing living conditions - safety and accessibility, family-type environment, hygiene through two sanitary points, bedrooms, common spaces, space for food
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preparation and serving; Providing personal care; - Re-socialization - recovery activities - Family and community reintegration through counseling; - Rights of claims, protection, assurance of autonomy and decision making in full agreement with family members; - Providing the qualified personnel necessary for the requirements of the process of providing services in the Emergency Center “Family Violence”. As therapeutic models, within this center, are used in practice, therapeutic models, models that take into account the psychotherapy of children admitted, psychotherapy which consists of: therapeutic plan, different types of psychotherapy, group therapy, drug therapy, creative therapy, Ludotherapy. Of the types of psychotherapy that are used to the beneficiaries of this center, we mention: - individual therapy focused on the social behavior of the child. Strengthening this behavior is done with a reward from parents, teachers and even the child signs a contract. - punitive techniques: withdrawal of rewards, “time-out”. They give up symbols and accumulated points, etc. - super-correction: restoring the rewards, repeating the right behavior, positive reinforcement on the good behavior. - training the skills of the child - through interactions with the purpose of developing social skills by offering models, so the awarding of prizes or pleasant social actions. - group therapy - it applies to withdrawn children, afraid of others or scared of the unknown. Here they are stimulated by common toys, with rules in which they are required to elaborate their themes especially
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through the games with puppets. After leaving the Emergency Center, the families are monitored both by the Emergency Center through the social worker, D.G.A.S.P.C. as well as through the Social Assistance Service within the local town hall, for a maximum duration of 12 months. At the end of the case, a case report is drawn up. CONCLUSION The consequences of these deficiencies are reflected in the children’s problems (pre-delinquent and delinquent behaviors, school problems, such as school drop-out, poor school results, behavioral disorders, etc.) but also in the parent-child relationship. Violence, aggression, child abuse by adults trigger some of the worst consequences on today’s child and on tomorrow’s teenager. As a society, we must mobilize ourselves, place emphasis on education in all its forms, approach a strongly experiential pedagogy [8], start real re-education programs for parents, and also return the whole society to true moral, religious, educational values [9]. Children need a balanced family environment that satisfies not only the material needs of subsistence but also the affective-spiritual ones, their belonging and assertion needs. “God makes Himself known to us in all our difficulties if we seek to see our mistakes that underlie them. Most of the time, these difficulties arise because we have forgotten to see, in all that we have, the gifts of God, and as a result to use them as gifts to others. God wants us to offer His gifts to others, and thus to grow through the love of others” [10].
270. Durkheim, E. Regulile metodei sociologice, [Rules of the sociological method] Bucureşti: Ştiinţifică, 1974, p. 105. [3] Durkheim, E. Educaţie şi sociologie, [Education and Sociology] Bucureşti: Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1980, p.39. [4] Filipescu, I. Tratat de dreptul familiei. [Family Law Treaty] Bucureşti: All, 1993. [5] Mihailescu, I. Dicţionar de sociologie. [Sociology Dictionary] Bucuresti: Babel Press, 1993. [6] Rădulescu, S., Banciu, D. Introducere in sociologia delincvenţei juvenile. [ Introduction in the juvenile delinquency sociology] Bucureşti: Medicală, 1990. [7] Chelcea, Septimiu. Metodologia cercetării sociologice. [Methodology of sociological research] București: Economică, 2007. [8] Vlad, Maxim, Marian, “A New Model for the Global Economy - Economy of Communion”. Ovidius University Annals, Economic Sciences Series Volume XI, Issue 2 /(2011), 1329. [9] Vlad, Maxim, Marian, “Eucharistic communion and penitential discipline, according to the Church Fathers and Orthodox canonic law”. 16th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2016, www.sgem.org, SGEM 2016 Conference Proceedings, ISBN 978-6197105-67-4 / ISSN 1314-2704, June 28 - July 6, , Book 5, Vol. 3,. (2016): p.826-827. [10] Stăniloae, Dumitru. Trăirea lui Dumnezeu în Ortodoxie, [Experiencing God in Orhodoxy] Cluj Napoca: Dacia, 2000, p.95. [2]
References [1]
Laurențiu, Dumitru. Hristos și tinerii [Christ and teenagers] Galați: Egumenița, 2009,p.268-
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Biography Nina Stănescu is currently a PhD lecturer at the Ovidius University in Constanța She is BA licensed since 2000, in Legal Sciences “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Police Academy, Bucharest, Romania;
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since 2008 is BA licensed in Theology Social Work, Ovidius University Constanta, Romania; since 2007 - Master’s degree in Community Institutions and Canon Law, Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, “Ovidius” University Constanţa, Romania and has been a doctor in sociology since 2011 according to O.M.E.C.T.S. No.4387 / 2011, Doctoral School of the University of Craiova. The main areas of study in which they operate are social assistance, theology, sociology, psychology, law, and administrative sciences. As a Professor at Ovidius University in Constanța, she has 10 years of experience. Her most interesting publications are: - Social Mission of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Beladi publishing house, Craiova, 2011 - Techirghiol - appeal to collective memory - Monographic contributions from a sociological, historical, ethnographic and religious perspective, Prouniversitaria Publishing House, Bucharest, 2015 - Civitas Deo - Monograph of the Sf Sava Foundation from Buzău - monographic contributions from a sociological, historical, social-philanthropic and religious perspective, (reviews: vice-president of the Romanian Academy Răzvan Theodorescu and academic university professor doctor Ilie Bădescu) Cluj- Napoca, publisher Casa Cărții de Știință, 2019 Awarded within the ENIGEL- • Resource Center for Scientific Authority and Researchoriented Interdisciplinary / Competition: Knowledge in dialogue - science, fiction, daily / Competition of the Doctoral School of Sociology, Bucharest, University of Bucharest, July, 2012.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 111 - 116
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This paper was presented at
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Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Is Religion the Missing Part in Leadership and Organization Citizenship Behavior Theories? Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD
1 Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Science and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology, Jordan. 2 International Mariinskaya Academy, department of medicine and critical care, department of philosophy, Academician secretary of the Department of Sociology Jordan
Boshra A. Arnout, PhD
Department of Psychology, King Khalid University, Zagazig University Egypt
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 6 August 2019 Received in revised form 21 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.10
The human being is the main axis of development using management and leadership styles in addition to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The common link between developmental issues is how to influence the human to achieve satisfying outcomes. In all cases, the human is targeted as a machine that should work with maximal efforts. The employees respond to the stimuli by their leaders, managers, or employers, hoping that some sort of future stability is going to be accomplished. However, the components of human beings can not only be physical, but they are also more complicated and expanded to include soul and religion. This study reviewed the literature in addition to our existing data about the importance and role of religion in influencing the followers to increase their efforts to maximal even without extra-cost. The previous theories in leadership and OCB can explain why employees are ready to work more without asking for compensation. One of the explanations is to perceive himself as a human playing a significant role in his organization. This can be one theme included in religion. However, when the scope of religion is more expanded and touched by the whole leaders and managers, this will be positively reflected on the followers including employees to end with the best working achievement.
Keywords: religion; leadership; leadership styles; organization citizenship behavior (OCB);
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ahed J Alkhatib & Boshra A. Arnout. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is Citation: Alkhatib, Ahed J, and Boshra A. Arnout, ”Is religion the missing part in leadership and organization citizenship behavior theories?” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.10, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 111-116.
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I. Introduction. An overview of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
OCB can be regarded as such a behavior that is not being a formal issue assigned for an employee to perform in the organization he is working in, which is expected to increase the performance of his organization [1]. OCBs can be exhibited through various modes, including the help of other colleagues within the organization to perform their assigned works optimally, to increase their output to reach its peak as working extra time without asking for benefits, and to retain the harmonization with his organization [2]. There are several dimensions included in OCBs such as helping behavior, and courtesy [3]. OCBs involves two basic patterns of behaviors, the first pattern of behaviors is directed towards the organization so that resources and image of the organization are kept, and the second pattern of behaviors is concerning with keeping both the employees in the organization and to increase the efficacy of organization performance [2, 4]. From a cultural point of view, OCBs are argued from two points of view, deriving agents beyond OCB and possible outcomes of OCBs; and techniques and methods to exhibit these OCBs [5]. In the context of increasing competencies in organizations to retain their existence in the market, the importance of OCBs and the loyalty of employees have become central issues [6]. Other considerations such as achieving the objectives of the organization require the existence of loyal employees [7, 8]. Employees who exhibited OCBs develop an emotional bond to their organization, and they have real motivation to contribute to the success of their organizations [6]. It is crucial for organizations to encourage their employees reaching satisfaction to retain
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their personnel [9]. Several benefits have been considered as advantageous of organizational commitment including the loyalty feelings, job security, development of career, satisfied compensation, and feelings of intrinsic rewards [10].The organization can also benefit from OCBs in improving tenure of employees, lowering the rate of turnover, decreased training costs, in addition to achieving objectives of the organization [11]. Organizational commitment can be influenced by various factors such as employee empowerment and teamwork. Employee empowerment can be achieved through knowledge sharing, increasing intellectual capability, and autonomy [8]. In another study, it has been argued that the empowerment of employees at high level is considered as an important factor for the organization to keep its survival and competing ability in the market, in addition to coping with emerging challenges [12]. On the other hand, teamwork is considered as an important factor in achieving the success of employee performance which was regarded as the works of a group of employees to reach an identified goal [13]. Studies showed that organizational commitment is affected by the training of employees [6]. Training can be defined as “systematic process that aims to help employees enhance their knowledge and skills, and develop positive behavior through learning experience that is expected to help employees achieve greater performance” [14].Training has several advantages such as increasing the knowledge and efficiency of employee as well as enhancing their career development [15]. II. Leadership
Leadership and effective leaders are considered important aspects in modern management due to great changes in the
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context of socio-economy, a matter that requires the presence of innovative leaders to make a difference [16]. Innovative leaders have the ability to make significant changes in all economic sectors including public, private, education, and business. Furthermore, induced changes can generate a variety of opportunities that need good context of leadership to benefit from their fruits [16]. Organizations need to have good leaders who are able to make a change, manage stress, in addition to identifying different needs of its subordinates [17]. Effective and sympathetic leadership is required by organizations to achieve their success and goals and to empower their followers [18]. Literature indicated the importance of leadership and leaders from various perspectives. The importance of an effective leader through establishing good and lasting relations with stakeholders have discussed by other researchers [19]. The importance of the role of leadership in organizational success and the leaders to execute their influence on their followers and firm’s performance were addressed through previous studies [17, 20]. Leadership acts to flow required change in the organization through influencing the performance of employees and organization, increasing the level of employee’s skills, or increasing the sense of personal growth [21]. Kamisan and King [22] put a definition of leadership that involved the process through which a person can influence a group of people to satisfy a shared goal. The main leadership styles, transactional and transformational leadership styles have been primarily studied [20, 22-27]. III. Is religion the missing part?
In this section, we will put focus on the role of religion on leadership theories and OCBs as well as our perspectives from a
philosophical point of view on this issue. Reviewing literature pointed to poor addressing of the relationship between leadership style and OCBs with religious perspectives [28]. In literature, there is a focus on spiritual leadership theory (SLT) in which religion is not directly involved [29]. Several researchers of SLT have found that leadership theories argued the intrinsic needs of subordinates. It was noted that these studies lacked the issues of satisfying high –level needs of persons. The needs included in Maslow’s hierarchy such as social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization can be considered as continuous intrinsic motivations. Another note was that previous studies in leadership rarely argued the relationship between intrinsic values and the leader’s behaviors, or value system. It was also noted that there was no clear relationship between intrinsic motivations of subordinates and organizational outcomes [30-32]. In our studies in leadership (to be published), we have found that leadership styles ranging from Laissez-faire leadership style, transactional leadership style, to transformational leadership style are not necessarily universal. Employees reported the existence of Laissez-faire leadership style and transformational leadership styles on the account of transactional leadership styles. In Islamic model of leadership, leaders directly focus on religion to motivate, stimulate, and inspire their followers to put their efforts up to the highest level because they will be rewarded by God. According to this context, rewarding issues in transactional leadership styles (contingent rewarding aspects) become less important for employees, and the organization can benefit from religion maximally. Arnout [33] noted that leadership is a dynamic process of influence between the leader and his followers until the group’s objectives are achieved, and hence the
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group’s success in achieving its goals depends on the characteristics of the leader, which in turn affects the behavior, attitudes, affiliation, and morale of the followers. The study of the role of religion in leadership will contribute to some extent to solve the problems of leadership in the Arab world, which suffers from many problems such as seniority leadership, robbing the leader of many of his powers, and the lack of continuous development of the leaders’ skills and experience, and spending most of their time in the work don’t related to his direct work as a leader. Thus, it is necessary to direct research and studies to know the contribution of religiosity in predict leadership organizational behaviors to detect the obstacles that decrease the success and effectiveness of leaders in achieving the objectives of the institution and plan the developmental training program that based on religion to increase the leaders’ success and efficiency. As we mentioned above, previous studies in leadership theories and OCBs pointed out to two important aspects: the first was about satisfying intrinsic factors, but what are these intrinsic factors and how do they work? These issues are not well clearly identified. SLT also put the focus on these issues and explained spirituality to explain in part these issues. The impact of religion is not directly targeted. Conclusion The present study showed that both leadership theories and OCBs literature did not take into consideration the theological point of view in explaining the effects of leaders on subordinates, and did not explain fully why employees exhibit OCBs. Our philosophy perspectives imply that theology has excellent impacts on a human that can motivate, stimulate, and inspire employees to carry out their duties up to the highest
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levels even without expecting rewards. As well as this study shed a light on the role of religion in predicting the organizational citizenship behavior, and also represents a direction for the future studies toward the plan training program based on religion to increase leaders’ efficiency and their OCB. References: [1] Organ, D. W., Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B. Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Its Nature, Antecedents, and Consequences. Thousand Oaks, 2006, CA: Sage. [2] Ali H. Muhammad. Perceived Organizational Support and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Case of Kuwait. International Journal of Business Administration, 2014, 5 (3): 59-72. [3] Swaminathan, S., Jawaher, P. Job satisfaction as a predictor of organizational citizenship behavior. Global Journal of Business Research, 2013, 7(1), 71-80. [4] Williams, L., Anderson, S. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 1991, 17, 601-617. [5] Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Paine, J., Bacharach, D. Organizational citizenship behaviors: a critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 2000, 26, 513-63. [6] Jalal Hanaysha (2016).Examining the Effects of Employee Empowerment, Teamwork, and Employee Training on Organizational Commitment. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 229, 298 – 306. [7] Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P. A theory of goal setting & task performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1990. [8] Karim, F., Rehman, O. Impact of job satisfaction, perceived organizational justice and employee empowerment on organizational commitment in semi-government organizations of Pakistan. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 2012, 3(4), 92-104.
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[9] Sahoo, C. K., Behera, N., Tripathy, S. K. Employee empowerment and individual commitment: an analysis from integrative review of research. Employment Relations Record, 2010, 10(1), 40-56. [10] Azeem, S. M., Akhtar, N. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment among public sector employees in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2014, 5(7), 127-133. [11] Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M. Employee—organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. Academic Press, 1982. [12] Wellins, R. S., Byham, W. C., Wilson, J. M. Empowered teams: Creating selfdirected work groups that improve quality, productivity, and participation. Jossey-Bass Inc.,350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA, 1991. [13] Rochon, A. Teamwork and Staffing in an Acute Care Hospital (Master dissertation, Laurentian University of Sudbury). Roehl, W. S., & Swerdlow, S. (1999). Training and its impact on organizational commitment among lodging employees. Journal of Hospitality& 306 Tourism Research, 2014, 23(2), 176-194. [14] Buckley, R., Caple, J. The theory and practice of training. Kogan Page Publishers, 2009. [15] Jun, M., Cai, S., Shin, H. TQM practice in maquiladora: Antecedents of employee satisfaction and loyalty. Journal of operations management, 2006, 24(6), 791-812. [16] Sania Zahra Malik, Maheen Saleem, Ramsha Naeem. Effect of leadership styles on organizational citizenship behavior in employees of telecom sector in Pakistan. Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 2016, 54 (2): 385-406. [17] Darling, J. R., and V. L. Heller. The key for effective stress management: Importance of responsive leadership in organizational development. Organization Development Journal, 2016, 29 (1): 9-26. [18]Khan, N. R., A. M. Ghouri and M. Awang. Leadership styles and organizational citizenship behavior in small and mediumscale firms. Journal of Arts, Science, and Commerce, 2013, 4 (2): 144-154.
[19] Al-Khasawneh, A. L. and S. M. Futa. The impact of leadership styles used by the academic staff in the Jordanian Public Universities on modifying students’ behavior: A field study in the northern region of Jordan. International Journal of Business and Management, 2013, 8 (1): 1-10. http://dx.doi. org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n1p1. [20] Sahaya, N. A learning organization as a mediator of leadership style and firms’ financial performance. International Journal of Business and Management, 2012, 7 (14):. 96-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm. v7n14p96. [21] Harper, S. The leader coach: A model of multi-style leadership. Journal of Practical Consulting, 2012, 4 (1): 22-31. [22] Kamisan P., Arif, B. E. M. King. Transactional and transformational leadership: A comparative study of the difference between Tony Fernandes (Airasia) and Idris Jala (Malaysia Airlines) leadership styles from 2005-2009. International Journal of Business and Management, 2013, 8 (24): 107- 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n24p107. [23] Judge, T. A., R. F. Piccolo. Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2004, 89(5), 755-768. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755. [24] Vigoda-Gadot, E. Leadership style, organizational politics, and employees’ performance: An empirical examination of two competing models. Personnel Review, 2007, 36 (5): 661-683. http://dx.doi. org/10.1108/00483480710773981. [25] Lee, K. L., and A. L. Salleh. Moderating effects of subordinates’ competence level on leadership and organization citizenship behavior. International Journal of Business and Management, 2009, 4 (7): 139-145. http:// dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v4n7p139. [26] Bambale, A. J., F. M. Shamsudin and C. A. L. Subramaniam. Stimulating organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) research for theory development: Exploration of leadership paradigms. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2011, 1 (3): 48-69.
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[27]
Saeed, A., S. Ahmad. Perceived transformational leadership style and organizational citizenship behavior: A case study of the administrative staff of the University of Punjab. European Journal of Business and Management, 2012, 4 (21): 150158. [28] Odek, Salome Njagi. Transformational Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Kenya. American Journal of Educational Research, 2018, 6, 845-857. [29] Chin-Yi Chen, Chin-Fang Yang. The Impact of Spiritual Leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Multi-Sample Analysis. J Bus Ethics, 2012, 105:107–114. [30] Fry, L. W. Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 2003, 14 (6): 693–727. [31] Fry, L. W., Vitucci, S., Cedillo, M. Spiritual leadership and army transformation: Theory, measurement, and establishing a baseline. The Leadership Quarterly, 2005, 16 (5), 835–862. [32] Reave, L. Spiritual values and practices related to leadership effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 2005, 16 (5): 655–687. [32] Arnout, B. Emotional intelligence and its relation to both leadership style and stress coping styles in a sample of administrative leaders, Journal of the Faculty of Education, Zagazig University, April 2008, 59, 135-213.
Biographies Dr. Ahed J Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Campbell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at the faculty of medicine, Jordan University of Science and technology. Over time, I have published more than 200 articles in various medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of
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white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins that can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published two articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. Prof/ Ph.D. Boshra A. Arnout a Professor of Counseling and psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, King Khalid University, and Psychology Department, Faculty of Arts, Zagazig University. I’m a member of the American Psychological Association, a member of the American Psychological Counseling Association, a member of the Advisory Board of a number of journals and counseling centers, and a member of several Arab and international journals. I have published several books in psychology such as the secret of extremism, applied of positive psychology in counseling psychology and psychotherapy, encyclopedia of counseling and psychotherapy, A global- Vocational counseling and psychotherapy, psychological measurement, stress of life, mental disorders of children, readings in modern psychology, spiritual intelligence and counseling and psychotherapy etc. over the time, I also published more than 50 psychological scales. As well as I am published about 50 scientific paper studies in different fields of psychology. I’m also supervised and discussed a number of thesis for the master’s and doctoral degrees. I have more than 23 years’ experience in studying in Universities such as Zagazig University in Egypt, Umm Al Qura University and King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia.
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DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Social-Religious Perception on Women Driving Mihaela Rus, PhD
Faculty of Law and Administrative Science Ovidius University of Constanța Constanța, Romania
Mihaela Luminița Sandu, PhD
Department of Psychology and Social Work Ovidius University of Constanta Constanta, Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 25 August 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 5 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.11
The changes that have occurred in our society lately have involved the woman engrossed in different activities which require a driving license in order to travel fast from one place to another. The need to get around quickly has increased so much in the last few years, that we are constantly on the move. The opinions concerning the presence of a woman at the wheel rely on different stereotypes like, for instance, ”the woman diver spells disaster or poses a real threat to road traffic”,”the steering wheel was designed only for men”on the one hand, and on the other there are opinions claiming that women are more responsible drivers than men, sticking to the rules more strictly and being more cautious in traffic, avoiding excess speed more often than men. Moreover, it is a well-known fact that women pass the theoretical driving test more easily than men, whereas men are more self-confident in the practical stage of the driving test. The opinions regarding the woman driver differ from one person to another and funnily enough, even women comment wickedly on the driving abilities of the person of the same sex, being persuaded that women drivers are a disaster for the roads”. Although the presence of the woman at the wheel has been more obvious in the last two decades, it used to be common even during the communist regime which recorded a marked tendency of turning women into heroines, of promoting the equality between sexes since women had undertaken jobs that were traditionally designed to be performed by men. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: social image; women; unemployed; psychology; sociology; behavior; traditional design;
Copyright © 2019 Rus Mihaela & Mihaela Luminița Sandu. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is Citation: Rus, Mihaela, and Mihaela Luminița Sandu, ”The Serpent and its Tail: the Biological Basis of the Religious Impulse,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.11, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 117-127.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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man1.
I. Introduction
In her work ”Women in communist Romania”, Cristina Olteanu and her cowriters state that ”The ideal type of the socialist woman was a desexualized object equal on the labor market to her male counterpart (the image of the woman crane operator or of the woman tractor driver was overused). The state policy of those times offered women the right to become independent in relation to men and, consequently, made them faithful to that state for the independence received. There used to run documentaries which promoted the woman’s image in different situations, one of those movies was ”The woman at the wheel” (1979). This work tries to highlight the social image of the woman driver, or better to say, the way women drivers are perceived. Apart from the theoretical approach, this work also has an applicative character by the existence a tool (made and validated) with the aid of which the studied phenomenon was assessed, identifying a perception gap with respect to women drivers between men-drivers and women-drivers, between young and grown-up men, as well as identifying some personality factors that correlate positively with the social image as far as women drivers are concerned. According to some articles online, regardless of religion, women in Saudi Arabia are prohibited from driving, which supports negative consequences if they break this unwritten rule. According to other articles, the women in this state organized a campaign called “Women 2 drive”, this being the first such protest in which women had a day of disobedience in which they got behind the wheel, traditionally dressed and took their children to school and also visiting their relatives without being accompanied by a
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II. THE WOMAN AT THE WHEEL
The history of women drivers is quite recent, but their presence in the daily scenery is more and more conspicuous and in a continuous expansion as regards the number of women and young ladies who get their driving license and become independent from their partners. Modern trends of emancipation are rife with examples that mobilize the fair sex towards a new becoming and new fields of activity that were, not so long ago, set aside only for men. Women are in favor of two car types which are poles apart: firstly, the small size with a feminine design whose manufacturers paid much attention to detail, ornaments, and facilities and which ensure comfort and an improved ergonomics of controls that could supplant the lack of technical knowledge peculiar to women. Small size cars have the advantage of a higher degree of maneuverability, can be parked more easily even if space is insufficient or lacks completely, and can be left anywhere because they are not too cumbersome. The reduced exterior size provides a certain amount of security because the appraisal of the right distance is one of the fair sex’s major problems. Thus, the dynamic or the moderate woman gets engaged in traffic mimicking the absenteeism, paying no heed to the annoyed body language of men as regards their inability to take their bearings and\or to react promptly. They have no other option because they cannot engage in an argument that could escalate because women are not endowed with the necessary strong biological constitution and neither with the required physical confrontation mentality, 1 Article available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/
romanian/news/story/2006/03/060305_saudi_ women_drivers.shtml)
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therefore, it is clear why they usually avoid such situations. The second type of cars preferred by women is the large jeep type. Behind the bulky technology, the binnacle usually hides an emotionally unstable and temperamentally fragile person, who needs protection for her own peace of mind and for the one displayed to the others, who, by choosing this type of car, wishes to convey the message that she is untouchable and that she cannot be reached by everyone. Irrespective of their temperament and personality, women are more careful when driving than men (their peripheral vision and their split attention are superior to men’s) and most of the time they observe the traffic rules and respect the other drivers. They drive carefully and cautiously whereas the accidents they cause or are involved in are rather the result of their clumsiness, indecision or lack of the presence of mind. For that matter, the internet is full of photographs and videoclips showing women in humorous rather than tragic situations, fact which comes in support of the statement above. The excess speed and the risk-taking attitude is certainly not one of the fair sex’s privileges, on the contrary, feminine psychology is defined by two important features the need for safety and the yearning for comfort. III. RELEVANT ABILITIES FOR THE CAR
DRIVING TASK
There are two activities involved in the process of building car-driving abilities: the cognitive and the driving ones. Referring to this aspect, G. Hăvârneanu said: „The cognitive activity regards the driver’s ability to take in, process and commit to memory different information items and take decisions, while the driving activity bears on the nerve cells ability to cause contractions so as to carry out simple operations within the action sequences. The driving activity
represents the turning into action of the outputs resulted in the cognitive process, and this relationship depends on our individual abilities”. [1]. - The abilities can be located at the level of some mental processes and they may be sensory, driving or cognitive ones. Looking up these concepts in the psychology dictionary we find a range of aspects that pertain to these abilities, and namely. [2]: - The sensory ability represents the individual capacity to see, hear, smell taste and feel. In the car driving field, the largest share of the information received and processed by drivers is obtained through the sense of sight; - The driving ability refers to the capacity acquired through learning to perform a complex task by carrying out movements that reply to some demands for precision, speed, thriftiness, efficiency, and regularity; - The cognitive ability bears on the brain’s ability to take in, process and commit to memory various information. Using the aptitude concept with the meaning of ability, Fleishman (1992) laid the foundation of a taxonomy consisting of 52 aptitudes that he divided into three categories. - The cognitive aptitude relates to what psychologists call intelligence or ‘G factor’. It represents the learning ability and the capacity to adapt to an environment. ‘G factor’ actually refers to our mental capacity which implies the reasoning, planning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, gasping of complex ideas, fast and experience learning aptitudes; • psychomotricity aptitudes referring to dexterity, coordination or reaction time; • Perceptive aptitudes concern perception as a sensory cognitive process involved in the detection and reaction to auditory and visual
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environmental stimuli. To perform well as a driver, the degree of presence of each construct belonging to one of the three categories of aptitudes and which can be found in the personality structure of the car driver must be above the population average the results relate to. IV. PERSONALITY FACTORS RELEVANT
TO THE BEHAVIOUR IN TRAFFIC
Sümer (2003) [3] suggested a model in which the personality represents one of the hosts of factors which have an immediate impact on the proximal factors, such as the driving manner, and the transient factors (for instance, human errors, breaking the traffic rules) which in turn influence accidents occurrence. The scientific researches have shown that the fellows who are most prone to deviant behavior in traffic are those who share the following characteristics: aggressiveness, rage, impulsiveness, anxiety, thrill-seeking, and also are people with a low self-control capacity who have an external control locus. There are other personality factors relevant to the behavior in traffic, and namely: hostility, extroversion and emotional instability. Hostile and aggressive tendencies can influence driving behavior in a manner that increases the accident involvement likelihood. As concerns the personality factor’s role on the behavior in traffic, Hăvârneanu said ”the objective self-assessment of the aggressive behavior is a difficult problem because of the self-defense tendency and the social desirability of the subjects. From the point of view of traffic safety, anger is an extremely important problem and almost nobody can diagnose reliably the level of one’s own aggressiveness. Moreover, when we talk about personality factors, it is important to avoid the unidimensional
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approach and the use of contradictory dimensions.” [4] If we examine more deeply the relevance of the personality factors on the behavior in traffic, we will find that the people who cause road accidents or who do not observe the traffic rules own heterogenous personality structures with various personality profiles. From this perspective we cannot say exactly which personality type is more prone to accidents than the other. V. THE WOMAN DRIVER
AGGRESSIVENESS
Lots of literary studies have dealt with the differences between the sexes concerning the aggressiveness in the driving process, relying on biological, physiological, evolutionary, evolvement, social and cultural factors. The general consensus is that men are more aggressive at the wheel than women and they manifest their aggressiveness in different ways in comparison to their feminine counterparts. A few social researchers challenged the simplistic number of aggressions and the sex differences based on the physical abuse assessment. They maintained that aggressiveness underlies behaviors that do not involve physical expressions – for instance manipulation, exclusion, gossip, etc. They put forward the idea that aggressiveness levels, as a whole, may not be meaningful in relation to sexes, but it is rather a manner of conveying something which is peculiar to the gender. While this point is a valid one, however, this statement relies on the broader definition of aggressiveness including a wider range of social behaviors, which are not usually defined as being aggressive. [5]. While the literature dealing with aggressive behavior in relation to the
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sexes is quite vast, the part that falls under aggressive driving and the sex differences is fairly limited. It was found that men used the warning hooter three times more often than women when the drivers in front of them did not drive away as soon as the traffic lights changed to green. More compelling evidence as regards the sex differences come from Mizell (1997) who studied the police records of aggressive incidents at the wheel and found that men were more frequently involved in such incidents than women [6]. Another survey (Parry’s, 1998) in Great Britain examined 279 riders’attitudes and behaviors. The analysis of the items which measured aggressiveness showed that the highest aggressive scores recorded on the roads tallied with the riders aged between 17 and 35. The aggressive score means were twice as high as those recorded by the middle-aged riders. The women aged between17 and 35 recorded lower aggressive scores in comparison with the male riders within the same age range [7]. A survey by Lajunen și Parker (2001) used the aggressiveness level self-assessment of the subjects found at the wheel and they came up with significant differences between them according to age and sex. The young men sample recorded a high level of aggressiveness, while the women. VI. METHODOLOGY A. GENERAL OBJECTIVE
In the course of this survey, we have allowed for the identification of the social perception of women drivers, by building and validating a tool by menas of which we can assess the phenomenon under scrutiny and identify some perception differences between men drivers and women-drivers as well as between young and grown-up men
concerning female-drivers. We have also set out to identify those personality factors which correlate positively with the social perception of women-drivers. B. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Identification of the survey subject batch perception of women’s involvement in-car driving. 1.1. Building a tool to assess the social perception regarding women drivers. 1.2. The validation analysis of the tool built by means of the expert method. 1.3. Undertaking a pilot study to analyze the reliability of the tool built. 2. The identification of some perceived differences between men and women concerning the phenomenon under scrutiny. 3. The identification of some perception differences between young and grown-up men regarding women’s driving of a car. 4. Emphasizing personality factors that correlate positively with the social perception of women drivers. C. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
1. It is assumed that there is a significant gap between men and women as to the social perception concerning women drivers. 2. It is assumed that young men have a more favorable perception of women drivers than grown-ups. 3. It is assumed that there is a direct correlation between personality factors and the social perception concerning women. D. PARTICIPATION IN THE SURVEY
For the good progress of this methodological approach, we have involved a number of 80 people, 40 men and 40
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women from the urban environment. In the percentage light, half of the participants in the survey are men and half women. The age of the 80 participants in the survey ranges between 18 and 56, the average age being 36. Most of the participants are 41 years old. All the participants in the survey possess driving licenses, at least B category and are all from the urban environment. E. THE RESEARCH TOOLS
For this survey two tools were used: Five-Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI) questionnaire which assesses the five superfactors of the Big Five model: Extroversion (E), Kindness (K), Conscientiousness (C), Emotional Stability (S) and Autonomy (A) and the social perception concerning women drivers questionnaire – our own achievement.
The results that appear in table VII.1. show that the mean score obtained by women is higher than the one obtained by men. In other words, women have a more favorable image (perception) regarding women drivers behavior in traffic than men do. Table VII.2 The comparison between men and women as regards “Independent Samples Test”
VII. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
INTERPRETATION
In view of testing the first hypothesis – we start from the assumption that there is a significant gap between men and women as to the social perception concerning women drivers- we will be doing a comparative analysis using student’s t test for independent sampling since the data distribution for the variable ”Perception concerning women drivers” is a normal one. Table VII.1. The score means obtained by men and women for the variable ”Perception concerning women drivers” Gendre
N Male
Perception
Female
Standard M e a n Standard error of the score deviation average
40
74,50
4,658
0,736
40
83,38
4,991
0,789
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The value of student’s t test, but especially the significance upper limit of this one is taken into account according to Levene’s test significance. Thus, the results figured in table VII.2. show that Levene’s test is not significant statistically, so the variances are equal and the homoscedasticity of variances requirement is met. Based on these results we will consider the amount shown on the student t test first. Thus , t ( 78 ) = - 8.223 , p < 0.01 , which means that there are significant differences between the mean scores obtained by the scores of media men and women. The negative value of t test shows that women have a higher average scores , which means that they have a much better perception on women than men at the wheel. The second hypothesis In view of assessing the second hypothesis – It is assumed that young men
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have a more favourable perception (image) of women drivers then grown-up men – the data gathered after the administration of the questionnaire concerning the perception\ image of women drivers were analysed by comparison, but this time, since we have to deal with men who fall under three age ranges,we will be using the simple ANOVA variance. Table VII.3. The average scores of men and women based on three age range for the variable „Perception of female drivers”
In order to test the second hypothesis, we will be calculating only the results obtained by men in their perception concerning women drivers. It can be noticed in table 4.50 that men within the age range 18-25 have got a higher score mean than those within the age range 26-40 or over 40. But, we are interested in seeing if this difference is significant statistically and in this respect we will be checking the results obtained after the simple ANOVA variance analysis. By observing the results from table 4.51 it is easy to identify the existence of a significant difference between men in the three age ranges, respectively 18-15 years, 26-40 years and over 40 years. What confirms the existence of the difference is the significance of test F: F = 25,697, p <0.01. The same situation is not found in women, where there are no such differences of perception, but this aspect does not interest
us because we did not intend to identify significant differences between women belonging to the same age categories. Tabelul VII.4. ANOVA (Variable analysis) performed for the variable „Perception on female drivers”
Although we have found out about the existence of a significant difference between the score means obtained by men belonging to the three age range samples, we do not yet know which score means vary and if the differences are significant. For this purpose, we have appealed to Bonferroni test, which will clear up the question concerning the score means which are at variance with one another.
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Table VII.5. The score means obtained by men and women against the three age ranges for the variable ”Perception\image as concerns women drivers” The identification of the significant difference between the score means obtained by the samples of men within the three age ranges concerning their perception of women drivers, does not allow us to deem that the hypothesis was confirmed. Therefore, we will now be analyzing the results obtained after the administration of Bonferroni test. We notice that the differences appearing in table 4.52 are between: the men sample whose age is within the range of 18-25 years old on one hand, and on the other, the men sample whose age is within the range of 26-40 years old (the mean difference is 9,824, p < 0,01), but also the sample of men over 40 years old (the mean difference is 14,000, p < 0,01); there is no significant difference between the score means obtained by the men sample within the age range of 26-40 and the men over 40 years old (the mean difference is (- 4,176, p > 0,05). The negative value shows that although there are no significant differences, the men within the age range of 26-40 have a more favorable perception concerning women drivers than men over 40. On the basis of these results, we can state that young men have a more favorable perception of women drivers than grownup men, the second hypothesis is also accepted. Anyway, the behavior at the wheel is most of the time tense for everyone. The multifarious daily problems and the lack of time keep the driver on the boil and in a crisis of indefiniteness that makes him clamor and consider the traffic as the main culprit, except that young men were raised in a society in which the number of women drivers is constantly increasing while the
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grown-up ones witnessed the emancipation of women, therefore, they find it hard to accept that women have recently penetrated a field that not too long ago was set aside only for men. The third hypothesis For verification of the third variant - It is assumed that there is a direct correlation between personality factors and social perception of women - data collected were subjected to correlational analysis. Taking into account the fact that only single scale scores from the five ones of the FFPI questionnaire have a normal distribution, we applied only to this one a parameter test, while for the rest which does not have a normal distribution, we applied a non-parameter test. A normal distribution of data was identified only at the Kindness’ scale. Table VII.6. Correlation between ”Perception” and ”Kindness” Pearson Correlation Perceptione Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Kindness Sig. (2-tailed) N
Perception Kindness
80
,357** ,001 80
,357**
1
,001 80
80
1
**The correlation is significant at a limit of 0.01 (2-tailed). The correlation coefficient value between the data obtained at the perception concerning women drivers and the ”Kindness” scale data is r = 0,357, p = 0,001, the correlation is statistically significant. This result points out the fact that the survey participants’ kindness is correlated with a favorable perception of women drivers. The mean level recorded at the
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”Kindness” scale conveys a moderate tendency towards demonstrating the interest in the other participants in traffic, towards complying with the rights and opinions of the others, or being on good terms with the others, which leads to a favourable perception of the women at the wheel. We used a non-parameter statistical test to identify the correlations between the data obtained from the personality factors and the data obtained from the perception concerning women drivers questionnaire, because at the other scales of the personality questionnaire, and namely, extroversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability and autonomy the data distribution is different from normal distribution. Tabelul VII.7. Corelația dintre „Percepție” și „Extraversiune, Conștiinciozitate, Stabilitate emoțională, Autonomie”
Table VII.7. presents the results obtained after the correlation analysis between perception and the scales Extroversion, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Autonomy. Thus : there is a positive correlation, statistically significant between ‘Perception’ and ‘Extroversion’ – ρ = 0,222, p = 0,05; there is a positive correlation, statistically significant between ‘Perception’ and ‘Stability’– ρ = 0,249, p = 0,05; there are no significant correlations between ‘Perception’ and
‘Conscientiousness’” (ρ = - 0,171, p = 0,05), neither are there between ‘Perception’ and „Autonomy” (ρ = 0,059, p = 0,05). The results obtained in the case of the correlations between the personality factors and the social perception concerning women drivers lend credit to the third hypothesis, but only partially, bearing in mind that not all the personality factors are taken into account correlated with the perception concerning women drivers. Besides ‘Kindness’, have been identified correlations with ‘Extroversion’, as well as with the’ Emotional Stability’ factors. The ‘Extroversion’ factor is moderately manifested in the survey subjects, which means that there is communication with those around them, they like going to parties and taking part in team activities, establishing and making the most of their contacts with the others. The more contacts they establish and the better do they communicate with the people around them, the more favorable is their perception concerning the woman at the wheel. A moderate level intensity recorded at the ‘Emotional Stability’ factor shows that the participants have got emotional selfcontrol of a moderate\ average level and their self-confidence is situated at the same level; they can at times become uneasy, pessimistic and worried when finding in stressful, generator-affect situations. This time, too, we are talking about a direct correlation between the emotional stability and the perception concerning women drivers and we can point out that a good emotional stability of the participants leads to a favorable perception as regards women drivers. There are no statistically significant correlations between ‘Perception’ and ‘Conscientiousness’ respectively ‘Autonomy’. The two factors belong rather more to the individual way of acting in relation to the others, of manifesting one’s
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own creativity, of planning one’s own actions, of meeting deadlines, as well as to the tendency of abiding by the rules and standards, but not in relation to the other people but to your own self. CONCLUSION This work deals with the social perception concerning women drivers and with the relationship between this and other personality factors. In the Romanian specialized literature, there are hardly any surveys centering around the perception concerning women drivers in traffic, most of the surveys approaching the problems bearing on personality factors in the light of aggressiveness. Comparative analyses revealed the fact that men’s perception as concerns women drivers is lower than that of women, which is not surprising, except that in families where both partners hold a driving license, the perception is different if the man is at the wheel or is seated next to the driver, while the woman is driving. The perception regarding traffic safety is changed now because the accident risk perception is different, too, if the man is at the wheel or is seated next to the driver. The same thing happens in the case of women, except that they have a more favorable perception than men regarding women at the wheel because they know that women avoid showdowns in traffic, drive more carefully, their behavior in traffic being a precautionary one. And it is just this apparent floundering that annoys men drivers. Moving on with the comparative analysis, the results show that young men (18-25) have a more positive perception of women drivers than men aged over 40 and even than men within the age range of 2640. The reason is that the older men find it more difficult to put up with the idea that women entered a field that only a little time
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ago was set aside only for them. There is no perception difference between women within the same or different age ranges, all of them sharing the same favorable perception concerning women at the wheel. There were identified some personality factors like kindness, extroversion and emotional stability that were correlated with the social perception of women drivers. The participants in the survey’s mean level of kindness correlates with the mean level of the social perception as concerns women drivers, which conveys a modern tendency of taking an interest in these, of complying with their rights and opinions, of getting on well with women, in general, fact that leads to a favorable perception of the women at the wheel. In the case of extroversion, the more contacts they make and the better they communicate with women, the more favorable the survey participants’, either men or women, perception of women drivers will be. In the case of self-control and of emotional stability, there is, also, a direct, positive correlation with the social perception of women drivers, the participants’s good emotional stability resulting in a favorable perception as far as women drivers are concerned. Even if there are no significant correlations with the ‚Conscientiouness’ and ‚Autonomy’ factors, we can, however, assert that there is not just one personality factor that contributes to the positive social perception of women drivers but also the perception itself relies on a plurality of factors, the personality profile being only one component within a range of factors which together with other items play an important role in the social perception of women drivers. This work has its own limits, like any other research works, one of them referring to the fact that in this survey were involved only people who hold a driving licence and who
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drive a car, not allowing for people who do not possess a driving licence, but who can take part in traffic as passengers in a vehicle. In this survey, only people from the urban environment took part, the perception of the people from the rural area being also significant. Therefore, we wish to extend our research in the future to also include the people from the rural area as well, and especially those who are not driving license holders. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1]. Hăvârneanu, G., Transport Psychology, Iași: Polirom, 2013. [2]. Șchiopu, U., Encyclopedic dictionary of psychology, București: Babel, 1997. [3] Sümer, N., „Personality and Behavioral predictors of traffic accidents: Testing contextual mediated model”, in Accident analysis and Prevention, 35(6), 949-9, 2003.. [4] Hăvârneanu, G., Psychological evaluation of drivers, Iași: University „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2011. [5] Paquette, J., Underwood, M., „Gender differences in young adolescents experiences of peer victimization: Social and physical aggression”, in MerillPalmer Quarterly, 45, 242-265, 1999. [6]. [7]. Parry, M.H., Aggression on the Road, London: Tavistock, 1998. [8]. Stradling, S.G., Meadows, L.M., Highway code and aggressive violations in UK drivers. Paper presented to the Aggressive Driving Issues Conference, Ontario Ministry for Transportation, Toronto, 1999. Biographies
Sciences, Psychology Specialization, from “Babeş Bolyai” University, Cluj Napoca. In 2009, the same University confers her the scientific title of doctor in psychology, field of work, industrial and organizational psychology. Professor at Ovidius University in Constanta, author of 2 books and coauthor of four specialized books and author of over 60 studies and articles, published both in the country and abroad, doctoral supervisor in the field of psychology. She is a principal psychologist with the right of supervision in the specialties of labor, organizational and services psychology, transport psychology, conferred by the Romanian College of Psychologists and has held numerous professional training workshops at national and international psychology conferences, with over 20 years of expertise in the field of transport psychology and work psychology. Lecturer Mihaela Luminita Sandu Graduate of the Faculty of Psychology and Social Assistance at the Andrei Saguna University of Constanta and of the Faculty of Sociology, Ovidius University in Constanta; I am a Doctor of Social Sciences at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Sociology and Social Work, Lecturer at Ovidius University from Constanta, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences. My field of interest is social psychology, work psychology and judicial psychology.
Professor Mihaela Rus Graduate of the Faculty of Psychology and Educational
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Challenges of the Romanian Orthodox Diaspora’s priests in Italy Liviu Razvan Dragomir
Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
Maria Cristina Dragomir Management in Transports Constanta Maritime University Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 30 August 2019 Received in revised form 20 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.12
Even if they are far from their native places, Romanians in Italy can feel close to their country by participating in Holy Mass performed in Romanian, where they listen to the Holy Gospel and share with Christ the Lord. Often, Romanian Orthodox priests help newcomers to integrate more easily into the respective community by facilitating certain services they need. They can provide spiritual guidance and social assistance to community members. Considering the fact Romanians are not enclaved in Italy, there are no Romanian neighborhoods. Romanian individuals live in the middle of Italian communities. They often have to adapt to religious, social and political local conditions. Therefore, the community around the priest plays a very important role in the good integration of Romanians in the local environment. Romanian Christians, who live among strangers, by distance from their country and from their beloved, are they better complying with the words of Holy Scripture: “We have no fortress here, but we seek what is to be” (Hebrews 13:14)? This paper is an interdisciplinary study on the challenges of Romanian Orthodox priests in Italy.
Keywords: community; church life; economy; migration; discrimination;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Liviu Razvan Dragomir & Maria Cristina Dragomir. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original Citation: Dragomir, Liviu Razvan, and Maria Cristina Dragomir , ”Challenges of the Romanian Orthodox Diaspora’s priests in Italy,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.12, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 128-136.
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I.
Introduction
The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable defines the term diaspora has a Greek origin, from diaspeirein ‘disperse’, from dia ‘across’+ speirein ‘scatter’. The term originated in the Septuagint (Deuteronomy 28:25) in the phrase ‘thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the Earth’, indicating the dispersion of Jews, estimated by historians around 7th century BC [1]. According to a recent publication of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), after several waves of emigration, Romanian migrant population residing in OECD countries has become very heterogeneous and geographically dispersed [2]. From 2001 to 2016, Romania’s emigrant population in OECD countries increased by 2.3 million, reaching a total of 3.6 million people, or at least 17 % of people who were born in Romania. While Romanian emigration was tightly controlled between 1950-1989, things have dramatically changed after the Romanian revolution from 1989. Emigration restrictions were raised and a subsequent increase in emigration started in the early 1990s to Germany, Hungary and Israel as main destination countries requiring mainly workforce in construction sites. Students and business people also sought new opportunities abroad [3]. During the late 1990s, the United States and Canada became prominent destinations for Romanian emigrants [4] as overall Romanian emigration decelerated [3]. The integration in the European Union (EU) has led to an increasing number of Romanian emigrants in the EU countries, especially in Italy and Spain [5]. Until early 2000, the profile of the Romanian migrant was mostly of males from urban areas [6]. There were also significant regional differences, with migrants coming mainly from the East and the West of the country and less from the South [4]. Following the EU integration, migration became less selective in terms of
urban versus rural, male versus female, and terms of regional distribution [5]. Romania’s EU accession in 2007 also had a high impact, leading to an increased weight of high-skilled and unskilled labor force migration [5]. II. The migration phenomenon and the
Romanian Orthodox priests diaspora in Italy
Since 2018, the Romanian Patriarchate and the Ministry for Romanians Abroad have joined efforts in providing a series of projects, programs, and actions aimed at supporting Romanian communities outside the borders of Romania to keep their ethnic, cultural, and religious identity [7]. Further is presented scientific input and useful analysis for the effective and efficient design, planification and coordination of such actions. At the level of 2014, the estimated number of international migrants in the world was of more than 232 million [8] out of 7.2 billion world population estimated by the United Nations (UN) [9] and the World Bank [10], meaning 3,22% of the total world population. In 2019, the percentage of world migrants has risen. The UN estimations were of 272 million international migrants, indicating a rate of migrant’s growth higher than the rate of growth of world population [11]. Regarding the situation of Romanian migrants in Italy, in figure 1 is presented the UN estimates for 2019 regarding the number of international migrants in Italy by top countries of origin. The figure underlines the fact that Romanians represent the largest structure of migrants in Italy, followed at large distance by migrants coming from Albania, Morocco, Ukraine and China. An interesting observation is an evident discrepancy between the size of Romanian migrants in Italy and the size of other nations of migrants, Romanians being
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more than double compared to the number of other nations of migrants. The possible explanation for such a phenomenon might be the language similarities between Romanian and Italian languages, thus creating extensive employment opportunities for Romanian migrants in Italy. Figure 1. Number of international migrants in Italy by top countries of origin, 2019. Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA). Source: [12]
In Italy, in 2019, were recorded a number of 1.206.938 Romanian foreigners, representing 23% out of the total number of 5.255.503 foreigners [13]. In Table 1, below, is indicated the current statistics of Romanian foreigners in Italy in 2019. Overall, is identified a higher number of Romanian female migrants in Italy, nearly 700,000 compared to the number of males of slightly over 500,000. The highest number of Romanian foreigners are identified in Lazio, central Italian region bordering the Tyrrhenian Sea, having its principal city, Rome, the capital of Italian state. The smallest figures are recorded in Valle d’Aosta, which is a mountain region of northwest Italy, in the Western Alps.
In table 2 below is indicated the distribution of the Romanian foreigners over Italian main regions in the period 20132019, as recorded on the first day of first month of each year. Figures indicate a slight reduction in the total number of Romanians in 2019, compared to 2018 but an overall trend of increase in the past 6 years. With the exception observed in 2019, the overall increasing trend of the number of Romanian migrants in Italy implies the establishment of small local communities of Romanian migrants in the central Italian regions. Such statistics highlight the necessity of sending more Romanian Orthodox priests to tackle and approach the religious and societal needs of the members of Romanian diaspora in Italy.
Table I. Structure of the Romanian foreigners’ dispersion in the Italian regions. Source: [13]
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Table II. Romanian foreigners’ distribution over the main Italian regions in the last 7 years. Source: [13]. While in the recent period the structure of migration movement majorly involved refugees migration caused by increasing conflicts and wars in their origin countries, a significant part of migration movement consist in internal migrants leaving their countries of origin due to the income gap between inflation, the rising cost of living and average wage. The second situation also characterizes the Romanian migration to Italy and other countries. In diaspora theory, there are three main features of diasporas: 1. they involve a geographic dispersal process, often over a long period; 2. migrants retain a sense of their own national identity, distinct from the host societies within which they are located; 3. migrants preserve a homeland orientation. For diasporic people, their aspiration for return is often seen as a closure of the migratory cycle and the regaining social identity [14], [15], [16]. A characteristic of the “diasporics” people is that they must make important decisions with social, psychological, cultural and economic implications that affect not only the well-being of the diasporics themselves but also the persons (family, relatives, friends) around them. Namely, they have to decide essential decision like whether to return home; whether to keep someone at home to look after the children, family house or business; or whether to uproot the family members left at home and reunite the family in the host country [17]. Violence, deception, fraud, and abuse have always been commonplace occurrences for migrants, not only in their final country of destination but also in their
countries of origin and countries of transit. Migrant workers often face various forms of exploitation or labor abuse. In today’s world, the link between mobility and security issues is ever-increasing [14]. According to Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), the following eight criteria may be used to determine to what extent a durable solution for nondiscrimination in case of migrants, similar to internally displaced persons (persons forced to leave their home but who remains within their country’s borders) has been achieved: 1. long-term safety and security 2. adequate standard of living without discrimination 3. access to livelihoods and employment 4. effective and accessible mechanisms to restore housing, land and property 5. access to personal and other documentation without discrimination 6. family reunification 7. participation in public affairs without discrimination 8. access to effective remedies and justice The eight criteria above should, therefore, be seen as benchmarks for measuring progress made towards achieving durable solutions [18]. Related to the above criterium of safety and security, a concern is raised by the recent so-called ‘security decree B’ adopted in June 2019 by the Italian lawmakers, according to which are imposed penalties for the captain, owner and operator of a vessel or for the NGOs involved in saving ships with migrants. Italian authorities fine migrant ships up to €50,000 for approaching Italy coasts without permission. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for
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Refugees (UNHCR), widespread reports of human rights violations and routine use of arbitrary detention for people disembarked back to conflict area zones (e.g. Libya) underline the fact that it is not a viable place of safety [19]. A challenge that Orthodox Romanian priest must face in Italian diaspora is the highly exploitative labor relations of the heterogeneous migrant Romanian population in the agricultural sector in southern Italy. A number of 400,000 workers are exploited in the Italian agricultural sector. There are no certified statistics on the number of Romanian workers or on the nationalities of labor victims working in the underground economy of the Italian agri-food systems. Such workers are receiving wages below the minimum level established by collective agreements while living in poor conditions. The failure to integrate migrants and to provide legal, social and health protection are not to be pointed solely on the Italian government and international institutions [20]. In the knowledge era, when internet and mass media technologies are easily accessed by community members of all ages, reaching basic information concerning cases of migrant labor exploitation has never been more achievable. Associations and nongovernmental organizations, charities, and churches, have also the purpose to make awareness and education actions, as well as they can observe and react publicly to migrant worker exploitation. According to the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), there are recognized the legislative, judicial, institutional and policy measures to address racial discrimination in Italy, while some gaps still remain. Although various projects and initiatives are underway, the implementation of those measures also needs to be strengthened, through clear
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actions and systematic and prompt public condemnation of all instances of racist hate speech and hate crimes. OHCHR considers the Italian authorities should refrain from making statements inciting racial hatred and discrimination, particularly through the exploitation of anxieties amongst the population regarding security, economic prosperity and national identity, which pave the way for the normalization of racial discrimination [21]. Concerning the cases of discrimination against Romanian migrants, the Orthodox priest and parishes community should systematically denounce reported cases of discrimination, violence and hate crimes, while organizing cultural actions, training, awareness campaigns where both Romanian migrants and other nationality migrants, as well as local inhabitants, should be invited to join. A best-case example related to the criterium of an adequate standard of living without discrimination refers to the case of the public Italian health service of the city of Reggio Emilia, in cooperation with Caritas, which provides outpatient care and medical treatment to foreigners. The Centro per la salute della Famiglia straniera (Centre for foreign families) has a cultural mediation service and provides services to specific groups, including assistance to women and children as well as obstetric services. The Centre keeps precise statistics on its patients, using a code to identify patients and maintain patient records while preserving anonymity. The Centre shares its database with Caritasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s medical center Querce di Mamre, which offers specialist care in 11 medical areas. The services of both centers target mainly migrants in an irregular situation [22]. Romanian Orthodox priests need to assess translocal practices dealing with migration, which, according to Etzold [23] and [24], include: 1. human mobility, i.e. labour migration,
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business trips, tourists’ travels and refugee journeys, which rely on material infrastructure and are contained by mobility regimes; 2. communication, i.e. the transfer of information, ideas, emotions and beliefs across space, which nowadays rests on a digital connectivity infrastructure; 3. transactions of resources, i.e. money, material objects, personal artefacts, which, depending on the circulated unit, requires material and/or virtual connections; 4. investments in figurations, i.e. creating and maintaining social ties and relations across space, and in the material and/or virtual infrastructure that enables connectivity. III. New types of challenges in the
informatic era
Orthodox Romanian priests have to understand and overcome Romanian diaspora challenges occurring at every stage of the migration cycle, as presented in Fig.2. An adequate professional training and an early approach before the appearance of inherent issues are necessary for a better reaction, appropriate involvement and timely dialogue with the migrant members of the diaspora communities.
Figure 2. Migration cycle for Romanian Orthodox migrants. Source: authors study The meaning of settlement in Fig.1 refers to the process of establishing a settlement in the new country, i.e. a place, typically one which has previously been uninhabited, where people establish a community. However, in the modern era of highly advancements in IT&C technologies, a new type of challenge appears: the challenges that characterize the virtual diaspora. According to M. Laguerre, the recently coined term “virtual diaspora” refers to “the use of cyberspace by immigrants or descendants of an immigrant group for the purpose of participating or engaging in online international transactions. Virtual interaction can be with members of the diasporic group living in the same foreign country or in other countries, with individuals or entities in the homeland, or with nonmembers of the group in the host land and elsewhere. By extension, virtual diaspora is the cyber expansion of real diaspora. No virtual diaspora can be sustained without real-life diasporas and in this sense, it is not a separate entity, but rather a pole of a continuum. The same way diasporas form diverse communities of interests; virtual diasporas are not monolithic either. Every diasporic group tends to generate a plurality of virtual diasporas around areas of interest such as religion, politics, gender, professions and the like. Since the membership comes from the same pool, these virtual diasporas tend to be made up of intersecting circuits that crisscross one another while maintaining their distinct focuses (...) Diasporic cyber-attacks are the new source of conflict in the diasporic community” [25]. Such new type of challenges requires specific approach for the Romanian Orthodox priest, as well as careful and detailed analysis of the situation, taking into account that bullying, harassment and
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verbal violence can easily occur in the virtual environment. Conclusions Recent UN data indicate the rate of migrants is recording in 2019 a surprising growth, higher than the rate of growth of the world population. Such statistics have implications in the prognosis and analysis of perspectives concerning the Romanian migrants’ number, which is expected to grow as well in the further years. This phenomenon is manifesting despite ongoing discussions about national legislation designed for developing repatriation programs. Statistical prognosis regarding the evolution of Romanian migrants number is useful for developing Romanian Orthodox Church strategies on the efficient and effective administration of parishes and priests activities in diaspora. While the available statistics indicate the increasing number of Romanian migrants in Italy, such evolution requires an increase in the number of Orthodox Romanian priests required by the religious Romanian communities from the diaspora. While being in transition from their familiar national environment where they were born, to a completely new country, with distinct culture and surprising societal particularities, Orthodox Romanian priests must be prepared for facing conventional new challenges and unexpected realities. A second aspect discussed in the paper is the overview of the challenges of Romanian Orthodox priests and parishes in Italian diaspora. A major focus of the study was placed on the migration phenomenon and to social, cultural and economic challenges, risks and issues that occur around it. A special approach should be given to the modern type of challenges occurring in the virtual diaspora, as the diasporic cyberattacks, virtual bullying, and harassment among Romanian diaspora members.
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In such a context, further research in the domain should analyze whether the Orthodox Holly Church is able to protect and improve Romanian migrants’ rights in the new settlement countries and if yes, through which means? Is the protection for Romanian migrants offered by the EU institutions sufficient or a more integrated state-church-community approach will improve migrants’ integration in the new countries and further encourage return to the country of origin? And what role has the relationship between church-private sector for improving migrants’ welfare? Such questions require advanced scientific analysis and longterm studies with specific research methodologies. References [1] The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2nd edition), Oxford University Press, 2006, available at: https://www. oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/ authority.20110803095716263 [2] OECD, Talent Abroad: A Review of Romanian Emigrants, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1787/bac53150-en. [3] Mereuta, Cristina “Mobilising migrants skills and resources in Romania.” In Coping with Emigration in Baltic and East European Countries, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264204928-9en. [4] Sandu, Dumitru. 2005. “Emerging transnational migration from Romanian Villages”, Cur. Sociology, 53 (4): 555-582. [5] Sandu, Dumitru, Lumile sociale ale migrației românești în străinătate [Social worlds of Romanian migration abroad]. Bucharest: Polirom Publishing House, 2010, apud. Andrei Dospinescu and Giuseppe Russo, “Romania Systematic Country Diagnostic”, World Bank, 2018, available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/210481530907970911/pdf/128064-SCDPUBLIC-P160439-RomaniaSCDBackground NoteMigration.pdf
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[6] Sandu, Dumitru, Locuirea temporară în străinătate. Migraţia economică a românilor: 1990-2006 [Temporary residence abroad. The economic migration of Romanians: 19902006], Bucharest: Fundaţia pentru o Societate Deschisă [Foundation for an Open Society], 2006. [7] Iftimiu, Aurelian. “Patriarch Daniel urges Romanians in the Diaspora to keep their Orthodox faith, national unity and Romanian spirituality”, Basilica.ro News Agency (August 2018), https://basilica.ro/en/patriarch-danielurges-romanians-in-the-diaspora-to-keeptheir-orthodox-faith-national-unity-andromanian-spirituality. [8] United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. The economic, social and cultural rights of migrants in an irregular situation, 2014, p.1, available at: https:// www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/HRPUB-14-1_en.pdf [9] UN. Concise Report on the World Population Situation in 2014. Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Sec-retariat, Population Division, ST/ ESA/SER.A/354, New York, 2014. p.2 h t t p s : / / w w w. u n . o rg / e n / d e v e l o p m e n t / desa/population/publications/pdf/trends/ Concise%20Report%20on%20the%20 World%20Population%20Situation%202014/ en.pdf [10] https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sp.pop. totl [11] UN News, “Number of migrants now growing faster than world population, new UN figures show”, 17 September 2019, https://news. un.org/en/story/2019/09/1046562 [12] International Migrant Stock 2019 (United Nations database, POP/DB/MEG/Stock/Rev. 2019), available at https://www.un.org/en/ development/desa/population/migration/data/ estimates2/countryprofiles.asp [13] Statistiche demografiche TUTTITALIA, https://www.tuttitalia.it/statistiche/cittadinistranieri/romania/, retrieved 20.10.2019 [14] Borraccetti, Marco, Labour Migration in Europe, Volume II - Exploitation and Legal Protection of Migrant Workers, Springer Palgrave Pivot, 2018: 2, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-
319-93979-7 [15] Black, Richard, and Khalid Koser (eds). The end of the refugee cycle? Refugee repatriation and reconstruction. Oxford: Berghahn, 1999. [16] Olsson, Erik, and Russell King „Introduction: Diasporic Return” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 17 (3), 2008: 255-261. Project MUSE muse.jhu.edu/article/552359 [17] Van Hear, Nicholas, “From durable solutions to transnational relations: home and exile among refugee diasporas”, in New issues in refugee research, Working Paper No. 83, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2013: 1 [18] IASC, Framework on Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons, The Brookings Institution-University of Bern Project on Internal Displacement, 2010: 27, https://www. unhcr.org/50f94cd49.pdf [19] h t t p s : / / w w w . u n h c r . o r g / n e w s / briefing/2019/8/5d49370e4/unhcr-concernednew-measures-impacting-rescue-sea-centralmediterranean.html [20] Cavanna, Paola, “Labour Migration” in Europe Volume II - Exploitation and Legal Protection of Migrant Workers, edited by Marco Borraccetti Editors, Palgrave Pivot, 2018: 70, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-93979-7 [21] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report of mission to Italy on racial discrimination, with a focus on incitement to racial hatred and discrimination, 2019: 24, available at https:// www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IT/ ItalyMissionReport.pdf [22] United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, The economic, social and cultural rights of migrants in an irregular situation, 2014: 8, available at: https://www. ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/HRPUB-14-1_en.pdf [23] Etzold, Benjamin, “Mobility, Space and Livelihood Trajectories: New Perspectives on Migration, Translocality and Place-Making for Livelihood Studies”. In Livelihoods and Development: New Perspectives, edited by Leo de Haan, 44–68. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004347182_00 [24] Etzold, Benjamin, Milena Belloni, Russell
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King, Albert Kraler and Ferruccio Pastore. Transnational Figurations of Displacement Conceptualising protracted displacement and trans-local connectivity through a processoriented perspective (TRAFIG working paper 1/2019). Bonn: BICC, 2019. [25] Laguerre, Michael S. Virtual Diasporas: A New Frontier of National Security (paper presented in Virtual Diasporas and Global Problem-Solving Workshop, Nautilus Institute, Berkeley and San Francisco, 2526 April 2002, available at: http://oldsite. nautilus.org/gps/virtual-diasporas/paper/ Laguerre.html .
Biographies L. Dragomir is a Ph.D. Candidate at “Ovidius” University from Constanta, Faculty of Theology. He has graduated Theology BSc in 2006 and an MSc in Canonic Law and European Institutions at “Ovidius” University in Constanta. The theme of his Ph.D. thesis is related to the situation of the Orthodox Romanian Church in Diaspora from Italy. C. Dragomir is Lecturer and researcher at Constanta Maritime University. She studies the management of human resources and leadership, including labor topics. She has participated as gender research specialist in 2018 and 2019 to the International Labour Organisation in Geneva, Switzerland, to sectoral meetings on maritime labor. She holds a Ph.D. in Management of Human Resources and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 137 - 143
DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Become trainer in the interreligious dialogue and mutual acceptance for theological teachers Proposal for a Handbook Research; its necessity and development Fr. Lecturer Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, PhD Department of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 22 August 2019 Received in revised form 29 October Accepted 1 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.13
My intention is to improve the receiving of the idea of ‘interfaith dialogue and mutual acceptance’ for Romanian people in general and foremost on their teachers, by writing a handbook for teaching it to the students and future public opinion formatters. It is a requirement nowadays firstly to make people understand the benefits of interfaith, then to make them believe it is the only solution of the social common living in such a religiously diverse society, and finally provide methodological and technical support for those who want to become the voices of interfaith in their own environment. I need to lift my training to that level that I can improve myself, maturing from a religious pluralism embracer to a trainer, professionally prepared and systematic instructed. For that matter, this paper is not an unassisted research presentation, but a proposal from which I would like to evolve to a fully developed result that I will share with our Dialogo readers when published (e.g., ask for a review on a possible, future book on the topic).
Keywords: interfaith; religious pluralism; acceptance; tolerance; preconceptions; obstacles; public opinion formatter; teacher; religiously diverse society;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Tudor-Cosmin Ciocan. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ciocan, Tudor-Cosmin, ”Become trainer in the interreligious dialogue and mutual acceptance for theological teachers. Proposal for a Handbook Research; its necessity and development,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.13, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 137-143.
I. Introduction to the research topic
I teach in Romania, a Country with some/ relative religious pluralism, extended in the latest two decades, but even so, the most dominant feeling you can always encounter in countries like Romania (or others like it, i.e. countries, secular or not, with a majoritarian
religious belief, a.k.a. a mainstream Church), is that ‘others’ (i.e., all other denominations or religions) have no belonging in their territory. This is, in short, the kind of training we have ever received in the public schools in Romania before and after the communist regime. However, the freedom of speech and public display of religious beliefs were
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enforced by the State firstly by imposing the freedom of expression in the religious life through the Constitution (art. 30/2003), then by the new Law for Cults, Art 489/2006. “The lack of respect for this principle is what gave free rein to the legal battles that cause the pendulum to swing between freedom and coercion. The widely circulated idea is: “Freedom of speech for me, not for you”.” [1] Consequently, the Law enforcement on religious freedom made some adjustments in the general attitude on the mainstream -Church hierarchy. “Through the new Law of Cults, in Romania another legal regime of religious cults was created, whose principles are common with the Laws of other EU states on religious freedom”[2]. I will come again on this issue furthermore. I left Romania in 2014 for the Summer Institute on religious pluralism in the United States of America with this kind of background and with a strong preconception that ‘religious pluralism’ is functionally and utterly wrong. I was not at all surprised to learn from almost all my program’s mates that this preconception was entirely shared by most of them – adepts of other religions. However, after two months of learning and debating on the subject with USA professors, but mostly after visiting and inquiring all kind of religious communities, seeing them in the public acting, and putting all the information together, we were amazed to see how much that program changed our life views and thinking on religious diversity and its cohabitation. The fact is that we all stood in touch afterward and shared outcomes on our arrivals in countries of origin. The process was almost identical to all of us. I, for example, went both to my cathedra of theology in the ‘Ovidius’ University of Constanta, as well as in my parish and seek support from the higher authorities to expose both footage gathered during the trips through the States, as well as to share the final conclusions I came to think of, about
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how each of us should have attitude towards the other confessions. I also have tried to invite other religions’ scholars to dialogue. The end was always the same: a barrier of skepticism and a façade of tolerance that hides an endless denial of religious diversity. And that was not my experience alone. Another colleague of us from an Islamic country, one who became my best friend from that moment on, lecturer in the Faculty of Islamic Theology, encountered an even worse receiving: he was investigated by the State as a traitor and partisan with external forces until recently when he was acquitted by the Court. I officially visited him and his Faculty this year through Erasmus+ program and shared the same dimness in clearing things out for our auditorium – his students – which is mostly theologians and future public-opinion-formatters. Anyone with pedagogical skills can clearly see the clumsiness and inaccuracy of us, alumni of the Religious Pluralism Program in USA, in our attempts to pass on what we understood and eventually embraced. This is not by far a negligence or a lack of maturity in teaching; against this seeming aspect are giving testimony both our professorship career (in my case, of more than 20 years), as well as the fact that the same limitation was met by many other colleagues from the same program and from different series which I succeeded getting in touch with. It is very important and with the benefit of the worldwide society that the USA promotes and supports for over two decades the Institute on Religious Pluralism in the United States. However, the focus of Programs like this one, in particular, is only to emphasize certain details on the role religious diversity and its acceptance by all the actors of the social theatre has, but it does not offer any leverages whatsoever to someone who wants to develop a theological discourse to promote it in turn. For that reason I want to contribute more
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to the understanding of diversity inside the religious area and to the problems related to teaching furthermore the ideas US Institute on Religious Pluralism intends to promote as a worldview. Considering the past few years’ events on Islamic exodus and its feedback by the world, I find most required that this two stages of training should be encouraged, supported, fully trained and made operational by all theologian’s schools: firstly a training on Religious Pluralism as a primary stage of changing the vision of most religious scholars/leaders into mutual acceptance; but this step should also be unflinchingly followed by a second program in which those who need a secondary, upper training in becoming themselves trainers of the same Institute in their home country/ town should be regarded as partners and undergo advanced training as teachers and public formatters. This second stage of the program should be focused on modeling devoted scholars to this cause, by helping them became systemic trainers for all public-opinion-formatters and giving them the opportunity to enlarge/structure a curriculum that encompasses all the limitations and technics they need to master for that purpose. II. What are the Objectives of this
research?
I consider as a necessity for nowadays pluralistic cohabitation to improve the
receiving of the idea of ‘interfaith dialogue and mutual acceptance’ and for that matter writing a manual of teaching it to students and future public opinion formatters is also a must-do on behalf of the theologians’ teachers. It is a requirement of these latter days, firstly to make people understand the benefits of interfaith, then to make them believe it is the only solution of the social common living in such a religiously diverse society, and finally to provide
methodological and technical support for those who want to become the voices of interfaith in their own environment. I consider useful and equally important to learn from those who conducted such programs over the past years to determine which are the limits and the limitations of teaching interfaith, who can be selected to do it and who doesn’t, and moreover what are the variations and alternatives to interact with other religious believers, always emphasizing that the interreligious dialogue is the most appropriate one to engage other religions’ partisans. The major aim of this type of research is to find out the reality of an already built-in religious coexistence environment and the facts which are unknown or which has not been yet exposed to the public. For that purpose, the objectives of my research can be grouped into the following categories: - To achieve skillfulness on teaching ‘interreligious dialogue and ways of coexisting’ or to get novel opinions into it from people/religious communities that are exposed to diversity in their area (exploratory research); - To find out the characteristics of the particularity of the religious communities involved in building interfaith acceptance (descriptive research); - To establish the relationship with which interreligious dialogue occurs or with which it is related to something else, positives like civil rights, politics, freedom of speech, or negatives like aggressive proselytizing, self-preservation or preaching the customized ‘single and unequivocal truth’ (diagnostic research); - To learn what has been done in this regard so far and what were the limitations of this long-term process of building interreligious cohabitation; to learn about the ‘who’s, ‘how’s, and ‘when’s of the process; to find out what are the principles
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that run this dialogue as well as the principles from each religion that allow us engage interfaith dialogue. Put them all afterward together in a well-structured handbook on instructing teachers for promoting interreligious dialogue (analytical research). III. Methods that should be considered
in conducting such research
I made a long and persistent lobby on interfaith within my students and coworkers, and so I finally received some credits on this newer approach for everyone, giving me the possibility of inserting a new discipline (from 2017-2018) in my Faculty of theology for upper students of master, called ‘Strategies of the interreligious dialogue’, meant to improvise a curriculum for convincing theologian students to go under this umbrella of thinking and embrace mutual acceptance for all other religions. It was tough to do it, especially since I had only the vision of it, without a systematic knowledge and a built-in discipline program. So, instead of organized, well-structured and standardized classes, I had only long hours of conversations, expositions of my traveling and discussions in the USA program, and long conversations/debates on the subject. I cannot say it was unpleasant or fruitless since there were a bunch of students that agreed with the idea and were eager to find out more about this, even if it is not the custom teaching of the Orthodox Church for its students or believers. Still, considering that the State policy is nowadays in favor of integration and tolerance for all religious manifestations, I couldn’t be turned off from inserting such discipline and curricula for my students. Yet, a structured and standardized course would make a better chance for both the students and teachers in any faculties from Romania or abroad, that is why I am now conducting such a research with the help of theologians, pedagogues, and social
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services, maturing firstly myself from a religious pluralism embracer to a trainer of it, professionally prepared and systematic instructed. Since there are lots of universities’ libraries in the United States filled with books on the subject it will be a tremendous help for this research to receive support from American scholars that helped on the development of this Institute on Religious Pluralism for integrating this approach into the present curricula in most of the countries currently still resisting to religious pluralism and cohabitation. I research of course on the internet for any already written handbook on teaching interfaith and I could not say it is unexplored or a virgin territory, but there are hilarious compilations of ideas, desires, aims, or legal bearing – nevertheless written in good intentions, but not strategic and purpose-targeted manuals we really need in this area if we want more than just explaining this fact – of living together in harmony with others. If it comes to convincing people of it, moreover, to transform everyone into allies of promoting interreligious dialogue in a manner that places all the participants into dialogue in a position of equality and embarrassmentless, that requires for sure more than a simple act of preaching and pep talk. An inherent method needed to be assumed for this aim is to gather additional information from all the religious communities that interact nearby with others or have programs for visiting holy places of other religions, so that it would be a benefit to have a practical chapter about previous attempts to connect with others by all means and objectives, to start or sustain a religious dialogue, and to systemic construct such coexisting. For what it’s worth undoubtedly all religions do have pilgrimages to their holy places as well as to other, universal and consecrated places of different religions. In this regard, the religious leaders, teachers,
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and trip organizers should have figured out strategies on interfaith dialogue and explanations for their own believers to peacefully engage and wonder on the pilgrimages’ targets and local miraculous items. We cannot assume that a well-trained tour guide would ever destroy the urban legends that come around the holy items inserted on pilgrimages around the world. Neither would he ‘touch’ their assumed and consecrated miraculous existence for that would contaminate and abolish the very idea of having a pilgrimage in those religiously diverse land. So, it is easy to foresee that a paradigm speech was always following these pilgrimages to ‘others’, one we should learn from in order to correct any wrong impressions we thought we’d have in our history on regard to ‘others’. I know for sure that there are tremendous efforts from many religious communities worldwide to integrate into the civil society diverse believers (e.g., those of Muslims after 9/11, or the Syrian exodus after 2016), so that it should also be easy to get this chapter done. Another critical method is to interview and get support from all the professors and assistances encountered during the research. A transcription of their already implemented course – on or outside the program – will also be a considerable benefit in gathering the final curriculum on the handbook. IV. The Significance of this kind of
Research
Before going to the USA in 2014, I thought that knowing my religion and protecting ‘my people’ from entering in contact with other religious partisans is the purpose of any theologian and religious leader. It was a perspective I have learned from the highschool to faculty and doctorate my entire life and the whole professional carrier. Then I received this opportunity to undergo a Summer Institute on Religious Pluralism and,
as my teachers from Santa Barbara might testify, I was one of the most questionable, suspicious and doubtful on the reality and possibility of having a diversity of religious manifestation in a single society where all representatives of religious phenomenon can live and interconnect in a mutual acceptance. I was very stubborn to embrace this social creed of my American teachers until the end of the residency in the States. Then I came back from the States to Romania and to my professional carriers, both my parish as well as to my professorship, and I have tried to reconnect with all from that perspective I have lived for three months. When I encountered the inveterate reaction of the people around me against the idea of mutual acceptance and peaceful coexistence with all religious representatives, I was a little disappointed in the beginning, then I remembered that this was my own attitude I went to the States previously with, so I couldn’t condemn fellow Romanians for acting according to the custom education. Thus I gave up complaining and pointing fingers on who is most to blame for that, and I became not only a teacher that has embraced an American liberal point of view but an ambassador of that view because I understood the significance of projecting my new education views on interreligious coexistence over everybody that matters onward. For that matter I began writing papers and presentations to all kinds of conferences, national and international, explaining how we should see other religious believers, how they should come to us in dialogue to a mutual acceptance outcome, etc. I went to the representatives of different denominations and ask for their help in building such dialogue, and, as expected, I was received with same awkwardness at first, then I became an example of how religious leaders should try to connect with them, so they offered me a position in their national team-building league on this subject. I even went to Poland and this
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year to Turkey, countries with same custom religious education of rejecting ‘otherness’ when coming to speak of ‘heterodoxy’ due to their religious majority, i.e. RomanoCatholic in Poland and Islamic in Turkey. I had wonderful experiences with both these teaching visits, for there were students and teachers interested in this point of view, relatively new to them, but very addictive. However, I have expended my explanation here with these experiences of mine after the first grant in USA because I encountered a very large and apparently impossible to overcome limitation: the approach I had with all – my students, followers of the church, students from abroad or merely citizens from all these three countries – when I tried to explain my feelings and understanding on religious pluralism, it lets them see the clumsiness with which I tried to fill the workspace and the aleatory approach that stood behind a cheerful desire. In spite of my 20 years of professorship, I couldn’t get to make people resonate with this new and challenging way of interacting with other religions and many times the paradigms of thinking and teaching we traditionally work with couldn’t get me far in convincing people on the topic of religious diversity. I have tried to improve myself and undergo an online course by Harvard on ‘Religious Literacy: Traditions and Scriptures’, and I explained this target I want to achieve to Professor Diane L. Moore. Still that course and other that followed could only give me the content for encouraging and filling the information on why we should embrace interfaith, but the “how’s” are still missing in the paradigm. The methods of teaching it, the technics of the approach with different kinds of people, trained or not in religious literacy, the limits and limitations of the teaching process are still beyond my reach. That is why I finally decided to reconnect with the titrated teachers in this regard and ask for a higher state of training,
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of becoming myself a trainer in religious pluralism, to engage other programs on the topic and train trainees on religious pluralism and coexistence agreement, to write a curriculum and a handbook/manual on that matter as to offer to future public opinion formatters means to teach it up to make people believe in this fellowship. V. The necessity of a Handbook on how to train others to become an interfaith trainer
“A major part of the problem is that a comprehensive religious education does not exist. Furthermore, there is no discussion of religious education in the public arena. When religious education is referred to, it is assumed to be the task of the church, synagogue, mosque, and temple, but those institutions do not use “religious education” for the formation of their members. Each of the religions has its own intramural language of education. This focus of religious groups on the beliefs and practices of their own members is understandable. But where then are the other key elements of education in religious matters that today’s enlightened citizen needs? The logical answer would seem obvious: schools that are called public.” [4] As I said previously, there are many books and articles you can find when researching this matter, but all addresses to a general issue, that is why we should engage interfaith dialogue and the motifs or limits we encounter while doing it. Of course, while writing such a handbook you should answer several important questions and issues a paradigm like this is forced to do so. The Paradigm concerns itself with doctrinal matters, but it cannot answer questions such as ‘what have different religions to do with each other? What have they to say to each other and in what ways may they benefit or not benefit each other?’[5] And to
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those that are questioning the foundation of interfaith we should probably ask in return if the actual religious education is moral or not, since it is always convicting others of something and pointing fingers towards others’ beliefs that drove them in society, in families, and in Churches to act as we do too. This is not an ethical appointed issue we should amend, but another problem to address in such research for the simple fact that “adherents of any religion view their religion as the only true religion, and therefore also the only means of salvation” [6]. Building interreligious dialogue is also convicted to many challenges that led to its failure until now on many levels and mostly on producing an un-utopian education in this regard. The first challenge is a lack of focus. For any interfaith dialogue to succeed, all parties must be clear on the conversation’s goals. This can help people decide which conversations they should join. For example, if the goal is to discuss complex theological issues, it is necessary to include scripture experts, historians, linguists, and other academics. Lay people and usually younger people may not feel comfortable in these discussions. On the other hand, conversations focused around personal values and experiences would be more appealing to people who do not fit into a defined faith or spiritual category (e.g. agnostics or atheists) or people who are less interested in theology. Academics who want to debate religious minutiae would probably shy away from these discussions. Thus, it is necessary to hold multiple different types of conversations, each geared to a different audience. [7] There are also other, major challenges that the promoters of interfaith have been confronted with over the years. E.g., proselytizing, or attempting to convert others; compromising their religious identity in order to fit in, and others. Thus, I find such research on writing a handbook on how to
train teachers and public opinion formatters more than useful, a Bible for those who dare to train on the interreligious dialogue of others who can form a positive opinion of the public in this regard. VI. References [1]. Jehovah’s Witnesses, Libertatea de exprimare de-a lungul istoriei [Eng. Freedom of expression throughout history], Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, 2019. Retrieved from https://wol.jw.org/ro/wol/d/ r34/lp-m/101996521, 22.9.2019; [2] Nicolae Dură, “Despre libertatea religioasă şi regimul general al cultelor religioase din România [Eng. “About religious freedom and the general regime of religious cults in Romania”], in Analele Universității Ovidius Constanţa, Seria Teologie, anul VII, 1/2009, 44; [3] Protos. asist. univ. drd. Casian Rușeț, “PRIMA LEGE A CULTELOR DIN ROMÂNIA- aspecte regulamentare, canonice și de disciplină bisericească” [Eng. THE FIRST LAW OF CULTS IN ROMANIA - regulatory, canonical and church discipline issues], in Altarul Banatului, 10-12/2015, 25-36; [4] Gabriel Moran, “Religious Education in United States’ State Schools”, in K. Engebretson, and de Souza, M., Durka, G., Gearo n, L. (Eds.), International Handbook of Inter-religious Education, 2010, PDF ISBN 978-1-4020-92602, 141; [5] Evelina Orteza y Miranda, “Religious Pluralism and Dialogue/Interreligious Dialogue”, in K. Engebretson, and de Souza, M., Durka, G., Gearon, L. (Eds.), International Handbook of Inter-religious Education, 2010, PDF ISBN 978-1-4020-9260-2, 265; [6] Knitter, P.F., Introducing theologies of religions, New York: Orbis Books, 2013, 26; [7] Aamir Hussain, “The Challenges of Interfaith Dialogue”, in Hoya Paxa: A Blog about Interfaith Service and Peacebuilding. Published online January 10, 2014. Retrieved from https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/ posts/the-challenges-of-interfaith-dialogue/.
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
A lived experience of Syrian woman refugee in Jordan: sorrows and hopes between past and future, a case study using the phenomenological approach Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD
1 Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Science and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology, Jordan. 2 International Mariinskaya Academy, department of medicine and critical care, department of philosophy, Academician secretary of the Department of Sociology Jordan
Ala’ Ahed AlKhatib, PhD
Department of Counseling Psychology, Yarmouk University Jordan
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 10 October 2019 Received in revised form 24 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.14
This case study is about a Syrian woman refugee in Jordan. Salma (a virtual name) is one of the thousand hundred Syrians who were forced to leave their resident place seeking for safety. Every one of them has a story of suffering. Salma is a 32 years old female. She was living in Der’a, in the South of Syria. We have interviewed and asked her some questions regarding her status in Jordan as a refugee, and her previous situation in Syria before the last war in Syria. She was permitted to talk freely. It is worth to mention that this woman represented several aspects far away from the refugee’s status. She has experienced some difficulties as a woman in her country within her family frame as a wife and mother. When becoming a refugee, she had released some of her former problems and experienced new problems. This study made a comparison between the past and present and prospected future hopes.
Keywords: refugee; woman; war; family; children; camp;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ahed J Alkhatib & Ala’ Ahed AlKhatib. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is Citation: Alkhatib, Ahed J, and Ala’ Ahed AlKhatib, ”A lived experience of Syrian woman refugee in Jordan: sorrows and hopes between past and future, a case study using the phenomenological approach” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.14, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 147-155.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Introduction
Between the dilemma of crises and wars, human subjects are the real victims. Most victims are women and children, who are sometimes called silent victims [1, 2]. Arab spring, a term used to describe Arabic revolutions seeking democracy, has been initiated in recent years as a surprise in some countries including Syria. Arab spring is considered as civilian revolution against government policies and low standard living. It has started as protests in Tunisia [3]. II. Presenting the case
Study objective: The main objective of this study is to introduce a case study of Syrian refugee women in Jordan. A. Methods
A phenomenological approach was used in this study. Phenomenology is used to understand fully lived experiences [4]. This approach depends on asking about a phenomenon of how to be experienced by someone to achieve better understanding of it [4, 5]. A Syrian refugee woman was asked for permission for her approval to be interviewed. After she had given her agreement, an appointment was arranged. The researcher prepared some questions about her status since she was in Syria till now. The researcher has recorded the answers of the refugee woman and then wrote in a paper. According to her answers, the researcher made paragraphs and themes. B. Case study: 1) Social status:
Married woman, with four children, two boys, and two girls. The oldest is 10 years old
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and the only one in a school. The youngest is four-month age. Economically speaking, Salma and her husband do not work. Sometimes, they tried to find simple works such as cleaning and washing homes as well as cocking. Her husband can’t work more than that due to his bad health conditions. The income of the family mainly depends on organizations and humanitarian aids. They lived in Irbid City, next to Alqawasmi Hospital in a small flat with simple furniture. 2) Current situation:
Salma, 32, currently lives in Irbid, Al Nuzha district, in a small apartment with limited furniture with her husband and four children without other relatives from her or her husband. She lives without a fixed monthly income. Her main source of income is coupons distributed by UNHCR. In some simple handicrafts to make some money such as rinsing floors, washing carpets .., she is working for her family where her husband is unable to work, because of his illness due to the physical torture suffered in captivity. Salma has benefited greatly from the organizations and associations surrounding the family, including the Association of Women, which lives nearby, and benefited from Psycho-social services support diverse forms to improve her life and the lives of her family. The family’s relationships are currently excellent and flexible, her relationship with her husband is based on love and respect, and their relationship with their sons is as more friends than to be a relationship of mother nature and a son. Salma and her family including her husband’s mother fled Syria, three days after the release of her husband, emigrated to Jordan via the border in 2013, where the Syrian border was closed to them as refugees to Jordan despite the fact that she and her family had passports, without residency, and fear for her husband’s
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request once again at the border. They fled easily and unhindered, and the Jordanian army received them and transferred them to Za’atari camp, where they stayed there for a year and two months, traveling between hospitals to treat the wounds of her husband’s injuries. She used to carry her husband in a concrete trolley, putting his head pillow and bathrobe in water. In the beginning, her husband’s mother was not able to bear seeing her son suffering. She rushed to Syria after two months of staying in the camp. Salma continued on this situation, but her husband recovered a large part of his health. Due to spread of hepatitis in the camp, she decided to escape from the camp to protect her two children, who have been exposed to hepatitis. She believed that Syrian refugees in the camp contributed to the contamination of water that led to spread of hepatitis. The family left the camp for unknown areas, without money, or any supporting conditions, just to save the whole family. Salma suffered at the beginning to adapt to life in Irbid and outside Zaatari. She went to the doors of local organizations and associations to live, and was among the associations that were near them and benefited from the Association of Women, where the beginning was to know Mr. Jamal on her child and asked about the possibility of meeting one of his parents! So the mother went to visit this professor, he blessed her child, and asked her about the age of her child, then the age of her child was 5 years, but from his personality and his actions seems 10 years older, I told him that he lived with his grandfather because of the absence of his father to work in the Gulf, his grandfather was a godfather and educator. 3) Family relations under stressful conditions
When the family came to Irbid, the mother has beaten her son because she felt her son mimics the role of father and limits her freedom. The son used to take the father’s
role since he was in Syria living and affected by his grandfather. His father was working abroad in the Gulf, United Arab Emirates (UAE). The role of the father was not played and compensated by the grandfather and the son. It seems like a tradition in such communities to make the largest son the role of leader and to behave like the man of the house. Accordingly, when came to Jordan, the father was injured and needed high level of care. The son felt the role of the man of the house on her mother; his tone of the voice has changed. The mother was not comfortable because she was subjected to various sources of stress. The son put pressure on her not to answer mobile calls, not to go out the home for fear that anyone sees, even when she wanted to spread the laundry was preventing her from going out alone. Her child did not change his situation from what he was in Syria, he remained the man in the absence of his father and in his existence, but Salma was satisfied with these inconveniences. The effect of his grandfather remains a part of the child’s personality in which the mother was always warned not to object or expose to her child. The mother decided to teach her son a lesson that will not be forgotten and began to beat him to the degree of physical abuse. This punishment was extended over a year. She was able to limit his actions. 4) Women’s Union services
The mother has started a new phase as a Syrian refugee in Jordan through receiving services of the Women’s Union. Through fruitful relations with one of the workers in the Union, Mr. Jamal. The mother reported the problem of her son to the union as her child as crazy. She received psychological support sessions on how to deal with her child, and mental support sessions for her child to increase their level of awareness and she stopped beating him, and their relationship today is based on more friendship. This means that her child tells
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her everything that happens with him on his day, everything he intends to do, and now when he wants to get out of the house, he consults his mother to agree for him to leave the house. She also participated in some psychosocial support sessions, such as those held at the International Medical Corps, the Syrian Medical Association (SMS) and the Danish Association. There is another interesting event that happened with Salma in her relation with the Women’s Union that left positive impacts on her family. She happily remembers the anniversary of the birth of her third son, she became pregnant after her departure from Zaatari and living in Irbid. The Women’s Union for Psychosocial Support and Medical Services has a women’s clinic. She went to give birth at the clinic of the union after the examination of the fetus, it turned out to be larger than normal. However, they asked her for the birth wage, and she did not have any money in her pocket or in her safe. The employees of the Union of the Women were highly humanitarian and collected money from their pockets to pay the price of live birth for the hospital. The Union sent a young man with her who signed the securities to cover the costs of childbirth. She entered the maternity room. The staff of the Union of Women remained in contact with her husband after the operation and visited her home after they arrived from the hospital to her home. To facilitate her life in the period after her birth, the cost of the hospital is 257 Jordanian dinars, including these costs needle birth, because her blood group is different from her husband’s blood group was managed and the whole cost was given to Salma as a present. The Union of Women continued supporting refugees as the case of Salma who kept in contact and participated in its activities through attending seminars to increase the awareness level on how to look for the present and future. There
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was a strong relation between Salma and the Union of Women based on trust and confidence. One day, there was a serious problem between Salma and her husband that was about to end with divorce. Psychological support activities of the Union of Women made good contributions that ended the problem of its roots and returned the family relations to their norms. 5) The status of Salma’s Family before the last national war in Syria
When Salma was asked about her family status before the last war in Syria, she gave some details. Salma and her husband were married at an early age, 17 and 18 years, they were still children. They used to live in a big family house in which she almost lacked her freedom. The house was controlled by the father and mother of her husband. This situation may look as a classic situation there. She was not comfortable, but cannot show that. Another psychological problem was encountered in which her husband’s mother was crazy in loving her son to the degree she did not believe that he will be a man. He was always considered a child in her eyes. In Jordan, as a refugee, Salma feels more comfortable, particularly after her worries have been resolved. III. Discussion
Although hundreds of thousands of Syrian individuals were forced to leave their home country seeking for safety. Every refugee is a unique story of humanitarian suffering. The present study is based on phenomenological approach to understanding in-depth lived experiences by a Syrian refugee in Jordan. This approach has been applied in several studies [4, 5]. Syrian refugees have suffered from civilian war in their own country and exposed to direct fire that badly influenced them
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physically and psychologically. Under these conditions, children were early exposed to death which makes them discovering that life is not dreamt and not permanent, furthermore, they witness how body is harmed [6]. It is not surprising that Syrian refugee children to experience high levels of trauma and distress on mental health levels [7]. Another problem has been encountered with them due to large numbers of refugees in a small country like Jordan with limited sources. Jordan was not able to bear the whole costs of refugees and accordingly asked for help from international organizations including WHO. In Jordan, there were large camps to host refugees such as the Zaatari refugee camp. In this camp, refugees were received, hosted and were offered food, water, and treatment. Many of them were injured and needed high level of care. Also rehabilitation programs on physical and psychological levels were required and offered in the camp or outside the camp. It is expected that this new environment is going to influence the general psychological status due to incompatibility with such environment [7]. A. Statistic attributes
The following statistics were given by the Fafo-report [8]: • Forty-eight percent of Syrian displaced people begin from Dara’a. The other major governorates of starting point in Syria are Homs, 19 percent; Aleppo, 10 percent; Rural Damascus, 9 percent; and Damascus, 8 percent. • The displaced people have been in Jordan for 4.6 years, all things considered. Two percent have been back in Syria. • The Syrian displaced person populace in Jordan is very youthful, with 48 percent of the populace matured underneath 15, which is a lot more youthful than figures for the
populace in Syria before the emergency. • There are more Syrian ladies than men who matured 25 and over. • Syrian outcast ladies wed a lot before now than what ladies used to do in pre-war Syria. While around 3 percent of 15-yearolds in Syria were hitched before the war, we found that this number has ascended to 14 percent. Seventy-one percent of ladies matured 20 are hitched, contrasted with 43 percent in 2008 (as per Syrian insights). • Men additionally seem to wed before now than in pre-war Syria: While not many men had hitched by age 20 preceding the war, 23 percent had hitched as exiles in Jordan. • Mean family size is 5.3 people. Camp family units are somewhat littler than families outside camps. • Twenty-two percent of all families are going by ladies. • Households comprising of two guardians and their youngsters are the most well-known (at 58 percent). Single-parent family units make up 16 percent all things considered. Health statistics showed that: Sixteen percent of the Syrian refugee population in Jordan report chronic health failure. • For seeing, hearing and conveying, there is by all accounts no useful dissimilarity between Syrian exiles and the overall public. Be that as it may, Syrian outcasts have better than expected issues with memory and fixation. Moreover, the pervasiveness of troubles with individual consideration and difficulties climbing stairs or strolling is accounted for 4 and 10 percent of the Syrian displaced person populace, separately, which is twice as high concerning the Jordanian populace. • There is a solid constructive relationship between practical issues and age, with individuals’ capacity to perform regular
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exercises starting to fall apart from age 30 and, among those matured 50 or more, more than one-half report some trouble, in any event, one of the six utilitarian spaces. • Despite the low frequency of inability (for example encountering a great deal of trouble in any event one area) in kids, impaired kids make up a considerable portion of the absolute number of debilitated individuals on the grounds that there are a lot a larger number of kids than old in the general populace: 19 percent of the incapacitated are matured 5 to 19; 26 percent are matured 20 to 39; 19 percent are in their 40s; 15 percent are in their 50s; and 22 percent are 60 years or more seasoned. • Sixteen percent of Syrian displaced people who landed in Jordan after 15 March 2011 with any trouble in any event one of the six practical areas revealed the issue to be brought about by either war or flight. The equivalent was accounted for 20 percent of those with an enormous level of trouble in at least one of the spaces. • Seventy-eight percent of Syrian refugees with chronic health failure are in need of medical follow-up; of these, 21 percent do not receive follow-up, 30 percent turn to services provided by an NGO, 26 percent use public services and 18 percent use services from private providers. Four percent benefit from UNRWA’s health services. • The percentage of those relying on the private sector is particularly high in Amman (29 percent), whilst there is a heavy reliance on NGOs for follow-up of chronic health conditions in the camps (68 percent) and in Mafraq (52 percent), which have a particularly high share of vulnerable refugees. • Just 4 percent revealed abrupt ailment or damage during the year going before the meeting, out of whom 87 percent looked for therapeutic assistance.
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• Eighty-five percent of the individuals who looked for help counseled a medicinal specialist—either a general expert (46 percent) or a master (39 percent)— and 14 percent went to a drug specialist. • Public offices got a higher portion of the weak (40 percent) than private and NGO suppliers (both 23 percent). • Just similarly as with therapeutic line up related with incessant medical issues, the poor-est Syrian evacuees and those dwelling in Mafraq and the camps all the more every now and again go to NGO administrations. • 66% looked for help inside their neighborhood or their own local location (or camp), while 33% travel more distant. Thirteen percent of the camp tenants scanned for help past the camp fringe, almost every one of them searching for an extraordinary help. • Approximately four of every ten Syrian displaced people who saw a therapeutic specialist following an intense ailment didn’t pay for the help. • Median discussion cost is JD5; if those getting free interviews are avoided, the middle expense is multiplied to JD10. • Payment for prescriptions and different cures is higher than the installment for a consultation with a restorative specialist. The middle expense is JD10. At the point when those not paying anything are avoided, the middle installment duplicates to JD20. • More than eight of every ten are ‘fulfilled’ or ‘somewhat happy’ with the wellbeing ser-indecencies they have gotten. B. Education
• Fifteen percent of grown-ups matured 20 or more have accomplished an auxiliary or post-optional degree. Another 24 percent have finished fundamental training. Twentysix percent didn’t finish grade school. • Enrolment rates for youngsters
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matured 6 to 11 are high, at 99 to 100 percent. Enrolment rates start tumbling from age 12 onwards: 12 years, 92 percent; 13 years, 86 percent; 14 years, 71 percent; 15 and 16 years, 39 percent; 17 years, 23 percent; 18 years, 13 percent; and 19 years, 12 percent. • Compared to 2014, an altogether higher extent of Syrian kids are taken a crack at essential instruction, and they remain selected longer. In 2014, just 49 percent of 14-year-olds and 22 percent of 15-year-olds went to fundamental tutoring. The level presently remains at 68 and 48 percent, individually. • The portion of Syrian displaced person kids matured 16 and 17 going to auxiliary training has additionally expanded, though not to such an extent: remaining at 12 and 17 percent separately in 2014 and at 15 and 21 percent as of now. • Two to five percent of Syrian displaced people matured 18 to 22 go to post-optional education, contrasted with 24 to 46 percent of Jordanians in this age gathering. • Ninety-five percent of Syrian outcast youngsters going to essential instruction are en-overflowed with a government-funded school, while 4 percent are joined up with a tuition-based school and 1 percent are understudies at a school kept running by UNRWA. • In the exile camps, all schools work two movements, where the young ladies go to the morning shift and the young men go to the night move. Outside the camps, 71 percent of Syrian displaced persons kids are taken on two-move schools, with 66% going to the evening shift. • 10% of Syrian displaced persons youngsters at present took a crack at fundamental tutoring have rehashed in any event one school year. Taken together with the previous statistics about Syrian refugees in Jordan, we can imagine the stress experienced
on the daily level by individual refugee or refugee groups. One of the humanitarian establishment is the Union of the Women, that was established by local efforts of volunteers. In this Union, there are a medical clinic and psychological rehabilitation programs. Salma represents a case with its suffers, hopes, in the past and future. The elements of this case involved woman, child, and injured husband with semi-disability. The efforts of Salma were great and beyond her tolerance ability, but she showed high level of patience to retain the integrity of her family. It is important in this regard to put emphasis on the importance of health of children in stepfamilies as an important indicator of satisfied family life, and this because children are considered a very significant part making the composition of the life of family, which, in turn, influences the success of stepfamilies in future perspectives [9]. Salma pointed to a very important topic regarding the influence of grandfather on the personality of her son. This is a very important topic that has recently gained the attention of researchers such as Uhlendorff [10]. This topic was not well investigated broadly until recently. It has been indicated that people tend to live together in a model involving the existence of old and older ages, this may lead to what is called multigenerational bonds, a matter that has witnessed increased importance [11]. Other studies such as that were conducted by Uhlenberg and Hammill [12] put emphasis on the number of contacts as well as the relationship of closeness between grandparents and grandchildren as a matter of exerting influence. According to this context, it has been shown that some children try to take the role of their fathers as a matter of compensating their absence through doing or working of various things as offering care for siblings or running the
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family’s household tasks. In some cases, children may mimic the role of decisionmakers for their families [13]. In some cases, the family may see their children showing fast growth, with expanding the horizon and accumulated much weight on their shoulders. In these cases, the family members used to say that their children are acting like a little man. Through playing this role, they try to offer help for their mothers in getting jobs, running everyday jobs, or playing the role of protection [14]. According to mother, the cause of violence on her child is due to observing his grandfather in Syria, her five-year-old child learned how older men behaved and tried to imitate them, but now, during the crisis, he behaves like “young men,” trying to help his mother by running errands or taking preventive behavior for an adult. Like many other refugees, Salma is also worried about how her children’s lives have changed. Rely on “negative coping mechanisms”. What makes matters worse is that an increasing number of women - one in four Syrian women now heads of households - is facing economic pressure and tension to raise a family on their own, prompting them to explode in their children. Physical damage, fear, stress, and trauma to many children are only part of the humanitarian crisis. (Number of Syrian refugee children reaches one million) [15]. Psychological sessions were proved helpful for Salma and her family. Conclusion A case of a Syrian refugee family representing suffers of a woman, child, and injured husband was introduced. The journey of the family from their home country to Jordan seeking safety and better life was described. The Jordanian government and local people put great efforts to lower the
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suffers of Syrian refugees. References: [1] DelZotto, August and Adam Jones. “Male-onMale Sexual Violence in Wartime: Human Rights’ Last Taboo?”, in Annual Convention of the International Studies Association in New Orleans, 2002; 23-27. [2] Stemple, Lara. “Male Rape and Human Rights.” in Hastings Law Journal, 2009; 60: 605-647. [3] Noueihed, Lin. Peddler’s martyrdom launched Tunisia’s revolution. Reuters UK. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011. [4] van Manen, M.. Phenomenology of practice: Meaning giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016. [5] Ottenbreit-Leftwich, T., Glazewski, K. D., Newby, J. T., Ertmer, P. A. “Teacher value beliefs associated with using technology: Addressing professional and student needs”. Computers & Education, 2010, 55(3), 1321–1335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compedu.2010.06.002. [6] http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ download? doi=10.1.1.424.5285&rep=rep1&type=pdf, retrieved on 21/10/2019. [7] https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/content/ dam/global/reports/emergency humanitarianresponse/invisible-wounds.pdf, retrieved on 21/10/2019. [8] Åge A. Tiltnes, Huafeng Zhang and Jon Pedersen. The living conditions of Syrian refugees in Jordan: Results from the 20172018 survey of Syrian refugees inside and outside camps. Fafo 2019 , ISBN 978-82-3240494-0 ISSN 2387-6859. [9] McDonald, W. L., DeMaris, A. “StepfatherStepchild Relationship Quality. The Stepfathers’s Demand for conformity and the Biological Father’s Involvement”. in Journal of Family Issues, 2002; 23, 121-137. [10] Uhlendorff, H. “Großeltern und Enkelkinder: Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven und Forschungsergebnisse hinsichtlich einer selten untersuchten Beziehung” [Grandparents and
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grandchildren: Perspectives of social science and empirical results towards a rarly examined relationsships]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 2003, 50, 111-128. [11] Bengston, V. L. “Beyond the nuclear family: The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds”. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2001; 63(1), 1-16. [12] Uhlenberg, P., Hammill, B. G. Frequency of contact with grandchild sets: Six factors that make a difference. The Gerontologist, 1998; 38, 276-285. [13] https://www.unhcr.org/ar/53bb8d006.pd, retrieved on 21/10/2019. [14] https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/53be84aa4. pdf, retrieved on 22/10/2019. [15] https://www.unhcr.org/ar/news/latest/2013/ 8/521667ec6.html, retrieved on 22/10/2019
Biographies
to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published several articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. This article is the 6th in philosophy. Ala’ Ahed AlKhatib. I graduated from Yarmouk University, in February 2019, Counseling Psychology, with excellent grade 85, my research interests are: family counseling, family relations, mental health, depression, anxiety, psychosocial support, volunteer at Makani Center with UNICEF Volunteer with Al-waey team, formerly volunteer with the Clinical Help Clinic in Amman and Zarqa.
Dr. Ahed J Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Cambell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at faculty of medicine, Jordan University of Science and technology. Over the time, I have published more than 200 articles in various medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking, and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins which can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses, and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The arcane discipline present in the Eucharistic consciousness of the Church by protecting the Holy Eucharist against desecration Lecturer Maxim Marian Vlad, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 29 August 2019 Received in revised form 19 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.15
Keywords: disciplina arcani; Lord’s Supper; Baptism; canon; mysteries; discipline; church; Christian sacraments;
abstract
Disciplina Arcani (“Instruction in the Sacred Secret”, i.e. initiation into the mystery): this term was first applied by Dallaeus and G. T. Meier to the practice of maintaining a studied reticence (fides silentii) concerning the form and character of introduction into the Church, as if it were something analogous to the initiation into the mysteries of the heathen world. The practice is especially observed in the fourth and fifth centuries. Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, with the baptismal formula and the Lord’s Prayer, played an essential part in the introduction, as they represented the center of the supposed mysteries. A theological term used to express the old discipline of the primary Church. This forbade the disclosure of Christian sacraments to non-Christians. The notion that defines this phenomenon is relatively modern and does not seem to have been used before the controversies of the seventeenth century when both Protestants and Catholics published works on the subject of the Old Church.
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Vlad Marian. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Vlad, Marian, ”The arcane discipline present in the Eucharistic consciousness of the Church by protecting the Holy Eucharist against desecration,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.15, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 156-163.
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I. Disciplina Arcani – Preliminary ideas.
Historical context and justification
According to specialized dictionaries, Disciplina Arcani or the Discipline of Secrecy represents the conduct of the Christians from the primary Church, whereby the disclosure of Christian mysteries to nonChristians, Jews or pagans was forbidden [1]. The Church did not allow catechumens and non-Christians to attend the performance of the Holy Eucharist and Baptism. Besides this, some Christian teachings were communicated after baptism, so it was inferred that the Church was pursuing such a discipline, which was named “disciplina arcani” by two Protestant theologians from 17th century, i.e. Johannes Dallæus and G. T. Meier [2]. The official text or moment of the Church’s approval of such a decision is unknown, but the church practice is noted. According to this, Christians could not disclose their Mysteries to those that were not baptized, lest they should be overthrown, profaned or mocked. However, the martyr and philosopher St. Justin describes essential parts of the Christian cult in his works. It suggests that a proper “disciplina arcani” did not exist. Nevertheless, the statements of Tertullian, Clement Alexandrine, and Origen imply that the Church actually observed such a practice. The expression “disciplina arcani” was put into circulation in the 17th century. However, the reality it designates is ancient. In primitive cultures, “disciplina arcani” was applied to children and adolescents who were introduced to the secrets of adults by an initiation rite. In mystery religions, through secret “sacramental” acts, the initiated persons could participate in the destiny of mythical figures transmitted in the taught myth. In Christianity, the initiation rites and the
worship formulas are secret; however, the actual spiritual content of the teaching itself is not a secret. Since Christian communities established themselves as recognizable groups in cities, they were often disliked by the people. This did not happen because they had a lifestyle that contrasted painfully with the debauched and luxurious world around them; this is a later Christian image, which ignores the fact that, during the first period of the empire, much of the Greek thought was austere in nature and denied the world. Neither did it take place because they allowed themselves to preach too much in public or to systematically attract new disciples, as modern neo-Protestant sects do. According to the New Testament descriptions, there is very little evidence that the early Christians would have continued to live exclusively as ostentatious proclaimers of the Gospel in public unless they were caught in times of persecution. In fact, the opposite attitude was offensive. This stands for their secretive attitude and stubborn isolation in their own world. For Christians, this isolation was inevitable, given the sense of falsehood that all other religions inspired. Life in Antiquity was saturated with the ceremonies of the traditional religion. Assuming any social role presupposed the risk of defilement, especially when a Christian held a public function [3]. They were generally accused of public inertia [4]. In general, Christians avoided public baths and military service[5]. The isolated nature of the Christian life was also expressed by the specificity of the material used in order to write sacred texts and Christian literature in general. With remarkable consistency, they did not write their sacred writings in the conventional form of the scroll, as their Jewish predecessors and all others in the ancient world had done, but in collections of parchment or paper, in
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our modern format – codices [6]. The contrast between Judaism – the religion of the scroll – and Christianity, the religion of the book, would become evident in the divine service of the two when the codex of the Scripture began to be used as a sacred song. In addition, Christians, jealously, hid the ceremonies of Baptism and the Eucharist from the eyes of the uninitiated. These ceremonies were deeply misunderstood by the intelligent and sensitive Roman observers. Incest reports emerged from the Christian discourses about feasts of love and cannibalism reports - from the discourses about the act of eating a body and drinking blood. Equally easy to understand is the fact that the Roman authorities, which were paranoid about any secret organization [7], we’re trying to repress those who spent the taxpayers’ money by disturbing the peace. During the early days of Christianity, the first Christians started to proclaim the “good news” within the Jewish communities and thus often would stir the violence of angry Jews. However, the isolation and dogmatism of the early Christians had both positive and negative parts; they brought a continuous stream of disciples. These closed communities could attract people in search of safety and comfort (especially physical comfort). Christians cared for their poor [8] – as this was one of the main duties performed by one of the three categories of the clergy, i.e. the deacons – and offered a decent funeral to the believers, a matter of great significance in the ancient world [9]. The feeling of certainty in Christians’ faith was concentrated particularly on the exaltation of the steadfastness in suffering, even to death [10]. From time to time, they faced harassment from the crowds and official persecution, which in the worst cases,
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ended with public executions preceded by prolonged torture and ritual humiliation, with the victims completely stripped in the sports arena, in front of a cheerful crowd. The death as a martyr was accessible to anyone, regardless of social status or personal talents, which made it attractive. Women were martyred alongside men, slaves, and free men [11]. II. “Disciplina arcani”. The Martyrs from Abitina and St. Martyr Tarcisius, models of ecclesial and Eucharistic consciousness
If the springs regarding the divine worship of the old Church up to Constantine’s era are poor, afterwards they begin to flow rich and wide. After Constantine’s era, there are not only a lot of testimonies regarding the divine cult, but also whole cultic forms. In order to find out what the divine cult looked like in the fourth century, we can read those ordinances that appeared at that time, but which were not used later, because, unlike those that remained in use, these ordinances were no longer changed by subsequent additions [12]. Even “disciplina arcani”, which was already established in the third century and which flourished in the fourth century, could not stop the flow of information circulating in this era. A support point in the primary Christian tradition held by “disciplina arcani” lies in the fact that the divine Eucharistic cult was permanently a closed celebration of the community, to which only the baptized had access. This is because it was viewed as eschatological anticipation, as the beginning of the new creation, as a foreshadowing of the eschatological ekklesia. Only those who were baptized into the Unique Body of Christ could participate in this Body in the Eucharist. “Disciplina arcani” is related to the gesture of the catechumens’ dismissal. In the current text of the Divine Liturgy, this is
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expressed as follows (before the beginning of the Eucharistic part, the “liturgy of the believers”): Deacon: “Catechumens, go out. No catechumen should stay. Believers, let’s pray again and again to the Lord”. Within the framework of “disciplina arcani”, the Eucharist is a “mysterium”, a secret transmission. The original reason for the catechumens’ dismissal is another one, though it leads to the same result: “ekklesia” is an eschatological community “called” from the world. The church is the ark of the saved individuals who enter it through Baptism. The typical aspect for “disciplina arcani” resided in that it was the symbols that were silent and not the spiritual gifts communicated by them. The main result of “disciplina arcani” for the liturgical celebration was the dismissal that took place at different stages. First, those who were not baptized at the end of the Catechumen Liturgy were dismissed; then, there were the call: “Doors, doors” immediately before the Eucharistic prayer. “Disciplina arcani” ended in the fifth century, when Christianity was so widespread in the Roman Empire that, in fact, there were no uninitiated left. The separation made during the validity of “disciplina arcani” between those who were baptized and those who were not baptized shifted after the fifth century, becoming a problematic separation between priests and the people. Of course, the “layman” of a popular state Church is no longer the “layman” in the biblical or old Church understanding. The secret discipline in the Primary Church was not just someone’s caprice or a tendency manifested, at a time, by a certain Christian community, to seem more interesting; on the contrary, it represented the Church’s life dictated by the circumstances of the time. Respecting or disrespecting it was a matter of life and
death. Indifferent or inattentive Christians could expose an entire community when they met pagan friends whom they brought to their congregations. At one point, pagans could denounce Christians and hand them over to the persecuting authorities. Moreover, during the persecution period, this phenomenon occurred, culminating in the obligation, imposed both on the clergy and the laymen, to hand over the vessels and the cult books to the authorities. Thus, the discipline had to be strictly observed. Most Christians respected it very strictly, to the point of sacrificing their lives in faith for the cause of the Church. In the martyrologies and Synaxarions of the Christian Church there are mentioned a plethora of martyrs who represented models in this regard. Of these, it is worth noting and giving as examples the Martyrs of Abitina and St. Tarcisius. The martyrs of Abitina were a group of 49 Christians found guilty, in 304, during the reign of Emperor Diocletian [13], of having illegally celebrated the Sunday worship in Abitina, a city in the Roman province of Africa During the trial, one of the martyrs was asked why he violated the emperor’s edict. Then he answered: “Sine dominico non possumus” - we cannot live without Sunday. He was referring to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, which was celebrated on Sunday and which the emperor had declared illegal. Despite this, they chose to participate in the Holy Liturgy, even at the cost of being tortured and sentenced to death. As far as Martyr Tarcisius [14] is concerned, there are not too many details about his life. He lived in the third century AD. The only information concerning this Roman martyr is found in a poem composed in his honor by Pope Damasus (366–384). The latter compares him to the deacon Saint Stephen and says that, as Stephen was stoned by a crowd, so Tarcisius,
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carrying the Blessed Sacrament, was attacked by a group and beaten to death. He was a young man who often visited the catacombs of St. Calixt in Rome, being very faithful to his Christian commitments. He deeply loved the Eucharist, and, from different sources, we can suppose that he was an acolyte who served at the altar and carried the communion to the sick and to the imprisoned persons. During Emperor Valerian’s persecutions, he endured the martyrdom, defending with his own life the Holy Eucharist against desecration from some pagans [15]. III. “Disciplina arcani” in the canonical consciousness and the liturgical practice of the Church
The echo of such testimonies of Christian life and martyrdom availability has never disappeared from the Church conscience. Its memory retained the evidence of courage and faithfulness of some of its sons and the way they confessed their faith has become paradigmatic and normative for the whole Church. Moreover, the obligation to observe this type of discipline was codified in the canonical law of the Orthodox Church. The Local Synod of Antioch (341), in Canon 2, gives expression to this reality which marked a great part of the Church history: “All who enter the church of God and hear the Holy Scriptures, but do not communicate with the people in prayers, or who turn away, by reason of some disorder, from the holy partaking of the Eucharist, are to be cast out of the Church, until, after they shall have made confession, and has brought forth the fruits of penance, and made earnest entreaty, they shall have obtained forgiveness; and it is unlawful to communicate with excommunicated persons, or to assemble in private houses and pray with those who do not pray in the Church; or to receive in one Church those who do not assemble
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with another Church. And, if anyone of the bishops, presbyters, or deacons, or anyone in the Canon shall be found communicating with excommunicated persons, let him also be excommunicated, as one who brings confusion on the order of the Church”[16]. This canon completely forbids Christians to discuss the mysteries of faith with catechumens, heretics, schismatics, excommunicated persons; moreover, it also prohibits the communion of prayer or liturgy with them. St. Basil the Great was also aware that the profession of faith and all that pertained to the Church teaching and practice were passed on to those initiated (to the baptized) through mysteries, i.e. in the form of liturgical customs and rites. St. Basil stated that most mysteries should be communicated to us in an unwritten way. In any case, the realities described by St. Basil are of liturgical nature: using the cross sign when receiving the catechumens; the eastward orientation at prayer times; the habit of standing upright in Sunday prayers; the epiclesis of the Eucharistic ritual; the blessing of water and oil ; the renunciation to Satan and his pump; the threefold diving belonging to the baptism ritual. St. Basil says that there are many other “unwritten mysteries of the Church”: τά άγράφα τής έκκλησίας μυστήρια. Although not mentioned in Scripture, these mysteries are nevertheless of great importance and significance. They are indispensable in maintaining the right faith. The mysteries are an effective means for testimony and communication. In fact, the “tradition” St. Basil appeals to, is nothing more than the liturgical practice of the Church. St. Basil refers here directly to “disciplina arcani”, the discipline of silence: “Of the beliefs and practices, whether generally accepted or publicly enjoined,
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which are preserved in the Church, some we possess derived from written teaching; we have received others as delivered to us “in a mystery” by the tradition of the apostles; and both of these have the same force in relation to true religion. And these no one will gainsay;-no one, at all events, who is even moderately versed in the institutions of the Church. For were we to attempt to reject such customs as having no written authority, on the ground that the importance they possess is small, we should unintentionally injure the Gospel in its very vitals.[17]”. In the fourth century, this widely used “discipline” was formally imposed and defended by the Church. It addressed the catechumenate, and it mainly had an academic and educational purpose. On the other hand, St. Basil said that certain “traditions” had to remain unwritten in order to prevent their desecration by nonbelievers. This remark referred to customs and rituals. At this point, we should mention that, in the practice of the fourth century, the Creed (also the Sunday Prayer) was part of this “discipline of silence” and could not be unraveled to the uninitiated. The Creed was reserved for the candidates to Baptism, at the last stage of their instruction, after they were solemnly enlisted and approved. The Creed was communicated or “received by them as tradition” –orally – by the bishop and they had to recite it from memory in front of him: the ceremony of traditio and reddito symboli (Transmission and Repetition of the Creed by the Initiates). The catechumens were encouraged not to divulge the Creed to outsiders, nor to write it. It had to be written in their hearts. It is enough to quote here the Prologues of St. Cyril of Jerusalem [18], in chapters 12 and 17. In the West, Rufin and Augustine felt that it was not appropriate to write the Creed on paper. For this reason, Sozomen – in his History – does not quote the Niceean Creed,
“which only the initiated persons and the mystagogues had the right to hear and to recite” [19]. St. Basil strongly emphasized the importance of the baptismal profession, which included a formal Creed in the Holy Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. This was a tradition that was handed to the newcomers “in secret” and had to be kept “in silence”. CONCLUSIONS This type of problematization made the Church to be permanently on guard, as to how the Apostolic Tradition and the Tradition of the Fathers would be transmitted further in the Church, to the next generations. In this new context, in which the Christianization of peoples became massive, for cultural and state reasons, the converted persons were forced to skip the catechumenate stage. Consequently, the new members of the Church were not deeply initiated into the mysteries of faith, and they often obeyed superficially to the demands of Christian faith and morality. However, the assistance of the Holy Spirit on the Church has never ceased, and It has provided the Church with the appropriate means for the message of Christ to reach each person. Moreover, in accordance with St. Basil’s thoughts and statements, one may notice - further in the Church - the presence of a living ecclesiastical conscience, assumed by the most zealous Christians. Thus, the discipline of the missing catechumenate has been transmitted further on the path of the Church’s Mysteries, which subsumes the teachings of faith, the canonical discipline and all cultic practices, rites and rituals that are performed in it. Although “disciplina arcani”, specific to the catechumenate of the primary Church, disappeared in the 5th-6th centuries, it has continued to manifest itself in other forms in the Church life. Thus, immediately after
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the disappearance of the catechumenate, in liturgical forms and Church ordinances, there emerged texts and prayers that made direct reference to the realities described by “Disciplina arcani”. However, their meanings have disappeared or diluted over time. Such a text, a Eucharistic prayer and hymn at the same time, is the Hymn of the Last Supper: “Receive me Today, O Son of God, as a partaker of Thy Mystic Feast; for I will not speak of the Mystery to Thine enemies, I will not kiss Thee as did Judas, but as the thief I will confess Thee. Lord, remember me when I comest to Thy Kingdom” [cf. Them. 23, 42]. This liturgical hymn penetrated deep into the Christians’ Eucharistic consciousness. It is seen both as a Cherubic text – as it is sometimes sung in the Church Liturgy – and especially as a prayer of anamnesis and mystical nature. This hymn replaces the Cherubic Hymn in the Liturgy of St. Basil the Great on the Great Thursday. On the one hand, it reminds the believers about the painful experiences of their brothers of faith, experiences that they endured in a committed way, offering good testimony for the price of their life, protecting the mystery of faith and the Church sacraments, without disclosing them to the enemies. On the other hand, it prepares the same believers for receiving, in a state of maximum awareness, the Sacrament of the Eucharist. The believer becomes One with Christ through the Holy Communion, being protected from the worst sin, i.e. that of indifference, sanctioned by Apostle Paul in chapter 11 of I Corinthians. References [1]
[2]
Braniste, Ene. Dicţionar Enciclopedic de cunoştinţe religioase [Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religious Knowledge]. Caransebeş: Diecezana , 2001, 140. Meier, G., T., De recondita veteris ecclesiæ theologia. Helmstedt, 1670.
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Stanescu, Nina. “Aging – A Global and Diverse Social Phenomenon”. International multidisciplinary scientiific conference on social sciences & arts SGEM, Conference Proceedings, Book 1, Volume II, Albena, Bulgaria (2016): 111-119. [4] Ţepelea, Marius. Biserica şi Statul roman în primele trei secole [The Church and the Romanian State in the First Three Centuries]. Deva: Emia, 2005, 90. [5] Dâscă, Dragoş. Părinţii Bisericii despre Război şi Stagiul militar [Church Fathers on War and Military Internship]. Iaşi: Doxologia, 2015, 14. [6] Roberts, Colin H. & Skeat, Theodore Cressy. The Birth of the Codex. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, 38-67. [7] Zugravu, Nelu & Albert, Ovidiu. Scripta vs Christianos in the în Ist -II.nd Centuries] Iaşi: Presa Bună, 2003, 161-162. [8] Constantelos, Demetrios J. Filantropia bizantină şi asistenţa socială [Byzantine philanthropy and social assistance]. Iaşi: Doxologia, 2014, 48-49. [9] Stanescu, Nina. “St. John Chrysostom Ambassador of the Poor”. International multidisciplinary scientiific conference on social sciences & arts SGEM, Conference Proceedings. Book 1, Volume III, Albena, Bulgaria (2016): 933-941. [10] Young, Frances, M. The Use of Sacrificial Ideas in Greek Christian Writers from the New Testament to John Chrysostom, Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004, 107. [11] Wallace, A. J. and Rusk, R. D. Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation New Zealand: Bridgehead. 2011, 217-229. [12] Ică, Ioan jr I. Canonul Ortodoxiei I. Canonul Apostolic al primelor secole [Canon of Orthodoxy I. Apostolic Canon of the First Centuries]. Deisis/ Stavropoleos, 2008, 321909. [13] Bleckmann, Bruno. Diocletianus„ in Brill’s New Pauly, Volume 4, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider. Leiden: Brill, 2002.. [14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs_of_ Abitinae [3]
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*** Sfântul Mucenic Tarsizie. Un model pentru tineri [Holy Martyr Tarcisius. A model for young people]. Galaţi: Bunavestire, 2002. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarcisius [16] Kirsch, Johann, Peter. „St. Tarsicius”. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14, New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. [17] Floca, Ioan. Canoanele Bisericii Ortodoxe, note şi comentarii [The canons of the Orthodox Church, notes and comments]. Sibiu: Polisib, 1993, 2006, 207. http:// www.documenta-catholica.eu/d_Schaff,%20 Philip%20-3-%20Vol%2014-%20The%20 Seven%20Ecumenical%20Councils%20 -%20EN.pdf [18] Sf. Vasile cel Mare.Scrieri, partea a treia, Despre Sfântul Duh, Corespondenţă (Epistole), Părinţi şi Scriitori Bisericeşti [Scriptures, Part Three, About the Holy Spirit, Correspondence (Epistles), Parents and Church Writers]. No. 12. Bucureşti: Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1988, 79-80 (coll. 188-192). https://www.elpenor.org/ basil/holy-spirit.asp?pg=74 [19] Sfântul Chiril al Ierusalimului.Cateheze [Catechesis].Bucureşti: I.B.M. B.O.R, 2003,12-13. [20] Sozomen, Istoria Bisericească [Church History]. Bucureşti, 1897, cap 1, 20. [15]
Biography Maxim Marian Vlad is currently Assistant Professor at the Ovidius University in Constanța He is licensed: since 2002, in theology “Justinian Patriarhul”, Faculty of Theology, Bucharest, Romania; since 2004, Master in Doctrine and Culture, Faculty of Theology, Bucharest; since 2012 is licensed in Law Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, Ovidius University Constanta, Romania; since 2005 - Master’s degree in Community Institutions and Canon Law, Faculty of Law
and Administrative Sciences, “Ovidius” University Constanţa, Romania and has been a doctor in theology, since 2011, according to O.M.E.C.T.S. No.6468 / 2011, Doctoral School of the University of Bucharest. The main areas of study in which he operates are: Canonical Law, theology, social assistance, sociology, law and administrative sciences. As a Professor at Ovidius University in Constanța, he has 14 years experience His most interesting publications are: Maxim Vlad, Priveliştea lumii. Stâlpnicii în spiritualitatea monahală. O introducere,[ The View of the World. The Pillar Saints in Monastic Spirituality. An Introduction], Editura Platytera, Bucureşti, 2007, 146 p. ISBN 978-973-87880-3-9. Gheorghita Ciocioi, Serban Tica, Maxim Vlad, Amalia Dragne, Diana Cristina Vlad, Mihaela Voicu, Ghidul manastirilor din Romania [Guide to the Monasteries in Romania]; Editura Sophia, Bucureşti, 2010, 328 p. ISBN:9789731361734. M. M. Vlad, N. Stanescu, C. Rus, The Pastoral Activity of the Orthodox Church in the Romanian Countries, Manifested in the Care for the Sick People. HistoricalNomocanonical and Social-Philanthropic Perspective, International multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences & arts SGEM, conference proceedings, Book IV, Volume 18, Albena, Bulgaria, 2018, pp. 939-946, indexed ISI Web of Knowledge, Web of Science, Thomson Reuters, ELSEVIER products, SCOPUS, Cross Ref, DOI: 10.5593/sgemsocial2018/3.3/ S12.120, https://www.sgemsocial. org/index.php/conference-topics/
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The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
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The Process of Integrating the Monastic Phenomenon into the Forms of Institutional Organization of the Church. Ecclesiological-Canonical Consequences Lecturer Maxim Marian Vlad, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 29 August 2019 Received in revised form 19 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.16
Keywords: monasticism; canon; laity; ecclesiological; Church; Christianity; charismatic movement;
abstract
In the late nineteenth century, monasticism was subjected to the same type of analysis applied to the Bible and early Christian texts in general. Although there are enough studies that explain the motivations of the emergence of monasticism and its historical manifestation, there are a few studies that highlight its role and status for the life of the Church from the ecclesiological and canonical point of view. Monasticism is nothing more than a state of the laity with a life consecrated to God through volunteering, without special invitation from the Church for consecration by ordination as in the case of clergy. It represents a particular calling and vocation to members of the church, to whom they willingly respond and not from a specific necessity. Basically, monasticism is a charismatic movement inside the church through which the Holy Spirit continues the work of the Prophets, apostles, Martyrs, and Charismatic Christian missionaries from the first Christian centuries. This specific manifestation of the church, present in its consciousness since its origins, has received legal recognition as belonging to the body of the church for the first time through the 4th Canon of the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Calcedon (453). Thus, monasticism becomes the third constituent element of the church. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Vlad Marian. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Vlad, Marian, ”The Process of Integrating the Monastic Phenomenon into the Forms of Institutional Organization of the Church and the Implications of its Recognition as its Third Constituent Element. Ecclesiological-Canonical Consequences” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.16, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 164-173.
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I. INTRODUCTION
Today one speaks, at least as much as in the past, about the role of monasticism in the life of the church. The assertions are so diverse and contradictory, that people, if not sufficiently cleared, end up confused in the treatment of monasticism as the Church’s constituent element. The discussions are being held around an older idea, intensely valued in our communist period, by scientific and dialectical materialistic thinking. The debate has been reaffirmed in recent years, especially in the west, questioning or even denying the necessity of the existence of monasticism as part of the Church. The last forty years have marked a significant revision of the perspective on Christian ascetism and monasticism. In the past, most often, interpretations followed confessional lines. Today, postmodern criticism seeks to understand monasticism by taking it out of the environment that created it - the Christian Church. Protestant scholars, on the other hand, were inclined to see in monasticism a fanatical, even perky movement, because it would restrict the boundaries of human freedom [1]. At the end of the 19th century, with the ascent of a less polemic approach in Germany, monasticism was subjected to the same kind of analysis applied to the Bible and the first Christian texts in general. Many historians and sociologists, sometimes even theologians, wonder about the role played by monasticism in a society structured on pragmatism and globalism or within a Church that directly faces secularization, social activism, and religious globalization. Given the common ideal of perfection of its members and the somewhat similar means of touching this ideal, the Church has never questioned the problem of either time and place of the monk occurrence in her bosom, or of monasticism as an institution [2]. This principle is no other than the
godhood of the human being participating through a more intense grace to the Godlike nature (II Peter 1, 4). The ones who sought the origins of monasticism anywhere else but in the Church were the theologians from the West and, especially, Protestants probably because they lack this phenomenon in their confession. Monasticism (from the Greek term: μοναχος – meaning single person) is the ancient practice of Christians of leaving the world in order to worship with their body and soul a life in accordance with the Gospel, pursuing the union with Jesus Christ. Thus, in regard to its Christian origins, the scholars` opinions differ. During the 19th century, there were many theories through which the Western thought (RationalismEnlightenment) tried to question the foundations of it. These adversaries of the monastic movement tried to prove that it is fundamentally separated from the spirit of the Gospels and that its origins can be found rather in heterogeneous elements in relation to the Gospels. For the reader, it is necessary to mention these theories alongside their proponents. 1. Pagan asceticism (for instance, the cult from the Vaults of the Serapeum of Saqqara, the dervishes, the fakirs), once turned to Christianity, preserved the original lifestyle. Christianity only tamed their savage practices and thus they were included in the Church [3]. 2. Monasticism must be seen as a reminiscence of Hellenistic philosophy that religiously values the effort of ascending towards God, a reminiscence that entered Christianity, even if this is, on the contrary, a religion of grace [4]. 3. The anchorites came from dualistic, Encratic and Montanan sects, whose members reconciled with the Church. Instead of blessing the world by remaining in it, they still believed that they must run
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away from it [5]. 4. Monasticism is a superficial syncretism between the pagan, Christian and philosophical elements [6]. 5. The foundation of monasticism is Christian asceticism in an organized and institutionalized form, having lost the spontaneity and freedom of its origins [7]. As we can see, these theories are based on prejudice: that monasticism is a move away from authentic Christianity. As such, it is attributed to several influences from outside Christianity. However, the issue can be approached differently: monasticism appears to be an evangelic movement, but, to realize its purpose, it uses universal human experiences. Some external influences cannot be excluded from the start, even if it cannot be reduced to these external aspects [8]. In order to know if we still need monasticism or not, if the Church can go on with or without this, it is necessary to know, the causes and the motivations that created this phenomenon that has turned into a real institution inside the Church. II. The Causes of Monasticism
When we talk about the causes that determined the development of monasticism, we believe that the insertion of pagan populations into Christianity and its legalization, the new converts brought all kinds of customs. Because of the superficiality of religious life, the believers, willing to live the Christian life in its entirety, retreated from the fast-paced world to listen to God`s voice in the deserts, just like Saint Elijah, John the Baptist or even Jesus Christ. As Paul Evdokimov [9] said, historically speaking, monasticism can be explained through a radical revolt against evil and its reign in the world, a big “no” in front of any compromise and conformism. Its evangelic
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force meant leaving the confusing forms of this world and suggested the formation of a city of monks at its periphery. The nostalgia of our Lord`s Kingdom and the eschatological enthusiasm as opposed to the too earthly character of the Empire that was called “Christian” perhaps too early. Christian monasticism that appeared during the 3rd-4th centuries was thus a reaction to the new situation, rather comfortable, in which the Church was under the protection of the Empire. The Christian elite chose to flee into the desert and thus acknowledge that the Kingdom of God is a kingdom of the future and that the Church could not find a permanent refuge on Earth [10]. Even if the Roman Empire turned from a persecutor of Christianity into a protector, for many Christians this change in attitude did not mean that the fight and the conflict ended. Given the new politico-religious circumstances, the acknowledgment that was expected from them was no longer the one of blood and martyrdom, but of conscience, the fight with themselves. This fact implied an escape from the new Christian society in which the particular Christian values started to fade. The prophetic vocation of the Church towards the destiny and the purpose of the world ensured until then by a large number of martyrs [11], was under threat. The authentic message of Christ`s Gospel, unaltered by the Church of the catacombs, was in danger of being falsified [12]. These Christians, sensitive to the new changes and to the growing influence of the GreekRoman world on their own values, reacted. Monasticism must be understood in its complexity as a Christian phenomenon born as a radical opposition against the new GreekChristian society that was too impregnated by the principles of Greek philosophy. Because of this, it tended to become more Greek than Christian. The Christians that embraced monastic life reacted to the fact
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that the Church integrated the spirit of the world once it received its freedom from Constantine the Great. The role the martyrs played during the persecution will be from now on represented by the new martyrs [13] of Christian society: the anchorites. With the same message, on a pilgrimage to the Kingdom of Heaven, the anchorites manifested their devotion to God in different ways. The initial Christian monasticism was far from being understood and received in the same way all across the Christian world. It would be false to interpret monastic life as being homogenous and uniform. Christian monasticism originates from inside the Church, from the model of life totally engaged in reaching the ideal offered by Christ himself, by the Virgin Mary and by other people from the sacred history of the Old and New Testament. Christian monasticism is similar to its other forms from outside Christianity, not because those are its origins, but because a part of the monastic efforts is generally human. The fathers of this phenomenon did not know anything about Oriental religions, philosophical movements or the communities of the Essenes and the Therapeutae that were long gone. Monasticism developed as an institution, naturally evolving from asceticism ever since the beginning of the Church [14]. Since the beginning of the Church, there have been Christians that, inside communities or at their periphery, practiced a special form of isolation, according to their vocation and possibilities. In the 4th century, monasticism appears as a strong reality that will be institutionalized because the Church waited for a period of relative freedom to practice another of its graceful and energetic aspects. Father George Florovsky stresses some of the motivations for the appearance of such ascetic movements: “The Empire was becoming Christian. The world was becoming religious. But this world and
this Christian Empire was fled from. […] Monasticism is first and foremost a social movement and attempt to solve social issues. Ascetic isolation is not only “abstinence” or refusal of the world`s goods, nor is it an extraordinary lack of will. It is a refusal of the profane world, generally speaking, and of everything that pertains to this world. Firstly, a refusal of the established order, not at the cosmic level, but at the imperial level…”[15]. The first people that led a monastic life inside the Church were widows and virgins (Saint Paul talks about them in his epistles). They used to exist everywhere even if their lifestyle was not institutionalized. Organized as institutions, they became the precursors of monasticism [16]. Later on, the anchorites started to build organizations. Female monastic institutions were organized, for instance, inside Christian communities (parishes) or near them and also near bishopric centers, because of the safety those communities and centers provided. In Egypt, at the end of the 3rd century, there had already been some female monastic communities. In this sense, the most relevant case is the one of Saint Anthony who, before starting his retreat (around 272 AD), gave his sister away to a community of virgins, in other words, nuns. Christian monasticism was massively influenced by the monastic models of the 4th century: the Egyptian one, the Palestinian-Syrian one, and the Cappadocian one. This institution managed to lead the entire Christian church (firstly outside the canonic order of the Church and then by exerting a major influence over the Church and the life of the Byzantine state because of its popularity) [17].
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III. The status of monasticism from a canonic-ecclesiological point of view
Most of the studies about monasticism
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treat it and its development starting from the etymology of the term and from its spiritual motivations. Still, they avoid mentioning the real status inside the Church from a legal-canonical point of view. According to the Church Law textbook [18], monasticism does not hold the position and the importance of the other two components of the Church, the clergy and the laypersons. This happens because, unlike the other two, it does not represent an essential constitutive element of the Church, that is, components without which the Church could not be. This observation requires certain clarifications lest it should be misunderstood. The Church is made up of three categories of members: laypersons (God`s people), clergy and monks/nuns. But the structure of the early Church was not the same. Back then, there were no anchorites, and so we could not talk about this third category of members of the Church that became monasticism. Thus, this category of Church members that appeared and was organized later on was not essential for the development of the body of the Church. The Church was initially composed only of the two categories of members: clergy and laypersons. The monastic category was not considered to be essential for the constitution of the visible part of the Church neither by Christ nor by His Holy Apostles. But because it appeared later and resisted until this day, this proves that its development was useful and that it responded and still responds to some requirements of the religious life. The history of the Church proves that there could and still can exist an organized Church without a monastic component from an institutional point of view. In the West, monasticism developed late, around the 4th century. Generally, it was better organized around the 5th century and became an official institution of the Church after the
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(4th) Council of Chalcedon, 451. By decision of this synod, canons 4 and 8, monasticism was established under the jurisdiction of the Church and became an official component and institution of the Church [19]. Until then, it had been an unofficial organization, created by private initiatives, and not by Church initiative, although it had protectors, guides and organizers from within the Church; one famous example is Saint Basil the Great (379). Only if these details are known, we can understand why monasticism is not an essential element of the Church and why it is not necessary for the Church that it should exist. We can thus conclude that monasticism as a third constitutive element of the Church appeared, institutionally speaking, at some point in the life of the Christian Church; it had already been present in the presence of Christ and in the lives of some of the Apostles [20] and some of the pastors of the early Church, together with some of the laypersons. Monasticism is nothing but the state of a layperson that dedicates his or her life to God by volunteering, organized without a special calling from the Church, as it is the case with ordinated clergy. It is a calling and a particular vocation of some members of the Church who answer willingly and not from a certain necessity. Practically, monasticism is a movement of grace born within the Church, through which the Holy Spirit continues the work of the prophets, apostles, martyrs, and missionaries from the first Christian centuries. Monasticism, which appeared in the circumstances and from the reasons we have analyzed here, differentiated from the laypersons and the clergy, becoming a category of its own and receiving the name of monkhood. Through its nature, it does not pertain to laypersons or clergy. It is different from the laypersons because of some special vows known as evangelic advice [21],
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and from the clergy because of the fact that entering monasticism does not offer the attributes of the priesthood to the one that takes the vows. Belonging to the monastic order means becoming the servant of one`s own development and the servant of the salvation of all mankind, through prayer and other acts of devotion. We must acknowledge the fact that some of the consecrated persons – widows [22], virgins, anchorites – belonging to the pre-monastic [23] organizations before the 4th Synod sometimes broke the rules of their group. This fact risked compromising the Christian message and detour these institutions from the Gospels, causing scandal within the Church and among the non-Christians. Some of these categories of people are known as “agapetes” [24] (virgins of God), Sarabaites [25] or fake anchorites [25], etc. Some of the Church Fathers condemned these practices in their writings [26], [27]. Trying to put the lives of these anchorites in order, the Church-sanctioned, canonically speaking, this state of disorder by local and ecumenical Synods, forbidding the cohabitation of anchorites with virgins justified by mutual help. They are cited as follows: Canon 3 of Nicean Synod: “The great Synod has stringently forbidden any bishop, presbyter, deacon, or anyone of the clergy whatever, to have a subintroducta dwelling with him, except only a mother, or sister, or aunt, or such persons only as are beyond all suspicion”. [18] Canon 19 of Ancyra: “If any person who professes virginity shall disregard their profession, let them fulfill the term of digamists. And, moreover, we prohibit women who are virgins from living with men as sisters”. [18] Canon 38 of Carthage: “Neither clerics nor those who profess continence should
enter the houses of widows or virgins without the bidding or consent of the bishops or presbyters: and then let them not go alone, but with some other of the clergy, or with those assigned by the bishop or presbyter for this purpose; not even bishops and presbyters shall go alone to women of this sort, except some of the clergies are present or some other grave Christian men”. [18] Canon 44 of Carthage: “That holy virgins when they are separated from their parents by whom they have been wont to be guarded, are to be commended by the care of the bishop, or presbyter where the bishop is absent, to women of graver age, so that living with them they may take care of them, lest they hurt the reputation of the Church by wandering about”. [18] Because of the anchorites` indiscipline and because of the fact that the monastic phenomenon became so widespread within the Christian Church, there appeared a need to ordinate some of the monks as priests to serve the needs of the monastic communities and also because a part of the monks became bishops of the Church of Christ. Thus, it was decided to recognize and integrate the institution of monasticism as a constitutive part of the Church, and the monks as a third component, alongside laypersons and clergy. Therefore, by the 4th canon, the Parents of the 4th Synod of Chalcedon (453), proclaim: “Those who truly and sincerely live the monastic life should be accorded appropriate recognition. But since there are some who don the monastic habit and meddle with the churches and in civil matters, and circulate indiscriminately in the cities and even are involved in founding monasteries for themselves, it has been decided that no one is to build or found a monastery or oratory anywhere against the will of the local bishop; and that monks of each city and region are to be subject to the bishop, are to
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foster peace and quiet, and attend solely to fasting and prayer, staying set apart in their places. They are not to abandon their own monasteries and interfere, or take part, in ecclesiastical or secular business unless they are perhaps assigned to do so by the local bishop because of some urgent necessity. No slave is to be taken into the monasteries to become a monk against the will of his own master. We have decreed that anyone who transgresses this decision of ours is to be excommunicated, lest God’s name is blasphemed. However, it is for the local bishop to exercise the care and attention that the monasteries need” [18] After the 4th Synod, the other local and ecumenical synods have become more and more preoccupied with the monastic institution, establishing more detailed rules. The canonical legislation of the Church inspired the Imperial legislation of the Roman-Byzantine state, sanctioning through civil laws the social organization of monasticism. Thus, there was a natural process of integration of the form of monastic organization within the order of the Church and that of the Empire. As proof for this process of normalization of the monastic discipline, we have canons 40-47 of the sixth Ecumenical Council (680681). Canon 42 mentions: “Those who are called Eremites and are clothed in black robes, and with long hair go about cities and associate with the worldly both men and women and bring odium upon their profession — we decree that if they will receive the habit of other monks and wear their hair cut short, they may be shut up in a monastery and numbered among the brothers; but if they do not choose to do this, they are to be expelled from the cities and forced to live in the desert (ἐρήμους) from whence also they derive their name”[18]. We can see that at the end of the 7th century there were still some hermits that lived independently from the monasteries
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and the Church`s hierarchy. This makes us believe that the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon were not yet fully observed and that there were some anchorites that lived in the desert and then roamed around the world, doing deeds that were incompatible with the monastic discipline. To avoid the defamation of monasticism and to get these people back into serving the Church, the Fathers of the 6th Council decided to include them into monasteries. By analyzing the text of the ecumenical canonical legislation, we observe that for the third constitutive element of the Church, monasticism, the Church established strict rules and written norms that constitute the very law of monastic life. The observance and application of canonic norms about the organization and discipline of monastic life ensure that Orthodox monasticism has a reason and a canonic foundation and, implicitly, canonicity. Conclusions Unfortunately, the approaches of Western theology, Protestant or Catholic, have started to contaminate some of the positions of Orthodox theologians. Today, within the Orthodox Church, there are voices and opinions that insist on the question: what are the position and the place of monasticism within the Church? We can see that there are not many references to the monastic movement in academic theology. In almost all dogmatic textbooks of the modern and contemporary period, in the chapter about ecclesiology there is no mention of the importance and the role monasticism plays within the Church. In these textbooks, we find only an observation according to which the Church is made up of clergy and laity, and sometimes monasticism as an auxiliary element. The position of monasticism is far more important in contemporary Orthodox spirituality treaties, yet even here we only
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find the historical and spiritual contributions of this phenomenon, without the evident relationship of monasticism with the Church and the world [28]. Against this theological background, three approaches on the relationship between monasticism and the Church have come into view. Monasticism is presented either as supra-ecclesial, para-ecclesial or extra-ecclesial. 1. Supra-ecclesial monasticism [28]. Some monks and theologians that support this theory believe that it is the only theological and spiritual elite of the Church. Moreover, they believe that, in all situations, monks are superior to laypersons and married believers. In some situations, this tendency promotes a “monastic misogyny”, according to which family life, its values, its role and contribution to the Church and society are underappreciated and even denied. It is considered that the relations between the spouses are sinful, “the consumption of meat is harmful”, marriage without children is protestantism, and life in this world is subjected to sin and compromise. 2. Para-ecclesial monasticism [28]. This approach believes that the monasticism of the 3rd and 4th centuries was a separate institution, not part of the Church. These theologians support the argument that monasticism brought dangerous distortions and innovations to the communal life of the early Church. The hermits created a new spirituality of an individualistic kind, opposed to the communal spirituality of the laypersons. According to this paraecclesial approach, monasticism introduced the daily Mass alongside the Sunday Mass, transformed the sacred confession into a fatherly confession, modified the community fast (short-term) and turned it into ascetic fast (long-term) and switched the parish model with the monastery model. Thus, in the light of this approach, there are two spiritualities in Orthodoxy: a lay one
and a monastic one, and also two Churches or two parallel institutions of the same Church, without a theological, spiritual and dogmatic unity. Theologically speaking, the representatives of this approach do not fully deny the role of monasticism, but believe that the communal biblical spirituality of the laypersons is unique, fundamental and normative. Monasticism may exist as an Orthodox movement, as its own institution, with theology and spirituality of its own, but only in and for itself, without an influence on the life of the laypersons or the Church. 3. Extra-ecclesial monasticism [28]. A lot of lay theologians who believe in the theology of the present consider that the age of the Fathers has ended and that monasticism is an outdated historical element. The past has no theological value because the Church has to take care of the present and future issues that refer to the contemporary world and society. In this theology of the present are included ecology, secularization, ecumenism, bioethics, globalization, social services, politics, the relationship between the Church and the State and international organisms, the theology of gender etc. There is no doubt that these issues must be debated from a theological standpoint. Moreover, the Church must offer viable solutions and real answers to the contemporary world and society. However, we believe that these issues are not central or fundamental in theology, especially if they are not approached from a patristic dogmatic and theological point of view. In this approach, it is natural to shift the focus from theology to anthropology and society. The Church must forget its past and take hold of the struggles of the present, and also to be more preoccupied with the future. According to this theological tendency, monasticism is not only paraecclesial but also extra-ecclesial, having only a decorative, symbolic and historical role. Thus, if monasticism is not pragmatic
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References Enăcescu, Efrem. Privire generală asupra monahismului creștin [An overview of Christian monasticism], Craiova: Mitropolia Olteniei, 2007, 123. [2] Răducă, Vasile. Monahismul egiptean. De la sigurătate la obște [Monasticism in Egypt. From Loneliness to Community] Bucuresti: Nemira, 2003, 10-11. [3] Weingarten, E. Der Ursprung des Mönchtums im nach-konslantinischen Zeitalter, Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte 1 (1877). 545-574, 1-35. [4] Zöckler, O. Askese und Mönchtum. Frankfurt, 1897. [5] Harnack,A. Das Mönchtum, sein Ideal und seine Geschichte. Giessen, 1907. [6] Reizenstein, R. Historia Monachorum und Historia Lausiaca. Gottingen, 1916. [7] Heussi,К. Der Ursprung des Mönchtums. Tübingen, 1936. [8] Spidlik, Tomas. Spiritualitatea Răsăritului Creștin.III.Monahismul. [The spirituality of the Christian East. III. Monasticism]. Sibiu, 2000, 12. [9] Evdokimov, Paul. Ortodoxia [Orthodoxy]. București: I.B.M. B.O.R., 1996, 23. [10] Meyendorff, Jean. Biserica Ortodoxă, ieri și azi [The Orthodox Church, Yesterday and Today]. Anastasia, 1996, 68. [11] Ware, Timothy. Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe [History of the Orthodox Church]. București: Aldo Press, 1993, 20. [12] Vlad, Maxim. Priveliștea lumii. Stâlpnicii în spiritualitatea monahală.O introducere [The View of the World. The Pillar Saints in Monastic Spirituality. An Introduction]. Platytera, 2007, 25-26. [13] Vlahos, Ierotei. Monahismul orthodox ca viață profetică, apostolică și martirică [Orthodox Monasticism as a Prophetic, Apostolic and Martyrical Life]. Mitropoliei Olteniei, 2005, 16, 273. [14] Spidlik, Tomas. Spiritualitatea Răsăritului Creștin.I. Manual Sistematic [The Spirituality of the Christian East.I. A Systematic Manual]. Sibiu, 1997, 192-193. [1]
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Florovsky, Georges, Sensul ascezei creștine [The Meaning of the Christian Asceticism]. Cluj-Napoca:Patmos, , 2009, 18-20. [16] Stan, Liviu. Societățile religioase în Biserica veche, în vol Biserica și Dreptul. 4.Structura,organizarea și membrii Bisericii [Religious Societies in the Old Church, in Church and Law in vol. 4. The Structure, Organization and Members of the Church]. Sibiu: Andreiană, 159. [17] Gabor, Adrian. Biserica și Statul în primele patru secole [The Church and the State in the First Four Centuries].București: Sofia, 2003, 183. [18] Floca, Ioan. Drept Canonic Ortodox, legislație și administrație bisericească [Canonical Orthodox Law, Legislation and Church Administration], vol. 1.București: I.B.M B.O.R, 1990,262-263. http://www. csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicaea.html; http://www. [15]
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Proceedings, Book 1, Volume II, Albena, Bulgaria (2016): 111-119. [23] Stanescu, Nina. “St. John Chrysostom ambassador of the poor”. International multidisciplinary scientiific conference on social sciences & arts SGEM, Conference Proceedings. Book 1, Volume III, Albena, Bulgaria (2016): 933-941. [24] Guillaumont, Antoine. Originile vieţii monahale [The origins of Monastic Life]. Anastasia, 1998, 49. [25] Sf. Ioan Casian. Convorbiri duhovnicești [Spiritual talks]. in vol. 57, Părinți și Scriitori Bisericești, București: I.B.M. B.O.R., 1990, 631. [26] Fer. Ieronim. Epistola XXII către Eustochia [Epistle XXII to Eustochia]. Epistole 1 P.S.B., vol. 9.București: Basilica, 2013, p. 169; [27] Sf. Vasile cel Mare. Epistola 55 către PreotulGrigorie [Epistle 55 to the Priest Gregory]. Scrieri III PSB. Vol. 12., 222. [28] Toma, Cornel. Monahismul, Biserica și lumea. Repere teologice pentru societatea postmodernă secularizată. Stelianos Papadopoulos, Monahismul- munte greu de urcat [Monasticism, the Church and the World. Theological References for the Secularized Postmodern Society. Stelianos Papadopoulos, Monasticism - a Difficult Mountain to Climb], București: Sofia, 2004, 7-8.
Biography Maxim Marian Vlad is currently Assistant Professor at the Ovidius University in Constanța He is licensed: since 2002, in theology “Justinian Patriarhul”, Faculty of Theology, Bucharest, Romania; since 2004, Master in Doctrine and Culture, Faculty of Theology, Bucharest; since 2012 is licensed in Law Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, Ovidius University Constanta, Romania; since 2005 - Master’s degree in Community
Institutions and Canon Law, Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, “Ovidius” University Constanţa, Romania and has been a doctor in theology, since 2011, according to O.M.E.C.T.S. No.6468 / 2011, Doctoral School of the University of Bucharest. The main areas of study in which he operates are: Canonical Law, theology, social assistance, sociology, law and administrative sciences. As a Professor at Ovidius University in Constanța, he has 14 years experience His most interesting publications are: Maxim Vlad, Priveliştea lumii. Stâlpnicii în spiritualitatea monahală. O introducere,[ The View of the World. The Pillar Saints in Monastic Spirituality. An Introduction], Editura Platytera, Bucureşti, 2007, 146 p. ISBN 978-973-87880-3-9. Gheorghita Ciocioi, Serban Tica, Maxim Vlad, Amalia Dragne, Diana Cristina Vlad, Mihaela Voicu, Ghidul manastirilor din Romania [Guide to the Monasteries in Romania]; Editura Sophia, Bucureşti, 2010, 328 p. ISBN:9789731361734. M. M. Vlad, N. Stanescu, C. Rus, The Pastoral Activity of the Orthodox Church in the Romanian Countries, Manifested in the Care for the Sick People. HistoricalNomocanonical and Social-Philanthropic Perspective, International multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences & arts SGEM, conference proceedings, Book IV, Volume 18, Albena, Bulgaria, 2018, pp. 939-946, indexed ISI Web of Knowledge, Web of Science, Thomson Reuters, ELSEVIER products, SCOPUS, Cross Ref, DOI: 10.5593/sgemsocial2018/3.3/ S12.120, https://www.sgemsocial. org/index.php/conference-topics/
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
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Philosophy of Infinity: is the Infinity-Point a Point of Endless or a Point of Contradiction Meeting? Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD
1 Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Science and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology, Jordan. 2 International Mariinskaya Academy, department of medicine and critical care, department of philosophy, Academician secretary of the Department of Sociology Jordan
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 29 July 2019 Received in revised form 23 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.17
Since its introduction as a human thought to its current status in mathematics, philosophy, and theology, the idea of infinity has denoted something without end. In this study, we would like to go through another option in which infinity may be reachable and to introduce philosophical ideas to explain the potentialities of occurrence of other phenomena. My personal own opinion is that at the infinity point, aspects of ambivalence would be solved, points of contradiction can meet each other as existing entities with their own individual characteristics without interfering with each other. In other words, if such conditions may occur, then infinity is more likely to be touched or approached to its limits. We think that nature designed infinity which was then expressed by our consciousness. Infinity bears the roots of contradiction, which involves energy by way or another; and to reach infinity, no more energy is required and no more contradiction is conserved.
Keywords: infinity; ambivalence; contradiction; endless point; mathematical approach; philosophical approach;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ahed J Alkhatib. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Alkhatib, Ahed J, ”Philosophy of Infinity: is the Infinity-Point a Point of Endless or a Point of Contradiction Meeting?,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.17, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 177-183.
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I. Introduction:
The expression “the infinite” alludes to whatever it is that “infinity” effectively applies to. For instance, the endless whole numbers exist just on the off chance that there is a limitlessness of entire numbers. We additionally discuss limitless amounts, yet I don’t get its meaning to state an amount is boundless. In 1851, Bernard Bolzano contended in The Paradoxes of the Infinite that, in the event that an amount is to be limitless, at that point the proportion of that amount additionally should be endless. Bolzano’s position is that we need an unmistakable idea of the infinite number so as to have a reasonable idea of limitless quantity. This thought of Bolzano’s has prompted another method for talking about infinity [1]. The expression “infinite” can be utilized for some reasons. The scholar Alfred Tarski used it for emotional purposes when he talked about attempting to contact his better half in Nazi-occupied Poland in the mid-1940s. He wrote, “We have been sending each other an infinite number of letters. They all vanish someplace in transit. Supposedly, my wife has gotten just one letter.” [2]. Although the importance of a term is personally attached to its utilization, we can enlighten just an almost no concerning the significance of the term from Tarski’s usage of it to overstate for sensational impact [3]. Thinking back throughout the most recent 2,500 years of utilization of the expression “infinite,” three particular detects stick out: actually infinite, potentially infinite, and transcendentally infinite. The idea of potential infinity regards boundlessness as an unbounded or non-ending procedure continuously developing over time. On the other hand, the idea of actual infinity regards the infinite as ageless and complete. Transcendental infinity is the least exact of
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the three ideas and is all the more normally utilized in talks of transcendentalism and religious philosophy to recommend the amazing quality of human understanding or human ability [4-8]. To give a few illustrations, the arrangement of whole numbers is really limitless, as is the quantity of areas (space points) among London and Moscow. The most extreme length of linguistic sentences in English is possibly limitless, as is the aggregate sum of memory in a Turing machine, a perfect PC. A supreme being’s capacity is supernaturally limitless [9]. For reasons for doing arithmetic and science, the actual infinite has ended up being the most valuable of the three ideas. Utilizing the thought proposed by Bolzano that was mentioned before, the idea of the actual infinite was decisively characterized in 1888 when Richard Dedekind reclassified the expression “infinity” for use in set hypothesis and Georg Cantor made the infinite, as infinite set, an object of numerical investigation. Before this defining moment, the philosophical attribute, for the most part, trusted Aristotle’s idea of potential infinity ought to be the idea utilized in arithmetic and science [10]. II. Linguistic perception of infinity
Kuntar [11] in his book “ A journey into infinity” showed that the word infinity has its magic, it suggests the absolute emancipation of all what is finite, annoying, casual, and tempted by travel to the unknown endless, with excitement, surprise and mysterious yearning secrets that never run out. It may provoke, in self, the tendency to unity by infinite existence, that which man lacked in his uniqueness. It may call for self-indulgence as the phenomena reveal for depths have no resolution. That magic begins with a show, and when man stands bewildered in the face of significant
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questions, science strives to investigate them, without claiming attainment purpose: Does existence exist and end? What does eternity mean forever? Are they really opposites, the flow of time between them without running out? And what is time? How do we perceive the concept of place, and to what stable is it attributed? Does the place extend without borders, or that a hidden hand says to him: Stop ..? Is it finished, or endless? Does the universe convex, in place and time, as the theory of relativity indicate? These questions and others have been asked by human as early as the beginning of life; which make the concept of infinity to emerge. III. Definition of infinity:
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary (2019), infinity can be defined in different points of view such as “the quality of being infinite”. In terms of time, space, or quantity, infinity can be defined as an “ unlimited extent of time, space, or quantity” [12]. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, infinity is “time or space that has no end”. It can also be defined as” a place that is so far away that it cannot be reached”. It is also defined as “ a number that is larger than all other numbers” [13]. Oxford Dictionary defined infinity as “The state or quality of being infinite”. Another definition of infinity is “An infinite or very great number or amount”. It also defined infinity as “A point in space or time that is or seems infinitely distant”. Moreover, another mathematical definition was given for infinity as “A number greater than any assignable quantity or countable number (symbol ∞) [14].
From the definitions provided, infinity is perceived as endless. From a mathematical point of view, infinity can be defined as” the limit of the value of a function or variable when it tends to become numerically larger than any preassigned finite number” [15-17]. IV. Types of infinity
Infinity has several aspects from a mathematical point of view. Taking into account the projective geometry, then the infinity points are different from the infinite and small quantities that take place. The points at infinity in projective geometry are very different from the infinite and infinitesimal quantities that take place based on nonstandard analysis or as in set theories [18]. It is very important to make a distinction between actual infinity and potential infinity to show the difference in concepts. The idea of actual infinity implies that both infinite and finite quantities have common properties and covered by the same theory. On the other hand, the idea of potential infinity is a matter of linguistic perception to indicated finite quantities on a large scale [19]. It is believed that philosophical considerations can be considered in the physical and mathematical concepts of infinity [20]. Other scientists believe in applying different considerations [21, 22]. However, any opinion to be taken about infinity, there exists a problem to be faced, called the horizon problem. Let us assumed that you are a finitist; implying believing in the finite things and infinite and that the infinite is illicit and confused. And let us assume that you were asked about the extent of finite things you think exist. To answer this question, simply you are forced to admit that many of them are infinite [23]. Infinity has witnessed deep discussions since ancient times (the Pre-Socratic
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philosophers) [24]. The first arguments regarding infinity were about three issues: the origin, nature, and limits of things in the universe, made by Anaximander (611– 547 B.C.) [24]. Anaximander argued the idea that the massive diversity of things in the universe should emerge from less differentiated things than water. According to him, this thing source has to be eternal, boundless, and endless. This source was called Apeiron (endless), and it is not affected by age, or decay, and has the ability to create new materials. Its nature seems to be without limitations, and accordingly no limits can be applied to Apeiron that made it be perceived as has no source, without creation and permanent [24]. V. Historical context of infinity
Infinity, as a concept, has been used by philosophers and mathematicians for a long time. As an example, in Aristotle’s Physics, the concept was used to characterize two types of infinity: actual infinity and potential infinity [25]. From Aristotle to Cantor, potential infinity has attracted the attention of mathematicians [26]. From the period of Aristotle until the 19th century, the concept of actual infinity was rejected by the majority of philosophers and mathematicians. Instead, it has been argued that potential infinity is only applicable in scientific and non-religious purposes [26]. From a philosophy and theology point of view, infinity has been expressed using terms such as the Ultimate, the Absolute, God, and Zeno’s paradoxes. As an example, Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, used the term “’the Boundless” to be the origin of infinity. He considered the first principle as endless. Metaphysics and mathematics defined and identified various types of infinities. In his mathematical works, Georg Cantor was the first to put infinity within
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mathematical framework [27]. In Judeo-Christian theology, infinity, as a nature of God, took another meaning such as being without constraint instead of unlimited quantity. From a point of ethics, infinity has a great role in determining things that lack the ability to be defined [28]. VI. Our point of philosophical view
Taken into account the various views regarding infinity, infinity implies endless in different aspects including time, space, matter, etc. From a theological point of view, infinity implies the involvement of God as not endless quantity, but rather without constraints. There is another important aspect in this regard in which how can we explain the possibility of destruction of the universe at the end stage? According to the Big Bang Theory (BBT), the universe has a starting point which implies that the universe can’t be infinite and there must be an endpoint. On the other hand, the infinite universal theory (IUT) may have the alternative to explain infinity [29]. According to this theory, BBT is rejected which is expected to introduce a new theory with more logic. The BBT is going to be replaced by IUT, which is thought to make a scientific revolution. This revolution may need long time to replace BBT. Returning back to our philosophical view, I would like to express my opinion as the following: “Infinity is not necessarily infinite, it can be reachable if the required conditions for infinity are satisfied”. According to this context, we would like to make a focus on conditions required to maintain infinity. The first crucial factor is time. As time flows, the infinity grows. If no time remains, the infinity is no longer retained. As infinity is a matter of language and our consciousness is a matter of language by at least one of its aspects, then our time is limited by our ages. According,
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the infinity is partially infinite and once reached, it will be no more infinite, let us call this type of infinity as partial infinity. Absolute infinity may be defined as the sum of total partial infinities. The second important factor regarding retaining infinity is energy. Infinity usually involves carrying contradiction or ambivalence. There are always contradicting aspects in nature such as dark and light, black and white, negative and positive, etc. Some natural laws may explain, even partly, these phenomena. The concept of energy may be addressed directly or indirectly but always involved. Suppose at certain point, there will be no energy, then no infinity will be retained. From a theology point of view, the universe has a starting point at which God created the universe [30]. This means the universe can’t be infinite. At the same time, the universe seems expanded all the time. In other words, it has the tendency to be infinite from one dimension at least following its creation. From a theology point of view, we also have another contradicting point in which the universe will be collapsed at a certain point to start the second episode of another life [31]. According to our perception of infinity philosophy, the conditions required to retain infinity become invalid including time, and sufficient power. Does that mean God will not be able to retain enough power to control the universe? Further research is required to answer this question. We may also take into consideration that from a theological point of view collapse could be restricted our solar system, not the whole universe. The universe in our current understanding is more comprehensive and complicated than the perceived from a theological point of view. Furthermore, the concept of time may look different. The idea of having a universe that doesn’t know the time has been indicated by Magueijo and
Smolin [32].. My own perception of philosophy regarding infinity is:”Infinity is a point in which contradicting aspects meet or a point in which nature releases or frees its contradiction, Conclusions: Infinity point is an endless point as may be agreed by most views in science, philosophy and theology. We think that multi infinity points exist. To retain infinity points, some conditions are required including time and power. At infinity point, some contradicting behaviors are changed and don’t become contradicted any more. It can be said that infinity is a point at which contradicting aspects meet or a point at which nature releases or frees its contradiction. References [1] Glattfelder J.B. “The Consciousness of Reality.” In: Information—Consciousness— Reality. The Frontiers Collection. Springer, Cham, 2019. [2] Feferman, Anita Burdman, and Solomon. Alfred Tarski: Life and Logic, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2004. A biography of Alfred Tarski, the 20th century Polish and American logician. [3] https://www.iep.utm.edu/infinite. Internet encyclopedia of philosophy, A peer academic reviewed resource, retrieved on 25/10/2019. [4] De Haan, D.D. Hylomorphic Animalism, Emergentism, and the challenge of the New Mechanist Philosophy of Neuroscience. SetF 2017, 5, 9–38. [5] Simpson, W.M.R.; Koons, R.C.; Teh, N.J. (Eds.) Neo-Aristotelian Perspectives on Contemporary Science; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2017. [6] Insel, T.; Cuthbert, B.; Garvey, M. Research Domain Criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167, 748–751. [7] Cohen, H.; Lefebvre, C. (Eds.) Handbook of
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Categorization in Cognitive Science, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017. [8] Nicholson, D.J.; Dupré, J. (Eds.) Everything Flows: Towards a Processual Philosophy of Biology; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2018. [9] James, W. The Works of William James: Essays in Radical Empiricism; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1976. [10] Zuo, X.-N.; He, Y.; Betzel, R.F.; Colcombe, S.; Sporns, O.; Milham, M.P. Human Connectomics across the Life Span. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2017, 21, 32–45. [11] Kamal Kuntar. A journey into infinity. Cultural perspective publications, 119, 2014. [12] https://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/infinity-retreived on 10/10/2019. [13] https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/ english/infinity, retrieved on 10/10/2019. [14] https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ infinity, retrieved on 10/10/2019. [15] Unger, R.M.; Smolin, L. The Singular Universe: The Reality of Time; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2015. [16] Gare, A. The Philosophical Foundations of Ecological Civilization: A Manifesto for the Future; Routledge: London, UK, 2017. [17] Smolin, L. The Trouble with Physics; Houghton Mifflin: Boston, MA, USA, 2006. [18] Günther Eder. “Frege and the origins of model theory in nineteenth century geometry”. Synthese, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11229-019-02421-4. [19] Cotogno, P. “Hypercomputation and the physical Church-Turing thesis”. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 2003, 54, 181–223. [20] Tait, W.W. “Truth and proof: the Platonism of mathematics”. Synthese, 1986, 69, no. 3, 341–70. [21] Dummett, M. (1994) “What is mathematics about?” In A. George (ed.) Mathematics and Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 11–26. [22] Fletcher, P. “A constructivist perspective on physics”. Philosophia Mathematica, 2002; (3): 26–42.
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[23] D. Jacquette. “Philosophy of Logic”, 5, the Handbook of the Philosophy of Science, 2007; pp.523–585. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-51541-0. [24] Rafael E. Nunez. “Creating mathematical infinities: Metaphor, blending, and the beauty of transfinite cardinals”. Journal of Pragmatics, 2005; 37, 1717–1741. [25] Brendan P. Larvor, Benedikt Löwe, Dirk Schlimm. “History and philosophy of infinity.” Synthese, 2015;192:2339–2344, DOI 10.1007/s11229-015-0857-3. [26] Øystein Linnebo, Stewart Shapiro. “Actual and Potential Infinity.” NOUˆ S, 2019; 53:, 1, 160–191, doi: 10.1111/nous.12208. [27] Newstead, A. “Cantor on Infinity in Nature, Number, and the Divine Mind.” American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly, 2009; 83 (4): 533–553. doi:10.5840/acpq200983444. [28] Wolfgang Achtner. Infinity: New Research Frontiers - Chapter 1: “Infinity as a Transformative concept in Science and Theology” (p.22) . Cambridge University Press, 7 Feb 2011, edited by Revd Dr Michael Heller, Dr W. Hugh Woodin. ISBN 9781107003873. Retrieved 2015-06-21. [29] Glenn Borchardt. “Infinite Universe Theory”. Proceedings of the Natural Philosophy Alliance, 2007; 4 (1). [30] Ben Salem, Kamel. (2019). The Evolution of the Universe : A New Vision. Research gate based publications. [31] Donald Wayne Viney (1985). The Cosmological Argument. Charles Hartshorne and the Existence of God. SUNY Press. pp. 65–68. ISBN 978-0-87395-907-0. [32] João Magueijo, Lee Smolin. “A Universe that Does Not Know the Time”. Universe, 2019, 5, 84; doi:10.3390/universe5030084.
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Biography Dr. Ahed J Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Cambell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at faculty of medicine, Jordan
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University of Science and technology. Over the time, I have published more than 200 articles in various medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking, and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins which can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses, and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published several articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. This article is the 6th in philosophy.
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This paper was presented at
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Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
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Divinity in dementia Any Docu Axelerad
1. Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta 2. Constanta County Clinical Emergency Hospital Romania
Alina Zorina Stroe
Constanta County Clinical Emergency Hospital Constanta Romania
Silviu Docu Axelerad
Student at ‘Vasile Goldis’ University, General Medicine Faculty Romania
Daniel Docu Axelerad
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 10 October 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.18
Various studies have shown that religiosity has a favorable impact on health and the quality of life, but still not much is known about religiosity in Alzheimer’s disease and about the progression of its cognitive, behavioral, and functional symptoms1. Our purpose was to identify any affiliation between religiosity and the progress of cognitive decline and behavioral disorders in mild Alzheimer’s disease.
Keywords: Divinity; dementia; religiosity; spirituality; cognitive decline; © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Docu Axelerad Any, Stroe Alina Zorina, Docu Axelerad Silviu, Docu Axelerad Daniel. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction Citation: Docu-Axelerad, Any, and Stroe Alina Zorina, Docu Axelerad Silviu, Docu Axelerad Daniel, ”Divinity in dementia,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.18, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 187-194.
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I. INTRODUCTION
Dementia is a neurological disease of the mental processes, marked by memory loss and difficulties with thinking and judgment, communication and language. Behaviorally analyzed, dementia implies progressively worsening anterograde memory and eventually joined by retrograde memory1. Anatomically, the atrophy of the brain reflects the loss of brain tissue—cortical, subcortical or deep. The part of the brain that is the most affected by Alzheimer’s disease is the hippocampus. Other parts of the brain that are affected include the temporal and parietal lobes. As well known, the hippocampus and the medial temporal cortex are essential in withholding new memories. Research made on the subject revealed that the areas of the brain responsible for religiosity are not only the temporal lobe (Bear and Fedio, 1977)2 but also the frontal lobe3 (Andrew Newberg). Also, studies reflected that the reason because the brain does not forget about God in general and in dementia- in the mildmoderate cases, is that religion is one of the most powerful tools for helping the brain’s self-maintenance and self-transcendence3. II. OBJECTIVE
This study aims to investigate how religion influences the cognitive functioning in patients with Alzheimer’s dementia. Although research has implied that religious beliefs and practices are correlated with improved mental health, still more is to be known on the subject. III. METHOD
A lot of 10 patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease was recruited from a neurologic
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private clinic. Patients were individually diagnosed by dr Docu Axelerad Any, the director of the clinic and all met the standard criteria for Alzheimer’s disease. The control group was compound by 10 healthy patients, without dementia. The cortical atrophy was evaluated with the visual investigations of the CT and the mental status was investigated by the Mini-Mental State Examination (Folstein et al, 1975)4. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) or Folstein test is a 30-point questionnaire that is used extensively in clinical and research settings to measure cognitive impairment. The two groups were advisedly elected to not differ significantly in terms of age (AD mean is: 75,4 years; range: 70-82 years; control mean is: 74,3 years; range: 70-83 years). IV. RESULTS A. ANALYZING OUR PATIENTS
Each patient from the two groups was questioned about being a religious person. In the AD group, 5 patients responded affirmative and in the control group, 4 patients responded affirmatively. Their answers were motivated by actions, therefore, all people who responded affirmatively, sustained that they think of God in every day multiple times, that they pray at least one time a day (mostly in the morning or in the night time), even more, all of them claimed that they visit the church or religious meetings at least once per week, where they sing and recite typical prayers. The average time of doing these activities was 40 years for religious patients. The responses at the question: „how do you think that being a religious person has affected your health?” was the same for all persons: „in a positive way”.
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The patients were questioned about how being a religious/spiritual person affects their life. TABLE 1 Helps them to understand their condition
5/5
Helps them to find solutions for their problems
3/5
Helps them to accept themselves Helps them to maintain relationships Helps them to reduce stress Helps them to be better persons
We tried to understand our patients and especially, to understand their needs and we made a classification, in descending order of importance for their psychological needs: TABLE 2 To be seen as the same human beings as before To maintain the sense of identity Emotional support
5/5
To engage in meaningful activities
5/5
To maintain autonomy and independence
5/5
To participate in decision making
3/5
Religious persons have the belief that everything is in the plans of God and that everything will be all right eventually. Also, they find solutions for their problems more quickly because they see problems as character strengtheners. They more easily accept themselves, knowing that they are loved by God; the love for themselves and for others comes naturally, thus helping them maintain social interactions and close relationships with family. Using coping methods or even praying, meditating, singing or reading reduces the stress levels and helps the patient to be more relaxed and open-minded. They become forgiving persons due to the feelings they are experiencing, could understand better the human powerlessness.
Asked if the religious practice helps with fulfilling these needs, patients with AD responded that having faith in God, in their condition is important because faith restores continuously their mind power to remain the same person in their own eyes and in the perception of everybody else. One patient sustained that he was feeling lost and impersonated at the beginning, but gradually, he realized that nothing has to change if he wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want it and that the power is in his hands, so he continued to go to the church, to read literature on the theme until now, when he is absolutely sure that the disease made him to know his mind power better and to grow the selfconfidence. Every single patient with AD claimed that the emotional support from the family and friends is absolutely necessary; motivating that it is a motivation booster and a confidence raiser. For the patients
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with AD, the emotional support came from more sources, given that they had multiple human relationships through participation to religious services and even through the meetings of catechesis. Even more, the persons that they encounter with at those meetings are often other patients or persons that have an ill person in the family, so they understand the real meaning and feeling of the disease and give veridic emotional support, advice and even solutions for the problems that the AD patients have. A patient-related that the religious organization that he has been part of for 30 years when he decided to tell them about his disease, had a pleasant surprise because the church immediately made a support meeting that included talks and praying sessions which have been a major help in that moment of his life. He said that he found out later that the others were concerned about losing both the church and patient with dementia of significant relationships. Engaging in meaningful activities, especially for the patients in the early stages of the disease, helps provide a sense of control over their day and their environment. For an AD patient is difficult after a period of time, to maintain autonomy and independence, both psychically and psychologically, they were inclined to have difficulty with balance and hand-eye coordination and being inclined to make irrational decisions. This is the reason that allows patients to have an attendant, after a period every patient will need constant attendance. For our patients, this was not necessary, but still, they were observed closely and helped by the family. For four patients (of which 3 males) that was reported to be annoying and disturbing and for the rest (6 patients: 3 males and 3 females) the help was well received and the observation was
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considered as caring. On the other hand, the need of the patients to participate in the decision making seemed a legit one, but until the apparition of the cognitive impairment. The patients were engaged in discussions about life’s purpose and the disease’s purpose and the non-religious patients seemed to give more pessimistic answers. About the relationships that the AD patients maintained or formatted, the religious persons seemed to have numerously more social connections and relations. Dementia, however, frequently interferes with a person’s ability to connect with, but in our case one even engaged in a romantic relationship after the debut of dementia. We observed a more fulfillment of these needs of the AD patients that were religious. The achievement was obtained from both family and friends with the same spiritual practices. Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia are a heterogeneous group of non-cognitive symptoms and behaviors occurring in subjects with dementia. The International Psychogeriatric’s Association (Finkel et al., 1996)5, designated these manifestations as: “behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia” due to the fact that the symptoms are very common and associated with high levels of distress both in dementia patients and their caregivers. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in subjects with dementia are heterogeneous and largely unpredictable, affecting the emotional experience. The main majority of the patients will experience these symptoms over the course of their illness. Admitting that these symptoms can be existent individually, it is more trivial to be simultaneously present in the same patient. The pathogenesis of these symptoms has not been certainly defined, but it seems to be the result of a complex coacting of
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AD religious
AD non-religious
psychological, social and biological factors. TABLE 3
Agitation/ Aggression
1
3
Aberrant motor behavior
1
3
Anxiety
1
3
Apathy
1
4
Anhedonia
1
3
Disinhibition
0
1
Delusions
0
2
Euphoria
1
3
Hallucinations
0
2
4
5
Sleep and nighttime behavior disorders
3
5
Nightmares
1
4
Appetite disorders
and
eating
In our patients, we observed that agitation (defined as “inappropriate verbal, vocal or motor activity that is not judged by an outside observer to result directly from the needs or confusion of the agitated individual” by Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2010) is associated with specific motor abnormalities as in motor hyperactivity like: an increased energy level with more repeated movements and/or rapid speech6. One single religious AD patient presents agitation, manifested by fingers tapping and feet tapping, also being unable to sit still and being desperate to find a comfortable position. On the other hand, two AD patients present agitation, manifested by being unable to sit still, being exasperated, being restlessness, starting and stopping tasks abruptly, moving objects around for no reason, taking off clothes then putting them back on. A single AD patient presents aggression, manifested by outbursts of complaining or shouting, extreme irritability and anger. In comparison, according to Cohen-Mansfield’s 7 (1999) four distinct categories of agitation, we have found that the AD religious patients correspond to physically and verbally non-aggressive behavior and that the AD non-religious patients correspond to physically and verbally aggressive behavior. Dementia and anxiety are complementary and often have the same manifestations, as in restlessness, being easily fatigued and difficulty concentrating. Studies have shown that dementia and anxiety have a direct neuroanatomical relationship, because of the neuronal degeneration that is responsible for dementia, could affect the limbic structures that are affiliated with the emotional regulation and because of the high prevalence of anxiety between the Alzheimer’s disease patients compared with the healthy population9. Considering our patients, we observed a higher prevalence
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of anxiety between non-religious patients. The explanation could be that the religious patients have faith that everything is in the control of the divine forces and because of that nothing, unfortunately, will happen. Apathy and anhedonia were less encountered between the religious patients because of their more frequent participation in pleasurable actions like singing, reciting, socializing, meditating with the religious groups they were part of. Almost all of the AD patients have appetite and eating disorders and sleep and nighttime behavior disorders, but we observed that fewer patients with AD that were religious persons have nightmares. This is associated with the fact that praying and developing more spiritual activities bring a state of peace of the body, mind, and soul8. B. ANALYZING FACTS AND INVESTIGATIONS
After several sessions of interviews and talks, the AD patients that are religious persons seem to be more open and cooperative, seem to have a better mental tone. Following the results of each patient on the MMSE and CT, we observed that the patients that considered themselves religious persons and practiced meditation and prayers frequently, from the control group had a normal CT for their age and higher scores on the MMSE (between 27-29 points, in comparison with the non-religious patients that obtained results between 2627 points). In the AD group, the religious patients had smaller lesions of atrophy and also obtained higher scores on the MMSE (between 17-18 points, in comparison with the non-religious AD patients that obtained results between 14-17 points). We also performed investigations corresponding depression on each patient
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using the Beck’s Depression Inventory9, because it is well known that Alzheimer’s disease patients have a high incidence of major depression. The Beck Depression Inventory created by Aaron T. Beck, is a 21-question multiple-choice self-report inventory, one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of depression10. Also, there are several studies that might incline in the favor of the thesis that dementia and depression have complex pathophysiological routes in common. Our religious subjects with AD have scores between 17-20 points, which include them for borderline clinical depression and our non-religious patients with AD obtained scores between 21-30 points, which include them for moderate depression. In the control group, we observed that the persons who obtained scores between: 11-16 points, normally for the age, considering the “vascular hypothesis” that claims the latelife depressive disorders being associated with an increased number of white matter hyperdensities in subcortical areas11. The 2 persons of the control group who had the scores between 1-10 points were religious ones. We performed the Quality of life questionnaire12 and observed that the non-religious patients accumulated a total score of 40-47 points and that the religious patients obtained a cumulative score of 3545 points. CONCLUSION According to literature, religious beliefs can potentiate the cognitive function in elders, because the divinity figure gives them the sense of a meaningful life, although their awareness of the disease. Studies have shown that depression is less encountered in the religious population. Having faith in divinity and the afterlife
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are reasons that help the patient in the acceptation process of the disease and on the other hand, patients are more motivated to fight with the disease using coping strategies and to have a better quality of life. Religion and the faith in divinity, help the patients to maintain their relationships and to prevent the auto social isolation that happens often in AD. On the other hand, engaging patients with DA into activities related to religion and divinity can prevent disease-related agitation. In this disease, it’s a difficult task to maintain the quality of life through finding enjoyable activities and meaningful moments due to the important change of integrity of the explicit memory and of the executive functioning. Fortuitously, most of the religious and spiritual related activities are based on resilient cognitive features such as procedural memory and limbic system aspects of attachment and motivation. Likewise activities, carefully chosen, can be used to engage adults with dementia. These kinds of tools are part of the Procedural and Emotional Religious Activity Therapy and are used worldwide and extended to multiple therapeutic cases of AD, in which, patients are engaging themselves in activities that are wanted to be meaningful and intrinsically motivating. This therapy is a flexible one and because of that matter, a lot of religious paradigms can be engaged with beneficial results. While taking part in religious activities, the patients are engaged in procedural memory tasks13. In the past decade, studies have shown that even the religiosity of the caregivers of patients with AD is associated with less depression and less grief. On the subject, studies have been made and it seems that even the caregivers of dementia patients benefit from the religious practice. An article on the theme of the relationship
between religiosity and health behaviors in female caregivers of older adults with dementia implied that religiosity would have a significant association with reduced cumulative health risk as determined by an index of health behaviors14. Another explanation of the study that shows that religious patients with AD are more likely to be better preserved cognitively than the AD atheist patients is because the usage of the cerebral areas during the meditation and prayers favorites the vascularization and the biochemistry of the circuits that offer a better chance of life for the neurons and the patients themselves. However, spirituality and religion are not recognized in the clinical setting as viable tools of improving life and treatment, partly because health care professionals may not be aware of their potential importance, the patients’ statements prove more and more the importance of having faith in divinity mostly for the improvement of the quality of life. The inferences emphasize the behalves of spirituality and religion on health outcomes. Three articles conclusions that in attendants who applied their spirituality or religion more in their daily routine, through their faith by their practices and in maintaining social interactions, their cognitive disorders tended to reduce or stabilize. In the other eight articles, the usage of spirituality or faith in everyday life permitted patients to develop coping techniques to favor the acceptance of their condition by conserving hope, maintaining their social relationships and find purpose in their lives, automatically improving their quality of life15. Spirituality and religion seem to decelerate the cognitive decrease and favor people to use coping strategies to deal their distress and have a better view of life and self15. These literature reviews allow us to
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search for spirituality/religion methods for healthy outcomes. The question that comes naturally could be: „Could be religiosity neuroprotection?” The benefits we discovered should be examined with attention and included inaccurate experimental research in the future. References [1]
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
A. Coin, E. Perissinotto, M. Najjar, A. Girardi, E.M. Inelmen, G. Enzi, E. Manzato, G. Sergi., Current Alzheimer research, 2010, vol 7, pages: 445-452. Bear DM, Fedio P., Arch Neurol. 1977 Aug; 34 (8):454-67., available: https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/889477 Andrew B. Newberg, MD, Myrna Brind Center of Integrative Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University and Hospital, http:// www.andrewnewberg.com/research/ Folstein et al. in 1975, Mini–Mental State Examination. Finkel S.I., Costa e Silva J., Cohen G., Miller S., Sartorius N. (1996). “Behavioral and psychological signs and symptoms of dementia: a consensus statement on current knowledge and implications for research and treatment”. Int. Psychogeriatrics 8. (Suppl.3), 497-500 [PubMed], [Google Scholar]. Cohen-Mansfield J., Marx M. S., DakheelAli M., Regier N.G., Thein K., Freedman L. (2010). “Can agitated behavior of nursing home residents with dementia be prevented with the use of standardized stimuli?” J. Am. Geriatrics. Soc. 58, 1459-146410.1111/j.15325415.2010.03172.x [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [GoogleScholar]. Cohen-Mansfield J. (1999). “Measurement of inappropriate behavior associated with dementia.” J. Gerontol. Nurs. 25, 42–51 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]. Astin, J.A. “Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation: Effects on psychological symptomatology, sense of control, and spiritual experiences”. Psychother
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Psychosom. 1997;66:97 Aaron T. Beck, Beck Depression Inventory, 1961, https://www.ismanet.org/ doctoryourspirit/pdfs/Beck-DepressionInventory-BDI.pdf [10] Beck Depression Inventory, https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_ Inventory [11] Firbank MJ1, O’Brien JT, Pakrasi S, Pantoni L, Simoni M, Erkinjuntti T, Wallin A, Wahlund LO, van Straaten I, Inzitari D., “White matter Hyperintensities and depression—preliminary results from the LADIS study”. In J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005 Jul;20(7):674-9 [12] Quality of life questionnaire, http://www.15dinstrument.net/site/assets/files/1002/15d_ english.pdf [13] David E. Vance PhD, MGS, Journal Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Volume 29, 2005 - Issue 1- “Connecting Cognition and Affective Aspects of Alzheimer’s Disease”, available: https://doi.org/10.1300/J016v29n01_03 [14] Sandy C. Burgener, “Caregiver religiosity and well-being in dealing with Alzheimer’s dementia”, Journal of Religion and Health, June 1994, Volume 33, Issue 2, pp 175–189 [15] Océane Agli, Nathalie Bailly, Claude Ferrand, “Spirituality and religion in older adults with dementia: a systematic review” International Psychogeriatrics, Volume 27, Issue 5, May 2015 , pp. 715-725, available: https://doi. org/10.1017/S1041610214001665 [9]
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 195 - 202
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
Combating Depression in Parkinson’s Disease with Melotherapy Daniel Docu Axelerad
Alina Zorina Stroe
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
Constanta County Clinical Emergency Hospital Constanta Romania
Silviu Docu Axelerad
Student at ‘Vasile Goldis’ University, General Medicine Faculty Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 10 October 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.19
The purpose of this study was to identify the connection between the depressions in Parkinson’s disease and the possible benefit that melotherapy can induce in patients’ depressive states, the improvement in the patients’ quality of life and the differences between using melotherapy as an instrument for the Parkinson’s disease patients compared to the control group of patients.
Keywords: Parkinson’s disease; depression; melotherapy; quality of life; © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Docu-Axelerad Daniel, Docu Axelerad Silviu, Stroe Alina Zorina. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided Citation: Docu-Axelerad, Daniel, and Docu Axelerad Silviu, Stroe Alina Zorina, ”Combating Depression in Parkinson’s Disease with Melotherapy,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.19, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 195-202.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. INTRODUCTION
Parkinson’s disease is a multifocal, neurodegenerative disease of unknown etiology, with a progressive aggravation that affects neurons in the nervous system. Parkinson’s disease is based on pathological changes in basal ganglia. Nigrostriatal dopamine deficiency is the major biochemical defect. The characteristic pathological feature of Parkinson’s disease is the loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra, more accurate, located in pars compacta. Symptomatology is manifested when the dopaminergic loss is greater than 70%. The average onset of the disease is around the age of 50-60 years. Clinically, the extrapyramidal pathology of the degenerative cause is manifested by bradykinesia, stiffness, involuntary movements and motor compartment disorders, similar to walking and posture disorders. Although the damage of the nervous system is predominant, Parkinson’s disease is not exclusively a disease of the dopaminergic system but can extend to the following brain entities: locus coeruleus, raphe nuclei, and basal nuclei. Parkinson’s disease is, therefore, a disease of dopaminergic synaptic systems (nigrostriatal and not only) and non-dopaminergic (cholinergic, serotoninergic, noradrenergic) [1]. The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease is essentially clinical. Currently is not discovered any biological marker, a laboratory or neuroimaging investigation to be specific for this disease. Early symptomatology is non-motoric and non-dopaminergic and consists of olfactory disorders, constipation, REM sleep disorders, depression, factors that do not allow the accurate diagnosis of the disease in initial stages.
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Although Parkinson’s disease, is predominantly a motor disease with movement disorders, besides the motor signs, currently are present non-motor afflictions, from the vegetative or psychic domains. The clinical picture of Parkinson’s disease also includes a number of other signs like asthenia, fatigue, muscle pain, seborrhea, sialorrhea, constipation, and sleep disturbances. Depression is common in approximately 40% of patients, regularly severe depression, that is explained by the decrease in neurotransmitters like serotonin and noradrenaline. Depression is probably the most common psychiatric complication associated with Parkinson’s disease, with the incidence reported in the literature of 70% of the cases. Generally, the stage of depression in most patients is moderate, rarely severe, but the impact on the quality of life is major due to the influence in many other clinical aspects of the disease. To date, a Parkinson’s disease depression assessment scale has not been developed. A remarkable number of authors agree that depression in Parkinson’s disease is greatly underestimated, it is approximated that many clinicians consider depression to be a supportive factor for motor performance limitations. Theories are stipulated on the topic that depression may even precede the occurrence of the specific motor signs in Parkinson’s disease (Parkinsonism premotor) and is considered that depression can be present for many years before the actual debut of the disease. The severity of the depression, in general, is not correlated with the degree of motor disability. Music and music therapy may benefit patients’ life directly: physiologically, psychologically, and socioemotionally [4]. Music is widely used because it provides
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a diversion for inactivity, discomfort and daily routine. Music reduces the symptoms of depression, anxiety, insomnia, and agitation. Also, music helps with problematic behaviors and provides physical and mental stimulation [5]. On the other hand, music helps in the rehabilitation of people with cardiac disease, Parkinson’s disease and motor deficits related to stroke, it helps in pain management. Music eases social integration, smooths communication and empowers the expression of feelings, including anger and grief, and relieves the stress and tension encountered in chronic diseases [6]. It is a well-known fact that music has a beneficial impact on emotions. The modern neuroscience has revealed that subcortical areas are related to emotion processing and emotional disorders. In particular, subcortical limbic and frontal areas of the brain are considered to misfunction in depressive syndromes, due to the evidence of the morphological changes and biochemical dysfunctions [7]. Studies have shown that music reception and interaction in music therapy seem to be a useful instrument to stimulate the brain systems and also have the capacity to influence the affective procedures involved in depression [8]. II. OBJECTIVE
This study aims to investigate the dynamics of the depression’s symptoms in patients with Parkinson’s disease that are using the therapy of music compared to the evolution of depression in patients with Parkinson’s disease that are not using the melotherapy instrument. III. METHOD
A lot of 5 patients with middle stage Parkinson’s disease and a moderate stage of
depression, according to the Beck Depression Inventory [5], were recruited from a private clinic. Patients were individually diagnosed and all met the standard criteria for Parkinson’s disease. The control group was composed of 5 patients with also stage three of Parkinson’s disease and moderate stage of depression (according to Beck Depression Inventory), but the patients did not want to use melotherapy as a tool for depression. The two groups were advisedly elected to not differ significantly in terms of age: PD range: 60-70 years, PD mean 67,2 years, control group range: 60-75 years, control group mean 68,5 years. At the inventory of Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale- section one, all patients were without any affection of the intellect and without thinking disorders, but 4 were included into the classification of: “depression with vegetative symptoms of insomnia, anorexia, abulia, weight loss” and 5 patients were included in the classification of “withdrawn into him/herself, completely lacking in motivation” and 6 were included in the section: “depression for more than a week” and 5 patients were included in the classification: “loss of initiative or lack of interest in everyday activities”. All the PD patients completed a neurological examination and a psychiatric exam that included the Beck Depression Inventory and the Mini-Mental State Examination [6]. All of them obtained results between 19-29 points at the Beck Depression Inventory, which results includes them in the moderate depression range. The results at the Mini-Mental State Examination were between 24-30 points, which included the patients for the interpretation of no cognitive impairment. The music therapy used by the 5 PD patients consisted of passive technique, which refers to listening to carefully selected melodies. The practice of the passive method refers to the music of composers
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such as J.S. Bach, W.A. Mozart, L. van Beethoven, R. Schumann or Fr. Chopin in a special environment, which stimulates the relaxation and the improvement of patients’ health. The patients were given CDs and were advised to pursue a well-established program for melotherapy sessions once per day at least for 30 minutes, in the first month. In the next 5 months, they were advised to have at least two sessions of music therapy for 30 minutes each, one in the morning and the last in the evening, or depending of the events of the day, with the possibility to move the evening session anytime in the day, after stressful events, with the possibility to have how many sessions they want. The patients were neurologically examined and they performed the inventories mentioned earlier once per month. IV. RESULTS
Non-motor symptoms of the disease are a determining factor in the quality of life of patients and their families. Basically, during the evolution of PD, most patients reported periods when non-motor symptoms are more severe than motor symptoms. The first patient from the music therapy group, male, with stage three of PD, obtained 63 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test before the melotherapy, reported that he had a period of six months in which he stayed indoors, isolated himself from family and friends and was staying in bed the most of the time, not doing any pleasant activities that he enjoyed before, he even lost his appetite and therefore he lost 15 pounds. He was feeling: overwhelmed, unhappy and sad. He lost the motivation to do anything that involved social interactions, being pessimistic and feeling guilty of how his disease affected his family. The patient obtained 27 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory before the beginning of the therapy with music, is included in the
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moderate depression category. During the six months, he affirmed significant progress in the manner that he experienced his life, the first change that he observed was the physical relaxation that he felt after two weeks in the 30 minutes session, therefore he became eager to have another session in the next day. Another significant feature that he obtained in the first month was his appetite and thus, he felt more powerful and able to begin new activities. At the end of the six months, he revealed that music therapy made a difference in his quality of life and helped him regain the pleasure of living by listening music and doing other pleasant activities. He obtained 20 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory- being included now in the borderline clinical depression. Also, he got 55 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test after the melotherapy. The second patient, from the music therapy group, female, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, obtained 61 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test before the melotherapy, reported that she didn’t remember the last time when she felt good, happy or excited about something. The main thoughts that she had were pessimistic. She was often worried and felting inferior and guilty related to the family because of her illness. She felt hopeless and several times she had thoughts about death. The most part of the day, she was staying in bed and often crying (3-4 times a day). The patient obtained 29 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory before the beginning of the therapy with music, being included in the moderate depression category. After a period of 6 months with music therapy sessions, the patient reported a decreased frequency of crying sessions (maximum once per week). The thoughts of death disappeared after three months of melotherapy. She engaged herself into effortless activities
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with her niece while listening to classical music and she reported that she had days in which she listened music all the time she was awake ’’to make pessimistic thoughts to disappear’’. She obtained 20 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory- being included now in the borderline clinical depression. Also, she obtained 65 points at PDQ-39Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test after the melotherapy. The third patient, from the music therapy group, male, with stage three of Parkinson’s Disease, obtained 61 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test before the therapy with music, reported that he had not slept well and he had difficulties falling asleep in the last year. His thoughts were driven by desperation, hopelessness about the future, and associated with low energy and loss of interest in the environmental activities. He experienced chronic body pain and memory loss. The low energy and fatigue, along with the chronic pain of the body, prevented him from performing his usual activities. The patient obtained 25 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory before the beginning of the therapy with music, is included in the moderate depression category and he obtained 20 points after the therapy at the same test, is included in the borderline clinical depression. After the 6 months of music therapy, he affirmed that he experienced a significant evolution in the sleep disorder, he used the music sessions to ease the process of falling asleep and reported that he had a more satisfying sleep. The chronic pain in his body reduced in intensity during the whole period, until in the last month he related that the body pain has disappeared. Also, he obtained 54 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test after the melotherapy. The fourth patient, from the music therapy group, female, with stage 3 of PD, obtained 67 points at PDQ-39- Quality of
life scale in Parkinson’s disease test before the therapy with music. She reported that she felt depressed daily, she overslept and felt that she had a reduced capacity of thinking and concentrating with a huge loss of energy and psychomotor slowness. The patient obtained 24 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory before the beginning of the therapy with music, is included in the moderate depression category. She experienced: sadness emotions and discouragement related to all activities, also, she was not feeling satisfied with her life, thinking that she has failed more than an average person. In general, she was disappointed with her life and had lost interest in everything that happened in her life, being unable to make decisions as she did before.After the therapy she obtained 19 points at the same test, is included in borderline clinical depression. After the six months of music therapy, the patientrelated a slight improvement in her capacity of thinking and an improved concentrating capacity, now the patient being able to understand better her disease’s features and the tools that could help her to overcome the crisis in her life. Her mood was improved and she sustained that she felt more energetic. Also, she obtained 61 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test after the melotherapy. The fifth patient, from the music therapy group, male, with stage three of Parkinson’s Disease, obtained 53 points at PDQ-39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test before the therapy with music, he reported that he felt unhappy and that he had thoughts of despair. He had sleep disorders, with the presence of frequent awakening during the night. Also, he presented psycho-motor agitation during the day. Also he had fatigue and low energy levels, being unable to sustain efforts in his usual routine. He was anxious about his physical problems and was hard for him
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to think of much else. Also, he has lost his appetite. The patient obtained 22 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory before the beginning of the music therapy, is included in the moderate depression category and after the therapy he obtained 17 points at the same test, is included in the borderline clinical depression. After the 6 months of music therapy, the patient sustained that he felt better, both physically and mentally and the sleep disorders have decreased in intensity. He felt more energetic and the sadness that he experienced was less intense. Also, he obtained 49 points at PDQ39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test after the melotherapy. In the control group formed by patients with Parkinson’s disease that refused to participate in the therapy with music, after 6 months, the patient was in the same moderate depression state, according to the Beck’s Depression Inventory tests performed before and after the six months. The first patient from the control group, male, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, initially obtained 65 points at PDQ39- Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test. He reported that he felt sad and anxious most days of the week for several months. He had also lost his appetite, lost weight and had difficulties with falling asleep, which made him very worried. He lost his power and motivation to perform certain activities, so he was tired most of the time. The patient obtained 25 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory initially. After the six months, his quality of life test score has increased with one point due to the increase of his discomfort. After the six months, his Beck’s Depression Inventory test result has increased with two points due to the aggravation of his insomnia. The second patient from the control group, female, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, initially obtained 60 points at PDQ39-Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease
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test and also she obtained 23 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory. The patientrelated that she felt discouraged about the future and she felt disappointed in herself. The patient lost most of her interest in other people and activities and she felt quite annoyed and bored almost all of the time. All those factors have changed her capacity of making decisions. After the six months her quality of life test score has increased with one point due to the decrease of her emotional well being. After the six months, her Beck’s Depression Inventory test result has increased due to the loss in her weight. The third patient from the control group, female, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, initially obtained 64 points at the PDQ-39-Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test and also, she obtained 25 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory. The patientrelated that she felt so sad and unhappy that she couldn’t stand so she experienced some thoughts of death. Her loss of interest in people and activities was so increased so she isolated herself in the last months. Also, she felt irritated all the time and she got tired of doing almost anything. After the six months, her quality of life test score has increased with two points due to the decrease of her emotional well being and because of the decrease in her social support. After the six months, her Beck’s Depression Inventory test result has increased with two points due to the fact that she had great problems in accepting herself. The fourth patient from the control group, male, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, initially obtained 59 points at the PDQ-39-Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test and also, he obtained 25 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory. The patient-related that he had to push himself very hard to do anything because he lost his interest in people and activities. Also, he lost his appetite. He had the impression that he experienced permanent changes in his
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appearance that made his look unattractive. Also, he felt guilty and disappointed in himself. After the six months, his quality of life test score has increased with three points due to the decrease of his emotional well being and because of the worries and the discomfort of his body. After the six months, his Beck’s Depression Inventory test result has increased with three points due to the loss in his weight of fifteen pounds. The fifth patient from the control group, male, with stage three of Parkinson’s disease, initially obtained 61 points at the PDQ-39-Quality of life scale in Parkinson’s disease test and also, he obtained 22 points on Beck’s Depression Inventory. The patientrelated that he experienced moderate insomnia. He was worried about the physical problems that he cannot think of anything else and he felt very disappointed in himself and guilty, therefore he became unable to make decisions. After the six months his quality of life test score has remained the same. After the six months, his Beck’s Depression Inventory test result has remained the same. The partial results on the music therapy patients of this study can be resumed likewise: Table 1 Reduced sleeping disorders Reduced psycho-motor agitation Improvement in thinking capacity Improvement in the mood Increasing relaxation Increasing motivation Improving social interactions Reducing sadness
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Research on the effects of music therapy on other patients with different diagnoses has shown various benefits. The music is a useful instrument in remembering optimistic emotions and in recreating pleasant memories, also it has been effective in improving the sense of self and in enhancing the mood. Also, it was discovered that music has a stimulating effect on psychological well-being and also, music has an important impact in reducing psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, fear, etc [9]. Related studies also revealed that listening to relaxing music, which is one of the most used tools in music therapy, has been beneficial for the patients in maximizing wellness and relaxation. Also, music has valuable effects in relieving self-reported pain, reducing anxiety and depression and it cand be used in downsizing treatmentrelated distress and even in reducing nausea and vomiting [10]. The results of this clinical trial demonstrate that despite the fact that depression is common between the Parkinson’s disease patients [11], [12], and it causes negative influences in the patient’s quality of life, the music therapy is a useful tool. After music therapy, the depression scores of the experimental group subjects were reduced distinctly. Music therapy can be proposed as a psycho-emotional intervention tool to reduce mood disturbance in Parkinson’s disease patients [13],[14].
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REFERENCES
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[1] Robert B. Daroff, Bradley’s Neurology in Clinical Practice, 2-Volume Set, 7th Edition, Philadelphia, (2012). [2] Wigram T, Pedersen IN, Bonde LO. “A Comprehensive Guide to Music Therapy”: Theory, Clinical Practice, Research and Training. Jessica Kingsley Publications, London, (2002). [3] McCraty R, Barrios-Choplin B, Atkinson M, et al. “The effects of different types of music on mood, tension, and mental clarity”.AlternTherHealth Med
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(1998), 4:75– 84. [4] Salamon E, Kim M, Beaulieu J, et al. ”Sound therapy induced relaxation: downregulating stress processes and pathologies”. Med SciMonit (2003);9:RA96-RA101. [5] Beck AT, Depression: Causes and Treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, (1972). ISBN 0-8122-1032-8. [6] Tombaugh, TN; McIntyre, NJ “The minimental Status Examination: A comprehensive Review”. JAGS. (1992) : 922–935. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01992.x. PMID 1512391. [7] Blood AJ, Zatorre RJ: ”Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion”. Proc Natl AcadSci USA. (2001), 98: 11818-11823. 10.1073/pnas.191355898. [8] Davis WB, Gfeller KE, Thaut MH. An Introduction to Music Therapy.2nd edition. Boston, McGrawHill Companies, Inc, (1999). [9] Aldridge D. “The therapeutic effects of music, in Jonas W, Crawford CC(eds)”: Healing, Intention and Energy Medicine. London, Churchill Livingstone,(2003). [10] McIntosh GC, Brown SH, Rice RR, Thaut MH. ”Rhythmic auditory-motor facilitation of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson’s disease”. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (1997) 62(1):22– 6.10.1136/jnnp.62.1.22 [11] Docu Axelerad A, Alina S, Docu Axelerad D. “Religiosity and Yoga in Parkinson’s Disease Patients”. Examines Phy Med Rehab. 2(3). (2019), EPMR.000539.2019. DOI: 10.31031/ EPMR.2019.02.000539. [12] Docu Axelerad Any. ”Parkinson’s disease and influence of music in their rehabilitation”. Science, Movement & Health Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education & Sport/ (2012), Supplement, Vol. 12 Issue 2, p 469-473. 5p. [13] Docu Axelerad A, Alina S, Docu Axelerad D. “Religiosity and Yoga in Parkinson’s Disease Patients”. Examines Phy Med Rehab.2(3). (2019) EPMR.000539.2019. DOI: 10.31031/ EPMR.2019.02.000539. [14] Robert A Hauser, Any Docu-Axelerad, Mark Lew et all. “Tozadenant (SYN115) in patients with Parkinson’s disease who have motor fluctuations on levodopa: a phase 2b, double-blind, randomised
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trial”, The Lancet Neurology, Elsevier, (August 2014).
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
How religiosity affects Parkinson’s disease symptoms Daniel Docu Axelerad
Alina Zorina Stroe
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
Department of Neurology Clinical Hospital, Constanta Romania
Silviu Docu Axelerad
Student at ‘Vasile Goldis’ University, General Medicine Faculty Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 10 October 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.20
The importance of religion in people’s lives is due to the fact that religiosity is a very used mechanism to cope with all kinds of problems and especially those related to health, religion and therefore praying is a veridical mechanism for coping with stress. In Parkinson’s disease, the patients experience a wide variety of symptoms that address both the physical and the psychic and also a large variety of subsidiary diseases that can greatly influence the course of the basic disease and the quality of patients’ lives. Experiencing the effects of religiosity and more precisely, the power of prayer in the life of patients with Parkinson’s disease to test the desirable beneficial outcomes becomes an interesting alternative in the possibility of discovering a non-pharmaceutical method that changes the symptoms of the disease.
Keywords: Parkinson’s disease; clinical symptoms; religiosity; pray; Webster scale; Quality of life questionnaire;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Docu-Axelerad Daniel, Docu Axelerad Silviu, Stroe Alina Zorina. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Docu-Axelerad, Daniel, and Docu-Axelerad Silviu, Stroe Alina Zorina, ”How religiosity affects Parkinson’s disease symptoms,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.20, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 203-211.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. INTRODUCTION
Parkinson’s disease is a gradual developing disease with a neurodegenerative process that affects the degeneration of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons with Lewy bodies[1]. Parkinson’s disease induces motor symptoms as the following: slow, rhythmic tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability, walking or gait difficulties. In relation to the cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, the onset of tremor is from the initial stages and is located at the level of the upper limb, fingers or lower limb [2]. Bradykinesia is a fundamental feature that involves the general reduction of spontaneous movements, which gives the characteristic appearance of the parkinsonian patient with hypomimia and with the stiffness of the body. Another motor representation of Parkinson’s disease is the decreased patient’s balance or postural instability [3]. The non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are: disturbances in the sense of smell, sleep problems, depression and anxiety, fatigue, pain, cognitive changes, sweating deregulation, gastrointestinal problems. Recent studies have shown that previous to the occurrence of the motor symptoms, patients can experience a category of manifestations that can appear before the diagnosis with 10 years or more [4]. A study has shown that symptoms like the following can develop to a percentage of 60–70% of patients previously to the diagnosis: a decrease in the expression of emotional language, lack of interest, difficulties in setting the nocturnal rhythm, with the presence of insomnia and daytime sleepiness and intestinal dysfunction. In addition, more symptoms like lack of delight in actions that were commonly pleasing, memory difficulties, changes of disposition,
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changes in the perception of tastes and smells, overabundance of sweating, tiredness, and constipation were found to be present 10 years before the disease was identified [5]. Additionally, the presence of depression and anxiety may be found before the diagnosis [6]. The pre-motor symptoms differ in each patient, but they remain present throughout the disease and tend to have a more dramatic development than the motor and non-motor symptoms that appear later in the evolution of the disease. An important factor that can influence people’s decisions and implicitly their lives is the religiosity they possess through the impact that religiosity has on thoughts, personality, even from daily decisions to long-term motivations and goals [7]. Studies of the last few years have shown that religious experience, faith or spiritualityrelated practices activate specific areas of the brain with the intuitive possibility of eventual neuromodulation in those areas [8]. Although there is no actual evidence, in the literature are cited some ways explaining how religiousness has a positive influence on patients. The first way is how religiosity provides for the patients the possibility to cope with the disease and through the right environment by providing the tools that patients need to manage the disease and the negative situations and challenges in their lives. On the other hand, religiosity offers the possibility of forming a social support group, which means a lot to patients. Finally, religiosity promotes healthy habits that positively influence patients’ health and implicitly their lives. Studies have shown that religious patients have instituted better coping mechanisms with treatable diseases compared to nonreligious patients with the same disease [9]. It has been observed that people become closer and interconnected with themselves
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and with others through religious practices such as prayers or other rituals [10]. The belief that more religious people are more protected from a mental health standpoint than non-religious people are still from Freud’s expertise [11]. Also, according to the majority of studies carried out on the subject, it seems that the prevalence and the incidence of depression could be reduced in religious people [12]. It has been shown that practicing religion for intrinsic reasons has been associated with a lower rate of depression and anxiety compared to practicing religion for extrinsic reasons. II. METHODS
The purpose of this study was to examine in contrast two lots of Parkinson’s disease patients for a period of six months, the religious group of patients that prayed for 30 minutes before sleep and the control group of patients, that did not have any religious activities. Individually, each patient was recruited from a neurologic private clinic and separately diagnosed by Dr Docu Axelerad Any, the director of the clinic. Independently, each patient who completed the regular criteria for idiopathic Parkinson’s disease had negative differential diagnosis for dementia, hallucinations or dyskinesia. Regarding to the staging of the disease, all patients were at Hoehn-Yahr stage II and have the Webster rating scale results between 10-13 and the Quality of life questionnaire results between 20-30 points. The first patient from the religious group of Parkinson’s disease patients, FF, female, 56 years, with a moderate stage of the disease. Regarding to the initial Webster scale result (12 points) of the patient, she presented: moderate bradykinesia of hands, with difficulties while executing repetitive movements and with the presence of an expressionless face. The rigidity was
detectable with the inflexibility of the muscles of the neck and shoulders. The posture was affected, the patient had the head flexed forward and rounded shoulders. One arm swing was definitely decreased. The turnaround time was decreased. The peakto-peak tremor movement was present. The patient presented detectable immobility. Also, the patient had beginning anxiety features. Her speech was affected by the beginning of hoarseness. She presented increased perspiration and seborrhea, with thin secretions thicker. The patient required help in certain critical areas. After six months of performing prayers in the afternoon, before sleep, the Webster scale test result was decreased with one point, because the patient no longer presented the anxiety features. Her Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. Related to the answers that the patient gave at the initial Quality of life questionnaire, she was able to walk indoors, but outdoors or on stairs she encountered difficulties. She had slight problems with sleeping and also, she had slight problems with her bladder and with her speech. In the usual activity section, she answered that she performed her usual activities less effectively and she thought that the cause was her slight difficulty in thinking clearly. In some periods of the day, she had distress and that made her anxious and overall exhausted. Her initial score for the Quality of life questionnaire was 23 points, and after performing the six months religiousrelated activity before sleep, her score was 20 points, with the disappearance of anxiety and thinking problems, that she claimed that occurred after three months, because her quality of thoughts that was improved by the appearance of positive thoughts and useful ideas in times of anxiety. The second patient from the religious
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group of Parkinson’s disease patients, GT, female, 59 years, with a moderate stage of Parkinson’s disease. According to the results that she obtained at the initial Webster scale test (12 points): related to the moderate bradykinesia of hands: she had an identifiable slower rate of supinationpronation. The rigidity was detectable with stiffness of the muscles of the neck and shoulders. The posture was affected by the forward flexion of the head. One arm swing was definitely decreased. The gait required several more steps and her stride was moderate shortened. The tremor was present during the finger-to-nose test. The patient presented moderate immobility. Also, the patient had beginning depression features. Her rate of dressing was definitely impeded. The patient had impairments with her speech, with the loss of her inflection and resonance. The Webster score of the patient changed after practicing evening prayers for six months, so that the final Webster score was 11 points, due to the disappearance of her depressive characteristics. Her Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. Taking into account the answers given by the patient to the initial Quality of life test (23 points), the patient had minor difficulties in performing daily activities, especially outside her home, sometimes needing help. Her vision was also affected. In addition, she had moderate problems with sleep, often waking up during the night. At the same time, she had difficulties in speaking, with the change of the tone of her voice. When the sad and depressive thoughts encompassed her throughout the day, she also felt quite intense physical discomfort and at the same time felt tired. In the following six months, she performed prayers in every night, before sleep and she observed that, in time, her sleep quality changed, currently sleeping more profoundly, with lower frequency of
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night awakening, so that in the last month of prayers, the patient did not experience any waking at night. Another element that has decreased her score of Quality of life- the last one being 19 points- was the dissolution of her depression and in the same time of her physical discomfort and tiredness. She reported that her sad thoughts have vanished in time, being replaced with positive ones and feelings of love regarding her family that gave her comfort and power. The third patient from the religious group of Parkinson’s disease patients, MI, male, 57 years, with a moderate stage of the disease. Related to the initial Webster scale test result (13 points), he obtained the following: moderate bradykinesia of hands with difficulties in performing everyday tasks and hypomimia. The moderate rigidity was detectable and the affected muscles (neck, shoulders, trunk, and limbs) remained stiff, not relaxed and painful for the patient. The posture was affected and the patient presented: forward head, rounded shoulders, increased thoracic kyphosis, increased flexion of the trunk, and bending of the knees. One arm failed to swing. The turnaround time was decreased. The gait required several steps. The peak-topeak tremor movement was present. The patient presented detectable immobility. The patient had a moderate appearance of anxiety. His speech presented loss of inflection and resonance.The patient was very slow in performing most activities but managed to do his tasks by taking much more time. The patient performed nighttime prayers, before sleep for 6 months and his afterward Webster scale test result was lowered with one point, by the loss of his anxiety features. His Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was two points and remained the same after six months. The initial score of the patient’s Quality of life questionnaire was 25 points, thus:
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he could deal with walking inside the house, but outside the house he had quite significant difficulties and in those times he became anxious and had problems with his breathing. He had difficulty seeing when he was not wearing his glasses. Also, anxious thoughts appeared in his mind when he tried to fall asleep because he had insomnia, he managed to fall asleep very difficultly. Several times a week he had symptoms of nausea or sometimes he experienced itching symptoms all over his body. At the same time, the patient also had problems with speech. The patient performed his activities with enough difficulty, feeling most of the time-deprived of energy. Starting with the evening prayer period, the patient noticed an improvement in sleep, meaning that the time he managed to fall asleep decreased so that after four months he managed to stop having insomnia. Also, his anxiety decreased periodically, facing increasingly less anxiety over the months, so that in the last month of evening prayers, the patient did no longer has anxiety attacks, physical nausea or itching throughout the body. His activities remained slow performed, but his energy level increased or better said by the patient, his resistance to fatigue increased. In conclusion, his last performed Quality of life score was 21 points. The fourth patient from the religious group of Parkinson’s disease patients, DG, male, 58 years, with a moderate Parkinson’s disease. Conform to the results that he obtained at the initial Webster scale test (12 points), regarding the mild bradykinesia of hands, with a reduction in movement, with micrographia present. The rigidity was detectable deregulation and it interested the muscles of the neck and shoulders, causing the patient a sensation of uncomfortableness. The posture was influenced and the patient’s head was flexed forward. One arm swing was decreased. The gait required several steps. The tremor was
present during the finger-to-nose test. The patient presented detectable immobility. The patient was slow in performing most activities but managed to do his tasks by taking more time. His speech was affected, with the beginning of hoarseness. Also, his perspiration rate was increased. The patient had moderate features of depression. The patient’s Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. The patient’s initial quality of life questionnaire score was 23 points, so that: the patient managed to deal with his daily activities inside his house, but outdoors he had some difficulties. His levels of hearing and speech were slightly altered, he had difficulties in transmitting and receiving the voice messages. The patient considered that he had difficulties with his mental function, especially with his memory. Also, the patient experienced moderate physical discomfort every day, which made him feel nervous and tired. After six months of practicing the evening prayer, the patient experienced an improvement in the quality of his life, so that his problems with the physical discomfort were reduced as the months went by and also his nervousness and fatigue decreased sharply until in the fifth month all the symptoms disappeared. The score of the patient’s Quality of life questionnaire was 19 points after the six months of praying. The fifth patient from the religious group of Parkinson’s disease patients, PI, male, 59 years, with a moderate stage of the disease. Concerning the initial Webster scale test result (13 points), he acquired the consequent: moderate bradykinesia of hands, with problems with fine motor coordination. The moderate rigidity altered the muscles of the neck and shoulders and mild axial and limb rigidity were also present. The posture was modified and the patient had: forward head, rounded shoulders, increased thoracic kyphosis,
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increased flexion of the trunk, and bending of the knees. One arm failed to swing. The turnaround time was decreased. He had some moderate depression features. The tremor was present while walking. The patient presented detectable immobility. The patient was very slow in performing most activities but managed to do his tasks by taking much more time. After the 6 months of praying before sleep, he obtained a 12 points score at the Webster scale test. His Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was two points and remained the same after six months. The patient obtained 23 points in the initial questionnaire regarding the quality of his life, so that: he encountered difficulties both at the level of his daily activity inside his house and outside his house. He experienced shortness of breath during heavy work. His sad and melancholic thoughts prevented him from falling asleep in a short time manner so that he could not rest properly. He managed to feed himself, but with little difficulty due to the tremor. He felt exhausted and had physical discomfort. After the period of six months of praying before sleep, he obtained a 19 points score of the Quality of life questionnaire. His sleep problems have resolved in the first three months and his moderate depression features became mild ones. He felt less tired after the six months and his physical discomfort disappeared after four months. The first patient belonging to the control group, TR, 56 years, female, with a moderate stage of the disease. Regarding the result of the initial Webster test (11 points) for bradykinesia of the hands, the patient presented a delay in the successive movements. Detectable moderate rigidity in neck and shoulders was also present. The patient had the head flexed forward. One arm swing was definitely decreased. The turnaround time was decreased. The tremor was positive in the situation of peak-to-peak
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movement. The patient had detectable immobility. A beginning of hoarseness was present. She still provided full self-care, but rate of dressing definitely impeded. Her result remained the same after the six months of just following her treatment. Her Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. In connection with the result of the initial Quality of life scale test, she obtained 20 points, the patient presented a decrease in mobility compared to normal, which prevented her from doing all the usual activities with the normal rhythm. The patient did better at home than outside. She also had minor difficulties with sleep. On the other hand, the patient also presented difficulties in her speech. The patient also had intestinal problems, especially with constipation. At the same time, the patient also had problems with memory and the patient also accused a lower level of vitality. After a period of six months, her sleep problems have aggravated and her insomnia became moderate. The second patient from the control group, RE, 59 years, female, with a moderate stage of the disease. According to the initial score of the Webster scale test (12 points) for bradykinesia of hands, the patient had a moderate slowing of supination-pronation rate. The moderate rigidity of the neck and shoulders made the patient feel uncomfortable. The patient had the head flexed forward. One arm failed to swing. The turnaround time was decreased. The tremor was positive in the situation of finger-to-nose test. The patient presented moderate immobility. Her speech had a loss of inflection and resonance. The patient required help in certain critical areas. The result of the Webster scale test increased with a point after six months by the appearance of the moderate anxiety features of the patient.
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Her Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. The result of the questionnaire of the quality of life of the patient was 22 points, so that the patient had medium difficulties with mobility and also, the patient presented difficulties in carrying out daily activities, which she performed less efficiently and also the patient had problems with her thinking capacity. She no longer had the same efficiency, which is the reason why she felt stressed and worried. She also had problems with the hearing. After six months, her result increased with two points because of the appearance of anxiety and insomnia. The third patient from the control group, CZ, 57 years, male, with a moderate stage of the disease. Regarding to the initial score of the Webster scale test (11 points) for bradykinesia of hands, the patient had a moderate slowing of supination-pronation rate. The patient presented a mild negative resting arm rigidity. The patient had the head flexed forward. One arm swing was definitely decreased. His walk required several more steps. The tremor was present in one hand while walking. The patient presented beginning depression features and his speech presented hoarseness. He presented increased perspiration rate. He still provided full self-care but his rate of dressing was definitely impeded. His score on the Webster scale increased with one point because of the aggravation of his depression, from mild to moderate. His Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. The first Quality of life questionnaire performed revealed a score of 21 points. The patient had difficulties while performing activities outside his home, so he needed help in certain situations outside his house, for example during the climbing of stairs. At the same time, the patient performed
his daily activities with more difficulty, less efficient. Also, the patient had problems with his speech. The patient felt slightly sad, melancholic and depressive and this fact also affected his physical condition because he felt continuous physical discomfort and a lack of power in everything he performed. After six months, his quality of life result has increased with one point due to the aggravation of his depression. The fourth patient belonging to the control group, MV, 55 years, male, with a moderate stage of the disease. According to the initial Webster scale test result (11 points), the bradykinesia of the patient was moderate, with difficulties in hand dexterity. The detectable rigidity in the neck and shoulders was moderate. The patient had the head flexed forward. One arm swing was definitely decreased. His walk required several more steps. The tremor was present in one hand while walking. The patient presented beginning depression features. He had an increase in his seborrhea production. He still provided full self-care but his rate of dressing was definitely impeded. After six months, the Webster scale result remained the same. His Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. The result of his first Quality of life questionnaire was 20 points. He presented impaired mobility, with more difficulties outdoors. Also, he had low efficiency in carrying out his daily tasks. He had slight speech difficulties. Also, he felt slightly depressed and tired. After six months, his result did not have any changes. The fifth patient from the control group, ST, 54 years, male, with a moderate stage of the disease. According to the initial Webster scale results of the initial test (11 points): his bradykinesia was moderate, with impaired hand function and also with micrographia present. Detectable rigidity in neck and
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shoulders was present. The patient had the head flexed forward. One arm swing was definitely decreased. His walk required several more steps. The tremor was positive in the situation of finger-to-nose test. His speech had a loss of inflection and resonance. The patient presented moderate depression features. He was very slow in performing most activities but manages by taking much time. After six months, his score was unchanged. His Hoehn and Yahr scale stage was one point and remained the same after six months. The initial Quality of life test result was 21 points. The patient felt moderately depressed and that changed the quality of his sleep. Also, he felt stressed and tired. His usual activities were performed with less effectiveness. After six months, his insomnia did aggravate and so his result on the Quality of life questionnaire was increased with one point. The patients that performed the prayer program showed improvements in depression and anxiety, as well as increases in the energy levels and quality of sleep, compared to the controls. Subjects belonging to the prayer group maintained the beneficial improvements in the mental and physical health for a duration at least a month after the final of the six months of prayer sessions. Parkinson’s disease patients from the control group did not present important adjustments during the study. It is obvious to observe that through prayer and, of course, faith, the patients in the prayer group achieved better results in the Webster test and in the Quality of life questionnaire. This makes us think that exists a possible link between prayer and improving the mental health of patients with Parkinson’s disease. Patients related that they have experienced, after prayer, peaceful mental states, which promoted better sleep and also feelings of self-
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confidence, through the quality of prayers “to make you feel supported by a divine force”, also positivism and hope through mental stimulation with positive words from the prayers, which guided them to overcome their anxiety and depression. CONCLUSION The action of praying before bedtime on Parkinson’s disease patients was positively correlated with beneficial results on Quality of life questionnaire results compared with the initial results before praying of the same questionnaire and and showed in comparison with the control group (who did not practice the prayer) the modification of the scores in the tests performed. Religiosity is a valuable instrument that can contribute with an optional method addressing subsidiary diseases to Parkinson’s disease, like depression and anxiety, as it has a positive impact for the patients with an indisputable beneficial influence on results of quality of life of the patients, that can beyond doubt contribute to increasing their health. Our conclusions should be managed with deliberation in the context of literature [13], [14], because our study was a pilot one, with a relatively small group of patients. Prayers and religiosity could improve Parkinson’s disease patients’ mental health, which is also reflected in physical health. Admitting that the variation between the results of both praying group and control group is not a significant one, this study promotes us beliefs and aspirations for performing more compelling ones with different instruments, hoping to provide a new useful adjuvant approach to standard medical care for Parkinson’s disease patients and their subsidiary conditions.
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REFERENCES [1] Docu Axelerad Any, Alina Stroe, Docu Axelerad D. “Religiosity and Yoga in Parkinson’s Disease Patients”. Examines Phy Med Rehab.2(3). (2019). EPMR.000539.2019. DOI: 10.31031/EPMR.2019.02.000539. [2] Robert A Hauser, Any Docu-Axelerad, Mark Lew et all. “Tozadenant (SYN115) in patients with Parkinson’s disease who have motor fluctuations on levodopa: a phase 2b, double-blind, randomised trial”, The Lancet Neurology, Elsevier, (August 2014). [3] Docu Axelerad Daniel, Docu Axelerad Any, “Freezing of gait in Parkinson’s disease patients and neurorehabilitation procedures”. Science, Movement and Health, Vol. XVI, ISSUE 1, 2016 (January 2016), 16 (1): 59-63 [4] Schrag A., Horsfall L., Walters K. et al. “Prediagnositc presentations of Parkinson′s disease in primary care: a case‐control study”. Lancet Neurol. (2015) ,14, 57– 64. [5] Pont‐Sunyer C., Hotter A., Gaig C. et al. “The onset of nonmotor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease” (The ONSET PD Study). Mov. Disord. (2015) , 30, 229– 237. [6] Chen H., Burton E. A., Webster R. G. et al. “Research on the premotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: clinical and etiological implications. A review”. Environ. Health Perspect. (2013). 121, 11– 12. doi:10.1289/ ehp.1306967. [7] Batson CD, Shoenrade P, Ventis WL. Religion and the individual: A social-psychological perspective. New York: Oxford University Press; (1993). [8] Azari NP, Missimer J, Seitz RJ. “Religious experience and emotion: evidence for distinctive cognitive neural patterns”. Int J Psychol Relig (2005);15:263–281. [9] Plante T. G., A. C. Sherman: Faith and health. Guilford Press, New York, (2001). [10] Kirkpatrick, L.A., Int J. Psychol. Relig 2 (1992). [11] Freud, S.: Civilisation and its discontents. Hogarth, London, (1959). [12] Curlin FA, Lawrence RE, Odell S, et al. “Religion, spirituality, and medicine: psychiatrists’ and other physicians’ differing
observations, interpretations, and clinical approaches”. American Journal of Psychiatry. (2007);164(12):1825–1831. [13] Docu Any Axelerad, Docu-Axelerad Daniel, Ciocan Cosmin Tudor, Sapte, Elena, “Confusional state,” Dialogo (2017), DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2017.4.1.16, ISBN: 997880-554-1408-9, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 4, issue 1, pp. 177 - 182, 2017. [14] Docu Any Axelerad, Docu-Axelerad Daniel, Ciocan Cosmin Tudor, Sapte, Elena, “Dementia, Clinical Aspects”, Dialogo (2017), DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2017.4.1.17, ISBN: 9978-80-554-1408-9, ISSN: 23931744, vol. 4, issue 1, pp. 183 – 187.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 215 - 225
DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
The impact of poultry meat attributes in the consumers’ behavior MSc. Irini Goga; PhD candidate Faculty of Agribusiness & Economy Agriculture University of Tirana Albania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 25 August 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 5 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.21
Meat market has a vital rank position in the pool of a competitive market. Based on the FAO data, poultry meat products are widely most preferred products. The consummators are concerned about the nutrition and sensory aspects of meat products. Knowing better consumers’ preferences helps the producer to fulfill the consumer needs offering the type of products they really need. Meat product attributes are essential in the decision that consumers make choosing a specific product. In the meantime, many studies mention that the religion of consumers impacts the decision to buy a product. We carry out this survey to show out how various factors such as religious and the meat attributes impact the buyers’ behavior in selecting poultry meat products. Our study aim to figure out the impact of poultry meat attributes in the consumers’ preferences for this product and the role of the consumers ‘religion in the type of meat they consume. In this regard, was surveyed with 250 participants in Tirana – Durres region. Based on our study, it is shown that price, origin of the poultry meat product and the appearance (color/texture) of the chicken meat are very significant factors in the buyers’ decision also considering their religion. On this study is pointed the correlation between origin price, and price - the appearance of poultry meat products. The results of this approach will be an orientation for the poultry meat industry, marketing strategy and all other meat market actors.
Keywords: attributes; behavior; consumer; meat color; meat; preferences; poultry meat; price; safe product;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Irini Goga. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Goga, Irini, ”The impact of poultry meat atributes in the consumers’ behavior,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.21, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 215-225.
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I. INTRODUCTION
Poultry meat is a very popular food commodity around the world due to its low cost of production, low-fat content, high nutritional value, and distinct flavor and short time needed for cooking. Its consumption has increased in recent decades in many countries. Fresh poultry meat belongs among a perishable food. On a global level, poultry is valuable animals because of their contribution to protein sources, and to high contribution to the lifestyle of the consumers. Based on the information on healthy nutrition and well- being, as Randolph mention, meat is a good source of protein, minerals (iron, zinc, calcium), and vitamins (A, B12 and other B vitamins), [1]. As part of a nutrition transitioned livestock revolution, Delgado growth of meat consumption in developing countries is likely to increase [2]. Many authors mention that religion has an essential impact on meat product preferences. So, the consumers in Japan used to consume seafood more than meat products. Nowadays, various studies investigate that the preferences for meat products in Japan are increased as an critical healthy diet product. As Bai has mentioned, non-traditional foods, bread, and milk are commonly consumed in China and have become a significant part of urban Chinese breakfasts. The muslin religion prohibits consummation of all pork meat products. In this regard, it is important Albania consumers have different kinds of religions in the country, such as Muslim, Catholic, and Orthodox. This fact should be taken into consideration by the producers and other chain actors. Poultry, are categorized as domesticated birds kept either because of their products
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such as meat, feathers or eggs. They establish a diverse group of animals, which can be incorporated into many farming systems. Throughout the world, poultry is identified and estimated for the mutual benefits of animals and the humans involved. It is a great significance their ability to adapt many types of feed, such as residuals from agricultural activities, households, and food processing industries [3]. Based on FAO statistics, [4] world poultry meat output is estimated at 120.5 million in 2017, up 1.1 percent from 2016. Outputs expanded in almost all major poultry producing regions despite frequent outbreaks of the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Between 2010 and 2017, world poultry meat production has increased by 21.3 million tones, but over the years the rate of growth has been decelerating. In the EU, output was constrained by HPAI outbreaks, limiting production growth to 0.8 percent as against 4 % three years ago. Statistics pointed out that the average annual consumption of meat in developed countries is 75.5 kg/inhabitant, while consumption of 33.9 kg/inhabitant is estimated in developing countries. Worldwide, levels of meat consumption are projected to increase by 72% in 2030 compared to the situation in 2000 [5]. In many countries, HPAI outbreaks severely affected output, especially early in 2017, but recovered in the following months, leading to output stability. At the same time, the poultry sector encompasses a contrast between dominant global large corporations and small-scale producers especially in the Global South in 2011. This can be assumed as a great potential because a variety of different trends and its branches to development can be explored in the last decade, the global poultry meat market has undergone unpredicted and complex changes. The development of the poultry meat industry is steadily growing and is one of the most competitive sectors in the European market.
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In 2018, the production of poultry meat in EU countries is increased with 4.2% [6]. EU Policies in the meat market intended to boost a safe, nutrition, fresh meat products towards the needs of consumers. Based on FAO statistics [7] world meat production increased from 13 percent in the mid-1960s to 28 percent currently. The most radical shifts in consumption in favor of poultry meat took place in countries that were the traditional producers, and often major exporters, of bovine meat such as Latin America, North America, and Oceania as well as in the mutton-eating region of the Near East/North Africa. Once again, developing countries captured the majority of poultry meat production and consumption in 2016, and, with populations in these countries continuing to grow, they are expected to hold their place as the top importers of poultry meat collectively in 2017 as well [8]. Although production growth has slowed, changing diets in these developing countries and strengthening economies continue to increase poultry production worldwide. During the past 15 years, poultry production was up nearly 43 million metric tons, according to FAO reports. As far as individual countries go, Brazil, China, and the U.S. remain the leaders in poultry meat production, with 2017 output, as in table 1. Meanwhile, Albania’s economy in the latest years has run through vital economic growth where the agriculture sector plays a significant role in GDP growth. Albanian economy statistics figure out a GDP growth which slightly but steadily is increased. Over the last 3 years, the Albanian economy performed a real GDP growth rate of 3.82% in 2017 compared with 2016, after a growth rate of 3.31% in 2016 compared with 2015 [9]. In 2018, the total GDP figure out that Trade, Accommodation, Construction,
and Food Services has an impact of 0.83% in GDP, the Administrative Services and Professional activities with 0.39% and for sure, it is important the contribution of the Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing sector which provides 0.33 % in the total GDP [10]. Table 1 World exports of livestock products and consumption 1964/66 1974/76 Total meat Exports ('000 tonnes) 5996 8869 % of consumption 7.4 7.9 Bovine Exports ('000 tonnes) 3134 4626 % of consumption 9.4 10.3 Pig meat Exports ('000 tonnes) 1734 2522 % of consumption 5.7 6.0 Poultry meat Exports ('000 tonnes) 436 887 % of consumption 4.0 4.7 Ovine Exports ('000 tonnes) 691 835 % of consumption 11.1 12.6
percentage of world
Milk and dairy (liquid milk equivalent) Exports ('000 tonnes) 21606 31769 % of consumption 6.0 7.6
1984/86
1997/99
14011 9.4
27440 12.7
6225 12.2
9505 16.4
4665 7.9
8270 9.6
1973 6.3
8465 13.9
1148 14.1
1200 11.2
57004 11.1
71364 12.8
Source: Food Agriculture Organization, Apr.2018
Being an important source of employment for the economy is a dynamic reason to rank the agriculture sector as one of the most important sectors of economy. During 2017, the Service sector and the Agriculture sector have the biggest number of employees, respectively with 42.4% and 38.2 % of the total employment rate. A considerable part of the population is living in a rural area and are employed in agriculture. The meat production sector is one of the latest sectors which is developing significantly in the market. The government strategy aims to boost agricultural production by providing financial support to farmers and facilitating private investment in the agro-processing
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sector. Also, the Private Financial Institutions supports the agriculture sector offering soft loan for the farmers and agro producers. In Albania there are three kinds of religion. In this context, 70% of the population is Muslim and 20 % Orthodox, and the rest of 10% is Catholic. We should mention that the most significant part of Albanian consumers is of the Muslim religion. This is an indicator that can encourage the poultry industry to adapt their products for this consumer category. While Albanian Agriculture statistics figure out the livestock production is 44% of the total agriculture output. In 2016, the number of cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry have increased (table below). Meanwhile, in 2017, the number of livestock has slightly decreased compared with 2016. So, cattle from 492 head in 2016 decrease in 475 heads in 2017; sheep from 1972 heads drop down to 1926, poultry also has a decrease: from 8326 heads in 2016 drop down to 7835 heads. Although, the livestock production is 161 000 tones, and is increased with 0.9% as it is shown in table 2. Based on the INSTAT data, below in figure 1 is presented the contribution of livestock structure in main cities in Albania. Figure 1
Source of information: INSTAT 2018
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II. CONSUMERS’ PREFERENCES THROUGH POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTS
This approach presents a data analysis on consumer preferences for poultry meat based on an analysis of extrinsic and intrinsic cues such as price, appearance, and origin. Based on the important position that holds meat products, especially poultry meat products in the market, it is necessary to adapt such marketing strategy, where meat producers and other marketing chain actors should be focused on the demand of the consumers towards the consumers ‘attributes orientation. In this regard, the producers need to adopt innovative technology, processes in order to offer a variety and good quality meat products. Nowadays, living healthy is the focus of consumers. Poultry meat is a good quality source of protein on the consumer’s diet. Differ studies investigated that the influence of religion on food consumption depends on the religion itself and on the extent to which individuals follow For example, Tokoyama explored that seafood, traditionally the primary protein source in Japan, has been gradually replaced by meat. Also, Bai told that non-traditional foods, bread, and milk, are commonly consumed in China and have become a significant part of urban Chinese breakfasts. Based on different studies, the consumers’ attitudes are influenced by extrinsic cues as well by intrinsic cues for quality selection. Nevertheless, consumers’ choices are influenced by many factors that ultimately shape purchasing decisions. Furnols and Guerrero [11] identified consumers’ behavior as depending on interrelated factors that included psychological influences (willingness, risk, expectations, sociocultural factors, lifestyle, and values), sensory qualities (visual appearance, texture, flavor, and odor), and marketing factors (price,
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label, brand, and availability). Also, the Total Food Quality model was used to analyze consumers’ perception and decision- making in determining meat quality [12]. The model showed that consumers form expectations about quality at the point of purchase, based on their own experience and informational cues available in the shopping environment. Other studies figured out that these preferences are influenced not only by the quality and consumer-related factors but also by context, culture, and information [13]-[14]. The studies is showed that preferences in Kenya are also influenced by context and information in addition to product attributes [15]. In many studies is shown that “country of origin” and “place of purchase” are main key indicators. The experience quality indicators like flavor or smellis are hard to measure but they play an important role on the assessment of the quality of fresh meat. In response to assess the safety of meat, “country of origin” may be considered as an extrinsic attribute cue. As well, place of purchase, color, portion of the meat and, fresh or frozen meat credence quality attribute cue are also very important. In order to asses eating quality as well to indicate the safety of meat products, consumers often refer to the “Country of origin” attribute. This holds for all four types of meat: beef and veal, pig meat, poultry meat, and goat meat.
Table 2; Animals in Albania; (Number of livestock 000 heads) Description
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Cattle
498
498
500
504
492
475
Cows
358
356
358
357
355
349
Sheep/Goats
2,619
2,723
2,804
2,850
2,911
2,859
Sheep M i l k e d sheep Goats
1,809
1,856
1,896
1,918
1,972
1,926
1,390
1,413
1,419
1,417
1,428
1,407
810
867
904
932
941
933
Milked goats
614
656
695
700
716
717
Pigs
159
152
172
171
181
180
Sow
12
12
12
11
13
12
Equidae
97
93
91
91
94
89
Horses
34
35
32
31
32
32
Poultry
9,494
8,928
9,493
8,558
8,326
7,835
Beehives
239
246
261
271
303
290
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
Although, other meat attributes, which have been taking account of by buyers’ preferences such as price, incomes, migration of the population, age, education, etc are not less important. Some authors investigated that the impact of the lower price of poultry meat than other meat types is a factor that may conduct the consumer to prefer poultry meat consumption.[16], [17], [18]. The change of the lifestyle orientation based on a healthy diet has also impacted the increase of the buyers ’demand for meat products, especially for poultry meat products as they are a significant source of protein. As well, the culture and the religion impact on the preferences for meat products. Religion should be considered as an important factor and should take into consideration how extent is the belief culture on the individual. They pay attention to the selection of safety and fresh products. Culturally, meat is associated with wealth and consumption is viewed as a reflection of favorable economic conditions [19]. Some diseases have influence on the production of red meat. This phenomenon has reflected in the more efficient production of other protein
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products such as poultry and fish. [20]. Most commodities consist of hidden qualities that consumers cannot detect by pre‐purchase or through normal use. Hence, given that consumers demand such qualities, information has to be communicated to the consumer by some trustworthy party to avoid a “lemons” effect. With respect to food, such qualities can be, for example, animal welfare process standards or long‐ term health hazards. Previous research has concluded that extrinsic cues such as country of origin (COO) are important in the consumer evaluation process. [21]. Several researchers have expended considerable effort to understand the importance that consumers place on country-of-origin (COO) information when they evaluate a product. Consumers use COO information as a signal of product quality and authenticity [21]. However, a singular view of COO does not adequately reflect emerging market realities because an increasing number of products are designed in, have parts from or are manufactured in more than one country [22]. While such outsourcing often makes sense from a COO contingencies cost point of view, the potential consequences it may have for consumers’ use of COO information is an important issue for theory and practice. [23] III. METHODOLOGY
In order to be able to conduct this study, based on the literature was constructed and conducted a survey which will figure out the socio – demography and economic data situation of the interviewers, their desire to consume meat products especially poultry meat, type of poultry meat, through the poultry meat attributes. The selection of the poultry meat attributes was made based on what other studies investigated and what different author has said regarding the attributes of
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the products. This survey was conducted in the Tirana and Durres area, with around 250 interviewers. Conjoint analysis has been used extensively in marketing research to estimate the impact of selected product (service) characteristics on customer preferences for products (services)[24]. Based on the above, we select the conjoint choice method to analyze the results of the surveys. Within this method, it is easy to understand the experience of the consumer and in the meantime to provide reliable information for the consumer but mostly to provide useful information which should orient the producers towards the buyers’ demands and socio-demographic situation of the consumer. As well, the approach aims to show up the impact of attributes in the buyers’ decision and correlation of poultry meat attributes as country of origin, price, age, gender, color, place of purchase, type of product. The perception of products, including perception of its attributes means the starting point for the consumer decision. IV. So, the combination of these indicators
will give the necessary information help to identify buyer’s preferences towards the attributes of the poultry meat. Discussion and results
Our survey is based on the different factors: cultural, social, individuals and psychological, which attempt to understand a market with different characteristics and desires of the different consumers of poultry meat products. Culture, beliefs, social categories are some of the indicators which impact the consumer’s preferences. 70% of the consummator in Albania belong to the Muslim religion. Muslim
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religion doesn’t allow consummation of any kind of pork. This fact can lead this category of consumers to other types of meat, especially to poultry meat. Another factor to be mention is the fact that in Albania are a considerable number of other nationalities that are living in Albania. They are from differing countries, different culture. They have another perception of food consumption. Either this category of consumers should be neglected by the producers. A combination of the attributes of poultry meat will provide an analysis of buyers’ preferences for poultry meat. Based on our survey, 39.6% of the interviewers are male and 60.4% are female.; 98.8 % of the interviewers declared that the product’ price play; a significant role on their decision of buying chicken products and only 1.2% of them considered the price as no significant in their decision of buying poultry meat products. Meanwhile, regarding the origin of the poultry meat product, more than half of the interviewers, respectively 53.6% answered that the origin of the product is considered very important. 36.4% considered the origin important and only 0.8% considered this factor as low important in their decision to buy poultry products. Another important of poultry meat quality attributes is appearance, (color and texture). Our survey shows out that 68% of the interviewers considered appearance as very important in their decision of buying poultry meat products, 38% considered it important and only 1.2% considered the appearance as less important in the decision of buying poultry products. Poultry meat color is a critical food quality attribute. Color is important for both the consumer’s initial selection of a raw
meat product in the marketplace and for the consumer’s final evaluation and ultimate acceptance of the cooked product upon consumption. Froning reviewed the many live bird production and processing factors associated with poultry meat color [25]. The occurrence of pale poultry meat, particularly in turkey breasts, has been related to poor functionality in further processing and excessive fluid accumulation in packaged products [26]. A comparison between price, origin, and appearance was used in this study in order to rank them from most important to less important. Below, Table 3, shows that from these 3 attributes, the most important is presented the origin of the poultry product with average of 4.4 followed by appearance with an average of 4.1 and the last but not the least is the price with an average of 4.0.
Table 3
N
Minimum Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
H o w important is on your buying decision the price
250
2
5
4
0,61
H o w important is on your buying decision the product 'origin
250
2
5
4.42
0,69
H o w important is on your buying decision the appearance
250
2
5
4.17
0,83
Source: own data survey
Although the result above shows that the impact of three indicators: price, origin, and appearance is almost the same on the buyers’ decision. So, in order to decide to buy a poultry product, our consumers pay big attention to the product’s price, its appearance, and it origin. In terms of gender segregation, the approach presented that the influence of
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3 indicators of the poultry products: price, origin appearance on buying decision has slight differences between female and male. These attributes have almost the same impact on female and male buying decisions. Respectively, female assessed as more important the origin (average= 4.5) of the product then the male (average= 4.2), meanwhile male considered as most important for them, the price and appearance. The influence of these three indicators is shown in table 4. Table 4 Descriptive Statistic
Role of the price on your buying decision?
Role of the product origin on your buying decision?
Role of the appearance on your buying decision
Mann-Whitney U
5906,500
6215,500
7125,500
Wilcoxon W
17382,500
11165,500
18601,500
Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
-3,357
-2,522
-,668
,001
,012
,504
As the price is one of the indicators with high impact in the buying decision, and food safety is very important to consumers, our study also investigated the correlation between willingness to pay more for a certified product and gender and incomes. To the question, if the consumer is willing to pay more for safe poultry products, the results from our survey show that 94.8% of our interviewers are willing to pay more for safe products labeled in the product. They will be able to pay 16% more from the actual price of the poultry product if they will have the possibility and the guarantee to select a safe and protected product by viruses such as in table 5:
How much more will you pay for a safe product labeled in the product? (%) Valid N (listwise)
Source: own data survey
Minimum Maximum
Mean
Figure 2
Std.
Table 6
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5,00
30,00
16,45
237
Both females and male are equally ready to pay more for a safe and healthy poultry product. Based on our data analysis it is showed that with the increase of monthly income of the consumer will increase also the willingness to pay more for safe and certified poultry products. Figure 2 below shows that the consumers with incomes in the amount of 40,000 ALL are willing to pay 10.8% more for a certified product than the actual price. Meanwhile, those who have incomes in the amount 60,000 – 70,000 ALL, are willing to pay 15.4% more for a certified meat product. Those who their incomes are around 80,000 ALL, are willing to pay till 27% more for a certified and safe poultry product.
Table 5 Descriptive Statistics N
237
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Average of monthly incomes (ALL).
Spearman's rho
Monthly average incomes (ALL).
Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N
How much more will you pay for a certified product? %
Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N
How much more will you pay for a safe product? %
1,000
,668**
.
,000
237
237
,668
1,000
,000
.
237
237
**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Statically, there is a significant correlation between monthly incomes and the willingness to pay more from the actual price for safe poultry product this correlation is positive and relatively strong (r=0.668>0.6), showed in table 4. In general, different characteristics, behaviors of the consumers towards different attributes of the product and the market segmentation should be the most important orientation for the producers in order to meet the consumers’ expectations. Our analysis figures out three attributes of the poultry meat products, origin, appearance (color and texture) and price are three significant indicators which lead the consumer preferences for poultry products. Based on our research, it is showed that female preferences are most impact by the origin of poultry meat, meanwhile the male preferences are indicated mostly by the price and appearance. But, in general, both male and female preferences for poultry meat are almost indicated by all three main indicators: origin, appearance (color and texture) and price. Appearance is critical for both the consumers’ initial selection of the product as well as for final product satisfaction.
The texture is the single most important sensory property affecting the final quality assessment. Appearance quality attributes include skin color, meat color, cooked meat pinkness, and appearance defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Since appearance is so critical for consumer selection, poultry producers go to great lengths to produce products with the appropriate color for a particular market and to avoid appearance defects which will negatively affect product selection or price. An understanding of the major issues contributing to poultry color and meat tenderness is critical to producing uniform quality products [26]. Although other quality issues such as juiciness and flavor are important, they are more a function of product preparation and infrequent, but acute, production or processing errors which are usually easily corrected or avoided. The risk of contamination of poultry products by residues and bacteria exist everywhere, owing to the globalization of poultry production and trade. Counteracting this, the relative risk of contaminated poultry products reaching the market has reduced the last decade due to overall improvement hygiene standards and faster diagnostic tools and improvement of legislation in Albania. Our data shows that the consumer aware of the poultry meat product. They are interested in having a safe product. This message should be labeled in the poultry meat product. The quality of control procedures during production and supply processes should estimate, control and reduce, and estimate the magnitude of foodborne diseases.
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REFERENCES [1] Patchimaporn Udomkun, John Ilukor, Jonathan Mockshell, Gaudiose Mujawamariya, Christopher Okafor, Renee Bullock, Nsharwasi Léon Nabahungu, and Bernard Vanlau, “What are the key factors influencing consumers’ preference and willingness to pay for meat products in Eastern DRC?”, in Food Science & Nutrition, 04 October 2018. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.813. Accessed 7.10.2019. [2] Christopher Delgado, “Rising Consumption of Meat and Milk in Developing Countries Has Created a New Food Revolution”, in Journal of Nutrition 133(11 Suppl 2):3907S-3910S/2003. DOI: 10.1093/jn/133.11.3907S. [3]M. Vaarst et al., “Sustainable poultry production development.” In World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 71/ December 2015, p. 609-620. Retrieved from https:// www.cambridge.org/core/services/aopcambridge- core/content/view/12E3CD4C0E0 7BA0281B5C90ACF9B05AD/ S0043933915002433 a.pdf/sustainable_ development_perspectives _of_poultry_ production.pdf. Accessed 24.10.2019. [4] Jelle Bruinsma (edit.), World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030. An FAO perspective, London: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 2003. [5] P.Udokumkun, Ibidem. [6] ***, “Meat consumption (indicator)”, in OECD (2019), 07 October 2019. doi: 10.1787/ fa290fd0-en . Accessed 1.10.2019. [7] Jelle Bruinsma (edit.), World Agriculture… [8] ***, “World Development Indicators”, in OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2017-26. Retrieved from http://www.poultrytrends. com/201711/index.php?startid=8#/20. Accessed 24.10.2019. [9] ***, “Gross Domestic Product”, in INSTAT. 2017. www.instat.gov.al [10] ***, “Quarterly Economic Growth”, in INSTAT. 2018, Retrieved from http://www. instat.gov.al/media/6049/gdp-q1-2019.pdf Accessed 24.10.2019. [11] Font-I-Furnols M. and Guerrero L., “Consumer preference, behavior and perception about meat and meat products: an overview”, in Meat Sci. 2014 Nov;98(3):361-71.2014. DOI:
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10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.025 [12] Grunert, Bredahl, and Brunsø, “Consumer perception of meat quality and implications for product development in the meat sector-a review”, in Meat Sci, 2004 Feb;66(2):259-72.2004. DOI: 10.1016/S03091740(03)00130-X [13] Kanerva, M., “Meat consumption in Europe: Issues, trends and debates”. in Artect-paper, 187 (January). Universität Bremen, Germany. [14] York R., & Gossards M., “Cross‐national meat and fish consumption: Exploring the effects of modernisation and ecological context”. in Ecological Economics, 48, 239–302.York & Gossards. [15] Mohammed Hussen, AlemuSøren Bøye, OlsenSøren Bøye, OlsenSuzanne, Elizabeth VedelSuzanne, Elizabeth VedelShow, “Combining product attributes with recommendation and shopping location attributes to assess consumer preferences for insect-based food products”, in Food Quality and Preference 55:45-57, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.08.009. [16] Venezuelan Poultry Federation, FENAVI, (Federación Venezolana de Avicultura), “Poultry and Products Annual 2008 report for Venezuela”, Retrieved from https:// thepoultrysite.com/articles/venezuela-poultryand-products-annual-report-2008. Accessed 7.10.2019. [17] L. A. Galvis, ‘La demanda de carnes en Colombia: un análisis econométrico’, Documentos de Trabajo sobre Economía Regional 13. Centro de Estudios Económicos Regionales, Banco de la República, 2000. [18] Bruno Lanfranco, and Catalina Rava, “Household demand elasticities for meat products in Uruguay”, in Spanish Journal Of Agricultural Research 12(1):15-28/2014. DOI: 10.5424/sjar/2014121-4615 [19] M. Nestle, “Meat of wheat for the next millennium”, in Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, Vol. 58/ 1999, pp. 211-18. [20] Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Food: A History, Macmillan Pub Co, 2001. [21] Hoffmann, R., 2000. “Country of origin – a consumer perception perspective of fresh meat.” In British Food Journal, Vol. 102 No. 3/2000, https://doi.org/10.1108/00070700010332304,
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pp. 211-229. [22] Jaffe and Nebenzahl, 2001. n.d. [23] Isenberg, Alexander Josiassen and A. Assaf. 2010. “Country-of-origin contingencies: their joint influence on consumer behaviour .” Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 294-313. [24] Louvier, Jordan J.. “Conjoint Analysis modelling of stated; A review of theory, methods and recent development and external validity.” Journal of Transport, Economics and Policy; January 1988. [25] Froning, G. W., “Color of poultry meat.” Poult. Avian Biol. Rev. 6(1):83–93/1995. [26] Fletcher, D.L., “Poultry meat quality.” World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 58/ June 2002.
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
Maritime Fair Trade
A new trend for the postmodern sustainable developed society Maria Cristina Dragomir Management in Transports Constanta Maritime University Romania
Liviu Razvan Dragomir
Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 5 October 2019 Received in revised form 26 October Accepted 30 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.22
Maritime Fair Trade is a new concept occurring in the biased sector of shipping. The concept emphasizes, among other ethical desiderates, the necessity of assuring ethical and safe business and work environment, including organizational gender equality, which is one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The paper presents an overview of the context of appearance for the new concept, underlying the role of maritime charities and international organizations. The paper includes a comparison between criteria considered by the Seafarer Happiness Index and their relation to Maslow’s pyramid, as focal point for developing maritime fair trade concept.
Keywords: gender bias; International Labour Organisation; International Maritime Organisation; Maritime Labour Convention; Fourth Industrial Revolution;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Maria Cristina Dragomir, Liviu Razvan Dragomir. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Dragomir, Maria Cristina, and Liviu Razvan Dragomir, ”Maritime Fair Trade. A new trend for the postmodern sustainable developed society,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.22, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 226-234.
I.
Introduction
In general, fair trade (or equitable trade) represents a movement whose goal is to help producers in developing countries to get a fair price for their products so as to reduce poverty, provide for the ethical treatment of workers and farmers, and promote environmentally sustainable practices. In particular, Maritime Fair Trade represents a social movement whose
basic aim is to highlight the necessity of promoting equitable employment, decent work conditions, environmental protection, and quality services in shipping. Maritime fair trade companies are organizations from shipping, transport, logistics or maritime trade sectors, which voluntary implement and communicate a cumulation of four types of policies related to their employees, customers, competitors,
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suppliers and local communities, namely: social, safety and security, environmental and quality management policies. Hence, a maritime fair trade company is the one that implements and communicates to all stakeholders and to civil society the implementation of gender equality policies (diverse and equal employment), ethical policies, policies regarding the safety and healthy working environment, environmental policies and quality management policies. This paper has the role to analyze the concept of Maritime Fair Trade and its role in the identification of solutions for reducing gender imbalance in shipping. The context when the concept of maritime fair trade is connected to the Fourth industrial revolution. Fig.1. Elements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution - World
Economic Forum. Source: [1]. According to the World Economic Forum [1], the elements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution place in the spotlight the technological advancement comprising
models of digital business and technology governance, alongside with innovation productivity and talent adaptability. But another specific interest is placed on the concepts of Ethics and Identity, basic premises for maritime fair trade. Ethics and Identity are fundamentals for paving new roads in development of environmental critical solutions, exploring behavioral sciences, improving health social systems, granting health research and biotechnology studies, ensuring functionality of nonsubjective justice mechanisms, supporting esthetic sciences, arts and culture, promoting extensive inquiries in the artificial intelligence sector, acknowledging diverse values and human enhancement, and identifying opportunities related to inclusive design. II.
Literature review on healthy
The term “fair trade” was first used in 1985, referring to a commitment to transparency and accountability in order to provide greater benefits to small producers. It is not known exactly the date when the term “fair trade” was first coined. The term “alternative trade” has a similar meaning before that [2]. However, scientific literature resources on fair trade are not prolific. A review on the fair trade scientific literature was made in 2015 by Barros, Pinsky, Nascimento and Fischmann [3] and by Straight and Grigsby (2013) who has summarized and analyzed academic literature on motivations of consumers of Fair Trade products, focusing on the works of several authors [4]. Bhagwati and Hudec (1996) and their contributors have investigated the policy actions and the growing conflict between free trade policies and the domestic environmental, labor, and antitrust policies of individual nations [5]. More recently, S. Enrlich has introduced in 2018 a new theory of multidimensional
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trade policy preferences and argued that fair trade is a potentially powerful political force pushing for improved labor and environmental conditions around the world. He has demonstrated, using public opinion data in the U.S. and EU and Congressional voting data in the U.S., that fair traders are sincere and not simply protectionists [6]. III. The Role of Fairtrade within united nations sustainable development goals
Fairtrade implies an ethical way of delivering business, with better and fair prices for farmers from developing countries and decent working conditions Fairtrade is strongly related to the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns. According to the UN 2030 Agenda (where 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets were adopted by heads of state and government in 2015), is stated: “Governments, international organizations, the business sector and other non-state actors and individuals must contribute to changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns, including through the mobilization, from all sources, of financial and technical assistance to strengthen developing countries’ scientific, technological and innovative capacities to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production”. [7] Sustainable consumption and production are represent a current trend in the business ideology and is referring to „the use of services and related products, which respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life while minimizing the use of natural resources and toxic materials as well as the emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle of the service or product so as not to jeopardize the needs of further generations” [8]. The concept of sustainable consumption and production was further recognized in
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the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. According to Fairtrade International association [9], most of the SDGs are related to fair trade: SDG Goal 1 (End poverty in all its forms everywhere) is corresponding to Fairtrade’s mission of ensuring smallholder farmers and workers to earn a decent living; SDG Goal 2 (End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture) is related to achieving incomes secure and stable for small-scale farmers; equal and fair access of women to agriculture for securing proper wages and decent living conditions is related to the UN SDG Goal 5 (Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls). Also, the concept of Fairtrade is in line with SDG 8 (sustainable economic growth), 12 (sustainable consumption and production with fair trade leading ethical label), 13 (climate change), 16 (inclusive societies) and 17 (global partnership). Considering in 2016 the concept of fairtrade had improved the working activity of 1,665,054 farmers and workers on a surface of 2.3 million hectares [9], we conclude that fairtrade system has a raising impact on the world agro-activities and an expected butterfly effect for the world commerce. Similarly, maritime fair trade has a boycott approach for non-fair and non-ethical business models used in water transports and logistics and is in accordance with multiple SDGs. IV. The role of maritime charities in
consolidating maritime fair trade
Charities, also named charitable organizations, are non-profit associations or organizations whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being. Maritime charities are non-profit organizations developing programs and actions for the wellbeing of maritime
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personnel and ex-personnel, aiming to solve societal issues that characterize the marine sector: legislative, environmental, technological, industrial or labour changes, globalized trade, automation, flags of convenience, piracy, minimal manning leading to work overload, isolation or depression, harassment, discrimination or other vulnerabilities. The main objective of maritime charities is to develop actions related to seafarers’ welfare. Bekkers and Wiepking (2010) made a review on charitable academic scientific literature based on more than 500 articles and established eight mechanisms as the most important forces that drive charitable donations: awareness of need; solicitation; costs and benefits; altruism; reputation; psychological benefits; values and efficacy [10]. Sargeant and Woodliffe (2007) reviewed the literature on charitable giving from a marketing perspective [11] while Van Leeuwen and Wiepking (2013) made a cross-national comparison of more than 300 national campaigns for charitable causes in the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and the US for the period 1950 to 2011. They grouped campaigns determinants of success in: perceived characteristics of recipients (their need, agency, and blamelessness); donor characteristics (geographical and cultural proximity, in status or reputation and material incentive; and structural characteristics of the giving regime (frequency and media formats of campaigns, fundraising rules, regulations and trust) [12]. Various references on maritime charities imply a punctual documentation and forecast made on the role of charities in improving the working conditions and welfare of seafarers. We emphasize the strategic role of maritime charities, not only in achieving philanthropy activities for social well-being, but also their role in securing a safe society. Through omnidirectional
implication in regional activities, maritime charities foster ethical behavior and encourage positive societal action. Altruistic concerns for human welfare advanced through philanthropy should also include maritime fair trade thinking. A relevant example for implication in the maritime sector and improvement of seafarers condition, focusing on statistical evidence, is the project “Seafarers Happiness Index” developed by The Mission to Seafarers, an association from UK having a long history of over 156 years in providing welfare facilities to seafarers and crews. The Happiness Index analyzed and released by The Mission to Seafarers was designed “to monitor and benchmark seafarer satisfaction levels” [13] through a number of ten questions. The project is aiming to understand and suggest statistical-based arguments and scientific fundamental opinion regarding the level of satisfaction of seafarer on board ship. In figure 1 is the most recently released data gathered by The Mission to Seafarers, mostly emphasizing a decrease in the happiness level of crews considering the second quarter of 2018, but this is not the point of our discussion in this paper. Results from Fig.1 indicate the need for change in the desiderates of improving seafarer wellbeing, possible through the comprehension of the global term “maritime fair trade”, perceived as necessary improvement endeavor for global seafarers, no matter nationality, religion, political orientation, gender, etc. In a snapshot analysis of the Index, considering input data from Figure 1, we will compare the type of the following criteria considered by the Seafarer Happiness Index and their relation to the Maslow’s pyramid criteria: 1. the general happiness of seafarers while working onboard ship; 2. seafarers contacts with families onshore;
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3. 4. 5. 6.
shore leave opportunities; wage levels; food onboard issues; access to fitness and health programs on board ship; 7. access to training and education opportunities; 8. social interaction with other crew members; 9. amount of workload; time required for job tasks; 10. welfare facilities onshore. We observe the focus placed by the survey investigators to critical factors related to seafarers’ conditions of work onboard which are corresponding to the critical basic needs from the Maslow hierarchy: physiological needs of aliments, warmth and rest and health are related to three of the ten criteria from the Index, namely 5,6 and 9. Other levels from the Maslow pyramid are each represented by only one question from the Seafarer Happiness Index. There is a lack of focus on the second level of the Maslow hierarchy: safety and security criteria might include only criterium no.4 regarding wage. The probably more clear reference to safety and security should appear in survey questions used for analyzing the Happiness Index but more questions involved might reduce the rate of participating respondents. The third level of the Maslow’s pyramid, belongingness and love needs, correspond to question no. 2 regarding contacts of seafarers to families on shore. Such criterium might be of the highest importance, being in direct relation to other Maslow’s levels, as the next level of esteem, and self-actualization. The fourth level of Maslow pyramid, prestige, feeling of accomplishment and esteem is related to the survey criterium 8 -social interaction, while the last level, the fifth, of Maslow’s pyramid, referring to developing the full potential and creativity of the individual, correspond to
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survey criterium 7 – access to training and education question. Fig.2. Seafarer Happiness Index calculated for the second quarter of 2018, Source: [14] Based on such observations, we believe is effective and beneficial that maritime charities develop programs based on scientific facts, as the one resulted from surveys, as for example, the Seafarers Happiness Index freely released by The Mission to Seafarers.
Index and other similar reports represent timely tools necessary for policy makers and decisional institutions in the process of improving or updating actual regulation and creating new regulations required for the development of the maritime sector. We should also consider that maritime charities are the societal actors able to make direct contact with seafarers, through their welfare programs, therefore such organizations are able to draw a clear and useful picture of seafarers real problems and needs. This means reports and analysis
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developed by maritime charities are reliable for policies implemented by regulatory institutions, by labor or transport ministries and by international organizations, as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Labor Organization (ILO) or World Health Organization (WHO). However, scientific analysis developed by maritime charities (as well as by researchers and academia) should focus more on analyzing all the needs of individuals, as they are identified and established by the Maslow’s pyramid. Also, should be taken into account the connections and the relevance of interactions between different levels of Maslow needs corresponding to the particularities of seafaring, ship and seafaring labor. Also, more research should be delivered in analyzing the role of maritime fair trade in the actual postmodern context, corresponding to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, by considering maritime charity reports, survey results and analysis based on real seafaring environment observations. Criteria used in the Happiness Index and the perspectives regarding the individual’s needs from the Maslow pyramid should be both used as focal points for developing and analyzing maritime fair trade concept. Considering the new concept of maritime fair trade is representing a social movement, it is expected will stay as premise to positive action for improving usual trade, in the direction of promoting equitable employment, decent work conditions, environmental protection, and quality services in shipping. Equitable employment refers to establishing a procedural system for the effectiveness of decision-making through allowing equal chances of development for any citizen, without restraining selection based on the level of knowledge, skills and experience, age, culture, race and gender. Our intention is not to disregard
the importance of knowledge, skills and experience, yet, lessons, knowledge and skills can be learned and from such occasion resides knowledge. Yet, the occasion must truly exist for any motivated citizen in the maritime industry, as context for further behavioral development, training and consolidation, in accordance to the particular organizational culture of the employing organization. Unfortunately, very often selection is based through subjective criteria, allowing lack of chance to usual citizens that can be further coached for exceptional behavior. Particular attention should be pointed to the release in 2016 of King IV Report on Corporate Governance, a recognized set of corporative ethical regulations. The aim of the Report is to: „promote corporate governance as integral to running an organisation and delivering governance outcomes such as ethical culture, good performance, effective control and legitimacy” [15]. Corporative ethical regulation of King IV Report on Corporate Governance became mandatory for corporations listing at Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) [16]. Considering JSE is the 19th largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalisation and the largest exchange in the African continent we can anticipate the multiplicative positive effect on ethical business. Decent work conditions refer to working in a safe, secure and social responsible environment. In maritime sector, conditions for decent work are embraced by various legislative instruments issued by the International Labor Organization, the International Maritime Organization, proper recommendation developed by the International Standardization Organization and work delivered by other UN agencies. Also, important actions were developed by the International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). For example, at the latest
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ILO Sectoral Meeting on the Recruitment and Retention of Seafarers and the Promotion of Opportunities for Women Seafarers held on 25 February - 1 March 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland were discussed the issues raised specifically in the resolution concerning recruitment and retention of seafarers, and the resolution concerning the promotion of opportunities for women seafarers, as adopted by the 94th (Maritime) Session of the International Labour Conference, including in the context of the ILO Future of Work Centenary Initiative, while on the seafarers side the discussion was successfully lead by the ITF representative Lena Dyring, Director of Cruise Operations for the Norwegian Seafarers’ Union with active implication in negotiations and Collective Bargaining. During the meeting, she was the one that pointed the importance of discussion on the ethical side of mandatory pregnancy testing, as part of the pre-employment medical examination of seafarers, is a concern for many women seafarers. Other discussion subjects included issues related t isolation, harassment, bullying, etc. Similar work is constantly developed by other international organizations and the positive effect is already seen on the maritime market. Environmental protection and maritime fair trade is a clear point that does not require any more explanation. Climate change has an impact not only on humans but also on their activities. Violent action is putting at risk the activity of seafarers on board ship, while also effective economical, social and cultural activities onshore. Implication and complex approach from multiple stakeholders and communities are a timely must. As in other economic sectors, quality services imply benchmarking and acquiring business excellence in shipping. Quality management must consider implementing policies related to employees, customers, competitors, suppliers, and local communities, not only in organizational administrative and technical departments but
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also when integrating visionary leadership thinking in social, safety and security and environmental action. Through programs oriented to maritime fair trade, sectoral charities help organizations to identify most suitable organizational culture triggering positive multiplicative impact in society. Conclusion Maritime Fair Trade companies are entities that implement and communicate to various stakeholders and to civil society the implementation of gender equality policies (diverse and equal employment), ethical policies, policies regarding safe and health working environment, environmental policies and quality management policies. Maritime fair trade relate to a boycott approach for non-fair and non-ethical business models used in water transports and logistics, and is in accordance to multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Maritime charities detain an important role in implementing and developing a maritime fare trade societal culture. First small steps have already been made but an unification of all positive impact endeavors is needed for identification of clear directions and strategies of further development. Analysis criteria used in the Happiness Index and perspectives regarding the individual’s needs from the Maslow pyramid should be both used as focal points for developing maritime fair trade concept. The role of maritime fair trade is insufficient researched. The paper has limitations related to the possibility of gathering and acknowledging data of maritime fair trade, considering that for the moment there are not enough available research resources. Further research should be focused on analyzing the role of maritime fair trade in the postmodern context corresponding to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, using available maritime charity reports, survey results and analysis based on real observations collected
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from the seafaring environment. Acknowledgment This research paper was supported through funding of the European Centre of Social Responsibility (www.cers.ro). References https://intelligence.weforum.org/topics/ a1Gb0000001RIhBEAW?tab=publications [2] Wills, Carol, “Fair trade: what’s it all about?” In Business Unusual: Success and Challenges of Fair Trade, edited by Osterhaus, Anja: Brussels, pp. 8–27, 2006. [3] Barros, Filippe, Vanessa Pinsky, Fernando Nascimento and Adalberto Fischmann.. “Fair trade: international literature review and research agenda”, Latin American J. Management for Sustainable Development, Vol. 2, Nos. 3/4, (2015): 315–331. [4] Straight, Tracey and Mary Grigsby. Buying for a Better Tomorrow? – A Literature Review of Fair Trade Consumer Motivations, 2013. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2276951 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2276951 [5] Bhagwati, Jagdish N., and Robert E. Hudec (edit.), Fair Trade and Harmonization, Vol. 1, Economic Analysis, MIT, 1996. [6] Ehrlich, Sean, The Politics of Fair Trade: Moving Beyond Free Trade and Protection, USA, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. [7] UN, Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, paragraph 28 (A/RES/70/1, 25 September 2015), New York: United Nations. [8] Symposium: sustainable consumption, 1920 January 1994, Ministry of Environment, Oslo, Norway, 1994. [9] www.fairtrade.net [10] Bekkers, René, and Pamela Wiepking, “A [1]
Literature Review of Empirical Studies of Philanthropy: Eight Mechanisms that Drive Charitable Giving” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40 (5), 924-973, SAGE, 2010, https://doi. org/10.1177/0899764010380927 [11] Sargeant, Adrian, and Lacy Woodliffe, „Individual giving behaviour: A multidisciplinary review” In The Routledge Companion To Nonprofit Marketing, edited by Adrian Sargeant and Walter Wymer, 111144. Routledge, 2007. [12] Van Leeuwen, M.arco H.D., and Pamela Wiepking., „National Campaigns for Charitable Causes A Literature Review”, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly,42(2), 219-240, 2013 [13] Seafarers Happiness Index Q2, The Mission to Seafares, 2018, p.4, https://safety4sea. com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/TheMission-to-Seafarers-Seafarers-HapinessIndex-Q2-2018_09.pdf [14] Idem, p.12. [15] Institute of Directors in Southern Africa NPC, King IV Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa, 2016, available at: https://www.adams.africa/wpcontent/uploads/2016/11/King-IV-Report. pdf [16] Maxwell, Alessia and Christina Pretorius, “King IV and BEE – previously voluntary, now mandatory in the amendments to the JSE Listings Requirements” In: Financial Institutions Legal Snapshot blog, July 13, 2017, available at https:// www.financialinstitutionslegalsnapshot. com/2017/07/king-iv-and-beepreviously-voluntary-now-mandatoryin-the-amendments-to-the-jse-listingsrequirements
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Biographies C. Dragomir is Lecturer and researcher at Constanta
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Maritime University. She studies the management of human resources and leadership, including labor topics. She has participated as gender research specialist in 2018 and 2019 to the International Labour Organisation in Geneva, Switzerland, to sectoral meetings on maritime labor. She holds a Ph.D. in Management of Human Resources and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering. L. Dragomir is a Ph.D. Candidate at “Ovidius” University from Constanta, Faculty of Theology. He has graduated Theology BSc in 2006 and an MSc in Canonic Law and European Institutions at “Ovidius” University in Constanta. The theme of his Ph.D. thesis is related to the situation of the Orthodox Romanian Church in Diaspora from Italy.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 237 - 245
DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Some Aspects of the Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors Jalal H. Baker
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, P.O. Box 741, University of Tabuk, 71491 Saudi Arabia
Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, P.O. Box 741, University of Tabuk, 71491 Saudi Arabia
Khalid Mustafa Syed
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, P.O. Box 741, University of Tabuk, 71491 Saudi Arabia
Nursabah Sarikavakli
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, and Arts, Aydin Adnan Menderes University Aydın-Turkey
Drugarin C. Victoria Anghel
Department of Electronics and Informatics Engineering “Eftimie Murgu”, University of Resita, Resita Romania
Josephine Muncho
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Nigeria Nigeria
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 3 October 2019 Received in revised form 16 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.23
An attempt has been made to find some valuable information for particle detection with the help of Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTDs). The detector is characterized by a critical value of the energy-loss rate by the charged particle. Only those charged particles which give up energy exceeding the critical value alone can produce teachable tracks. The detection thresholds of nuclear track detectors can be specified in terms of their energy loss rates. The findings have been found within a good agreement with the other works.
Keywords: detector; bombarded; NaOH solution; CR-39 detector; ionization;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Jalal H. Baker, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Syed Khalid Mustafa, Nursabah Sarikavakli, Anghel Drugarin C. Victoria, Muncho Josephine. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Baker, Jalal H., and M. Ayaz Ahmad, Syed Khalid Mustafa, Nursabah Sarikavakli, Anghel Drugarin C. Victoria, Muncho Josephine, ”Some Aspects of the Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.23, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 237-245.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Introduction
The Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTDs) [1-5] are insulating materials (solids) both, naturally occurring and artificial. These detectors have the property of recording the tracks formed due to the passes of the energetic particles through them. There are several types of these detectors (materials) including inorganic crystals, glasses, and plastics. The principle behind the track formation is described as the knocking out of the orbital electrons on the passage of positively charged particles. Because of repulsion of positive ions leave space in between and leaving tracks of different shapes. As already mentioned, when a heavily ionizing charged particle passes through such insulating materials which are generally solids, it leaves a narrow trail of damage about 50 A° in diameter along its path. This narrow trail is called ‘Latent Track’ as it cannot be seen with the naked eye. It is possible to view this latent track or the path of the particle with a high-resolution microscope. The exact nature of the physical and chemical changes occurring at the damage site depends on the charge (Z) and velocity (β=v/c, where, v is the particle velocity and c is the velocity of light) of the particle. It also depends on the chemical structure of the detector material and also on the environmental conditions, like temperature, pressure etc. These latent tracks can be enlarged or developed so that they can be viewed under an optical microscope by etching with some suitable chemical such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrofluoric acid. II. experimental details and procedure
A measure of the sensitivity of a track detector can be expressed in terms of the minimum value of (Z/β)min. The ratio of the charge, Z, to the speed, (β=ν/c), for a charged particle to produce an etchable track in that detector. The more sensitive the detector, the smaller is the value of
Session 11. Astronomy, Astro-Physics & Theology
(Z/β)min. Its values are 6, 30, 40, and 60 for CR-39, Cellulose Nitrate (CN), Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Lexan respectively. As can be seen from these values that CR-39 is one of the most sensitive detectors. While there are some less sensitive detectors also such as inorganic materials like Chronar, Melinex, Mica, and Meteoritic minerals. Most of the known track recording polymers have sensitivities (Z/β)min between about 5 and 100. Track recording sensitivity for minerals and glasses ranges from about 150 to 450. High sensitive detectors are also characterized by high G scission (number of chain scissions per 100 eV of energy deposited) and low G cross-link (number of cross-links per 100 eV of energy deposited). The fission fragments of normal energy produce long and almost cylindrical etch pits with slightly tapered ends in Lexan, Macrofol polycarbonates (etched in NaOH). Mica (etched in HF acid) charged particles produce conical etch pits which appear circular or oval while materials such as feldspar require strong alkalis at high temperatures. Zircon is best treated with phosphoric acid heated more than 500oC. The details of the track observations and counting are given in chapter 2 of the report. From the observations of these tracks it is possible to determine the activity of radioactive a-source, which may produce tracks in CR-39. In the present work an experiment has been carried out to record the tracks in CR-39 and their counting was done to obtain the activity of a-source. As a matter of fact cellulose nitrate was the first detector used for recording alpha tracks. It was found to have poor sensitivity and is now replaced by a more sensitive detector called CR-39. Polycarbonate detectors such as Lexan are generally used for recording fission fragment tracks. Some photographs of nuclear tracks developed in Lexan and CR-39 track detectors are given in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. In Figure 1, fission
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fragment tracks in Lexan are shown as a typical example. Further in Figure2, fission fragments and alpha tracks in CR-39 are shown, while fission tracks in Lexan by 60 MeV alpha particles are shown as a representative case.
Figure 1. The fission fragment tracks in Lexan.
Figure 2. The fission fragment and alpha tracks in CR-39.
III. experimental results
The detector was bombarded initially for 10 minutes, and then it was put in 6N NaOH solution prepared for etching. The detector was put in 100ml 6N NaOH solution at temperature of 700C maintained by the thermostat in the chemistry lab of the university. The stirring of the solution was done continuously at 700C for about 2 hours. The detector was then washed with fresh water for about half an hour and then dried. After drying of the CR-39 detector it was brought to the department and was placed on the microscope available at the emulsion lab of the department. It was, however, observed that there were only few tracks created in the detector. As such, in order to observe the tracks in CR-39 detector it was again exposed in the same geometry for about one hour. Again after the bombardment the same procedure of etching was employed for 2hours at the same temperature 700C and constantly stirring the solution. Now, this time the detector when observed under the microscope a large number of tracks were observed. The calculation was done for 4 different sets of readings shown in Table I and are given separately for each set of readings. TABLE I.
Figure 3. Oriented fission tracks in Lexan from 60 MeV Helium ion-induced fission of 159Tb.
for the values of tracks counts Number of tracks counted
Graticule number
First Time
2nd time
M e a n Counts
1
878
892
885
2
920
935
927
3
964
974
969
4
986
996
991
On behalf of the above Table I, one can say that Average number of tracks/graticule = 943. The detailed calculation procedure for
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the determination of activity of the source is given in the following: The track density (ρ) = Average number of tracks per gratitule/Area of the gratitule And the average number of tracks from gratitule were 943 Magnification of the compound microscope = 10x X 10 So Area of the field view = (54/10) X (54/10) μm2 = 5.4 X 5.4 μm2 ρ = 943/(5.4 X 5.4 μm2) = 32.33 X 105 /cm2
thorium. Radon measurements (Radioactive product of Uranium), i.e. the radon gas from the earth is the most promising method for detecting Uranium. The (alpha) track density on the detector, which is exposed to the soil gas for known length of time gives the measure of Rn222 concentration in the soil. 2) Quantitative measurements of Uranium in soil and leaf samples by the fission-track method
The fission-track method is utilized to know the uranium concentration in soil and leaf samples using its higher radioactivity and its abundance in natural sources.
IV. discussions and applications of
3) Estimation of trace levels of Plutonium (94Pu) in bioassay samples by fission-track techniques:
Some of the important areas where Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTD) have good potential for use are described here briefly.
Trace level estimation of 94Pu in Urine samples of personnel working involves mainly the separation of 94Pu by anion exchange technique electron depositing on stainless steel and estimating by spectrometry. It has a sensitivity of 0.5-1.0m Bq level estimation of 94Pu. The detection limits for
solid-state nuclear track detector (ssntd)
A. In nuclear physics
By using SSNTD, the behavior of much heavy nucleon and heavy-ion interactions is studied. The particles passing through the detectors can trace the paths in any environmental conditions. This makes it be useful to tackle many research problems in this field. As because of highresolution many background reactions can be avoided and we can concentrate on the reaction under study. Simplicity, resolution of the process (avoiding many multiplicative processes), ability to provide direct evidence and simple instrumentation are the properties of SSNTD which makes it to be useful to study many processes in the nuclear field. 1) In Uranium (U238)exploration
The radioactive property leads to the location and exploration of Uranium and
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Class M type 94Pu → 0.34 Bq Class 8 type 94Pu → 0.38 Bq
The 94Pu sample is covered with Lexan solid-state track detector and irradiated with neutrons predominantly thermal neutrons so that the presence of Uranium in the sample can be reduced. In a study done at Bhabha atomic research center (BARC), India, this is kept in APSARA reactors for 3-4 hrs. After irradiation Lexan foil is chemically etched and developed. Fission tracks are counted manually under an optical microscope. The concentration of the 94Pu in the sample is determined by knowing the track density in Lexan foil of the sample and of the standard. The sensitivity of the technique depends on the background counts due to the chemical and backing materials. 4) Application in neutron dosimetry
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After the development of CR-39 plastic neutron dosimetry with SSNTDS is continuously progressing mainly recoil and (n,ά) reactions is put under study Neutron dose equivalents is measured by counting the number of tracks per unit area in the detector surface caused by the heavy charged particle produced by neutron through fission, scattering (n,ά) and other reactions. Proton recoil measurements using CR-39 is doing being routinely used for neutron dosimetry. 5) Application in very low-level alpha (α) rays estimation in waste streams
Assay of the radioactivity in the waste solution is being carried by direct ά counting of a dried solution of the waste Effective management of this waste solution should have ά activity levels less than 0.037 Bq/ ml. The track is registered on exposing the CR-39 detectors directly for a known time in the actinide (mainly Th and Am) isotope. The activity values by using Zn detector are found to be 26.0 -29.0 Bq/ml. From the no of tracks in the blank (2M HNO3) mole of this method is calculated which is about 1 Bq/ml for an exposure of 8 days. If the solution is evaporated on the planchet MDL can be further lowered to mBqs. 6) Measurement of alpha (α) rays spontaneous fission ratios of heavy actinides
to
♠ Alpha rays to spontaneous fission ratio of 252Cf, 242Cm, 238Pu determined by SSNTD which is very much useful: (a) Measuring the partial half-life. (b) Identification of these actinides in trace levels. For measuring these ratios, the track detectors such as Lexan, Tuffak, CR-39, and LR-115 were exposed to these actinides to record and spontaneous fission tracks. Some measured values of alpha rays to fission ratios has been found in present work and also reported in Table II.
TABLE II. Actinides
Cf
252
Cm
244
The alpha rays to fission ratios Alpha to fission ratios
(31.56 ± 0.35) (6.98 ± 0.01)×105 1.68) ×107
Pu240
(6.15
Pu238
(1.38 ±
0.01)×108
B. In geochronology
In geochronology, the technique of fission-track recording came into being after the application of SSNTD. The technique says the age of the solidification of the material. Since all the material contains some traces of U235 and the decay of U235 makes the path of the age (lifetime) to be detected. The density of the naturally produced latent damage trails is equal to the product of Uranium concentration of the material and age of the material. This tracking method has used to date the (a) Geological (b) archeological (c) Cosmological samples (d) Study of ocean bottom spread and continental drift mainly the time of occurrence of the event (e) Distribution of certain element (Pu,U, Th, B, Pb, Bi) in a variety of samples (f) α sensitive track detectors used for Uranium/ Thorium prospection and in Radon/Thoron Prospection mainly applicable for the prediction of earthquakes. C. Cosmological applications
The cosmic ray fluxes at high altitudes can be studied using the technique of SSNTD i.e. it includes the track studies of Apollo and Lunar samples providing information about the radiation of the part, thermal histories and dynamic process on the moon i.e. many reactions going on in the space (outside the earth) can be put under a study, Track analyzing technique is used for many microcrater studies i.e. composition & fluxes in many meteoroids in space in past i.e. date
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of independent existence and later thermal and radiation histories in then. It also provides the measurement of various types of exposures providing information about (i) erosion and accretion rates on the lunar surface (ii) Original size of the meteorites before entering the earth’s atmosphere. (iii) Time of fall of tektites on earth (iv) fluxes of cosmic ray particles. Firstly cosmic ray spectrum extent only up to iron making an iron curtain. Later the presence of trans Iron nuclei in past and present cosmic rays are found. Through the application of SSNTD the cosmological field history ie, past, present and future events occurring in the space can be revealed to the scientific world. D. Elemental analysis
The SSNTD technique is used to determine the concentration of elements (Pu, U, B, Th, Pb) in different materials. It is done through the ionization of particles emitted from the materials leading to the measurement of the concentration of these elements in that material. E. In seismology
Seismology which consists study of earth and its material mainly involves the application of SSNTD for the prediction of earthquake i.e. through the study of the movement of fluids and gases within the earth’s crust. The work on the movement of fluids prior to the physical jolt is studied and the factors that control the character, magnitude, timing, etc of an earthquake can be predicted. The emission of radon/ thoron gas from the fractures on the earth represents the process going on inside the earth and according to long term or short term emission can predict the intensity of earthquake. This field uses largely the application of SSNTD.
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F. In material science
The SSNTD technique is a great venture in material science mainly in fixing of magneto-optic iron garnets where the latent tracks are used for the purpose of changing magnetic properties these tracks increase the coercivity of the garnet. It helps in understanding the structure of latent tracks in crystals. Modification of storage properties of the magnet according to the specific requirements (thus influencing the magnetic anisotropy) has also done through SSNTD. G. In biology
The great footage of SSNTD technique in biological field is highly made use of Patent damage trails as in (1) filtering cancer cells from human blood as a filter (2) cleaning air from dust particles (3) radiobiology of plutonium, concentration of it in living matter is detected by irradiating the detector tissue assembly by thermal neutrons in a reactor so that an resolution of 10μsec or better can be achieved through SSNTD (4) Differentiating the healthier blood cells from other by employing one single etch track to count size and measure the electrokinetic mobility of submicron size particles (5) Using this technique effect of drug on the level of individual cells before testing on patients can be done. H. Lithography using in heavy ions
Some advantages of SSNTD in the study on solid surfaces lead to the generation of very finite and at the same time very deep structure by the application of heavyion lithography. Heavy-ion radiography involving relativistic energies is used in medical diagnostics, cancer treatment, etc. It uses a thick stack of plastic sheets for recording the projected area density. Very high damage density and amortizing action
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of heavy ions can be utilized for: (a) Micro lithographic structuring and (b) inner details of microscopic objects without dissecting the object. V. future prospectives and conclusions
The technique has a great future in the measurements dealing with low crosssections and low emission rates. It has great potential in the study of nuclear interactions resulting in high multiplicity events containing a large spectrum of particles with wide energies produced in different angular intervals. More future application of this technique is employed in the study of superheavy elements (from ancient sources) and of the magnetic monopolies. Study of internal reactions nuclear systems having exceptionally high nuclear densities and temperatures are fields of great interest to be done using this technique in the near future. In nuclear industry study spent fuel elements and behavior of fuel under different environmental conditions are the areas where there will be a bright future. Acknowledgment The author (Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad) would like to acknowledge the keen support in financial assistance for this work of the Vice Presidency / Studies and Scientific Research / Deanship of Scientific Research on behalf of University of Tabuk, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Ministry of Higher Education, K.S.A under the research grant no. S-0263-1436 / dated 15-03-1436 [18-27]. References [1]
[2]
R. L. Fleischer, P. B. Price and M. W. Walker. Nuclear Tracks in Solids: Principles and Applications (University of California Press Berkeley, 1975). G.A. Wagner, “Archaeological applications of fission track dating”, Nuclear Tracks
Detection Vol2. No.1 51-64 (1978). A.K.Padey, R.C.Sharma, P.C.Kalsi and R.H.Iyer, Excitation function and fragment angular distribution in the fission of 197Au induced by 4He ions in the energy range 30- 70 MeV. Paper presented in 7th National conference on Particle tracks in solids, Jodhpur, India (1977). [4] Shafiq Ahmad and M. Ayaz Ahmad. “A comparative study of multifractal moments in relativistic heavy-ion collisions.” Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 32(9) (2006):1279-1293. [5] L. Medveczky, “Comparison of the neutron sensitivity of SSNTDs”, in: Proc. 10th Intern. Conf. on Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors, Lyon, 1980, p. 581. [6] A. K. Pandey, R. C. Sharma, S. K. Padalkar, P. C. Kalsi, R. H. Iyer, Radiat. Eff. Defects Solids, 129 (1994) 335. [7] Shafiq Ahmad, M. Ayaz Ahmad, M. Irfan and M. Zafar. “Study of non-statistical fluctuations in relativistic nuclear collisions.” Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, Vol. 75(6) (2006): 064604(1-9). [8] M. Tariq, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Shafiq Ahmad and M. Zafar. “Analysis of high NS-multiplicity events produced in relativistic heavy ion collisions at 4.5A GeV/c.” Romanian Reports in Physics Vol. 59(3) (2007): 773-790. [9] Shafiq Ahmad and M. Ayaz Ahmad. “Some observations related to intermittency and multifractality in 28Si and 12C-nucleus collisiond at 4.5A GeV.” Nuclear Physics A780 (2006): 206-221. [10] Mir. Hashim Rasool, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Muzamil Ahmad Bhat and Shafiq Ahmad. “Study of compound particle production in 28Si and 32S-emulsion collisions at 14.6 and 200 A GeV.” World Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 5 (2015): 208-220. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/wjnst.2015.53021 [11] ICRP-78 (1997). “Individual monitoring for internal exposure of workers. Replacement of ICRP publication 54”. Annals of the ICRP Pergamon Press, 1998. [12] P. C. Kalsi, A. Ramaswami, A. K. Saxena and V. K. Manchanda Determination of trace levels of U in Andaman & Nicobar [3]
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Sea waters employing Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors, Paper presented in the “Nuclear and Radiochemistry Symposium”, (NUCAR2005) Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India March. 15-18 (2005). [13] Sarita Mittal, S. S. Bhatti, A.S. Jodha. S. Saravanan, Deepak Gopalani, S. Kumar and P. C. Kalsi, Proc. XI National Symp. on SSNTDs and applications, Ed. Surinder Singh, Amritsar, 1998, p. 307. [14] M. Tariq, S. Ahmad, A. Tufail and M. Zafar. “Angular distribution of slow and relativistic charged particles produced in silicon and carbon emulsion interactions at 4.5A GeV/c IL Nuovo Cimento A107 (194):2687-2699. [15] Parduman Singh Kanwar, B. S. Bajwa and Surinder Singh, Proc. X National Symp. on solid state nuclear track detectors, Ed. Shyam Kumar, Kurukshetra, 1996, p. 39. [16] Nabil M. Hassan, Abdel Fattah Hafez. “Studying the Physical Parameters of a Solid State Nuclear Track Detector”, Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 63 (9), November 2013, pp. 1713∼1719 [17] M. A. Jilany. “Nuclear fragmentation in interactions of 3.7A GeV 24Mg projectiles with emulsion targets.” Physical Review C70(1) (2004): Article ID 014901. [18] Mir Hashim Rasool, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Omver Singh and Shafiq Ahmad. “Some inportant features of relativistic charged particles produced in 32S-Emulsion interactions at 200A GeV/c.” Journal of Modern Physics 6 (2015): 1498-1509 DOI:10.4236/ jmp.2015.611154 [19] M. . Ayaz Ahmad, Mir Hashim Rasool, Shafiq Ahmad, Jamal H. Madani and Rachid Ayad. “Study of Deconfinement Phase Transition in Heavy Ion Collisions at BNL Energies.” International Journal of Applied Physics and Mathematics, (IJAPM) 4 (2013): 289-292. DOI: 10.7763/IJAPM.2013.V3.223 [20] M. Ayaz Ahmad, Mir Hashim Rasool and Shafiq Ahmad. “Scaling nature of target fragments in the interactions of 28Siemulsion at energy 14.6A GeV.” Ukrainian Journal of Physics. 58(10) (2013): 944-955. [21] M. Ayaz Ahmad and Shafiq Ahmad. “Study of Angular Distribution and KNO Scaling in
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the Collisions of 28Si with Emulsion Nuclei at 14.6A GeV.” Ukrainian Journal of Physics. 57(12) (2012): 1205-1213. [22] Mir H. Rasool, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Shafiq Ahmad. “Multifractal study and multifractal specific heat of singly charged particles produced in 32S-Em interactions at 200A GeV.” Chaos Solitons & Fractal Vol. 81 (2015): 197-202. DOI:10.1016/j.chaos.2015.08.027 [23] Mir Hashim Rasool, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Omveer Singh, Shafiq Ahmad. “Multiplicities of Forward -Backward Relativistic Charged Particles Produced in 32S-Emulsion Interactions at 200 A GeV/c.” Chinese Journal of Physics- Taipei- 53(5) (2015): 100302-1-11 [24] Mir Hashim Rasool, M. Ayaz Ahmad and Shafiq Ahmad. “Signal of Unusual Large Fluctuations in 32S-Em Interactions at SPS Energies.” Journal of Korean Physical Society 67 (2015): 448-457. [25] C. Victoria Anghel Drugarin, Vyacheslav V. Lyashenko, Muncho J. Mbunwe, M. Ayaz Ahmad, “Pre-processing of Images as a Source of Additional Information for Image of the Natural Polymer Composites”, J. Analele Universitatii “Eftimie Murgu” Resita. Fascicula de Inginerie, Vol. 25(2), (2018), 1116. http://anale-ing.uem.ro/2018.htm [26] C. Victoria Anghel Drugarin, M. Ayaz Ahmad, Vyacheslav V. Lyashenko, “Comparative Aspects of the Temporal Characteristics of the Production of Various Plastic Products”, J. Analele Universitatii “Eftimie Murgu” Resita. Fascicula de Inginerie, Vol. 25(2), (2018), 17-24. http://anale-ing.uem.ro/2018.htm [27] Vyacheslav Lyashenko, Syed Khalid Mustafa, Svitlana Sotnik, M. Ayaz Ahmad, “Basic Principles of Decision Making upon Receipt of New Nanomaterial”, International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and Engineering (IJATCSE), Vol. 8(5), (2019), 2680- 2685. https://doi.org/10.30534/ ijatcse/2019/124852019.
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Jalal H. Baker completed Ph.D. in experimental nuclear physics in 1996 from the Physics Department, Saint-Petersburg State Technical University, Russia. Presently, working in Physics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia since past several years. I have published more than 30 research articles in various National / International Journals.
in experimental inorganic Chemistry from Selçuk University Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Division of Inorganic Chemistry, Konya, TURKEY. Presently, working, as an Associate Professor in Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Division of Inorganic Chemistry, Aydin, TURKEY since 2002. I have published more than 35 research articles in various National/ International Journals.
M. Ayaz Ahmad completed Ph.D. in experimental high energy physics in 2010 and M. Phil. (physics) in 2005 from the Physics Department, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, under the supervision of Prof. Shafiq Ahmad. I am working in the field of Experimental High Energy Heavy Ion Collisions Physics and has published research papers in various refereed journals, like Journal of Physics G (IOP Journal), Nuclear Physics A (Journal of Science Direct/ Elsevier Journals), Journal of Physical Society Japan, Internal National Journal of Mod. Physics E, Ukrainian Journal of Physics, e.t.c.
Cornelia Victoria Anghel Drugarin, working as Lecturer PhD Engineer at “Eftimie Murgu” University of Resita, Romania since 1994 in Computers Science Engineering domain. PhD Engineer in Automatic Control domain at Polytechnic Institute of Timisoara, since 2002. Author of 2 books, and co-author of 20 books, publish over 180 articles proceedings in BDI, IEEE and ISI Journals. My research activity refers on Grants and Research Projects, as Vice-president at Multidisciplinary Research in Vest region of Romania.
Biographies
Syed Khalid Mustafa completed Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry in 2004 from the Chemistry Department, Patna University, India, Presently, working in Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia since past several years. He has published more than 25 research articles in various National / International Journals. Nursabah SARIKAVAKLI completed Ph.D
Muncho Josephine, working as a lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, had her Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng) in Electrical Engineering and Masters (M. Eng) in Electric Power Systems in 2000 and 2005 respectively. I am currently doing research for Ph. D degree in the same field in University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I have published research papers in various refereed journals and books, like Springer books, Elsevier Journals on Renewable and Suitainable Energy Review (RSER), etc.
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SECTION 12
History, Demography, Archaeology & Religion
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
General considerations on the evolution of the interethnic, intercultural and inter-confessional dialogue in Dobrogea in the context of the national construction Andrei Ciornea
Faculty of Theology: Doctoral School in Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
Lucian Bănescu
Faculty of Theology: Doctoral School in Theology Ovidius University of Constanța România
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 6 October 2019 Received in revised form 1 November Accepted 5 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.24
The present study intends to offer a new perspective to approach the problem of the integration of Dobrogea in the modern Romanian society, to take care, in our view, to benefit from a more generous historiographic reflection so that the conditions of subsidization have been rejected. The analysis of the evolution of interethnic, intercultural and inter-confessional dialogue in the Dobrogea society involved comparative research, a discernment of the particularities, of the differences, the analogy is meant to facilitate the synthesis, the vision of the ensemble. We started from the premise that it is necessary to value, on the one hand, the specificity of Dobrogea in the Romanian geography, with its historical, political, spiritual, economic reflexes and, on the other hand, we analyzed the projection of the Dobrogea space on a European scale, with everything with geopolitical implications.
Keywords: interreligious dialogue; multiculturalism; Dobrogea, minority; ethnicity; tradition; ethocentrism; universality;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ciornea Andrei, Bănescu Lucian. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ciornea, Andrei, and Lucian Bănescu, ”General considerations on the evolution of the interethnic, intercultural and inter-confessional dialogue in Dobrogea in the context of the national construction,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.24, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 249-263..
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I. Introduction
Even though the territory between the Danube and the Black Sea has been a very controversial topic in the field of historiographic problems, however, history confirms its major involvement in European history. Unfortunately, the historical circumstances, the local and continental geography placed Dobrogea under the sign of transit space destiny, strategic in the arsenal of the hegemony policy of the European Powers, which put in other terms the evolution of its integration in the construction of the Romanian national state. Either they were oppressed and forced to gain the right to survival under Ottoman rule, or forced to use a language not specific to the Romanian ethos, the Romanians from Dobrogea experienced the drama of a great civilizational and cultural gap with Europe, but this did not prevent them from developing within their national boundaries, creating a healthy, profound culture, a synthesis of the cultures with which it came in contact, preparing a powerful uprising in the 19th century. Within this historical approach, it was not overlooked that ethnic diversity and dispersal delayed the birth of the feeling of solidarity that confers cohesion, purpose, identity of a community but at the same time led to a real maturation of interethnic, intercultural and interdenominational dialogue, variations and contradictions so well represented by the Dobrogean society manifesting in a perfect balance, forms of expression of some organic correlations [1]. II. Dobrogea – considerations from
an integrative perspective
III. Administrative consolidation and
As we have already pointed out, in the last centuries the “pontic theater” has been a real contradictory subject not only in the historiographic problems but also in the political, military-strategic or economic
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confrontations. Obviously, all these tensions also have a cultural substrate, they appear, most of the time, against the background of an ignorance of the other or of a subjective knowledge, against the backdrop of enormous cultural and civilizational gaps and, above all, the lack of an honest dialogue between interreligious and intercultural (for accepting otherness). Thus, Dobrogea came to the attention of politicians after 1878, when the neighboring country, Bulgaria, managed to include it, through the Treaty of San Stefano, in the Great Kingdom of Bulgaria, its territory being perceived, in the Bulgarian perspective, as the legitimate inheritance received from the powerful Ottoman Empire. Later, through the Treaty of Berlin, Dobrogea became a currency of exchange for our country, in the negotiations with Russia and after which Bessarabia was lost. An important moment for the demography of Dobrogea is its union with Romania, as the event is well known, taking place at the end of the war of independence that took place during the years 1877-1878. The act of unification was consecrated on July 13, 1878, through the Treaty of Berlin. To unite with Dobrogea, Romania was forced to surrender South Bessarabia (i.e. Ismail, Bolgrad and Cahul counties) to Russia, Bessarabia, which it had had since 1856, on the occasion of the Crimean War [2]. Therefore, through its position in local and continental geography, Dobrogea has proved, as we have shown, a real turning point for great traffic and political strategy [3]. establishment of civilization in Dobrogea The union of Dobrogea with Romania occurred after the union of Moldova with the Romanian Country (the year 1859) when
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it marked new trends in the new Romanian state format. Not the same thing happened with the Romanians living in the territory of Dobrogea, whose national rights could not be exercised within a region dominated by the Ottoman Empire. Despite the fact that as early as 1876, on the occasion of the adoption of the Constitution, within the Ottoman legal regime, the equality of all citizens in rights (regardless of religion) had been formally provided, this aspect did not prevent the ascension of the various nationalities existing on the Dobrogean territory to European level. Thus, during the year 1876, a whole series of national uprisings began to erupt in Bulgaria, in Herzegovina, but also in Bosnia, their effects being felt also at the level of the Dobrogean territory. Noteworthy is the fact that Russia had an interest in supporting, by all means, all movements against the Ottomans in the Balkan area, in an attempt to trigger an armed conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which would have increased their chances of advancing south of the Russian Empire (noting that Alexander II’s intention was that after the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire he would rule Bessarabia). In the second half of 1876, Russia began to have discussions with our country (respectively during the meeting held in the town of Livadia in the Crimean peninsula), to obtain permission to cross the Romanian territory, on its way to Turkey. Seemingly frightened by a possible invasion of the Russians, Turkey decided to order the authorities in the Dobrogea area to withdraw the Muslim population in the southern part of the Trajan Valley, in parallel with the destruction of the settlements through which the Russian armies were to cross. Also, the decision was taken to strengthen all the existing Ottoman military personnel around the cities located in the border area with our country.
A few months later, from the moment the negotiations started in Livadia, was signed in Bucharest (respectively on April 4, 1877) between Romania and Russia, the convention whereby the Russian armies were allowed to cross the territory of our country, on their way to the Balkans, with the obligation to respect territorial integrity. After only seven days, the first armed forces of Russia crossed the border of our country, occupying positions in Galați, Brăila, and Reni, Turkey also located on the Danube, in the area of large ports, numerous warships. The first one attacked by the Turkish projectiles was Braila, the RussianRomanian offensive destroying numerous Turkish ships, in parallel with the blocking of key elements on the mouths of the Danube, by the controlled sinking of the ballast-filled vessels. After the Turkish army decided to withdraw its fleet from Silistra and Sulina, Russia began disembarking its troops in the Dobrogea area, the first Russian forces entering Zimnicea on June 23/24 [4], under the command of General Zimmermann. The first locality occupied by the Russian forces was Măcinul, which caused the Turks to retreat to Babadag, Tulcea and Hârşova and Tulcea, their main aim being to divert the attention of the enemies from the movements of the main troops to the southern area of the Danube River. In spite of all the queries, the last territory occupied by the Turks in the Dobrogean area, Constanța, was occupied by the Russian forces in mid-July, after the loss of the Plevna fight and the signing of the truce in January 1878 the Dobrogean territory was liberated by the Turkish forces. Later, on February 19, 1878, the Peace Treaty of San Stefano was signed, recognizing the independence of Romania, Montenegro, Serbia, as well as the autonomy of Bulgaria. As for Turkey, it was obliged to pay
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war damages to Russia (their value being 1,400,000 rubles, of which no less than 1,100,000 rubles were to be deducted from the damages, as the value of Tulcea blood), while Russia ceded to our country the territory of Dobrogea in exchange for southern Bessarabia, territory that had been retreated after the armed conflict in Crimea. Thus, our country had a choice between two Romanian territories, all the diplomats’ actions regarding the modification of the variant that unfairly advantage Russia is doomed to failure. In the middle of 1878 (respectively in the first days of June and July), in Berlin, under the auspices of the famous German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, a Congress was held in which all the seven powers of Europe participated and which our country was able to it only participates as an observer, at the meetings that directly targeted it. Mihail Kogălniceanu and Ion C. Brătianu managed to take part in the congress proceedings on June 9, 1878, on which occasion they presented to the representatives of the European powers a five-point memoir claiming the Snakes Island and the Danube Delta islands, attracting - it was pointed out that Russia had violated the provisions of the agreement reached in Livadia. Subsequently, the Russian side showed its readiness to grant financial and territorial damages as a result of the breach of this agreement, without giving up the southern territory of Bessarabia, to the complete disagreement of the famous I. C. Brătianu, who had been campaigning to maintain the territorial integrity of our country. Finally, the parties managed to reach an agreement, being signed the Treaty of Berlin, which included some provisions (respectively those included between articles 22 and 46) regarding our country, Romania being granted full independence in relation to Turkey, in parallel with the
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assignment of Dobrogea, including the Danube Delta, Sulina, Medgidia, Chilia, Mahmudia, Tulcea, Isaccea, Măcin, Hârova, Babadag, Kiustenge and Sangceul Tulcei districts, adding to the southern territory of Dobrogea, demarcated by Mangalia and Silistra [5]. It is worth mentioning that through the Treaty of Berlin, which was concluded in July 1878, the independence of our country was achieved, subject to the surrender of Bessarabia, the territory long coveted by powerful Russia. Thus, the content of article 14 of the aforementioned document, our country was assigned the islands of the Danube Delta, as “Snakes Island, Sangeac Tulcea, comprising the districts Kilia, Sulina, Mahmudia, Isaccea, Tulcea, Măcin, Babadag, Hârşova, Kustenge and Medgidia “[6] and implicitly,” the land located south of the Danube up to a line that starts from the east of Silistra responds in the Black Sea, south of Mangalia “[7]. The moment of the loss of the southern part of Bessarabia as a result of the Treaty of Berlin was, as mentioned above, challenged by the Romanian influences of those times, the territorial exchange disadvantageous for our country being imposed by the great political forces of Europe [8]. In early autumn, the Romanian authorities left Cahul, Ismail, and Bolgrade, and following the provisions included in the Berlin Treaty, Russia took over Bessarabia starting October 1st. At the same time, our country has initiated the procedures for joining Dobrogea, the Romanian authorities allocating the necessary funds for the unification and reorganization, with the delimitation of the border area with the neighboring state, Bulgaria. Before this moment, especially important for the subsequent fluctuations noted within the existing populations on the Dobrogean territory, the area was dominated by Romanians, who had
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succeeded in consolidating their position not only in the territorial economic field, but also in the cultural one, as can be seen at a simple analysis of the various statistics and documentary sources existing in that period. Of these, we can see the statistics bearing the signature of Ion Ionescu from Brad, who was made in 1850, at the request of the Turkish authorities, following the information gathered from the field showing that almost 1/3 of the total population in the Dobrogea area was represented. of Romanians. In the series of edifying documents regarding the population of Dobrogea is represented also the statistics compiled by the famous general Beloţercovici, the commander of the Tulcea Sangeacul Administration, after the Turkish withdrawal after the moment of 1878, in its content the Romanian positioning again on the first position (with a percentage of over 35%), following them Bulgarians, Russians, Greeks, but also Jews, Armenians, Germans and Roma. The moment of unification of our country with Dobrogea was received with great joy and by the great majority of the ethnic groups in the area, Turkish officials receiving, during the numerous negotiations carried out before the conclusion of the peace in San Stefano, numerous requests and requests regarding the non-annexation of the territory regarding would be called “Great Bulgaria”. The moment preceding the union is also recorded in the report prepared by Ioan Murgescu, who, as commander of the Romanian fleet, on the occasion of carrying out inspections in the ports in the Dobrogea area, noted that “all Romanian, Greek, Turkish and Tatar populations are waiting I am looking forward to the occupation of Dobrogea by the Romanians and in all the places where I have been, they have confessed to me that they are happy that
Dobrogea and Mangalia were given to Romania “[9]. The same report also mentions that in certain areas, respectively, “in Kavarna and Varna and even in Constantinople hundreds of Turkish and Tatar families are ready to return to Dobrogea to their homes, as soon as the Romanians come” [10]. After the unification and integration into the Romanian state of Dobrogea, the phenomenon of emigration of part of the Turkish population to Turkey was noted, despite the measures taken by the Romanian authorities to stop this exodus of the TurkishMuslim population. The phenomenon of Turkish migration to the country of origin did not diminish, but on the contrary, after 1923 it will be on an ascending path (the year in which the Republic of Turkey proclaimed its independence). The launch of the famous reforms of Mustafa Kemal (nicknamed the “father” of modern Turkey), which urged the entire Turkish population, which was still in the areas formerly held by the Ottoman Empire, to contribute to the consolidation of the new contoured state, accelerated this too process of migration of the Turkish population. The conflict from 1877-1878 was a very important moment for the entire TurkishMuslim population in the Dobrogea area, both in terms of security and stability, the documents of those times recording a massive exodus of it. Thus, according to the documents of the time, no less than 50 thousand Muslims would have emigrated at the end of April 1878 to Adrianopol, coming from the area of Eastern Romania [11], while in the report of Governor Stolypin (of general profession), the number of Muslims who emigrated in the summer of the same year 1878 from Dobrogea and northern Bulgaria reached the value of 160 thousand: “Of these 160,000 too few returned, as General Stolipin shows in his report; and when they came to the
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places where they had left, they found their homes occupied by the Bulgarians emigrated from Thrace and Macedonia after the exhortation and help of the Russian authorities “[12]. The statistics on the exodus of the Muslim population have other dimensions in the work of the publicist Lokini, who mentioned in a paper from 1880 that the number of Muslim citizens who abandoned their lands and homes, leaving for Istanbul and Edirne was almost 250 thousand, more half of them being Turkish from the area of Eastern Romania (respectively the Bulgarian territory today), the rest coming from the Dobrogea area [13]. About the effects that the war has had on the Muslim population in the Dobrogea area, the newspapers of the times have also spoken, a constant periodical reporting widely on the poverty in the area, on the ruins of the settlements that were noted in times by wealth and prosperity, on the desolate fields, about the disorder recorded at the public level (following the administration of the Russian army), as well as about the uncertainty reported among the Mohammedan population, which was “almost completely ruined” [14]. As you can see, the most affected were the majority Muslim population, whose settlements suffered greatly, conditions in which much of it decided to emigrate, after the installation of the administration of the Romanian part is starting to return to the old houses. An interesting approach is also found in the report signed by Sergiu Candiano, registered on September 20, 1878, which includes numerous notes, as well as conclusions regarding the organization of the Dobrogean territory, a report that was formed based on the project dedicated to designing the future law. organizing in Dobrogea and specifying that as a result of the Muslims leaving the houses “during
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the riot and that until now and nothing has returned to them, a lot of Dobrogea residents and even from other parts have returned through the villages not burned [15] “. The phenomenon of the emigration of Muslims from Dobrogea, during the course of the war of independence was caught in the official declarations concerning Constanta, during 1916 mentioning, regarding the locality of Gura Dobrogei, that from the locality of Cavarcik all the population of Turkish origin fled, the place it was taken by the Russians [16]. During the same period, the Turkish population also left the village of Cogealac, while the town of Țepeș Vodă (at the time of Chiorceșme) remained without the Tatar inhabitants, who emigrated to Turkey, and from the locality of Tichilești all the Tatars emigrated to Asia or in important localities in Turkey [17]. Some authors believe that the phenomenon of emigration was accentuated by the time of the Russian administration’s establishment in Dobrogea, following the controversial decree of July 1, 1877, which prevailed over several months, during which time Tulcea blood was divided into several schools, namely the Tulcea, Constanța, Măcin, Medgidia, Cernavoda, Babadag, Hârşova and Sulina bypasses. During the Russian administration, the Russian general Belorotercovich was in charge of Tulcea blood, having the position of governor, among the measures adopted being the compulsory circulation of the Russian currency, imposing itself as the Russian army advanced in the territory, to the detriment of the Turkish currency. In Constanta, according to a report signed by a French consular agent, at the beginning of August 1877, there were civil and judicial councils, which the Russian authorities called “by choice” [18], and they
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were run by Russian officers. As already mentioned, the war of independence was the time to start the installation of the Romanian administration on the territory of Dobrudja, in parallel with a stabilization of the civilization. Subsequently, until about the first global conflagration, the administrative consolidation in the area, as well as the stabilization of civilization, was successful. The character of Ottoman rule, different in Dobrogea from the Principalities and, even more so, with the Austrian rule in Transylvania, must be taken into account. The phenomenon of “orientalization” was more pronounced here, with implications on the forms of manifestation of the culture, the permeability to the new society, the evolution of mentalities. The military role conferred on Dobrogea strengthened the conservative traits up to the anachronism of the Ottoman regime, removing it from the values of culture, ideology, western mindsets, increasingly avidly absorbed in the Romanian society on the left side of the Danube. That is why, the diffusion of culture in Dobrogea has been realized for a long time and during a period of significant prefaces in the national spirit in the other Romanian provinces, favorite through the popular chain, through the ‘mocani’. The long absence of the local elites thus lacked the Romanian community in Dobrogea by the refined carriers of spirituality, who would define their specifics and programmatically synthesize their needs, illuminate their rights and catalyze their will. This is why the national movement naturally had a slower outbreak, with a predominantly popular and empirical character. Dicieni, cojani, mocani reunited “from all the Romanian”, the Romanians “discovered” directly, belonging to the nation in the mirror of “the image of the other”, assimilated the peasant meaning of the great ideas about homeland, nation, national interest, over which interests more and more concrete has created the need, linking sustainable bridges over the
Danube. The orientation towards Romania, increasingly present in the mid-nineteenth century was not, therefore, abstract, conceptual, ideologically enhanced by an active national political elite, especially the expression of the chain of needs and shared identity springs, which maintained and revived the natural instinct of the “locals” and catalysed their metamorphosis into their consciousness. IV. Dobrogea - consolidated part of
united Romania
The interwar period manages to shape our image of an integrated region, Dobrogea becoming a consolidated part of united Romania. It is noted that, through colonization, it was possible to consolidate the Romanian elements in the area of Durostor and Caliacra counties, which had been constantly subjected to various diplomatic, but also military, pressures and interventions, coming from the neighboring country, Bulgaria. At the same time, in Dobrogea there have been spectacular developments not only in the political and spiritual, but especially in the demographic field, the province gradually beginning to present itself as an important pawn on the regional political and military scene. In addition, in addition to the presence of numerous minorities in the area (the Turkish, Bulgarian, RussianLipovan minority, but also the Jewish minority), the presence of new elements in the first decades of the last century was noticed, against the background of the unprecedented rise ( not only at the local level, but also at the European level), of the phenomenon of Nazism, to which one of the increasingly powerful Soviet Union joined. In this context, it is necessary to note not only the colonization of the Romanians but also the phenomenon of the emigration of the Turkish and Tatar population, under
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the impulse of the Turkish authorities, who wanted not only a repopulation of Anatolia but also of other areas of the former vast Ottoman Empire. Given the considerable reduction in the number of inhabitants in the Dobrogea area, the Romanian authorities adopted a series of cultural, but also economic measures, in parallel with the elaboration of a thorough selection of the various social categories that were planning to establish a home in the area. This is the fact that not only the numerous legislative acts that were specifically dedicated to the Dobrogean territory but also the Constitution of Romania from 1923, have been able to contribute substantially to shaping the movements notified in the area populations, especially between 1918 and 1940, these being significant, in comparison with those reported in the rest of the Romanian regions, with all the advantages granted to the area, not only in the economic and political field but at the social level. After completing the whole of Romania, its population began to grow, after the first world conflagration, approaching the value of 15 million inhabitants, with the mention that the birth structure was related in the light of the results of the previous censuses, which had been achieved by the Czarist administration (in 1897 ) and the Austrian one (the year 1910). According to the documents, during the year 1923, within the population of our country, whose number approached 16 million, the following ethnic distribution is noted: • Romanians - 74,9% • Hungarians and old Hungarians- 8,4% • Jewish - 5% • Germans - 4,3% • Bulgarians - 1,5% • Turks and Tatars – 1,0% [19]
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At the national level, during the first ten years of the interwar period, there is a constant positive evolution of the Romanian citizens, in all the Romanian provinces. For example, only in the area of Transylvania, the number of Romanians increased between 1919-1930 by almost 1.3 percent, respectively from the share of 57.1% of the total population to the value of 58.3%, while the number of ethnic groups Hungarians increased by 0.2%, with the Germans losing 0.1%. In Dobrogea, however, during the aforementioned period, it was noted the maintenance of the previously registered balance, between the Romanians in the area and the rest of the nationalities, both in the urban environment and in the rural area. According to data on the population existing in the Dobrogea area at the end of the first world conflagration (respectively in 1918), in Dobrogea Veche there were 381,430 inhabitants, while in the area of the Quadrilateral their number reached 287,215 [20]. Of these, 33.5 percent were Romanians (223,027 respectively), 25.9% were Bulgarians (173,074), Turkish and Tatar population representing only 26.5% (177,166 people respectively) [21]. Ten years later, the percentage of Romanians in the Dobrogea area increased by only 7.57 percent, with the number of Turks and Tatars decreased by 3.85%, while the number of Bulgarians decreased by about 1.6% [22]. In 1923, in the area of the Quadrilateral, the ethnic structure of the population was a very interesting one, in all its cities, the Turkish population predominating, followed by the Bulgarian one. Thus, most Romanians were registered in the locality of Turtucaia (4364), out of the total population (8400 inhabitants), 2285 being Turkish, 1699 Bulgarian and only 14 Jews [23]. Most Turks reported in the village of Bazargic (7540), where the number of Bulgarians was 7214, the Romanians
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reached 2000, to which were added the 204 Jews and other 2017 persons from other ethnic groups [24]. Also in Silistra locality the Turkish population (4607 persons) and the Bulgarian population (4936 persons) predominated, the number of Romanians being 2507 and of the Jews 376 (the largest number of the Jewish population in the area of the Quadrilateral, in 1923) [25]. An official ethnic structure of the population of our country is conferred by the census conducted on December 29, 1930, out of the total of about 18 million inhabitants noting the following delimitation: • Romanians - 71,9% români • Hungarians - 7,9% • Germans - 4,1% • Jewish - 4,0% • Ukrainians, Ruthenians- 3,2% • Russians - 2,3% • Bulgarians - 2,0% • Turks and Tatars - 1,0% [26] Comparing the ethnic structure registered in 1918 in Romania and the one recorded during the census of 1930, he sees that in all the provinces of the country, the Romanians managed to hold the majority, most being registered in the Oltenia area (a percentage of 97, 5%), followed by the Romanians from the Bucovina area (44.5%) and those from the Dobrogea area (where the Romanians owned 44.2% of the total population) [27]. The presence of national minorities was reported in all areas of the country, most being registered in Transylvania, Dobrogea, but also in Bessarabia. Thus, according to the census of 1930, if 58.3% Romanians, 26.7% Hungarians, and 9.7% Germans lived in Transylvania area, and in Bessarabia area there were 57.91% Russians, Russians - as a result of the colonization imposed by the powerful Tsarist Empire - (11.74%) and Ukrainians [28] (10.51%), in Dobrogea, out of
the total of 815,475 people, the Romanians represented 44%, 22%, followed by Bulgarians (23.06%) and Turks and Tatars (20.89%) [29]. It is noted that, despite the cultural and economic efforts of the authorities mentioned above, Dobrogea was the least populated province in our country before the start of the second world conflagration. Regarding the living environments in Romania, according to the census of 193, the vast majority of the population lived in the rural area (respectively a percentage of 77.78%), in the urban area leading to their existence only a percentage of 22.2% [30]. In urban areas, the majority were Romanians (their percentage being 58.6%, followed by Jews - 13.6%, Hungarians (11.2% respectively) and Germans - 5.3%. The Romanians were also the majority in the Oltenia area (91.7%), in Muntenia (82.3%), in the Moldovan area (70.8%) and the Dobrogea area (52.3%). %) [31]. If in the urban area, in the whole of Romania, in 1930, the percentage of Romanians registered at the census was 58.6%, in rural areas it reached 75.3%, the second position being occupied by Hungarians - a percentage of 7.1%, Germans - 3.8% and Ukrainians and Ruthenians - 3.7%. The Romanians were dominant in the vast majority of the Romanian provinces, the only exceptions being Bucovina (where their percentage, compared with the rest of the population, was 48.7%) and Dobrogea, an area in which the Romanians represented only 41.6% of the total population [32]. According to data from the same census of 1930, the population in the Dobrogea area was young, with the age groups between 0-30 years holding a percentage of 67%. Following the interventions of the Romanian administration in the area, it was noted the increase of the political and economic importance of Dobrogea, so that during the year 1937 Constanta county was the most populated of the country, being inhabited by no less than 281,483 persons,
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with 12.39% more much more than the population recorded during 1918 and by 11.2% more compared to the data recorded in 1930. Romanians were the majority in Constanța county (they represented 66.2%), as well as in Tulcea county (where 62.6% percentage), and they ranked third in Durostor (only 19 percent of the total population were Romanian), as well as in Caliacra (22% of Romanian inhabitants) [33]. In Caliacra, where the Romanians were only in third place in the total population, the majority were Bulgarians (42.4%), they ranked second in Constanta (8.9%) and Durostor (34.2%) and third place in Tulcea (10.6%). In Durostor, the majority are the Turks and Tatars, who owned 42.8% of the total population, and they ranked second in Caliacra, with 25.7% [34]. As for the Lipovan Russians, they managed to occupy the second position in Tulcea county, after the Romanian majority, with a percentage of 12.2%. During the great crisis, which strongly affected the area of Dobrudja, there is a special influence on the natural increase, with the mention that in Caliacra during the year 1931 the lowest percentage of the natural increase was calculated, calculated to one thousand inhabitants - this being of only 5.6% [35]. Not the same can be said about Tulcea County, which in the last ten years has recorded an annual natural increase of 22.6 per thousand inhabitants. Also, the county of Constanța had a high natural increase during the aforementioned period, the annual average recorded being 18.4. The following places were occupied by Caliacra (where the natural increase was 14.9) and Durostor, with an increase of 13.2 [36]. Regarding infant mortality, unfortunately, during the interwar period, our country ranked first in Europe. In Romania, registering, to thousands of inhabitants, several 20 infant deaths. Regarding the situation in Dobrogea, this
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proved to be worse than the one registered at a national level, due to the particularly precarious health situation in the area, as well as the large time in which the effects caused by the crisis were reflected. Thus, the least affected were Tulcea county (the index being 20.6) and Constanța county (where the index reached the value of 21.2), unlike Caliacra (where the registered value was 22.0) and implicitly of the significant value registered in Durostor, respectively 26.8 [37]. In a simple analysis of the data of the census, previously mentioned, it can be noticed that in 1930, in Constanta county there were a number of seven cities, five other cities being in Tulcea county and six cities in Catrilater respectively. Both in the urban area of Constanța county and Tulcea county, Romanians were the majority population, with 68.7% and 64.7% respectively. In Durostor, the percentage of Romanian ethnicities was 40%, reaching Caliacra only 15.4 percent [38]. Throughout the territory of the so-called Old Dobrogea, the Romanians were the majority in not less than 152 villages (between 1918-1921), their number increasing to 177 between 1937 and 1938 [39]. Subsequently to the peace in Bucharest (May 7, 1918), the idea of creating military colonies in the colonization areas of ȘablaBazargic-Balchik was reconsidered, the former fighters of the 9th Hunters Regiment and 40 Călugăreni receiving financial aid for the erection of some houses, such as and lots of 25 hectares. According to the law for carrying out the agrarian reform of the Old Kingdom, which was adopted in mid-1921, it was necessary to colonize the various regions in which the population was not a dense one, as well as the order of ownership of the inhabitants of these areas, including demobilized persons, who often they were, with good knowledge, excluded from the special lists, context in
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which the necessity of strict application of the law of appropriation was imposed, in order to avoid any dissatisfaction. The new law dissatisfied the Romanians in these areas, upset by the fact that the Bulgarians succeeded in acquiring property, including “the deserters of the Romanian army” [40]. A special situation was registered in the Delta area, the Agricultural Region excluding from ownership all persons who did not have a clear military situation, including either their failure to join or the reprovable acts committed by them during the satisfaction of the military period (such as desertion). All the efforts of the authorities of the Romanian state were partially blocked either by the errors found in the colonization lists, or by the postponement of ownership, a solution coming through the Colonization Law of July 1930, which provided for the possibility of relocating on the lots that were available or on the lots that resulted as a result of the merger and the Law on the sale of the territories to the chiefs of the military colonies, respectively, from April 1932, through which the sale of the 75 hectares lots was allowed, under the conditions established in the Dobrogean territory [41]. The amounts allocated to the construction of new homes proved to be insufficient, often many families being forced to live in miserable conditions. In Constanța alone, only 600 houses were built, the rest of the colonists being often forced to live in improper conditions or even on land, the situation lasting until 1928 [42]. In the last ten years of the interwar period, the authorities granted in Durostor only the land on the border, only to the married young people, who had fulfilled the military training and could support their families but also to contribute to the efforts dedicated to maintaining order in the area. In the entire southern area of Dobrogea,
for two decades, the creation of no less than 279 colonization centers, dedicated to an estimated 19 thousand head of household, was successful, with investments amounting to 146.862 in Caliacra. 846 lei, while in Durostor they reached the amount of 84,295,550 lei [43]. During the years 1924-1928, on a total of 75,446 hectares of arable land and a number of 1716 islets, a number of 1,715 persons were able to settle in Constanța, each family being granted a plot of land of six hectares, two thousand square meters space for building and one hectare of pasture [44]. However, the colonization process does not include Tulcea County, due to the numerous dissatisfaction of the officials of the Ministry of Agriculture, regarding the local pressures, which were intended to cause the colonists to abandon their lots. Not long after, it is noted that the land is insufficient for the inhabitants of the Dobrogea area, as they begin to be interested in the chances of settling in other areas, an aspect that will put particular pressure on Tulcea authorities. The issue also comes to the attention of the Ministry of Agriculture and Domains, which notifies the local authorities about the fact that the area itself was dedicated to colonization, which is why colonisation of its inhabitants would have been completely inappropriate. In turn, the Dobrogea local authorities draw attention to the many effects generated in the territory by the project of colonization, among which were noted: the outline of categories of people who risked a very low standard of living, under the conditions of the allocation of unfertile land; the illegal taxation of the colonists but also the involvement of the colonists with the inhabitants of the area, etc. Also, the colonization process in Dobrogea caused many problems in the area dedicated to financing the localities, which no longer had the lands that could have
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been subject to the lease. In fact, during the year 1938, Chilia Veche locality was forced to give over 60 hectares to the settlers from the town of Ostrovu Tătaru, to romanize the Danube Delta, on this land subsequently over 200 houses were built. The administration of Tulcea came in 1935 with the proposal of colonization in the Danube Delta area, on an area of over eight thousand hectares, of Aromanians and Bucovinians, in violation of the order provided in the law, respectively the omission of orphans, veterans, widows, as well and invalids. According to statistics on the origin of the Romanians who were colonised on the territory of Dobrogea, until 1940, most of them were originally from Oltenia and Muntenia (17,066 persons respectively), followed by Transylvania (8605 persons), Moldova (4,447 persons), from Bessarabia (2,456 persons), but also from Bucovina (only 62 persons) [45]. Conclusions The particular character, the specificity of interethnic, intercultural and interdenominational dialogue in Dobrogea cannot be understood outside the historical context. We must take into account, on the one hand, the limits imposed on political action in Dobrogea concerning the Principalities, with their status of autonomy (hence the distinct reporting) and, on the other hand, the reception and integration with European politics. The Ottoman regime, relatively tolerant of nationalities, had, in its turn, a moderating role in the social and political action plan of the Romanians in Dobrogea. Considering this objective conditioning, it is to be observed that, in the middle and the second half of the 19th century, national consciousness was a reality among the Romanians in Dobrogea, tending towards increasingly consistent forms of expression and with a purpose that
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oriented them, virtually, to the Principalities / Romania. Dobrogea’s official entry into the international debate came at a time when the historical evolution, in all respects, was pointing it towards Romania as a common imperative for future development, and the Romanian community had awakened to the national consciousness. The circumstances in which it was fulfilled, confined to the proclamation and the conquest of independence, again put the Romanian state under the empire of the pre-eminent character of the reasons of European order and, subsequently, of the decisions “about us, without us”. The new international status of Romania was to consecrate, consequently, what the Romanians had accomplished, but the demands of safeguarding “a present full of threats” dictated to the diplomats gathered in Berlin the compromise on the Bessarabia issue. Through a “European order” arrangement, Dobrogea was “reunited” with Romania, restoring to the country the vital maritime “pole” to ensure the security, freedom and fulfillment of its European mandate at the Danube mouths and, at the same time, suppressing the evil role of military “bridge” for foreign interests. In the Dobrogean hypothesis, the cycle of Romanian history is repeated: in a moment of balance between the internal historical accumulations and the European interests, the retreat of Dobrogea marked a new stage of national integration, a stage that will inevitably coincide with the maturation of interethnic, intercultural and interconfessional dialogue in the Dobrogean society. References [1] Achimescu, Pr. Nicolae. Religii în dialog, Iași, Ed. Trinitas, 2006, pp. 26-27; [Achimescu, Pr. Nicolae. Religions in Dialogue, Iasi, Trinitas
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Ed., 2006, pp. 26-27]; Ciornea, Carmen. Chipul Rugului Aprins, București, Editura Eikon, 2015, pp. 13-18, [Ciornea, Carmen. The Face of the Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2015, pp. 13-18]. [2] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria Dobrogei, Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa 1998, passim; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. The History of Dobrogea, Ex Ponto Publishing House, Constanta 1998, passim]. [3]Brătianu, Gheorghe I.Marea Neagră. De la origini la cucerirea otomană, vol. 1, București, Biblioteca de artă, 1988, p. 87, [Brătianu, Gheorghe I. The Black Sea. From the origins to the Ottoman conquest, vol. 1, Bucharest, Art Library, 1988, p. 87]. [4] It is worth mentioning that at the time of the Russian invasion, over 11 thousand soldiers were concentrated in the area of Dobrogea Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria Dobrogei, Constanţa, Editura Ex Ponto, 1998, pp. 234-236, [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. The History of Dobrogea, Constanta, Ex Ponto Publishing House, 1998, pp. 234-236]. [5] A.M.A.E, fond Războiul de independență 1877-1878, vol. 82, dosar 71c, [A.M.A.E, collection The War of Independence 18771878, vol. 82, file 71c]. [6] Independenţa României, 1977, București, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 311-312, [Independence of Romania, 1977, Bucharest, Publishing House of the R.S.R. Academy, pp. 311-312]. [7] Independenţa României, 1977, București, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 311-312, [Independence of Romania, 1977, Bucharest, Publishing House of the R.S.R. Academy, pp. 311-312]. [8] Giurescu, Constantin. Ştiri despre populaţia românească a Dobrogei în hărţi medievale şi moderne, Constanța, Muzeul Regional de Arheologie Dobrogea, 1966, pp. 73-64, [Giurescu, Constantin. News about the Romanian population of Dobrogea in medieval and modern maps, Constanța, Dobrogea Regional Museum of Archeology, 1966, pp. 73-64]. [9] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria
românilor dintre Dunăre şi Mare. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucureşti, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, p. 277; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. History of Romanians between the Danube and the Sea. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, p. 277]. [10] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria românilor dintre Dunăre şi Mare. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucureşti, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, p. 298; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. History of Romanians between the Danube and the Sea. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, p. 298]. [11] Arbore, Alexandru, Noi informații etnografice, istorice și statistice asupra Dobrogei şi a regiunilor basarabene învecinate Dunării, anul 1930, în „Analele Dobrogei”, nr. X, p. 90, [Arbore, Alexandru, New ethnographic, historical and statistical information on Dobrogea and the neighboring Bessarabian regions of the Danube, 1930, in “Annals of Dobrogea”, no. X, p. 90]: “After the preliminary peace of San Stefano and the peace of Berlin, two large exoduses of Turkish population took place. Correspondence from Constantinople since the end of April shows that in Adrianopol 50-60,000 migrants had fled from eastern Romania “. [12] Ibidem, p. 91. [13] Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Benditer, J., Leonid Boicu, România în relațiile internaționale: 1699-1939, Iași, Editura Junimea, 1980, p. 134; [Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Benditer, J., Leonid Boicu, Romania in International Relations: 1699-1939, Iași, Junimea Publishing House, 1980, p. 134]. [14] According to the mentions found in Farul Constanta’s publication, the year 1881, no. 36 and 37 of January 18 and 25, no. 38, 39, 40, 41 of February 1881. [15] Arhivele Naţionale Istorice Centrale (ANIC), dosarul 263 din anul 1878, fila 38; [National Central Historical Archives (ANIC), file 263 of 1878, tab 38]. [16] Ciachir, Nicolae. Războiul pentru independenţa României în contextul european, 1875-1878, Bucureşti, Editura
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Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1977, pp.132-133; [Ciachir, Nicolae. The war for Romania’s independence in the European context, 1875-1878, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, 1977, pp. 132-133]. [17] Ibidem, pp.286-288. [18] Stanciu, M., „Din viaţa politică dobrogeană. Legea pentru recunoaşterea drepturilor politice depline locuitorilor provinciei”, în Colegiul pedagogic „C.Brătescu”. Valori ale civilizaţiei româneşti în Dobrogea, Constanţa, 1993, pp. 54-58; [Stanciu, M., “From the Dobrogean political life. The law for the recognition of the full political rights of the inhabitants of the province “, in The pedagogical College “C.Brătescu”, Values of the Romanian civilization in Dobrogea, Constanta, 1993, pp. 54-58]. [19] Șandru, Dumitru, Populația rurală a României între cele două războaie mondiale, 1980, Iași, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 49-50; [Sandru, Dumitru, Rural population of Romania between the two World Wars, 1980, Iași, Publishing House of the R.S.R. Academy, pp. 49-50]. [20] Seișanu, Romulus, Dobrogea. Gurile Dunării și Insula Șerpilor, 1928, București, Editura Ziarul „Universul”, pp. 195-197; [Seișanu, Romulus. Dobrogea. The Mouths of the Danube and the Serpent Island, 1928, Bucharest, “Universul” newspaper, Publishing House, pp. 195-197]. [21] Ibidem. [22] Ibidem. [23] Ibidem. [24] Ibidem. [25] Ibidem. [26] Dumitru Șandru, Populația rurală a României între cele două războaie mondiale, 1980, Iași, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 50-52; [Dumitru Șandru. The rural population of Romania between the two World Wars, 1980, Iași, Publishing House of the R.S.R. Academy, pp. 50-52]. [27] Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Ion Scurtu. Locul României în Europa, Istoria românilor, în *** Istoria românilor, volumul VIII,
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2003, București, Editura Enciclopedică, pp. 31-33; [Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Ion Scurtu. “Place of Romania in Europe, History of Romanians”, in *** History of Romanians, volume VIII, 2003, Bucharest, Encyclopedic Publishing House, pp. 31-33]. [28] Ibidem. [29] Șandru, Dumitru. Populația rurală a României între cele două războaie mondiale, 1980, Iași, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 50-52; [ Șandru, Dumitru. The rural population of Romania between the two World Wars, 1980, Iași, Publishing House of the R.S.R. Academy, pp. 50-52]. [30] Ibidem. [31] Ibidem. [32] Ciornea, Carmen. Sandu Tudor și asociațiile studențențești creștine din România interbelică, București, Editura Eikon, 2017, passim; [Ciornea, Carmen. Sandu Tudor and Christian Student Associations in Romania between the two World Wars, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2017, passim]. [33] Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Ion Scurtu. Locul României în Europa, Istoria românilor, în *** Istoria românilor, volumul VIII, București, Editura Enciclopedică, 2003, p. 32; Șandru, Dumitru. Populația rurală a României între cele două războaie mondiale, Iași, Editura Academiei R.S.R., 1980, pp. 50-52; [Agrigoroaiei, Ion and Ion Scurtu. Place of Romania in Europe, History of Romanians, in *** History of Romanians, volume VIII, Bucharest, Encyclopedic Publishing House, 2003, p. 32; Șandru, Dumitru.The rural population of Romania between the two World Wars, Iasi, R.S.R. Academy Publishing House, 1980, pp. 50-52]. [34] Ibidem. [35] Ibidem. [36] Ibidem. [37] Ibidem. [38] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria românilor dintre Dunăre şi Mare. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucureşti, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, pp. 432-436; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. History
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of Romanians between the Danube and the Sea. Dobrogea, 1979, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, pp. 432436]. [39] According to the data found in Study no. 1152/1933 dedicated to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding the situation of the Turkish minority, National Minorities in Romania (1931 - 1938), Bucharest, pp. 211214. [40]Roman, M. Iredenta bulgară în Dobrogea, în „Analele Dobrogei”, An XVI, 1935, pp. 1012; [Roman, M. The Bulgarian Irredentism in Dobrogea, in “Annals of Dobrogea”, Year XVI, 1935, pp. 10-12]. [41] To carry out this impressive project, the Minister of Agriculture of that period, Ion Mihalache, allocated over 15 million lei to carry out prospecting and construction of wells, another 125 million being allocated to the Quadrilater. [42] Șandru, Dumitru, Populația rurală a României între cele două războaie mondiale, 1980, Iași, Editura Academiei R.S.R., pp. 60-63; [Șandru, Dumitru. The rural population of Romania between the two World Wars, 1980, Iași, R.S.R. Academy Publishing House, pp. 60-63]. [43] Lazia, Liliana. Câteva consideraţii privind fenomenul antroponimic în Dobrogea, în „Analele Dobrogei”, Serie Nouă, nr. 1, an 14, Constanța, 1997, p.66; [Lazio, Liliana. Some considerations regarding the anthroponymic phenomenon in Dobrogea, in the “Annals of Dobrogea”, New Series, no. 1, year 14, Constanța, 1997, p. 66]. [44] Ibidem. [45] Popoiu, Paulina. Antropologia habitatului în Dobrogea, București, Editura Oscar Print, Bucureşti, 2001, p. 95-97; [Popoiu, Pauline. Habitat anthropology in Dobrogea, Bucharest, Oscar Print Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001, pp. 95-97]. .
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Anastasie Crimca Distinct Cultural and Philanthropic Personality in Romanian Medieval Religious History Lecturer Nina Stănescu, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 28 August 2019 Received in revised form 3 November Accepted 5 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.25
Keywords: religion; research; culture; philanthropy; art; Medieval history;
abstract
Anastasius Crimca depicts himself as a scholar who dominated, with his personality, two decades of Romanian culture. Regardless of the expression means, “the enlightened patriotism”, which he confesses in his will of 1610 on the alienation of the monastery, is also to be seen in his social, philanthropic work, as well as in the spirit of brotherhood which made him give away a series of books to the Metropolitan Seat of Targoviste, at a time when the two regions were as if united (Moldavia being ruled in that period by Radu Vodă Mihnea, and the Romanian Principality by his son, Alexandru Coconul). Artist in the true sense of the word, erudite theologian and diplomat, initiated in matters of law, writer, Anastasius Crimca has acquired, both through his own personality and through his entire inherited work, a place to be valued in the history of our medieval culture. He must also be regarded as a prominent figure of Orthodoxy in the age illustrated by Cyril Luccaris, Peter Movilă and Varlaam. The fact that his sudden death was recorded in three different manuscripts attests, in itself, the fame and the appreciation he enjoyed even during his lifetime. About Anastasius Crimca’s life and activity, about the school he initiated and patronized and whose products, with such a troubled history, adorn today, some of the largest libraries and museums in the world, as well as its splendid achievement at Dragomirna (“the school” of calligraphers and miniaturists from Dragomirna Monastery), there is nothing left to say except that there are undoubtedly some of the most representative spiritual and cultural realizations in Romanian medieval history. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Stanescu Nina. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Stanescu, Nina, ”Anastasie Crimca – Distinct Cultural and Philanthropic Personality in Romanian Medieval Religious History,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.25, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 264-271.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. INTRODUCTION
Anastasius Crimca, a visionary and a politician, a scholar and a man of letters, sensitive to traditional but also to human values, school initiator but also a pathfinder, creates a true school of calligraphers and miniaturists at Dragomirna Monastery – the monastery whose foundation he laid. Anastasie Crimca was born in a family of merchants, in Suceava, around 1550, with the name of layman Ilie. In 1587 he was certified documentarily as “Ilie Damani-Diacul Ilea,” (diac = writer of the Chancery and servant of the Treasury of the Romanian Principalities; scribe; copier, scholar, a learned person) [1]. In 1588 he became a monk at Putna, under the name Anastasius, in the same year, becoming the Abbot of the Galata Monastery near Iaşi. On June 16, 1606, he is elected Bishop of Roman, and in the spring of 1608, Metropolitan of Moldavia, serving until his death [2]. II. ANALYSIS
According to the documents of that period [3], after being appointed Bishop of Roman in the year 1606, Anastasie Crimca becomes, after the death of Theodosius Barbovschi in 1608 (on 23 February 1608) [4], Metropolitan of Moldavia, ranking which he will keep, with a short interruption (1617-1619) until his death in 1629. As Metropolitan, Crimca took steps to better conduct the monastery’s life and to exempt the church’s servants from taxes. In the first part of his rule, Crimca began to focus on the copying of books necessary for religious services, a particularly important fact, since more than a hundred years later, from his initiative, the decoration was reintroduced, adorning the manuscripts with miniatures. 27 manuscripts of his time are known, most of them adorned with miniatures, of which we mention: three Four Gospels [5], three litanies and a psalm book, at Dragomirna,
two Apostles at the Romanian Academy, and the rest of the books of worship, books on the Lives of the Saints, etc., are found in libraries from abroad. The manuscripts in the country, the Apostle in Vienna and a Four Gospels in Lvov comprise over 250 miniatures (scenes and biblical portraits), plus the frontispieces and 15 self-portraits crafted by the metropolitan himself. The contribution of the great Hierarch in the medieval period of Moldova was not only of a social and religious nature. Like other important personalities before and after him [6] – the Metropolitan has made an evidence of special qualities of diplomat and mediator but also of great patriot for those troubled periods that affected the land of Moldavia. Thus, in the autumn of 1612, at the end of peace set between Stefan Tomşa II and the King of Poland, Crimca led the Moldovan delegation, a delegation that concluded the Treaty of 8 October 1612 [7]. Four years later, Anastasius Crimca fulfilled an identical mission, in order to conclude peace after “the expedition of the Movilești family”, which ended in the disaster of Dracşani [8]. Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca remains a distinct personality of his time, especially through the spiritual, monumental, architectural masterpiece represented by the Holy Monastery of Dragomirna. At Dragomirna Monastery, spirituality, science, and art are interwoven in a particularly harmonious way, excelling with the “school” of miniaturists and calligraphers, scribes of the Slavonic manuscripts at the time. This school was initiated and coordinated by the main founder of the monastery, namely Anastasius Crimca. Thanks to the work that was done in this school, thanks to the spiritual and innovative architectural ideas and not least, thanks to its brilliant founder, Dragomirna Monastery, will be made notorious both in the rest of the country and abroad. According to the documentary
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archives, the dating of Dragomirna before 1606 is mentioned in a document of 4 September 1605. It shows that Jeremiah Movila reinforced several properties of Luca Stroici, who then gave away “all villages, Seliştile and vineyards (...) to the newlyfounded Dragomirna Monastery, under the patronage of the Holy Spirit “[8]. It is apparent from this document that, by Crimca’s side also stood another founder of this Holy Monastery, namely the scholar Luca Stroici, a Chancellor who offered a great deal of his own wealth in order to build this sumptuous monastic settlement in northern Moldova. Crimca provided the place, on the boundary of his village, Dragomireşti, supervised construction work during the period when he was not a bishop of Roman yet and, in particular, directed the artistic adorning of Dragomirna, which from this last point of view, is his own exclusive foundation. To these two founders, the third one is added, Miron Voda Barbovschi (1626-1629, 1633) [10] nephew of the Stroici brothers. Dragomirna Monastery, a cultural and spiritual masterpiece, was personally endowed, both by Anastasius Crimca and by his disciples. The brilliant founder, who endowed the holy abode with sumptuous cult books, with famous Slavonic manuscripts on parchment or parchments paper, bound in gilded silver or velvet with silver encasement, adorned by himself and/ or by his disciples, with skilled illustrations and ornaments (miniatures, sumptuous frontispieces, biblical scenes in the text or on the page), true works of plastic art whose value does not diminish, but, on the contrary, amplifies, with the passage of time, speaks beyond any doubt about one of the major destinations conferred by the founder to his monastery, at the same time amplifying the Divine and the remission of the grace of the righteous faith on all the believers, according to the study ”Manuscripts and old
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books in the collections of the Dragomirna Monastery library. “[11]. At Dragomirna, a number of 93 titles (118 copies) of Romanian heritage prints are preserved, covering the period 1643-1830, and 39 titles (40 copies) of foreign printing, also heritage, for the chronological period 1639-1792. Like icon painters, who always strive, thorough detailed work, to highlight the face [12] of the divine transfigured saints, their holiness, so did the Metropolitan Crimca’s disciples and the metropolitan himself, attempt to provide an added value to their pieces of artistic, religious and documentary works found at Dragomirna monastery. The ornamentation, the number of bibliophile values, meanings and connotative meanings still await the researchers’ attention and interest so as to be discovered and put into value at least in a decent way for the benefit of our national culture and, obviously, of the universal culture. With such a cumulation of inestimable cultural, bibliophile and especially religious values, Dragomirna Monastery, is among the important domestic holders of our national cultural heritage, and through the pieces of exceptional artistic and documentary value, its category of bibliophile parts (Anastasius Crimca’s manuscripts, for example) can certainly rise to the level of other pieces of universal worth. Artworks [13]: On the territory of Moldavia, the first ruler to care for the philanthropic work and who “thought of bringing a doctor for the needs of the crowd, for the needs of the city” [14] was Stefan the Great and Holy (1457-1504). The ruler was closely concerned about the health of the people from Zografu Monastery. On 10 May 1466 he ordained “100 ducats annually” and built a hospital (13 September 1471) [15]. As far as the philanthropic work in medieval Moldova is concerned, it would be a lot to debate and investigate. The social assistance settlements were
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founded near monasteries, this assertion wanting to suggest that their benefactors were firmly convinced that, including physical health, they could be acquired rather here or, at least, they could be better cared for here. And if we mention to the aforementioned, as in the case of the Romanian Country, that in the monasteries they were miraculous icons, relics of saints and even spiritual with the gift of healing, we can better understand why the philanthropic establishments were erected next to the monasteries. Our monasteries, throughout history, were not only places of worship for those who wanted to bring glory to God, they were not only outlets of culture where the word of God was learned and printed, but they were also fortresses. defense in times of hard trials, as well as social and medical aid institutions for the poor, foreign and sick. If the rich allowed themselves to bring foreign doctors or go to other countries for healing, most of us being poor, lacking means, the Church, through its medical institutions, hospitals, provided shelter and care. This role of the monasteries, of the Church in general, is due to the fact that the organization of social assistance institutions was still under the coordination of the Church. Saint Basil the Great imposed as obligatory these social institutions to help the poor, in the monastic discipline in the fourth century, he himself set an example by establishing the philanthropic institution Vasiliada I should mention that most philanthropic works were not recorded anywhere, they were only known to God. On the other hand, if the archives of the monasteries and especially of the eparchial centers were to be consulted, many documents would be collected, including facts, actions and philanthropic works of the Church in various situations. In support of this statement, which, we believe, cannot be challenged by anyone, we bring one example: the one of a
booklet published in Craiova in 1943, entitled Three years of activity in the Metropolitan Church of Oltenia. This booklet contains a chapter entitled Philanthropic activity, which contains many data on this aspect: about school canteens, helping refugee priests, equipping a hospital, about the war orphanage at Hurezi Monastery, aid to the poor, students, students, priests and families of priests temporarily in difficulty, officials of the Holy Metropolitan Church, churches, schools, as well as a list of the amounts of money or gifts in kind collected by the parishes, as well as from the Metropolitan Church offered to various “National and Charitable Institutions”.The booklet was edited by the Metropolitan Church of Oltenia and refers to the period between 1940-1943. Chapter II, entitled Philanthropic activity, which contains over several pages (14-20) much information about the diversity of philanthropic works. Due to the restrictive space, I would point out that, specific to this period, there are some philanthropic health institutions concerned with the healthcare of poor sufferers, ‘bolnițele’ (=infirmaries). Also, during this period, sometime later the first hospitals appear. The Infirmary of Putna Monastery represents the oldest health institution, which although it was consumed by fire on March 15, 1484, it was fortunately fully reconstructed, the founder offering it many donations [16]. The Mentally Ill Asylum at Putna Monastery was meant to care for the insane, with some patients staying there for a varied period of time, and others being hospitalized for the rest of their lives. The sick used to be accommodated in the sanctums or in the loggia of the monastery, or in a special infirmary [16]. Moving beyond the fact that in infirmaries a popular type of medicine is practiced, we recall that this type of philanthropic institution in Moldova appears in the 15th century, starting with
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the establishment of the first monasteries [17], enjoying a more extensive use in the 16th century [18]. Since the second half of the 17th century, the infirmaries appear as generalized institutions, due to the blossoming of the monastery’s life. However, in the time of Phanariot mastery, their activity was to diminish considerably due to the devotion of many monasteries to the Holy Places, a fact which reduced considerably the economic possibilities that had provided them with the much-needed financial resource.
In Moldova, hospitals were founded at the initiative of Churches or monasteries, rulers or boyars. Refined man of culture, sensitive to beauty, defender of the righteous faith but also patriot, Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca does not remain insensitive to the human pain. On 12 April 1587, Deacon Ilea Crâmcovici, the would-be Metropolitan Anastasie Crimca, obtains Dragomireşti village from ruler Petru Șchiopul (15741579,1582-1591). In the 16th century, in this place, there was in existence an old wooden
Fig. 1. Miniature: The Four Gospels dated 1609 – “St. Basil the Great and John Chrysostom”; on the right Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca – Self- Portrait (detail) The term “hospital” is first met in Western Europe. With us, facing enough opposition, this term was introduced later, for the first time being read in a document dated 17 May 1619. It is then mentioned in the Pravila (= Rule) of Vasile Lupu dated 1642 and Matthew Basarab. The hospital is considered by most researchers, as we have already shown, the successor of the traditional infirmary.
church, under the patronage of Saint John Bogoslovul. Thus, even from the time when he was Bishop of Rădăuţi (1600) and at his own expense, he established a church with its own infirmary (in 1602) under the same holy patronage in Dragomireşti, only 12 km away from Suceava [19]. Later, in the year 1619, under the establishment of Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca, the first public hospital was to be established in Moldavia, as evidenced by a document issued by ruler Gaşpar Graţiani (1619-1620) on 17 May 1619, a document acknowledging the fact that
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the Metropolitan of Moldova was given a reign in Suceava, precisely in order to raise a hospital: “We mean we– says Gașpar Grațiani – mercifully offered our father and our prayer bearer Kir Anastasie Brâncovici and the Metropolitan of Suceava, a place in the midst of our fair Suceava, from the place where the fair used to be, opposite the houses of Fealtin Sas, to build there, on that place, a hospital in the name of the Lord, to comfort the poor and powerless and the lame and the blind and other people who will be in need, there to find rest all those needing that hospital” [15].
Fig. 2. Miniatures: The Four Gospels dated 1609 – “The Birth of the Lord” (left), “The Baptism of the Lord” (middle) and “The Soldiers of the Tomb of Christ” (right), all three made by Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca (1609) The same piece of information is to be found in other documents published by the Romanian Academy in the collection of Documents on the History of Romania, A. Moldova. The last information about the operation of this hospital can be found in the Rule (Pravila) of Vasile Lupu, 1641 [20].
CONCLUSIONS There are numerous and beautiful facts that talk about the mission of the Great Metropolitan. In addition to that already mentioned in the previous pages, it is also worth mentioning the building of the winter chapel which, as Metropolitan of Moldavia, he built at the monastery of St. John the New in Suceava. His soul thirsting for Christ would send up humble prayers accompanied by the faithful people living on this side of the Carpathians, as well as beyond. Aware of the spiritual book deficiency,
the good shepherd gave away church books copied by monks, icons, carved crosses and other monastery gifts to thousands of pilgrims arriving from Transylvania, Maramureş, Ardeal. In 1621, the Tartars stormed Suceava, so, at night, the Metropolitan took the relics of St. John the New from Suceava and sought to flee into the mountains together with many believers. But God, hearing the prayers of His servant and the tears of the people, by unspeakable miracle, the relics became so heavy that the haystack could not move
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from place. Then the great hierarch held a ”litie” (a religious service held at the end of Vecernology, Utrend or even at the end of the Holy mass) and kept vigil all night, he surrounded the fortress with the reliquary of Saint John the New, the protector of Moldavia, and the heathen fled from the country at once [21]. As presented in this study, in addition to the care he took for the salvation of the souls belonging to the ones he used to shepherd and for the adoring of churches, Metropolitan Crimca also cared for the alleviation of diseases and bodily sufferings. By his deeds attested in the documents of that time, the work of the great hierarch is undeniable and undisputable. According to the notes taken down after various old books, on 19 January 1629, this great prelate of the Church of Moldavia, Anastasius Crimca, passed away. He was buried in the pronaos of the great Church of Dragomirna Monastery, under a stone slab which is as simple and humble as he lived and his life. At Dragomirna Monastery there is a painting in which the Metropolitan is depicted. The nobility of his face enlightened by the Holy Spirit looks at us with serenity, in his hands, he dearly holds his “sweet burden”—St. Dragomirna Monastery, his soul’s foundation. References [1]
[2]
[3]
***Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan’’. Dicționarul Explicativ al Limbii Române [The Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language] (revised and enlarged 3rd edition). Univers Enciclopedic: Gold Publishing House, 2009. Păcurariu, Mircea. Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, [The Romanian Orthodox Church] Bucharest: Sofia Publishing House, 2000,p. 124. Păcurariu, Mircea. Listele cronologice ale ierarhilor bisericii Ortodoxe Române.
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[Chronological lists of the hierarchs of the Romanian Orthodox Church]Bucharest: Institutul Biblic și de Misiune Ortodoxă Publishing House, 1975, p.16. [4] Gorovei, Ștefan, S. “Anastasie Crimca noi contribuții”, [ Anastasie Crimca - new contributions] Mitropolia Moldovei și Sucevei, LV, no. 1-2, ianuarie – februarie (1979): p.147. [5] Vlad, Maxim. “Receptarea cărților Sf. Scripturi în corpusul canonico-legislativ al Bisericii Ortodoxe”. [Receiving the Holy Scripture books in the canonical-legislative corpus of the Orthodox Church] Analele Universității „Ovidius” din Constanța, XXVII (2), (2016): p.625. [6] Bucșan C. «Clerici români în misiuni diplomatice (sec. XV-XVII) «, [Romanian clergy in diplomatic missions (XV-XVII century)] Mitropolia Banatului, no. 1-3/XXIV (1974): p.56-64. [7] Hurmuzaki, Bogdan. Documente. [ Documents] Suplimentul II, 2, p. 369-375. [8] Panaitescu, P.P. «Zolkiewscki şi expediţia Doamnei Elisabeta Movilă în Moldova în anul 1615-1616». [Zolkiewscki and the expedition of Lady Elisabeta Movila to Moldova in 16151616] R. I., XIV (1928): p.46-53. [9] ***Documente privind Istoria României, [Documents regarding the History of Romania] 1/XVII, no. 344, p.257 -258. [10] Gorovei, Ștefan, S. «Anastasie Crimca noi contribuții». [ Anastasie Crimca - new contributions] Mitropolia Moldovei și a Sucevei, anul LV, no. 1-2, ianuarie – februarie (1979): p.148-151. [11] Mitric, Olimpia. “Manuscrise și cărți vechi în colecțiile bibliotecii Mănăstirii Dragomirna”, [Old manuscripts and books in the Dragomirna Monastery library collections] Mitropolia Moldovei și a Sucevei, anul LXVI, no.5-6, octombrie-decembrie (1990): p.160-164. [12] Vlad,.Maxim. “The icon, between tradition and postmodernity. canon 82 of the trullo council, canonical testimony of the transition, from thesymbolic to the realistic figurative representation in iconography”. Globalization and National Identity. Studies on the Strategies of Intercultural Dialogue history and cultural
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mentalities section’’, Ion Boldea (coord.), Tg.Mures: Arhipelag XXI Press Publishing House (2016): p.648. [13] http://dragomirna.ro ; http://ro.wikipedia.org accessed on 3.09.2019, 6.30 pm. [14] Samarian, Gheoghe, P., Medicina şi farmacia în trecutul românesc (1382-1775). [Medicine and pharmacy in the Romanian past (13821775)]Călăraşi: Tipografia Moderna, 1932, p.27. [15] Gonţa, Al. I. «Un spital de mănăstire la Putna», [A monastery hospital in Putna] Studii de Istorie medievală, [Studies of Medieval History] Iaşi: Dosoftei Publishing House (1998): p.250 [16] Vicovan, I. Daţi-le voi să mănânce. [ Give them to eat] Iaşi: Trinitas, 2000, p.174. [17] Miroiu, Petre. «De la bolnița mănăstirească la spitalul organizat». [ From the monastery infirmary to the organized hospital] Mitropolia Olteniei, year XXIII, 5-6/(1971): p.369. [18] Reli,Simion, «Mila creștină în trecutul românesc». [Christian charity in the Romanian past] Luminătorul, no. 6, year LXV (1933): p.349. [19] Partenie, P. Mitropolitul Anastasie Crimca al Moldovei. [Metropolitan Anastasie Crimca of Moldova] Bucharest, 1907, 9, 40, note. [20] Samarian, Gheorghe P. Medicina şi farmacia în trecutul românesc(1382-1775). [Medicine and pharmacy in Romanian history (13821775)] Călăraşi: Moderna, 1932, p.73. [21] Păcurariu, Mircea. Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, [History of the Romanian Orthodox Church] București: Sofia Publishing House, 2000, p.10.
Biography Nina Stănescu is currently a PhD lecturer at the Ovidius University in Constanța She is BA licensed since 2000, in Legal Sciences - “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Police Academy, Bucharest, Romania; since 2008 is BA licensed in Theology -
Social Work, Ovidius University Constanta, Romania; since 2007 - Master’s degree in Community Institutions and Canon Law, Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, “Ovidius” University Constanţa, Romania and has been a doctor in sociology since 2011 according to O.M.E.C.T.S. No.4387 / 2011, Doctoral School of the University of Craiova. The main areas of study in which they operate are social assistance, theology, sociology, psychology, law, and administrative sciences. As a Professor at Ovidius University in Constanța, she has 10 years of experience. Her most interesting publications are: - Social Mission of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Beladi publishing house, Craiova, 2011 - Techirghiol - appeal to collective memory - Monographic contributions from a sociological, historical, ethnographic and religious perspective, Prouniversitaria Publishing House, Bucharest, 2015 - Civitas Deo - Monograph of the Sf Sava Foundation from Buzău - monographic contributions from a sociological, historical, social-philanthropic and religious perspective, (reviews: vice-president of the Romanian Academy Răzvan Theodorescu and academic university professor doctor Ilie Bădescu) Cluj- Napoca, publisher Casa Cărții de Știință, 2019 Awarded within the ENIGEL- • Resource Center for Scientific Authority and Researchoriented Interdisciplinary / Competition: Knowledge in dialogue - science, fiction, daily / Competition of the Doctoral School of Sociology, Bucharest, University of Bucharest, July, 2012.
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Acceptance of power or power of acceptance? Dilemmas and challenges of the Architect students arrested in the „Burning Altar” lot (1958) Lecturer Carmen Ciornea, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 6 October 2019 Received in revised form 17 October Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.26
Keywords: education; Burning Altar; Father Daniil Sandu Tudor; students; Architecture Faculty, George Văsîi; Emanoil Mihăilescu; Nicolae Rădulescu;
abstract
The present study aims to reconstruct a faithful image of the route of the three students from the Architecture Faculty who were part of the „Burning Altar” group, until the conviction from 1958. The main source of the present scientific research were the files from the Archives of the National Council for the Study of Security Archives (A.C.N.S.A.S.) from which we selected a series of documents that directly concern Văsîi George, Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu. Also, in order to avoid the danger of slipping into the Security logic, I appealed to combine the data obtained from the ACNSAS files with the lucid observations of the memorialists Emanoil Mihăilescu and Nicolae Rădulescu. The comparative analysis of these documents proves that their conviction did not focus on the individualʼs crimes, but the Securityʼs objectives and obsessions. The reading among the lines discloses an entire form of mind, through which multiple constituent elements (Security, Justice, administrative apparatus, etc.) of this deformed, absurd system are dynamited. The austere and tenacious profile of Father Daniil Sandu Tudor, the founder of the Burning Altar, a complex man, in which coexist the intransigence and the deepest sensitivity, the polemic spirit and the altruism brought to the highest sacrifice, is shaping as an epicenter, an opportunity to reveal some exceptional life histories.
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ciornea Carmen. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ciornea, Carmen, ”Acceptance of power or power of acceptance? Dilemmas and challenges of the architect students arrested in the „Burning Altar” lot (1958),” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.26, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 272-286.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I. Introduction
The “Burning Altar” movement has lately provoked numerous controversies and is unmistakably a topic of interest in the Romanian space for theologians, historians, and literary critics, as well as for anyone interested in the recent history of this nation. However, the right to recall the course of the ”Mother of God’s Burning Altar” rests, especially, with those who paid with their own freedom to belong to this spiritual group, disregarding the tendencies of the time, which was given to them to go through in this earth life. Unfortunately, only two of the 16 people that the Security had imprisoned, were able to respond the legitimate call to restore the memory and the values of the members of this spiritual group and to place them in the frame of the natural, beyond the hidden agendas of the totalitarian communist state: Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu [1]. The analogy between the two views of remembrance, mediated by the former students who composed the lot of “The Burning Altar”, as the Security thought about in 1958, constitutes, we believe, an efficient technique of reconstructing the historical truth.These people are true examples of the unimaginable abuses of the totalitarian regime, which has violated any logic of common sense. The human being, trapped in a historical trap, was reduced to imperative stereotypes, in which the only value was communist ideology. The love for fellows was translated, into the communist logic, in hatred towards the bourgeois-landowner class, contempt for the intellectuals and the discredit of the clergy, whose activity suffered from the “disease of mysticism”, etc. [2]. In fact, from February the 27th, 2019, the group of survivors of the group “The Burning Altar” has been reduced to one because this is the date when Mr. Emanoil Mihăilescu went to the eternal ones.”The Burning Altar”, in the totalitarian political
language, was a subversive organization and the meetings where young people, thirsting for authenticity and essentiality, participated in the desire to discover landmarks, spiritual guides, in a world in which the accelerated rhythm of the prefaces had raised the discomfort to paroxysmal levels were interpreted as conspiratorial hearings. Unfortunately, George Văsîi was deeply marked since the investigation of the methods and techniques of repressive and manipulative Security and, thus, the young man with real leadership qualities, the integrating personality that imposed by the intellectual-moral stature, would, at that moment, give the first signs of mental lability. Subsequently, the depreciation of health would be accentuated, as evidenced by the repeated admissions to psychiatric hospitals. Impressive is that this reality did not lead to the breakdown of the friendship relationship, the reconstruction of the portrait of George Văsîi through the evocations of the former colleagues – Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu retaining the light of the tenderness and the generosity. Beyond the particular dramas, the memorialist literature in conjunction with the official documents (see C.N.S.A.S.) offers an impressive number of evidence of the struggle against the Romanian Orthodox Church, the policy of compromising the Church by subordinating its increasingly diverse and treacherous means. We note that the reading of the documents in A.C.N.S.A.S. must be done with circumspection and vigilance because these were the tools used by the Security to control the whole society and the Church in particular. At the same time, we invite the reader to a comparative view, the analogy highlighting, even to an unauthorized eye, the mechanisms of “wood language”, the psychological processes of manipulating the victims, whose identities used to be
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rewritten. II. The “unhealthy” origins of the students George Văsîi, Nicole Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu
From the group of three students from the Faculty of Architecture, George Văsîi was an unusual presence also through the education received from his parents, Petre and Victoria. Born on June 23, 1935, in Constanta, he was educated in the spirit of moral, spiritual and cultural authenticity, both parents giving him a solid religious education. The inclination towards asceticism of his family members is also confirmed by the latter option, when due to the need to complete his spiritual ascent, his parents, also advised by Father Daniil Sandu Tudor, separated in order to be able to embrace the monastic life. Of course, this unhealthy origin has not escaped the watchful eye of the Security, who will see his mystical-religious conception as an inheritance “from his parents who have become monks [3]. In fact, unlike Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu, George Văsîi had known Father Daniil Sandu Tudor from the “Burning Altar” stage of the Antim Monastery, an association whose activity had been banned since 1948. Also, this reality is found in the CNSAS Archive, where, according to the interrogation report of July 1, 1958, to the investigator’s questions regarding Văsîi Gheorghe, Father Daniil stated: «I met this Văsîi Gheorghe in 1942 or 1943 while he was still a child and he came with his parents to the Antim Monastery where he also used to sing in the choir of that monastery. Although I was not yet a monk at that time, I was still on the verge of becoming a monk and I often went to the Antim Monastery, thus knowing Văsîi Gheorghe and his parents since then, without knowing them personally» [4].
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In the case of the student Nicolae Rădulescu, the unhealthy social origin was justified by the petty bourgeoisie, on the paternal line, the Security documents subsuming his father’s activity under the exploitative merchant category. According to his own testimony, the young man was in a conscious search for moral-intellectual landmarks, even from the time of the high school, when, automatically received in the U.T.C. (Union of Communist Youth) [5], had become disgusted by the contortions that the society had suffered after the establishment of totalitarianism [6]:”The atmosphere in the school was awful. We were in full Stalinist period. Endless meetings, with chanting standing and clapping: “Glory to Stalin!”, every time one, unexpectedly, woke up shouting: “Live Comrade Joseph Vissarionovici Stalin!” Russian language, political education, double language, the zealous activists, the fear on the daily agenda, the disoriented teachers, the others too well oriented, determined me, when the opportunity arose, to drop out of the day school and to finish it in an extramural course. After three years of high school, I was hired as a copy designer at a design institute. I gave my high school diploma along with my former colleagues. During high school, I felt, more than ever, the lack of a mentor ”[7]. Regarding the architect Emanoil Mihăilescu, conclusive data on how his parents were perceived by the Security are kept in the C.N.S.A.S. It is interesting to see what the interest of the Security has aroused over them. Mr. Mihăilescu Constantin, a devoted and responsible father, did not reconcile with the thought of his son’s conviction and, facing the imminent danger, he sent a letter to General Negrea, the General Secretary of the Ministry of Internal Affairs: «The things shown above culminate in a heavy strike for me and the whole family by the fact that, on September 18, 1958, my
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son Emanoil, with whom I was proud in front of our regime, to which I contributed, was arrested by the organs of state. I can’t find words to show how much pain this accident causes for a parent, who has fought for the cause of life, and, in particular, for future generations. After the trial, which took place on October 28/29, 1958, I learned from the lawyer that he was sentenced to a minimum sentence of 5 years for participating in some religious discussions. From the testimonies of his witnesses and his own, it turned out to be guilty that he went on a collective trip to the Rarau monastery. I cannot say that he was not guilty of something, but I know that I have constantly directed him to go on our line and that is why I come before you, with the request of a comrade and his father, to analyze those shown in this report and to be amnestied with the rest of the punishment, starting from the thought that you will give society an officer who will form further and be more useful for the construction of socialism, and eventually, the sufferings, which, under no form, go out, will end for my grieving family»[8]. The text of the letter contained a memo in which, in order to arouse the recipient’s interests and goodwill, he emphasized that although he was now a tailor-made pensioner, “For 45 years I have fought fiercely for the cause of the working class and for the Party” [9] and he did not cease to assume parental responsibility: «I have always lived from my own work; in my personal life as well as in society, I understood to live modestly and fairly. In this way, I guided the way of life of the two boys I have and as a result I enjoyed myself, like any parent, especially at the age of 65; thus, my son, Mihăilescu Constantin, a fourth-year student in Geology, who is learning well, is UTM-ist and makes me happy from all points of view.The other son, Mihăilescu Emanoil, a fifth-year student at the “Ion Mincu” Institute of Architecture, with fruitful political activity, also part of the leadership of the student organization at the
Institute, at the school being exceptional in all the student years - his last project being exhibited at the Exhibition - also in his behavior, both in the neighborhood and at the Institute, he was a model to follow »[10]. But the result of Mr. Mihăilescu Constantin’s request was not by far his son’s amnesty. On the contrary, the letter, unfortunately, generated only the initiation of investigations on himself and his wife, Mihăilescu Maria, through the agents of the Security - «trusted persons L.M. and S. M. »[11]. Thus, after consulting the file of Mr. Mihăilescu Constantin, according to the Report “regarding the result of the checks carried out in connection with the request made by the above mentioned Mihăilescu Constantin” from 02.02.1942, it was found that he “made a national-peasant policy from 1924 until the dissolution of the political parties”[12]. How did these facts translate into the minds of the Security? The mere reading of this Security report is sufficient to elucidate the obsessions of this institution of control and repression: «In 1945 the member P.C.R. was confirmed. and after the checks of 1949 Mihăilescu Constantin was excluded from the Party. […] It is known that Mihăilescu Constantin also owns the building from No. 31, Popa Savu str., where other people reside paying rent. The wife of the aforementioned, namely Mihăilescu Maria, is of a tailor-made profession and, as it is clear from the investigations, she had been before marriage for two years in Paris, where she learned the female tailoring. Also, she is known that she was a member of the former P.N. party and P.S.D., becoming a member of P.C.R. after 1944, and was excluded after the checks. From the checks carried out at the “C” Service, it follows that Mihăilescu Constantin has been conducting national peasant activity since 1942 and, for about 20 years, when he had a tailoring workshop in no. 6, Cristian Tell street, worked clothes for the staff of the
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Italian and German Legations in Bucharest» [13]. Obviously, all the above data led to the devaluation of the father’s memory, so that the resolution of the criminal security investigator, Major Lt. Urucu Nicolae, approved by the head of the service, Captain I. Moldovan and the head of the Directorate, Colonel Fr. Butyka was, in this context, predictable: «To communicate to the named Mihăilescu Constantin, that for the enemy activities against the regime in R.P.R. committed by his son, Mihăilescu Emanoil, is to execute his sentence of 5 years whereas the punishment is proportional to the acts it has committed [14]. III. the arrest
As we have shown, the regime and the so-called Communist nomenclature, of poor quality, brutal, was haunted by doubts and suspected permanently. Everywhere they saw anti-state plots, sabotages, lies. Defiance, terror had replaced normality, being the main means by which the popular masses were held in oppression. Rarely were families without a convicted member. Security was omnipresent and omnipotent. For their seats, those in the Party leadership were capable of everything. They had not heard of friendship. Security controlled everything, even those in the Central Committee, has every interest in permanently proving their usefulness. From here comes its art of directing plots, fabricated organizations, enemies of the regime sold to imperialism. The case of the group “Teodorescu Alexandru et al” must be understood in this context when the atheist offensive of the regime reached its peak. It was Father Daniil Sandu Tudor who gathered secular intellectuals and clerics, teaching credibly (hence the popularity) for a doctrine other than the accepted one (communist
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ideology). These monk priests had begun to be attended by many people. Let us not forget that in 1955 the Vladimirești Monastery was closed, where the abbot Veronica and the spiritual Father, Ioan Iovan, attracted a lot of pilgrims. The pursuit of Father Daniil Sandu Tudor was part of a larger action aimed at the Slatina and Rarău monasteries, visited by an impressive number of believers and considered by the Security as centers of legionary activity, which is why by Order no. 107, from February 10, 1956, the Security opened a verification file for both monasteries, an informative action carried out by two Regional Directorates, Iași and Suceava [15]. The numerous informative notes gathered following the triggering of this action show the wide size of this action, which has led an impressive number of informants, trained by Security [16], as well as arrests. Thus, Captain Cernichevici from the Iași Regional Directorate and second lieutenant major Waxman S. from the Suceava Regional Directorate will sign, on November 2, 1957, the Plan of Measures in which the clear objectives were set to streamline the collection of evidence «on the activity carried out at Rarău monastery, Slatina monastery etc. »[17]. How is the arrest of students from the Faculty of Architecture justified? Or, better said, what the arrest of these young people served for? The reading among the lines of the Security documents reveals the need to produce evidence designed to justify the arrest and especially the heavy penalties that were prepared for the spiritual priests. The 12-page report “on proposals related to the arrest and investigation of 11 citizens from the group action Sandu Tudor, Roman Braga and Benedict Ghiuș”, of April 24, 1958, signed by the chief of Serv. 2 from the Independent, Major Security Service, Borșan D-tru;The Head of the ServiceIV, Security Major Sican Dumitru and approved by the
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Head of Serv. Independent Lt. Security Col. Em. Rusu and the Head of the Third Direction, Lt. Col. Security N. Budișteanu and the Minister of the Internal Affairs Alexandru Drăghici, established the following data related to the practical activity of Sandu Tudor: «In Bucharest, Sandu Tudor is also reported to have many connections. among the legionary priests such as Benedict Ghiuș, Anania Vartolomeu, Tit Simedrea, Sofian Boghiu, Felix Dubneac, and Professor Mironescu Alexandru, all followed by the Service IV in a group informative action»[18]. In other words, the purpose of the arrest of the young men justified one of the main charges - that the elderly in “The Burning Altar” group would have dealt with their education on the mystical-legionary direction: “Through them, the above-named [Father Daniil Sandu Tudor] has recruited a group of students from Bucharest, to whom he teaches mystical legionary concepts, both during meetings in Mironescu Alexandru’s house, when they are traveling to Bucharest, or to the Rarău monastery, where they are invited to spend their vacation»[ 19]. The first arrested, of the five young people, were George Văsîi and Șerban Mironescu. The latter was a personality who managed to impress by his qualities even the informants who dealt with his verification: «As for Șerban Mironescu I must show that he is a fair and honest man. It has beautiful moral qualities, good professional training, with numerous knowledge in various fields of activity, but in particular it is a fine connoisseur of classical culture and philosophy, knowing many foreign languages, of which English, French, German, Greek and Latin to perfection, and those in the Library were even asking him for books written in Swedish, Finnish or Danish. It can be said that he has conformity predisposed to the acquisition of foreign languages. One day I saw him buying a Hebrew-French dictionary from Pagu
Armand, paying for him 300 lei. Șerban Mironescu was a good student in high school and a good student in college, following the classical languages at the University. The incident led to his arrest, and more due to his father, Alexandru Mironescu, he spent more time in prison, being considered a reactionary element. Șerban Mironescu, if it can be said that way, was left holding the sack for his father, and if he has to hold the sack, of course he will hold it, but he often asks himself for how long. This situation has often led him into embarrassing situations. He came to the Academy Library when Prof. Şerban Cioculescu was a general manager, is assigned to work at the book classification Department. It seems that in his employment, especially in the verification of the personnel file, Croicuʼs intercession counted, this person is the head on behalf of P.C.R.’sC.C. (Romanian Communist Party’s – translator note) of Academy. In his service he became quickly appreciated for his ability to work, many considering that at the retirement of the former head of service, he will come to take his place, opinion expressed at that time by directors Alexandru Ionașcu and Nicolae Burghelea. But things didn’t happen that way. More afraid that such a promotion could be further verified and that it would arouse the envy of many colleagues, who would make complaints everywhere, Ș.M. [Șerban Mironescu] considered that it would be better to him to be transferred. He transferred with the same salary as a documentarist at the Institute of Art History, where he worked quite well, being appreciated by Răzvan Theodorescu and Remus Niculescu. However, at the first restructuring that took place, it was transferred to the Documentation Center of the Academy of Social and Political Sciences, where he is still working » [20]. The arrest of George Văsîi by the people of the Security on June 13, 1958 [21], even from the premises of the Moldovița Monastery,
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was under the eyes of his colleague, Nicolae Rădulescu, who was working on the mapping of the exterior painting of the above mentioned monastery, along with four other students: “In June 1958 I was at the Moldovița Monastery, with a small group of colleagues, working on the church mapping. I was there for a few days and, one afternoon, a few security officers came with a Jeep car, asked who George Văsîi is and took him with them. In Bucharest, from Mironescu family’s home, Father Daniil, Professor Mironescu and his son, Șerban, our friend, who had just finished the Faculty of Letters - the Classical Languages section, had just been arrested”[22]. Returning to Bucharest, Nicolae Rădulescu learned that a student had been arrested from the Faculty of Architecture, who was called also ... Rădulescu. As a simple coincidence came out of the calculation, moreover he had witnessed George Văsîi’s arrest and the arrested colleague had no connection with their group, the student immediately understood that only the confusion of names led to his failure to go beyond the bars. In fact, Nicole Rădulescu’s arrest proposal contains the same confusion of first name and address: «Rădulescu Gabriel, domiciled in Bucharest, no. 134. 1 May Avenue, 4th-year student, at the Faculty of Architecture. He is part of the above group [Văsîi Gheorghe, Mironescu Alexandru, Pistol Grigore Dan] and took part in all the meetings »[23]. Of course, it was only a matter of time to clarify the situation so that, on July 29, 1958, when Nicolae Rădulescu was in Roman city for a one-day military internship, just before receiving the rank of second lieutenant in the reserve and participating in the festive table was arrested [24]: “In military clothes, under guard, by train, I arrived in Bucharest at night. At the North Station we waited and, with a car, I, with my head resting on my knees, so as not to see where I was going,
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I arrived at a Military Security headquarters. In the morning the Security on Uranus Street came and took me. I don’t remember what went through my mind and what I felt, I think I was resigned as a lamb without a voice before the one who cuts its fleece. I don’t know how long they kept the fellow arrested from the confusion of names, but they made it clear he had nothing to do with us. Even those mistakenly arrested were trying to find something that, once they entered, would remain” [25]. Emanoil Mihăilescu was the last arrested on September 18, 1958, because he understood that the most effective strategy in this situation was to stay hidden. However, the beginning of the academic year determined the responsible student overcome his fears and, as expected, he was caught and imprisoned: “I didn’t want to miss the university year, because if I had stayed hidden for 2 months, I would have escaped! It was judged and I wasn’t an important piece anyway. They wanted to have a few young people to manipulate in the sense of showing the world: “Look, sir, he wanted to teach them his legionary mysticism!” Because in their head everything was legionary originated “[26]. The fact that interested the investigation was punished with a punishment of more than one year and, thus, the arrest of the students George Văsîi, Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu was demanded by the interests of the State Security, serving, in fact, the obsession to have the absolute control, obsession that complements more and more space in the secret agenda of the totalitarian communist state. IV. The Investigation
Predictably, the investigators focused their attention on the vulnerable points of the lot built by them, no other than George Văsîi and Șerban Mironescu, who, as I
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mentioned, were the first arrested among the youth. Why were they vulnerable? Once because, given their young age, they fit into the typology of the ideal victims and the means of the investigators to convince these novices were of tremendous diversity. The picture of the investigation, painted by confessors Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu, is a terrifying one. Once in the hands of the investigators, the young people realize that their fate was sealed. During the conduct of this hallucinating investigation, the truth of the victims will be adapted to the patterns of communist ideology, the ”wooden language” becoming an excellent means of masking reality. The initial upheaval of the accused in front of these techniques of the investigators, meant to pulverize any arguments, gradually becomes replaced by assuming the situation, the uselessness of any form of opposition, to restore normality. Uncomplainingly, they end up lucidly pursuing this confrontation between two irreconcilable languages: the natural language of the investigated one and the language as a vehicle of the power of the tormentor. And then, that was the purpose of the ”wooden language” - a psychological mechanism for manipulating victims, whose identity was being rewritten. Looking into the documents from the C.N.S.A.S. Archive, Criminal Collection, file no. 000202, vol. 1-11, lot „Teodorescu Alex. et al ”is likely to certify the issues listed above. Let’s look at a simple example: Father Daniil Sandu Tudor, the man whose name appeared as the title of the group of 16 arrested. From the arrest warrant of Fr. Daniil Sandu Tudor (Teodorescu Alexandru) drawn up on June 14, 1958 [27] we find that at the time of the initiation of the investigation he was accused of a conspiration against the social order. Subject to the investigation even from the morning of the first day, June 14, between 9.00-12.00, he was directly asked to admit all his subversive activity, which
Father Daniil categorically refused, despite flagrant pressures: «Question:”What is your mischievous activity against the democraticpopular regime in the RPR? ”; Answer: “We have not carried out any activity against the democratic-popular regime in the R.P.R.”; Question: “Your answer does not correspond to reality. The investigation asks you to declare the truth. “; Answer: “I only declare the truth, I did not carry out any subversive activity against the popular democratic regime in the R.P.R.”; Question: “It’s not true! The investigation knows that, along with the accomplices you have had, you have been active against the popular democratic regime in the R.P.R. “; Answer: “I maintain my previous answer”; Question: “The inquiry comes back to the above question and asks you to declare the hostile activity that you have carried out against the popular democratic state organization in the R.P.R.”; Answer: “We have not carried out any hostile activity against the popular democratic regime in the Popular Republic of Romania” [28]. The minutes on July 1, 1958 shows that they tried again to determine him to admit the counter-revolutionary activity, this time making clear reference to the fact that he had received at the Rarău monastery some students, among whom were Văsîi George and Șerban Mironescu. The fact is not accidental at all. What had changed? Data on these visits were in the surveillance action, as we have already pointed out. The persistent questions related to the character of the discussions he had had with the students from the Faculty of Architecture Văsîi George, Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu - show that the investigation in the case of the young George Văsîi and Șerban Mironescu followed a much more fruitful route from the perspective of the people of the Security. It is sufficient to go through the first minutes of the interrogation signed by George Văsîi, obtained by investigating the
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accused for almost seven hours (between 8.30 and 15.00) [29], to understand the current questions of the investigator [30]. Father Daniil said only that they visited the monastery, without accepting any other signs of this fact. However, in the absence of any evidence, he was still detained, and on the Order of Indictment, which will be handed over on July 3, the accusation of organizing a subversive group was written, which would have been a hostile activity directed against the “popular democratic” regime [31].In the following interrogations, Father Daniil does not give up and acknowledges nothing, denying, clear and calm, from one end to the other all the accusations brought, refusing to sign the interrogation minutes, despite the heterogeneous persuasive means of the investigator [32].Then, they resorted to the following two strategies: confronting and introducing a snitch into Father Daniil’s cell. If, in the case of the first solution, they were successful, because Father Daniil, from the desire to get rid of those who brought them, one by one, to the confrontation George Văsîi on July 22, between 9.30-11.30 [33], ȘerbanMironescu [34] also on July 22, between 11.30 and 13.30, the latter’s father, his good friend, professor Alexandru Mironescu, on July 23, between 11-14.30 [35] and Father Roman Braga, on [36] accepted to sign, the route of the agent’s informative notes is more than surprising [37].Paradoxically, the moral dimension of Father Daniil Sandu Tudor is confirmed even by the statements of this snitch brought to the cell by those who conducted the investigation, whose essential purpose was to collect data to justify the conviction. But, for about a month, during which time he fulfilled his function and wrote down with all the information about Father Daniil, something happened in the heart of the snitch because, at a reading between the lines, we began to believe that he had come to admire him, since the portrait he
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outlines certifies the intellectual and moral probity of the subject of his description: «He is thinking with horror of the misfortune that has come upon Professor Alex Mironescu’s family - his host - and especially to his boy who finishes the university this year, a young man in whom he has put his trust and whose career will fail if he is also arrested. He is an emotional nature that he seeks to overcome by will. He was impressed by the cries he heard on Monday night, and after he had calmed down, he began to explain to me that those who pass through such evidence prove cowardice in the end, acknowledging everything, to escape physical pain. They have no spiritual background, not knowing God and all the mysteries of the Christian faith. If he knew them in these heavy moments, he would trust God, and that would give him the power to endure the momentary physical pain, sparing him from further remorse. He, even if he were to pass this test, which he does not believe possible, would be ready to receive the mockery of the battle, even at the risk of destroying his “carcass”. It doesn’t matter to him. He may receive death in exchange for the triumph of the truth that he is preaching. That would mean his salvation. The body dies, but the soul goes to the kingdom of God, where eternal life is ”[38]. The testimony of Mr. Nicolae Rădulescu on how the investigation was conducted reconfigures the same route. Forced to declare his hostile activity against the State, he obviously, convinced that he had done nothing in this direction, would refuse to sign such a report. As his arrest occurred a difference of one and a half months from George Văsîi and Șerban Mironescu, long enough for the investigators to obtain, through violence, formal declarations in accordance with the purposes of the Security, he was also confronted [39]:”Faced with Șerban Mironescu, who, as a result of the ill-treatment of the investigators,
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admitted that I listened to foreign radio stations and that I commented favorably on the events in Hungary, in the autumn of 1956, I understood that my fate was sealed. Throughout the confrontation, we were forbidden to look at each other and talk to each other. The truth was that I had not listened to foreign radio stations, but I had watched the Hungarian Revolution with sympathy. What else could be said in this situation? With the investigator, there were two more security officers, one with the sleeves rolled up “to make an impression”. The threat with the beating was always present and once even slapped me when I did not want to sign an investigation report. The investigator was asking questions about facts that, in reality, had nothing subversive to which I was naturally answering, because I did not think it would be something to hide. In the end, when I read the minutes, I was, at least in the first interrogations, dismayed. It was something else, everything became the determinants of a deformed ideology where the truth, the naturalness, the friendship, the faith became “crimes of conspiracy against the popular democratic regime of the RPR”[40]. Emanoil Mihăilescu, the last arrested, had two moments of revolt, during the investigation which, in his case, was carried out at high speed. Moreover, the haste with which the file of the accused Emanoil Mihăilescu was prepared is also certified by the CNSAS Archive, where we discover that four days after his arrest, September 22, 1958, he was subjected to another interrogation, where he was informed about the content of the Ordinance of accusation and was asked to sign a report, as an additional measure, by which the criminal investigator assures his conclusions of the accusation (despite the thin file) [41]:“[…] I called the accused, reminding him that he has the right to be aware of all the criminal proceedings in the file, showing him the legal classification of
the committed acts. After I had made the file available to him and became aware of his entire content, I asked the accused whether he had to make new requests for completing the criminal investigation or if he wanted to make new statements and he declared the following: “My name is Mihăilescu Emanoil, [...] and, knowing all the criminal prosecution material from the file and the legal classification of the facts, I declare that I keep my statements that I have made, I do not have to make requests, neither do we declare new, nor new evidence with witnesses in my defense ”» [42]. What were the conditions that caused the student Emanoil Mihăilescu to react? The brutal language of the investigator was commonplace. However, the young man would ask him not to swear at his mother anymore. Then, the investigator’s answer to the question of the accused innocent on the question of the amount of the punishment, likewise, was capable of shaking his selfcontrol [43]. Therefore, the investigators had unlimited means (intimidation, oaths, beatings, deprivation of food, sleep, blackmail, etc.) to enforce their truth. The victims were forced to sign the minutes written by the investigator, in which the answers were forged, clogged with various accusatory ratings, meant to justify difficult years of punishment. George Văsîi, considered the leader of the student group, was passed through the arsenal of no less than 11 interrogations [44] after which, according to the testimony of Mr. Emanoil Mihăilescu, he was left with profound repercussions, definite proof of the ill-treatment applied by the Security organs. “Unfortunately, our friend and colleague George Vasîi had seizures, went through difficult times of revolt, which cost him, much later. The first shock he had during the investigation because they behaved with him bestial, they felt provoked. I was asking him, “Okay,
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George, were you crazy? How did you think you could convert the investigator? »That he did: he tried to convince the investigator of the justice of his mystical, religious point of view. And of course, that one reacted violently, hitting him with bestiality ”[45]. In fact, the whole approach of the people of the Security showed that they were not at all interested in finding out the truth, but only in pushing them as hard as possible. How else can we explain the fact that although the signs of illness of George Văsîi had become obvious to those around him, the Medical Certificate issued on August 12, 1958 by the Prison Service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs only indicated that «he suffers from cardio-sclerosis and vascular and hypertensive disease TA 20/10 », further noting that the arrestee was” in full mental faculties at the moment “[46]. However, in this situation, it is no longer possible to be surprised by their transcript, where all the students’ actions were given an accusatory interpretation, such as a meeting with Father Daniil, at Mr. Alexandru Mironescu’s home, in the presence of several people, where religious problems were discussed, meetings which in the language of the investigator became a meeting of mischievous character, nationalist-chauvinist, etc. The real culprit knew it, in fact, both sides: students from the Faculty of Architecture did not sympathize with the communist regime, the totalitarian ideology, atheists, their Christian orientation being obvious. But, we would add, as the communist state declared that it ensures freedom of conscience and religious freedom, it was equally obvious and that they had done nothing illegal. V. The Epilogue
The sentence was pronounced on November 8, 1958, and the sentences were between 25 and 5 years. It strikes in the text of the Conclusions of the
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accusation the obstinate resumption of the term mischievous, a term that we find in almost all the facts of the accused as if the people of the Security were aware that without this interpretation of the extracted statements, there is no basis for the accusation. A simple exercise of removing the templates deconspires, even in the eyes of a less knowledgeable reader, the fictional proximity pushed to the last limit and reveals the corrupt triggers of the totalitarian regime. Archive document Accusative conclusions of September 26, 1958, for the “Teodorescu Alexandru et al” lot from A.C.N.S.A.S. is a sample of the “wooden language” in which the obsessive resumes of the template-forms encrypt the communist doctrine:«Rădulescu Nicolae, was arrested on July 29, 1958, on the basis of the arrest warrant Nr. 22 / R / 1958. Named as a merchant’s son, he has been in contact since 1956, when he was a student in the third year at the Institute of Architecture, with the named Văsîi Gheorghe, also a merchant’s son, who, in turn, links him to the monk Teodorescu Alexandru and they go together to the Rarau monastery in August 1956. During the 10 days, while they were there, where they were also: Mironescu Șerban and Mihăilescu Emanoil, they spoke to Teodorescu Alexandru [sic! - C.C.note] in a mischievous way to the democratic-popular regime of R.P.R., in the sense that this regime would be deprived of liberties [47]. Also, during the discussions, Teodorescu Alexandru interpreted them some mystical problems mischievously, proposing them to meet and continue such discussions even after they return to Bucharest. Thus, once returned to Bucharest, Rădulescu Nicolae re-establishes the connection with Văsîi Gheorghe, Mironescu Șerban and Mihăilescu Emanoil, meeting in an organised way at Văsîi Gheorghe’s residence, where he continues to discuss problems with mischievious character
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against the democratic-popular regime in the R.P.R. In the autumn of 1956, they commented on the events in R.P.Hungary, bringing the praises of the criminal actions committed by the counterrevolutionary elements, these discussions taking place in the meetings held at Văsîi Gheorghe’s home. From Dec. 1956 until March 1957, they held several subversive meetings with the legionary Ghiuș Benedict at his residence, where participated: Văsîi Gh., Mironescu Șerban, and Mihăilescu Emanoil, where they also had mischievous discussions against the democratic-popular RPR regime, commenting the news transmitted by the imperialist radio stations in an unfavorable light on the regime. Rădulescu Nicolae participated in several meetings, where was Teodorescu Alexandru, and also at the meeting that took place at the residence of Mironescu Alexandru, in January 1957, where Teodorescu Alexandru slandered the new intellectuality, which was part of the social and state life, urging the present students not to take part in the political activity of the faculty and to keep in touch with each other, in order to carry on a hostile activity against the democratic-popular regime of the RPR. At that meeting the following students took part: Văsîi Gheorghe, Mironescu Șerban and Mihăilescu Emanoil »[48]. “The enemies of the class”, the conspirators George Văsîi, Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu - in the description of the Communist Security file came to expensively pay the natural need, we believe, to find their peace of mind at the monastery, a space where they found confessors of a high intellectual and moral attitude, capable of nourishing their thirst for the knowledge of the Truth and guiding them on the bright path of spiritual life. George Văsîi considered, as we have seen, the head of the students of the group “Teodorescu Alexandru et al” would be sentenced to 8 years of hard work and 6 years
of civic degradation [49] Nicolae Rădulescu to 7 years of hard labor and 6 years of civic degradation [50], while Emanoil Mihăilescu was “sentenced to 5 years of hard work for the crime of conspiracy [...] because he was hostile to the popular democratic regime in the Romanian People’s Republic and commented on the mischievous news transmitted by the imperialist radio stations” [51] . Conclusions The file “Mother of God’s Burning Altar”, named by the Security “Teodorescu Alexandru et al”, is an eloquent proof that the individuals George Văsîi, Nicolae Rădulescu and Emanoil Mihăilescu (in the sense of particular, unique beings) did not exist as such. The documents rather provide data on the Security, on the methods and techniques which were used, on its purposes and obsessions and less on those individuals who were investigated. A comparative look at the students’ interrogations in the Burning Altar group as well as the confrontations faced by Father Daniil Sandu Tudor, the documents annexed to the present study, confirm that none of them constituted at least one particular case: the frequency of stereotypical formulas, specific to the “wooden language”, suggests the extent of widespread suspicion and the arbitrary persecution of the Church. With 1958, it begins the fight for the submission of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which was preparing the Decree 410 of 1959, resulted in the closing of many monasteries. Thus it happened that eight of the monks and priests connected with the Burning Altar were arrested under the most fanciful accusations, made by the imagination of the Security, which guarded the society against this disease of mysticism. What Father Daniil Sandu Tudor truly educated them was the spiritual audacity as
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shown by the encouragement to which most of his disciples refer: “Well, God does not want you to be warm, you know!” [52]. But this audacity to seek support and meaning, in the direction in which any good Christian would go, was not allowed by the games of history and, as such, the protagonists, without distinction, would be punished exemplarily. REFERENCES [1] Ciornea, Carmen, Chipul Rugului Aprins, București, Editura Eikon, passim; [Ciornea, Carmen, The Face of Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, passim]. [2] Mitric-Ciupe, Vlad, Arhitecții români și detenția politică 1944-1964. (Între destin concentraționar și vocație profesională), București, Editura Institutului Național pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2013, passim.; Diaconescu, Ioana «Martiri la douăzeci de ani: studenții și „Rugul Aprins al Maicii Domnului”», în România literară, nr. 1-2, 2014; [Mitric-Ciupe, Vlad, Romanian architects and political detention 19441964. (Between concentrationary destinyand professionalvocation), Bucharest, National Institutefor Study of Totalitarianism Publishing House, 2013, passim; Diaconescu, Ioana «Martirsat twenty: studentsand ”Mother of God’s Burning Altar”», in Literary Romania, no. 1-2, 2014]. [3] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 4, f. 223; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 4, p. 223]. [4] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar. nr. 000202, vol. 1, f. 15v.; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 1, p. 15v]. [5] Banu, Florian, and Theodor Bărbulescu, Camelia Ivan Duică, Liviu Țăranu, Florica Dobre (coord.), Securitatea. Structuri-cadre, obiective și metode, vol. I și II, București, Editura Enciclopedică, 2006; [Banu, Florian, and Theodor Bărbulescu, Camelia Ivan Duică, Liviu Țăranu, Florica Dobre (coord.), Security. Frame-structures, objectivesand methods, vol. I and II, Bucharest, Enciclopedic Publishing House, 2006].
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[6] Ciornea, Carmen, Chipul Rugului Aprins, București, Ed. Eikon, 2015, pp. 26-30; [Ciornea, Carmen, The Face of Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2015, pp. 26-30]. [7] Ciornea, Carmen, Chipul Rugului Aprins, București, Ed. Eikon, 2015, p. 29; [Ciornea, Carmen, The Face of Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2015, p. 29]. [8] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 71-72; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 71-72]. [9] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 71-72; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 71-72]. [10] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 71-72; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 71-72]. [11] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, f. 76; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, p. 76]. [12] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, f. 76; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, p. 76]. [13] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 77-79; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 77-79]. [14] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 77-79; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 77-79]. [15] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 1, ff. 1-2; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative collection, file no. 211015, vol. 1, pp. 1-2]. [16] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2-3, passim; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative Penal collection, fileno. 211015, vol. 2-3, passim]. [17] A.C.N.S.A.S, fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 1, ff. 46-49; [A.C.N.S.A.S, Informative collection, file no. 211015, vol. 1, pp. 46-49]. [18] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosarul nr. 211015, vol. 3, ff. 2-13; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative Penal collection, file no. 211015, vol. 3, pp. 2-13]. [19] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosarul
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nr. 211015, vol. 3, ff. 2-13; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative collection, file no. 211015, vol. 3, pp. 2-13] [subl. C.C.]. [20] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 416583, f. 33; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative collection, file no. 416583, p. 33]. [21] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 2, f. 265; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, p. 265]. [22] „Interviu cu domnul Nicolae Rădulescu” în Carmen Ciornea, Chipul Rugului…, 2015, p. 33; [„Interview with Mr. Nicolae Rădulescu” in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning …, 2015, p. 33]. [23] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 3, f. 12) [subl. C.C.]; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative collection, file no. 211015, vol. 3, p. 12)] [underlined C.C.]. [24] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 2, ff. 312-313; [On the same date, the detention order and the arrest warrant are issued (A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 312-313)]. [25] „Interviu cu domnul Nicolae Rădulescu” în Carmen Ciornea, Chipul Rugului Aprins, București, Ed. Eikon, 2015, pp. 33-34; [„Interview with Mr. Nicolae Rădulescu” in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2015, pp. 33-34]. [26] „Interviu cu domnul Emanoil Mihăilescu” în Carmen Ciornea, Chipul Rugului…, p. 136; [„Interview with Mr. Emanoil Mihăilescu” in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning Altar, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House…, p. 136]. [27] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosarul nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 2-3; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1, pp. 2-3]. [28] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosarul nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 13-14; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1, pp. 13-14]. [29] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosarul nr. 000202, vol. 2, ff. 190-195; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 190-195]. [30] Diaconescu, Ioana, «Martiri la douăzeci de ani: studenții și „Rugul Aprins al Maicii Domnului”», în România literară, nr. 1-2,
2014; [Diaconescu, Ioana, «Martirsat twenty: studentsand „Mother ofGod’s Burning Altar”», in Literary Romania, no. 1-2, 2014]. [31] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 1, f. 17; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1, p. 17]. [32] Enache, George, «Daniil Sandu Tudor. Pagini din dosarul de anchetă 113668», în Arhivele Securităţii, vol. 1, Bucureşti, CNSAS, 2002, pp. 169-203; [Enache, George, «Daniil Sandu Tudor. Pages from the investigation file 113668», in Security Archives, vol. 1,Bucharest, CNSAS, 2002, pp. 169-203]. [33] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 41-42; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1,pp. 41-42]. [34] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 43-45; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1,pp. 43-45]. [35] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 46-48; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1,pp. 46-48]. [36] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol.1, ff. 49-50; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.1,pp. 49-50]. [37] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, ff. 430-431; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, pp. 430431]. [38] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosarul nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 431; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 431]. [39]See the transcript of the five Nicolae Rădulescu’s interrogation minutes, which can be found at A.C.N.S.A.S, Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 322-344, in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning …, pp. 6198, meant to reveal these aspects of the manufacture of incriminating evidence by the investigators, the demistification process being led by their own signator. [40] Ciornea, Carmen, Chipul Rugului…, București, Ed. Eikon, 2015, p. 38; [Ciornea, Carmen, The Face of Burning…, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2015, p. 38]. [41]See the transcript of the five Nicolae Rădulescu’s interrogation minutes, which can be found atA.C.N.S.A.S, Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 448-463, in Carmen
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Ciornea, The Face of Burning …, pp. 177198, meant to reveal these aspects of the manufacture of incriminating evidence by the investigators, the demistification process being led by their own signator. [42] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, Dosar nr. 000202, vol. 2, f. 465; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, p. 465]. [43] „Interviu cu domnul Emanoil Mihăilescu” în Carmen Ciornea, Chipul Rugului…, pp. 148-149; [„Interview with Mr. Emanoil Mihăilescu” in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning …, pp. 148-149]. [44]We note that the figure is verified by the documents in the C.N.S.A.S. Archive, Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 187234, but, in fact, this may be much higher, many of the survivors’ testimonies proving that certain investigations were not recorded in interrogation / confrontation minutes, etc. [45] Interviu cu domnul Emanoil Mihăilescu” în Carmen Ciornea, Chipul Rugului…,p. 152; [„Interview with Mr. Emanoil Mihăilescu” in Carmen Ciornea, The Face of Burning …,p. 152]. [46] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 2, f. 235; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, p. 235]. [47] A.C.N.S.A.S, fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 2, ff. 483-484; [A.C.N.S.A.S, Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 2, pp. 483484]. [48] A.C.N.S.A.S, fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol.2, ff. 483-484; [A.C.N.S.A.S, Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol.2, pp. 483484]. [49] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar 000202, vol. 4, ff. 216-230; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no.000202, vol. 4, pp. 216230]. [50] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 4, f. 192; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, fileno. 000202, vol. 4, p. 192]. [51] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 344; [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal collection, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 344]. [52] Ciornea, Carmen, Să nu fiți căldicei! Sandu Tudor și întemeierea Rugului Aprins (19401952), București, Editura Eikon, 2018;
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[Ciornea, Carmen, Don’t be warmy! Sandu Tudor and setting The Burning Altar, (19401952), Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2018].
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A historical perspective on the authentic multiculturality of Dobrogea The cohabitation of Turkish and Turkish-Tatar communities in Dobrogea Lucian Bănescu
Faculty of Theology: Doctoral School in Theology Ovidius University of Constanța România
Andrei Ciornea
Faculty of Theology: Doctoral School in Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 6 October 2019 Received in revised form 1 November Accepted 5 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.27
The present paper represents an attempt to identify and decipher the identitarian dynamics of two of the oldest ethnic communities in Romania, the Turkish and the Tatar. As a context, the study presents the historical and demographic evolution of the Turks and Tatars from Dobrogea until the 19th century. From a chronological point of view, the medieval period is focused on, with the purpose of identifying the way in which the political, economic and social changes of that time were reflected on the ethnic and religious identitarian structure, on the Turks and Tatars in Dobrogea, then the research gradually extending on the identitarian evolutions in modern history period. Corroborating archival research with text analysis, the study identifies the types of relationships and attitudes created in relation to the regimes of the time, together with the evolution of Turkish / Tatar self-representation and hetero representation generated by the main identitarian reference points: ethnicity, religion, origins, mother tongue and traditions, both in within the medieval period, as well as after the decay of Ottoman rule.
Keywords: interreligious dialogue; multiculturalism; Dobrogea, minority; ethnicity; tradition; ethocentrism; universality;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Bănescu Lucian, Ciornea Andrei. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Bănescu, Lucian, and Andrei Ciornea, ”A historical perspective on the authentic multiculturality of Dobrogea. The cohabitation of Turkish and Turkish-Tatar communities in Dobrogea” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.27, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 287-299.
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I. INTRODUCTION
The study “A historical perspective on the authentic ethnic multiculturalism in Dobrogea” analyses, on the one hand, the crystallisation of the ethnolinguistic, cultural and confessional identity of the Turks and Turkish-Tatars seated in this corner of the Romanian country for centuries, and on the other, highlights their way of life based on respect and understanding, tolerance and social peace with us, Romanians, and other ethnic groups. In some specialists’ opinion [1], from the point of view of statistics, the populations are constituted in different human communities that interconnect through the various essential common features, these being the result of long-term cohabitation in certain areas. In the case of Dobrogea, a region that is focused on in the present study, it is a region that has been noticed since ancient times as a true strategic area in the cultural history and in the factual history of the Romanian people, as Nicolae Iorga, the historian who framed it in the space of colonization of Greek colonies, remarked. Dobrogea, which was perceived by Constantin Brătescu as a miniature of the European and Asian continent, a true “bridgehead and gate to the Orient” and a huge ethnographic museum in constant transformation, has managed throughout its impressive existence to define a unique way of life, which is based not only on respect and solidarity, but also on the good understanding between the Romanian majority and ethnic Turks, Tatars, Greeks, Russian-Lipovans, Armenians, Israelis, Bulgarians, Romany, etc. Throughout the decades of existence, in the Dobrogea territory, the existing populations have managed to learn and then practice the complex laws of cohabitation, cooperation, concord, and beneficial
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multilateral actions. Of all the ethnic groups found throughout the existence of Dobrogea on its territory the Turks and Tatars are noticed, who managed not only to maintain, but also to constantly develop their ethno-linguistic, cultural and confessional identities, thus imprinting a true “touch of color”, morality and culturality within the existence of the Romanian people. II. Interethnical and religious
cohabitation in Dobrogea
The specific way of existence of these two ethnic groups, mainly found in the territory of Dobrogea, the diversified identities, as well as the special spirituality of Turkish and Tatar peoples, can be easily recognized in the nowadays testimonies visible to the naked eye, from the Muslim churches of a special beauty, to the traditional wooden or mud houses, from the ritual fountains (the famous ceşme) to the ceremonies dedicated to the birth, the wedding or the death (respectively the törens), from the unique elements of the folklore to the diversity of the decorative or handicraft elements, from the impressive culinary art to the vast legacy of household items. As it is well known, the vast Turkish-Tatar community found on the Dobrogea territory is noticed for the traditions which have been cultivated constantly over hundreds of years, as well as for the respect given to the Romanian people and implicitly to the law of the Romanian state, as highlighted by the great Mihail Kogălniceanu during 1885, on the occasion of the speech delivered in the Romanian Parliament. Thus, he argued that the Turkish population is “one of the most moral and who wants nothing more than to stay with us” [2]. Often considered to be a true “cultural mélange or a fascinating universe within which the wisdom and openness of the
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population are noted, Dobrogea also appears in old historical and geographical legends dedicated to special places in its territory. In the vast majority of their contents Turkish, as well as Tatars are presented as true discoverers and implicitly settlers of this territory of our country. Not infrequently, the rationale of the Turks and Tatars in the Dobrogea territory was found in the idea of identifying the cause, places and people, the main elements of the aforementioned legends talking about the heroes who became victims of various unfortunate circumstances. In this context we notice the legend dedicated to the settlement of the Anadolchioi district in Constanza, the legend of Băneasa village (respectively Paraköy), the legend of the communities in Dervent, the legend dedicated to the establishment of Babadag, the legend of Techirghiol lake, the legend of the villages Ciocârlia de SusCiorcârlia de Jos (respectivelyyük ve Küçük Bülbül), the legend of Murfatlar, the legend of the Sarî Saltuk Baba mausoleum - an important commander in the armies of the Seljuk Turks and dervish missionaries for Islam, the legend of the locality Mamaia, Islam and the famous commander of the Seljuk Turks) or the legend of Koyun Baba, a true pilgrimage refuge not only for Muslims, but also for Christians [3]. All the legends regarding the population of the Dobrogea area, which have been transmitted over the years through tradition, are noted by the special references not only to the famous founders and settlers of some localities in the region, but also to the heroes who have been noted among simple people (the vast majority being plows, shepherds, craftsmen, fishermen, believers, carriages, etc.), they manage to highlight in a particular way a multitude of characteristics specific to the populations (whether we are talking about Christians, Muslims, etc.), the way of their cohabitation, the mutual support in the
special moments, the way of manifesting love, sympathy, solidarity. About the tolerant policy that the authorities of our country used to manifest in the various issues of ethnic or religious nature noticed in the communities of the Dobrogea area, as well as about their coexistence over time, the well known entomologist, Alexis Montandon, who arrived at the famous Euxin port in his efforts to complete the insect collection, made a whole series of judgements. Montandon notes that the Turkish ethnic groups were leaving, despite all the efforts of the Romanian authorities to restrain them, as they were “perfectly free to practice their worship, not being caviled by Christian priests, who are not trying to convert anyone;moreover, into a cause between a Muslim and a Christian, the peacekeepers most often gave in the favour of the first.”[4]. Also, the Dobrogea area also appears in the content of the Arabic chronicles dating from the 13th century, Dobrogea being called Șakji and on its territory leaving the famous Vlahi, who were under the name of ”ulaqut”, but also “al-Awalak”[5]. Around 1320, the presence of Balko (Balică in some writings) in Dobrogea (which is found under the name of the Principality of Carvuna) appears; about his sons, Teodor and Dobrotici, is mentioned that they were actively involved in the battles of the Byzantine Empire, by the troops of Empress Ana de Savoia. Furthermore, this seems to have been the reason why during the year 1347, one of the Byzantine vassals, Emir Bahud of Umur, at the command of Emperor John the Paleologist, set off on an expedition into the territory led by Balică, other Byzantine troops launching an assault on the ports of the Black Sea; following the battle, not only Balică but also his son, Theodor, lost their
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life. Throughout the time, Dobrogea was a subject of the disputes of the rulers of those times, among them Mircea the Old being mentioned. He was the ruler who managed to annex it to the Romanian Land during 1388. After only five years, however, the south of Dobrogea is attacked and conquered by Baiazid I, who is trying to take possession of the Romanian Land as well. Only in 1403 did Mircea the Old manage to conquer the fortress from the mouths of the Danube River, Licostomo, and a year later Dobrogea was also regained, in parallel with the involvement in the dynastic battles that were taking place in the Ottoman Empire. Subsequent to the death of the Romanian suzerain (the year 1418), Michael I, his son, resumed the series of battles with the Turks, and in one of them, he lost his life (the year 1420). At that time Dobrogea was again conquered by the Turks, who were led by Sultan Mehmed I (The Romanian Land managed to keep only the Danube Delta). However, in the literature, the moment when Dobrogea definitively came under the Ottoman rule is not unanimously accepted by historians. Specifically, if the great Nicolae Iorga claims that Dobrogea became territory of the Ottoman Empire in 1416 [6], according to other historians the event would have occurred only the following year [7] or even during the year 1420 [8]. It is necessary to mention that there are also opinions that Dobruja was gradually conquered by the Ottoman troops, more precisely, that it would have started during the year 1417 and would have been completed in 1452, as a result of the tragic European crusade, concluded in Varna [9], or that it had begun in 1420 and ended in 1484, the year in which the Turks also conquered the mouths of the Danube river [10]. Also, according to Marietta Chiper,
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the territory of Dobruja was also under the control of Dan II [11], the numerous archaeological evidence that were discovered in the area of Enisala fortress making Radu Ciobanu claim that the Turks owned, sporadically, the control of this area until the reign of Vlad Țepeș [12]. Regarding the reign of Vlad Țepeș, he succeeded in taking over part of the territory of Dobruja as a result of the campaign carried out at the beginning of 1462 on the right bank of the Danube river, his example being followed by Mihai the Brave, who, during the campaign carried out in 1594, managed to conquer the fortresses of Măcin, Isaccea, Silistra, Cernavodă, Rusciuc, Babadag. And the historian Nicolae Iorga even notes that Mihai the Brave’s armies managed to reach Plevna (Western area) and Adrianople (Eastern area), conquering the fortresses Vidin and Nicopole [13]. In some of the testimonies of the time [14], Dobrogea is referred to as “Syrfia” [15], during the whole period of Ottoman occupation its territory being inhabited, apart from the Turks and Muslim Tatars, by the socalled “Giaours”, by the Cingene(today’s Romany), Rumlers (respectively Greeks), Gök-Oğuzlar (more specifically Gagauzians), as well as the most numerous communities, those of bulgarlar (today’s Bulgarians) and iflaklar (more specifically Romanians). The Dicians, respectively the community of the Dobrogean Romanians were subjected to the Ottoman occupation (raia) [16], they had their origin from the fortress of Vicina, which was mentioned in some chronicles from the medieval period. They were obliged to pay the haraci (i.e. the tax applied to the unfaithful), as with all the Giaours, unlike the Romanians who came from the areas of Moldavia, of the Romanian Land or from Transylvania (called at that time mocani). The Turks partially exempted the last-mentioned Romanians from paying taxes. [17].
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It is not desirable to neglect that, over the years, in the desire to dispose of this tax, many of those who used to be known as Giaours joined the Turkish community, thus, part of the Dobrogean Turks of Muslim faith to have their origins in the Christian religion. The author Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea also noticed that the Catholic priest from the town of Caramurat (which today is Mihail Kogălniceanu) is a good friend not only with the Orthodox priest but also with the mullah, the connection being recorded as a friendship “by hat” with “the Romanian priest and with the Turkish mullah ”[18]. For more than five hundred years, the Romanian Lands were under the sovereignty of The Gate, during which they managed to preserve the complex of their own administrative, political and military structures, as well as the Orthodox cult and school institutions, where the teaching language was Romanian. Throughout this whole period, they were perceived as “Dar al sulh”, more precisely a home of the pact, of the contractual honor, regardless of whether it was politics, strategy or even the military field. In this way, it is necessary to remember the opinion of the so-called “patriarch of Dobrogea”, the famous Ioan N. Roman, who remarks that the history of the area represents the proof “that the Turks did not denationalize anyone, did not Turkishise anyone in the ethnic sense”[19]. Moreover, the religious development of the Ottoman community was performed in accordance with all the notions related to the Islamic religion regarding tolerance in relation to the rest of the religions, which resulted in a special development of the nonIslamic communities within the Ottoman Empire [20]. Both for the Turks from the Dobrogea area, as well as for their community neighbors, the Tatars, Romania has been,
over the years, the state that guaranteed respect for their rights, as well as their inherited traditions. After 1877, the Romanian state minded, mainly, the spiritual-moral culture and the material civilization of the Muslim element. In the creed set out in the “Proclamation to the inhabitants of Dobruja” (14.XI.1878, Braila) by King Carol I, addressed to the Muslims, it was stated clearly and bluntly that “the justice of Romania knows no differences of nation and region. Your faith, your family, will be defended as well as by the Christians’. The affairs of the religion and the family will be entrusted for your defense to the elected officials and judges of your nation and law”, and “The Romanian army entering Dobrogea has no other duty than to maintain order, to protect your peaceful life. Therefore, salute the Romanian flag with love, because, for you,it will be the flag of freedom, the flag of justice and peace” [21]. Furthermore, the area of Dobrogea was, at least in the 15th and 19th centuries, predominantly marked, as far as the demographic domain concerns, of the Turks and Muslim Tatars. As recorded by a Dobrogea enthusiast, the 1948 revolutionary, agronomist, economist, noted scientist Ion Ionescu from Brad, “Dobrogia presents, in the light of its population, the most curious gathering of distinguished nations, among whom Romanians with the Turks together are more than half a dozen. Together with 15 thousand and more families from all other nations together, the Romanians together with the Turks count more than 15 thousand and more families. These nations, who came from all over Dobrogea, found there a good and very fruitful land where they founded a new homeland” [22]. The author related that within each hamlet and village in the Dobrogea area, regardless of their size, during the reign of
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Said Paşa, one could identify a small Muslim church, as well as Turkish-Tatar schools, emphasizing in his work that “there is no country in the world that, in such a narrow expanse of earth, to encompass more ancient monuments like Dobrogia: a thing that looks better than anything I could say, good signs about the future of this country, when it will be out of the state of savagery and stagnancy in which is today. From distance to distance, very close to each other, on the mounds and on the hills, the ruins of the Roman cities were seen both on the shores of the sea and on the Danube bank. Besides, in the middle of the country, we saw, from horizon to horizon, except the ruins of the forts, so many natural and artificial mounds that we regarded them as tombs of soldiers, of which many are, we could really say that the Romanian in Dobrogea it traces everywhere on the ruins of the greatness of his ancestors ”[23]. According to the above-mentioned author, who in the mid-nineteenth century was “on a journey of three months and a half, in Dobrogia, my special study did not focus on anything other than the interest of Turkey, in harmony with that of the Romanians, in all that can increase the wealth production ”. In the year of grace 1850 the Dobrogea area was delimited in two major districts, respectively: • Silistra District – which used to include Tulcea, Măcin, Isaccea and Hârșova • Varna District, in which Babadag, Mangalia and Küstenge were included. Throughout the whole of Dobrogea teritory, Ion Ionescu from Brad managed to identify a total number of 11,858 families [24], with the following distribution: • Romanian families - 3.656 • Turk families - 2.268 • Tatar families - 2.225
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• Bulgarian families - 1.194 • Cossack families -1.092 • Lipovan families - 747 • Greek families – 250 • Gypsy families – 172 • Jewish families – 119 • Armenian families – 76 • German families – 59 Ion Ionescu from Brad is also the author who, in a note included in the Agricultural Excursion throughout the Dobrogea plane (the year 1850), claims that he managed to identify the existence in Dobrogea area of a number of 15,764 families, within them being included more than 3,800 families found in the Bazargic and Balchic areas. It should be noted that between 1400 and 1800, data on the inhabitants of the Dobrogea area, as well as their history, are quite a few, and documents regarding the colonization with the Turks and Tatars are quite rare. Most of the information can be found in the archives regarding the famous conflicts between the Russians, Turks and Romanians, as well as their effects, the Dobrogea area being “wrapped in a dense fog” [25] until around 1800, Europe being too little interested “by the countries South of the Danube and its Christian inhabitants” [26]. For the beginning of the sixth decade, we also know the presence of a Romanian mocans contribution between the Danube and Lake Razim [27], as well as the existence of five villages of Syrian Arabs [28]. Also, we know the population of Tulcea, which, according to the estimates of the Austrian vice-consul, was about 16 - 17,000 inhabitants (8000 Russians, 3000 Moldovians, 3000 Bulgarians, 2000 Greeks, 400 Turks, 400 Armenians, 100 Jews) in 1852 [29]. The demographic profile of Dobrogea, as a “buffer zone”, would, however, be marked by the aftermath of the Crimean
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War. Thus, an increasing influx of Nogai Tatars enters the area, while, between Lake Razim and Danube’s branch called St. George, Bulgarians from Bugeac will be established [30]. The latter remains, however, a minority, according to the accounts of Camille Allard (1857), author who also presents the situation in the South of Dobruja (Kiustendje / Constanza case): 33 inhabited villages, among which 19 Turkish, 9 Tatars and 5 Romanians. The city of Constanta, in 1857, had about 3000 - 4000 inhabitants (of which 500 - Greeks), and Babadag 10,000 inhabitants [31]. The seventh decade would bring, again, significant changes in the Dobrujan ethnic mosaic, already extremely heterogeneous. If, at the beginning of the decade, J. Michel, an engineer in the construction of the Cernavodă - Constanţarailway, identified and located five cohabitant nations, meaningful numerically (Romanians - on the banks of the Danube,Turks - on the shores of the Sea and in the Constanza area, Tatars - between Raşova and Constanza, up to Babadag, Bulgarians - in the interior, in the Lake Razim area, Cossacks / Lipovans - in the Danube Delta [32]), until 1870 the proportions will change, with the appearance of other ethnic groups. Useful information is also provided by G. Lejean, Ethnographie from Turquie d ‘Europe, especially regarding the geographical location of the Dobruja communities - a description accompanied by an ethnographic map. It is interesting to note that the Romanian language represents a true “lingua franca” for the DobrujanTurks and Tatars [33]. Until the Russian-Turkish War of 1877, the situation remains relatively stable, with about 1520,000 Lipovans and Russians in the Delta (after C. Sax) [34], 50,000 Tatars in the central area(C. Jirecek), the geographical locations remaining the same for the rest of the cohabiting ethnic groups. The conditions, however, will not remain similar
after the conflict of 1877 - 1878. Again a “buffer zone”, the Danube-Pontic space would have to withstand, with the outbreak of Russian-Turkish hostilities in 1877, the same vicissitudes of each similar conflict through which had repeatedly passed through during the nineteenth century. The impact on the local population will prove drastic, this being severely disturbed and, finally, diminished, decreasing - according to the estimates of the French consul Laigue, from Galaţi - from 150,000 inhabitants to only 90,000 [35]. Most Bulgarians had migrated to the North, to return, after the adversity ended. [36] At the same time, with the Ottoman forces significant contingents of Turks and Tatars were withdrawn [37]. The Russian occupation and the takeover of the administration by the Romanians brought real stability to the region, reflected also at the demographic level. The movements of the population will slow down, and the population will increase significantly. For the years 1877 - 1880 we have many statistics and estimates, enough for an objective analysis. Among the most revealing are two Russian statistics, drawn up of general Bieloserkovici and V. Teploff, respectively. The first counts for the Tulcea district, 3556 Romanian families (36%), 2877 Bulgarians (29%), 1124 Russians (12%), 1101 Lipovans(11%) etc. [38]. According to the same estimate (with more precise data), Tulcea County was inhabited by 81,271 Romanians (49.2%), 26,754 Bulgarians (16.2%), 32,636 Lipovans (19.8%) - as the first three ethnic components. V. Teploff’s statistics estimates, in 1877, a total population of 165,000inhabitants (for the whole of Northern Dobrogea) - of which 28,500 Romanians (17.2%), 22,900 Turks (13.8%), 43,300 Tatars (26.2%), 6720 Circassians (4.07%), 51,400 Bulgarians and Russians(31.15% - counted together, for obvious panslavist considerations [39]). As we can see, however, between 1879-
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1880 considerable changes took place at the demographic level. Thus, a Romanian statistic estimates the total number of families / households in Tulcea county (1879) to 12,947, out of which 4082 Romanians (32%), 3347 Bulgarians (25%), 1401 Turks (11%), 2473 Russians and Lipovans (19 %), etc. [40]. Another estimate, also Romanian, estimates in 1880 the population of Constanta county as 61,561 inhabitants, of which 15,251 Romanians (23%), 23,498 Tatars (38%), 11,126 Turks (18%), 8038 Bulgarians (13%), etc. [ 41]. At the same time, Baron D’Hogguer estimates (immediately after the conflict) the total population of Dobrogea to only 79,357 inhabitants, in which the Romanians represented 30,3%, in a number of 24,167 [42] 35. Closer to the truth, statistics of the first prefects of Tulcea and Constanţa, respectively G. M. Ghica and Remus Opreanu, appreciate the Romanian element as being represented by 4082 families in Tulcea county, respectively 14,884 inhabitants in Constanta [43]. Easily observable, the ethnic picture of Dobrogea, exactly or not, was still dominated by the Turkish-Tatar component. The situation will change in the course of several decades, playing a major role in the policy of encouraging colonization with Romanians, war veterans and married young people receiving plots of land from Dobrogea. A significant role in the complex process of the spiritual and religious formation of the Turkish community in the Dobrogea area was played by the religious mentor Sarî Saltik Baba, dervish of the Sultan, who has raised a mausoleum in Babadag. After the year 1444, the year of the battle in Varna, Dobruja reaches, for more than four centuries (more precisely until 1877, the year in which the war of independence takes place), under Ottoman rule, the Turks being led at that time by the powerful Bayezid. In addition, as C. Brătescu [44] points
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out, this year (respectively 1444) represents within the Dobrujn ethnographic history, not only the Varna failure of Christianity, but also a radical change of the whole area, gradually “villages, in the vast majority of them, starting to receive Turkish names, like the population, both the cities and the fortresses, get to be occupied by the Ottoman administration and garrisons, the place of the churches being taken by the small Muslim places of worship ”[45]. CONCLUSIONS Starting with the sixteenth century, we notice more pronounced colonization of Dobruja with the Muslim influences, which resulted in a visible change of the toponymy at the end of the eighth decade of the nineteenth century, which coincides with the end of the Turks occupation. It can be noted that Romanian population represents only a third part from the population (1260 families respectively), compared to the 2338 Turkish families [46]. Also, during this period there is a special influence on the names of Turkish origin not only among the population of the Dobrogea area but also of the hamlets and villages, of the various existing products, of some crafts, of fauna and flora, etc. The density of the Turkish and Tatar communities in the Dobrogea area is witnessed by the old mosques in Mangalia, Măcin, but also from Babadag, these being built mainly, along with small Muslim places for warship and mesgids, especially during the years 1400-1877, in order to meet various needs of a spiritual nature of the great majority of the population [47]. Subsequently, the decision was made to establish the famous kadiates (respectively of the religious courts), as well as of the medreses (religious schools) [48]. As mentioned, in Dobrogea the particularly cultivated tradition of the
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Turkish-Tatar community is noticeable, this being always noted not only through respect for Romanians but also towards the state institutions and implicitly by the law of our country. Mihail Kogălniceanu noticed during his speech on the Turkish community in 1885, the population in the Dobrogea area was regarded as “one of the most moral” [49], they had no other interest “than to stay with us” [50]. Also the famous writer Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea, who arrived in Dobrogea area, in mid-August 1887, in his capacity as a journalist at the Bucharest newspaper “The Romanian”, for a report, noted the harmony between the populations of the region, noting that “the Tatar does not argue with the Mocan, not even with the Lipovan “, but also that” the German does not upset the Turk “[51]. The interethnic and interreligious dialogue was also intensified by the achievement of the Great Union which generated, apodictically, the progress of the Romanian Orthodox Church to the highest hierarchical stage. Thus, in February 1925, the Law for the rise of the Archiepiscopal and Metropolitan Chair of Ungrovlahia, as the Primate of Romania, to the rank of Patriarchal Chair was adopted. Once the legislative framework was secured, on November 1, 1925, Miron Cristea became the first Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church. The theological message, in the context of Great Romania, in which the Romanian Orthodox Church had assumed the courage of the prefaces of modernity, was inscribed “in an effort to give the young man a clear perspective on religious beliefs, by which he clearly dissociates between the destructive effects of hatred and aggressive militancy. (so familiar to a society that has just emerged from a global conflagration) and the benefits of love, brotherhood ” [52]. Non-discrimination and respect for human rights have also been
preserved today as major values, which, by their systematic modification into social practice have ensured the authenticity of multiculturalism in the Tomitan area. At the same time, Tatars and Turksbelonging to ethnic groups, quasi-majority Muslims, were not treated as second-class, secondclass Romanian citizens, nor were they evaluated as culturally and value-oriented minorities. Both the Dobrujan Romanians as well as the Tatars and Turks in this space understood that they may feel richer in soul if they reject the thesis of incommunicability, incompatibility and counterbalance of cultures on racial, administrative or political criteria, respectively ranking them on these grounds. References [1]
Mihai. Demografie, București, Editura Economică, 1997, p. 27; [Tarcă, Mihai. Demography, Bucharest, Economic Publishing House, 1997, p. 27]. [2] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria Dobrogei, Editura Ex Ponto, Constanţa 1998, p. 289; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. The History of Dobruja, Ex PontoPublishing House, Constanţa 1998, p. 289]. [3] Ibram, Nuredin. „Conviețuire intertnică și interconfesională în Dobrogea. Repere istorice și cultural”, în Dobrogea. Coordonate istorice și arheologice, Iași, Editura StudIS, pp., 283-300; [Ibram, Nuredin. „Interethnic and interconfessional cohabitation in Dobruja. Historical and culturall and marks”, in Dobruja. Historical and archaeological coordonates, Iași, StudIS Publishing House, pp.283-300]. [4] Montandon, Alexis. „Excursion en Dobroudja”, Anvers, 1887, pp. 30-31, apud. Cioroiu Constantin Etnii trăitoare alături de români în Dobrogea, în „Analele Dobrogei”, Serie Nouă, anul II, nr. 1, Constanța, 1996, pp. 28-30; [Montandon, Alexis.„Excursion en
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Dobroudja”, Anvers, 1887, pp.30-31, apud. Cioroiu Constantin, Ethnic groups living together with Romanians in Dobruja, in „ Dobruja’s Annals”, New Series, year II, no. 1, Constanța, 1996, pp. 28-30]. [5] Korobeinikov, Dimitri. A broken mirror: the Kipçak world in the thirteenth century, apud. Florin Curta, The other Europe from the Middle Ages, Leiden, Boston, NewYork: Brill, 2008, pp. 394397. [6] Iorga, Nicolae. Studii istorice asupra Chiliei și Cetății Albe, București, 1898, pp. 70 – 72; [Iorga, Nicolae. Historical Studie son Chilia and Cetatea Alba, Bucharest, 1898, pp. 70 – 72]. [7] Giurescu, Constantin C. Istoria Românilor, partea I, București, 1938, pp. 467- 469; Ștefănescu, Ștefan,, Țara Românească de la Basarab I „Întemeietorul” până la Mihai Viteazul, București, 1970, pp. 57- 59; Brătianu, Gheorghe I., Marea Neagră, București, Editura Meridiane, 1988, p. 235-238; [Giurescu, Constantin C. The History of Romanians, part I, Bucharest, 1938, pp. 467- 469; Ștefănescu, Ștefan,, Romanian Land from Basarab I „The Settler” to Mihai Viteazul, Bucharest, 1970, pp. 57- 59; Brătianu, Gheorghe I., The Black Sea, Bucharest, Meridians Publishing House, 1988, p. 235-238]. [8] Pervain, Viorica, Lupta antiotomană a Țărilor Române în anii 1419 1420, în „Anuarul Institutului de istorie şi arheologie Cluj- Napoca”, XIX (1978), ClujNapoca, pp.71- 73; [Pervain, Viorica, Anti Ottoman fight of Romanian lands between 1419 and 1420, in „The annual of History and Archaeologic Institute in Cluj- Napoca”, XIX (1978), Cluj-Napoca, pp.71- 73]. [9] M. M. Alexandrescu-Dersca-Bulgaru, Aspecte ale vieții economice din târgurile și orașele Dobrogei sub stăpânire otomană (sec. XV - XVII) în „Studii. Revista.Istorică”, 1, 26, 1973, 1, p. 33 – 37; [M. M. AlexandrescuDersca-Bulgaru, Aspects of economic life in bourgs and towns of Dobruja during Ottoman
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Domination (between 15th and 17th century) in „Studies.Historical Magazine.”, 1, 26, 1973, 1, pp. 33 – 37]. [10] Ghiață, Anca, „Condiţiile instaurării dominaţiei otomane în Dobrogea”, în Studii istorice sud–est europene. Culegere îngrijită de Eugen Stănescu (Academia de Ştiinţe Sociale şi Politice a Republicii Socialiste România. Institutul de Studii Sud-Est Europene), I Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, 1974, pp. 43–126; [Conditions of the Installment of the Ottoman Domination in Dobrudja, in European South-East Historical Studies. Selection coordinated by Eugen Stănescu (Academy of Social and Political Sciences of the Socialist Republic of Romania. European South-East Studies Institute), I, Bucharest: Academy of Socialist Republic of Romania Publishing House, 1974, pp. 43–126]. [11] Chiper, Marieta, Dan al II-lea, domn până la „Marea cea Mare”. Tradiție și realitate, în „Revista de istorie”, nr. 10, 1987, pp.973-974; [Chiper, Marieta, Dan II, Suzerain up to the „Big Sea”. Tradition and reality, in „History Magazine”, no. 10, 1987, pp.973-974]. [12] Ciobanu (Vergatti), R. Ş. Lupta domnilor Ţării Româneşti – de la Mihai până la Vlad. Ţepeş – pentru apărarea unităţii cu Dobrogea, MN 4, 1978, pp. 8790; [Ciobanu (Vergatti), R. Ş. , The battle of Romanian Land’s suzerains– from Mihai to Vlad Ţepeş – for the protection of unity with Dobruja, MN 4, 1978, pp. 87-90]. [13] Iorga, Nicolae. Chestiunea Dunării, București, Institutul European, 1998, pp. 243- 246; [Iorga, Nicolae.Danube’s Affair, Bucharest, European Institute, 1998, pp. 243- 246]. [14] The most illuminating being the representation of the Dobrujan territory between the 14 th and 17 th century, on the well known Abraham Ortelius’ maps –1602. [15] Some historians supposing that the name was given because of the similitude with Serbia. [16] Vâlsan, George. Dunărea de Jos în viața poporului român, în „Graiul
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românesc”, I, București, 1927, pp. 141-142; [Vâlsan, George. The Down Danube in the Roman people’s life, in „Romanian Tongue”, I, Bucharest, 1927, pp. 141-142]. [17] Vâlsan, George. Dunărea de Jos în viața poporului român, în „Graiul românesc”, I, București, 1927, pp. 141-142; [Vâlsan, George. The Down Danube in Romanian people’s life, in „Romanian Tongue”, I, Bucharest, 1927, pp. 144-145]. [18] Delavrancea, Barbu-Ștefănescu, „Şapte zile la Constanţa. Note constănţene. Memoriu „Pro Nasone”, în: Barbu-Ștefănescu Delavrancea, Opere, vol. 6, Bucureşti, 1970, pp. 121-129; [Delavrancea, BarbuȘtefănescu, „Seven days at Constanţa. Notes from Constanţa. Memoir „Pro Nasone”, in: Barbu-ȘtefănescuDelavrancea, Works, vol. 6, Bucharest, 1970, pp. 121-129]. [19] Roman, M. Studiu asupra populaţiei turceşti din Dobrogea şi sudul Basarabiei. Extras din revista „Analele Dobrogei”, anul XVI. Tiparul „Glasul Bucovinei”, Cernăuţi, 1936, p. 15; [Roman, M. StudyonTurk population in Dobruja and South Basarabia. Excerpt from the magazine „DobrujaAnnals”, year XVI. „Bucovina’s Voice” Publishing House, Cernăuţi, 1936, p. 15]. [20] Ibram, Nuredin. Comunitatea musulmană din Dobrogea– Repere de viaţă spirituală, Constanţa, Editura Ex Ponto, 1998, p. 22-25; İbidem „Politica religioasă a Osmanilor”, în: Un proiect de împăcare a bisericilor, vol. colectiv, Cluj, Editura Accent, 2007, pp. 246-250; [Ibram, Nuredin. Muslim Community in Dobruja–Reference points for spiritual Life, Constanţa, Ex Ponto Publishing House, 1998, pp. 22-25; İbidem „Osmans’ Religious Politics”, in: A project of reconciliation of churches, colectiv vol., Cluj, Accent Publishing House, 2007, pp. 246250]. [21] ***Dobrogea (1878–1928). Cincizeci de ani de viaţă românească. Constanţa, Editura Ex Ponto, 2003, p. 608; [***Dobruja (1878– 1928). Fifty years of Romanian life. Constanţa, Ex Ponto Publishing House, 2003, p. 608]. [22] Ionescu de la Brad, Ion. Românii din Dobrogia, în „România literară”, nr. 2,
Iași, 1855, p.15; [Ionescu from Brad, Ion. Romanians in Dobrogia, in „Literary Romania”,no. 2, Iași, 1855, p.15]. [23] Ibidem, pp.13-15. [24] Ibidem, p. 13. [25] Ibidem, pp. 13-14. [26] Ibidem. [27] Arbore, Alexandru P. O încercare de reconstituire a trecutului românilor din Dobrogea, Constanţa, Tipografia Victoria, 1922, pp. 27-28; [Arbore, Alexandru P. An attempt of past restoration for the Romanians in Dobruja,Constanţa, Victoria Publishing House, 1922, pp. 27-28] [28] Arbore, Alexandru P. Câteva însemnări asupra cerchezilor, grecilor şi arabilor din Dobrogea, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 504-507; [Arbore, Alexandru P. Some notes on the Circassians, Greek and Arabs in Dobruja, in „ Dobruja Annals”, year III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 504-507]. [29]Arbore,Alexandru P. Informaţiuni etnografice şi mişcări de populaţiune în Basarabia sudică şi Dobrogea în veacurile XVIII şi XIX, cu specială privire la coloniile bulgăreşti din aceste regiuni, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104; [Arbore, Alexandru P. Ethnographic Information and population movement in Southern Basarabia and Dobruja in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a special insight into the Bulgarian colonies in these regions, in „ DobrujaAnnals”, year X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104]. [30] Roman, Ioan N. Drepturile, sacrificiile şi munca noastră în Dobrogea; faţă de pretenţiile Bulgarilor asupra ei, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 444-498; Alex. P. Arbore, Informaţiuni etnografice şi mişcări de populaţiune în Basarabia sudică şi Dobrogea în veacurile XVIII şi XIX, cu specială privire la coloniile bulgăreşti din aceste regiuni, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104; [Roman, Ioan N. Rights, sacrifices and our labour in Dobruja; comparing the Bulgarians’ claimsover it, in „DobrujaAnnals”, year III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 444-498. A significant cause for the displacement of the Bulgarians to the South of Danube is conferring Cahul, Ismail
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and Bolgrad counties to Moldavia. Cf. Alex. P. Arbore, Ethnographic Information and population movement in Southern Basarabia and Dobruja in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a special insight into the Bulgarian colonies in these regions, in „DobrujaAnnals”, year X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104]. [31] Arbore, Alexandru P. Informaţiuni etnografice şi mişcări de populaţiune în Basarabia sudică şi Dobrogea în veacurile XVIII şi XIX, cu specială privire la coloniile bulgăreşti din aceste regiuni, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104; [Arbore, Alexandru P. Ethnographic Information and population movement in Southern Basarabia and Dobruja in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a special insight into the Bulgarian colonies in these regions, in „ DobrujaAnnals”, year X, fasc. 1- 12, 1929, pp. 1-104]. [32] Michel, J. Les travaux de dèfense des Romans dans la Dobroudja – Kiustendjé et le retranchement connu sous le nom de fossé du Trajan, d’apres les documents réunis pendant la mission danubienne, in „Memoirs de la societé imperiale des Antiquaires de France”, tom 5, Paris, 1862, p. 217. [33] Lejean, G. Ethnographie de la Turquie d’Europe, Gotha J. Perthes, 1861, p. 35. [34] Arbore, Alexandru P. Noi informaţiuni etnografice, istorice şi statistice asupra Dobrogei şi a regiunilor basarabene învecinate Dunărei, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul XI, fasc. 1-12, 1930, pp. 65-94; [Arbore, Alexandru P. New ethnographical, historical and statistical informationon Dobruja and the Basarabian regions adjacent to the Danube, in „ DobrujaAnnals”, year XI, fasc. 1-12, 1930, pp. 65-94]. [35] Arbore, Alexandru P. Noi informaţiuni etnografice, istorice şi statistice asupra Dobrogei şi a regiunilor basarabene învecinate Dunărei, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul XI, fasc. 1-12, 1930, pp. 65-94; [Arbore, Alexandru P. New ethnographical, historical and statistical informationon Dobruja and the Basarabian regions adjacent to the Danube, in „DobrujaAnnals”, anul XI, fasc. 1-12, 1930, pp. 65-94]. [36] Tafrali, Orest. Apărarea României Trans-
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Danubiene în străinătate, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul II, no. 1, 1921, pp. 1-29; [Tafrali, Orest. The Defence of Trans-Danubian Romania abroad, in „DobrujaAnnals”, anulII, no. 1, 1921, pp. 1-29]. [37] Helgiu, V. Şcoala primară din Dobrogea în curs de 40 de ani (1879 - 1919), în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul I, no. 2, 1920, pp. 231263; [Helgiu, V. Primary school in Dobruja throughout forty years (1879 - 1919), in „DobrujaAnnals”, year I, no. 2, 1920, pp. 231263]. [38] Lebrun, Francis. La Dobroudja – Esquisse historique, géographique, ethnographique et statistique, Librairie Félix Alcan, Paris, 1918, p. 10. [39] Tafrali, Orest. Apărarea României TransDanubiene în străinătate, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul II, no. 1, 1921, pp. 1-29; [Tafrali, Orest. DefendingTrans-Danubian Romania abroad, in „Dobruja Annals”, yearII, no. 1, 1921, pp. 1-29]. [40] Lebrun, Francis. La Dobroudja – Esquisse historique, géographique, ethnographique et statistique, Librairie Félix Alcan, Paris, 1918, p. 11. [41] Lebrun, Francis. La Dobroudja – Esquisse historique, géographique, ethnographique et statistique, Librairie Félix Alcan, Paris, 1918, p. 12. [42]Baron d’Hogguer, Reinsegnements sur la Dobroudja, Bucarest, 1880. [43] Roman, Ioan N. Drepturile, sacrificiile şi munca noastră în Dobrogea; faţă de pretenţiile Bulgarilor asupra ei, în „Analele Dobrogei”, anul III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 444-498; [Roman, Ioan N. Rights, sacrifices and our labour in Dobruja; comparing the Bulgarians’ claims over it, in „DobrujaAnnals”, year III, no. 4, 1922, pp. 444-498]. [44] Brătescu, Constantin. Dobruja 1878/1928; fifty years of Romanian life, in the volum with the same name which was printed on the occasion of the centenary dedicated to the reannexation of Dobruja, Bucharest, 1928, pp. 221222. [45] Ibidem. [46] Brătescu, Constantin. Cercetarea
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trecutului Dobrogei, București, 1919, pp. 86-88; [Brătescu, Constantin. Questing after Dobruja’s past, Bucharest, 1919, pp. 86-88]. [47] Ionescu, M.D. Dobrogea în pragul veacului al XX-lea, Bucureşti, Atelierele Grafice, 1904, pp. 648-649, reeditare 2012, Editura Tipo Moldova; [Ionescu, M.D. Dobruja on the threshold of the twentieth century, Bucharest, Grafic work shops, 1904, pp. 648649, republishing, 2012, Tipo Moldova Printing House]. [48] Ibram, Nuredin. Comunitatea musulmană din Dobrogea– Repere de viaţă spiritual, Constanţa, Editura Ex Ponto, 1998, pp. 107-128; [Ibram, Nuredin. Muslim community in Dobruja– Landmarks of Spiritual Life, Constanţa, Ex Ponto Publishing House, 1998, pp. 107128]. [49] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria Dobrogei, Constanţa Editura Ex Ponto, 1998, pp. 288-289; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. History of Dobruja, Constanţa, Ex Ponto Publishing House, 1998, pp. 288289]. [50] Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. Istoria Dobrogei, Constanţa Editura Ex Ponto, 1998, pp. 288-289; [Rădulescu, Adrian and Ion Bitoleanu. History of Dobruja, Constanţa Ex Ponto Publishing House, 1998, pp. 288289]. [51] Delavrancea, Barbu-Ștefănescu, „Şapte zile la Constanţa. Note constănţene. Memoriu „Pro Nasone”, în: Barbu-Ștefănescu Delavrancea, Opere, vol. 6, Bucureşti, 1970, pp. 121-129; [Delavrancea, BarbuȘtefănescu, „Sevendays at Constanţa. Notes in Constanţa. Memoir „Pro Nasone”, in: Barbu-Ștefănescu Delavrancea, Works, vol. 6, Bucharest, 1970, pp. 121-129]. [52] Ciornea, Carmen. Sandu Tudor și asociațiile studențești creștine din România interbelică, București, Editura Eikon, 2017, p. 127; [Ciornea, Carmen. Sandu Tudor and the Christian student associations in Romania between the two World Wars, Bucharest, Eikon Publishing House, 2017, p. 127].
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The confinement periplus of Archimandrite Arsenie Papacioc under the dictatorship of Carol II Lecturer Carmen Ciornea, Ph.D. Faculty of Theology Ovidius University of Constanța Romania
article info Article history: Received 9 October 2019 Received in revised form 03 November Accepted 05 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.28
Keywords: Arsenie Papacioc; Radu Papacioc; dictatorship; Carol II; theology; confessor; monarch; prison;
abstract
The present paper aims to reveal unique aspects of the biography of the one who would become Archimandrite Arsenie Papacioc, one of the great father confessors of the Romanian Orthodox Church, aspects which confirms his exemplary profile, although the present research implies the recovery of data from the detention periplus experienced by Father Arsenie Papacioc during the dictatorship of Carol II. The research is based on archival documents, contextualized from the testimonies of the subject, their confrontation aiming to eliminate the risk of presenting a unilateral perspective, suitable for the secret police of the time. A comparative analysis is, we believe, an effective method of reconstructing historical phenomena and processes, which can also facilitate the enlightenment of dark areas.The presentation of the two imprisonment periods is also a proof added to the list of sacrificial acts of Father Arsenie Papacioc. His existence, placed in a continuous war, held in the name of Orthodoxy, for the promotion of the spiritual and social dimension of the faith, rooted in the liturgical horizon, has been a constant and intense mission of our work. The dictatorship of Carol II was for Anghel Papacioc, to all appearances paradoxically, a period of deepening of his spiritual search and spiritual shaping, a stage of modeling for this emblematic personality of the Romanian Orthodox Church, who managed to triumph over a century marked by the two World Wars and totalitarianism. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Ciornea Carmen. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ciornea, Carmen, ”The confinement periplus of Archimandrite Arsenie Papacioc under the dictatorship of Carol II,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.28, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 300-314.
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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928
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I.
Introduction
The present paper aims to recover some landmarks of the confinement periplus, which, during the dictatorship of Carol II, Father Arsenie Papacioc, emblematic personality of the Romanian Orthodox Church, whose deeds of light have been configured, during his life, the profile of one of the greatest confessors. The main source of documentation is the files in the C.N.S.A.S. archive, where Anghel Papacioc’s name provided an impressive number of files. As the focus of our approach is centered on the manifestations from the various prisons in which Archimandrite Arsenie was thrown, within the above-mentioned time interval, it is certain that the investigation started with those from the Penal annals - files no. 5690, 40660 (vol. 1-2) concerning the period 1938-1943, respectively file no. 000202 (from the communist period) without neglecting the information tracking documents (Informative annals, file no. 211015, vol. 1-4) [1]. In the public debates, the controversial relationship between the Romanian Orthodox Church and the Legionary Movement was often talked about, the main association is that the ideology of the Iron Guard had as its fundamental principle the absolute belief in the power of divinity. Thus, this meant that all members of the movement were religiously faithful [2], hence the numerous speculations advanced by various researchers on this topic. In fact, the definitional confusion hides the ignorance of the level difference in which the two-act, a difference that Corneliu Zelea Codreanu himself clarified, establishing that the Church’s sphere of action is a trans-historical one [3]. Therefore, in any historiographical endeavor, precautions regarding the correct dimensioning of the subject are needed, especially since it is
sensitive to the signal junction. In order to avoid the risk of slipping into the Security logic, we corroborated the data provided by the C.N.S.A.S. with the memorialistic literature, the testimonies of Father Arsenie Papacioc inevitably occupying a central place. The researches of the volumes in which the interviews, the confessionally talks, the letters [4] were edited and published, offer the possibility of a correct contextualisation because it gives the opportunity to meet with the living drama of the one who survived the multiple and disturbing metamorphoses of the Romanian society, during the circumscribed time of his earthly existence. II. Brașov Penitentiary
The first arrest of Anghel Papacioc dates from July 13, 1938. The 24-year-old was to be removed by the gendarmes from Zărnești and deferred to justice for violating the “Law of Defense of the Order in the State statutory and penalized by art. 23 a. 2 of the same law”[5]. How did it come to this assignment? Following the descent at the home of Sperchez Niculae, where Anghel Papacioc also lived, the following materials were found on the search: “a uniformed legionary green shirt, three books, a calendar, four photos, seven postcards, two letters and a plan” [6]. Arsenie Papacioc’s statement, from the Minutes written by the head of the Zărnești station, the plutonary gendarmerie Axente Gheorghe, sounded like this: “it is true that I brought a legionary green shirt to the inhabitant of Sperchez Nicolae in this commune. This happened in May, when my brother, namely Radu, was arrested, and then I went there with some correspondence and postcards with some photographs that were sorted by Mr. postmaster who was then in charge ”[7]. After only three days, at the command of the Military Tribunal, he will be released
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from Brașov penitentiary [8], the provisional detention being imposed by the order of the Military Prosecutor Magistrate C. Chifu: “By virtue of art. 290, 161 and 162 C.P., we hereby empower and order all the porters and agents of public, military and civil power to submit to the Main Civil Prison Brașov the named Anghel Papacioc, at the age of 24 (...) The provisional detention begins today July 15, 1938, at 18 “[9]. In fact, on January 5, 1939, the same Chief Military Prosecutor - C. Chifu - forwarded the Report with the proposal to classify the criminal action directed against Anghel Papacioc and Nicolae Sperchez, an act that the Commander of the Army Corps 5, the recipient of the request, approved on August 8, 1939 [10]. It is appropriate to say that, starting with November 13, 1938, the government had issued an ordinance that outlawed the Legionary Party “Everything for the Country”. However, the simple connection of these data informs those in law that “the legionary material (...) was found prior to the issuance of the ordinance” [11] and that, under the given conditions, there was no legal basis for the detention of the defendants. The case of Anghel Papacioc was not a particular one but, rather, it was part of the general atmosphere of the Romanian society of the time that recorded deep and radical political prefaces. The beginning of 1938 was marked by an increasingly strong erosion of the relations between the government and the legionary power. The virulent and frequent attacks of The Iron Guard aimed at the democratic regime (the legionaries were in favor of reorienting Romania’s foreign policy on the BerlinRome axis [12]), the increasing popularity among the population (“Everything for the Country” Party was classified in the elections in 1937 in the third position with 15.5%) were not without echoes, the authorities regarding the legionary threat
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with increased vigilance. Naturally, added to these, are the events of March 26, 1938, when, on the order of Nicolae Iorga - at that time Minister of State and Royal Councilor - the Legionary canteens from Obor and Lazăr High School are closed and the Legionary bookstand from the bookstore “Romanian book” is canceled. On the same day, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu sends an open letter to the state man, objecting to his lack of consistency regarding the policy of supporting national trade: “Professor Iorga, who 4 months ago was shouting and appealing even to our violence, giving the alarm in the Romanian Christian spoiled by Jews tradeline, comes, soothes our clean thoughts and he repels us, the Romanians”[13]. As in the lines signed by the Captain, heavy epithets were also found [14] Iorga, also advised by the Minister of the Interior Armand Călinescu, addresses on March 30, 1938 the Military Prosecutor’s Office and accuses Zelea Codreanu of slander [15]. On April 19, the Military Tribunal ruled that the defendant be sentenced to six months in prison [16]. But things would not stop there. During the trial, on the order of the Minister of Interior (none other than Armand Călinescu), he descended to several “legionary nests” [17], an action that sought (and carried out) the addition of new charges – “going with the chief of a foreign power” and “conspiration against the social order”- which led to a new sentence, this time of “10 years of hard work at salt mines”[18]. The goal was achieved: the Legionary Movement was beheaded. As an irony of fate, all these radical measures taken in Romania to remove the danger of the Legionary movement did not eliminate the problem but, on the contrary, provoked violent bilateral reactions, actions that, later, would be placed in the category of abnormal and illegitimate even by those who dictated them. Mircea Eliade appreciated, in turn, this troubling period: “In the summer
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of 1938, being a Legionary or a «sympathetic » to the Legionary Movement implies the risk of losing everything: job, freedom and, perhaps, ultimately, life” [19]. Therefore, the arrest of Anghel Papacioc was a typical phenomenon of the time, the authorities looking for various pretexts to make them uncomfortable to be imprisoned. The first act of terror that was installing little by little. In the name of defending “democracy”, like the later communists, Carol II gradually disposed of all those who had not accepted to be his tools. III. The Camp From Miercurea-Ciuc
The repression, the abuses of the Carol II’s dictatorship, predictably, would be on an upward trajectory. So, unfortunately, Anghel Papacioc could enjoy freedom only for a short time. At the end of the same year - December 12 - General Bengliu signed The Arrest Order of Radu and Anghel Papacioc brothers, by which he ordered both to be arrested: “(...) investigated and taken to house arrest at Miercurea Ciuc, where they will be severely supervised and treated.”[20]. The arrest took place on December 16 [21] and, two days later, the Brașov Gendarmes Legion reported to the General Inspectorate of Gendarmerie: “that the individual Anghel Papacioc was sent to Miercurea-Ciuc camp, and Radu Papacioc was admitted to Mârzescu hospital” [22 ]. What was the motivation behind this new incarceration? The priest Nicolae Grigorescu, had signed on December 6, 1938 a denunciation by which he accused one of the Papacioc brothers, saying that “on the occasion of the visit of H.M. The King at the factories [the Astra or Tohanu Vechi Brașov weaponry factory] could easily have committed an attack because the caller was in front of H.M.”[23]. In the Report on January 9, 1939, written by the Chief of the Gendarmerie Service, Lt.-Col. Ștefan Gherovici, it is specified that “on the same day [December 18, 1938] an informative
note is received from the Ministry of Interior, showing that Anghel Papacioc, Ioan Papacioc and Vasile Turcu, employees at the Tohani weaponry factory of Mr. Malaxa, wrote at home that, at night, after the work was over, they gathered in the woods near the factory and, probably,they were the ones who supplied the ammunition and the material that was found to the Legionaries”. [24] The conclusions of the above-quoted document were that the measures taken against the Papacioc brothers – “fiery Legionaries, capable of acts of terror even against the H.M. The King”[25] - are fully justified given their “dangerous activity for State Security” [26]. Of course, the neutral analysis of the exposed situation leads (even to a man without the most elementary instruction) to the conclusion that at that time there was inconceivable to talk of a balance between the legislative and the executive. Thousands of people were imprisoned because they had joined a legally constituted party and, as such, until the winter of 1938, their membership was guaranteed by the Constitution itself. Moreover, how could Carol II be a mediator between the powers of the state if he concentrated all his power in his own hands [27]? As it is known, on February 27, 1938, the New Constitution [28] was promulgated, which was equivalent to validating the dictatorial powers of King Carol II and de facto destroying political pluralism. The abolition of the historical parties [29] did not provoke significant protests of the politicians, the only ones who dared to be hostile to the authoritarian regime of Carol II being the Legionaries. Regarding the reactions of civilians, they were disgruntled by the fluctuations of the political class and voted over 99% in favor of the 1938 Constitution. The result was predictable considering the fact that the discredit of political parties in the eyes of the electorate was also certified by the fact
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that on December 20, 1937, for the first time in the political history of Romania, no party obtained more than 40% of the total votes, hence the impossibility of constituting a parliamentary majority. The electoral law on May 9, 1939 increased the royal prerogatives, the Parliament playing only a decorative role [30]. Given the political context, the State had developed a real psychosis of possessing all control, exposed by the need to know everything, to suspect and to magnify any man or group that could represent a potential threat. Going back to Papacioc brothers, practically all the evidence held by the authorities was pure speculation. A fairly vague denunciation – no specification of clear/complete name of person, place of work, and others- which contained in the formula of debut the rationale of the elaboration: “In connection with those communicated to Your Majesty by the registered letter on 6.XII.1938, reminding me of a conversation in a group of guards arrested in Brașov and following the most recent events, I am honored to communicate (...)”. How can the phrase “after the last events” be understood? Just a week before - on the night of November 29/30, 1938 - at the order of King Carol II, the assassination by strangulation of 14 Legionary heads, led by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu had taken place in the Ilfovian village of Tâncăbeşti. Later, in order to be able to invoke the pretext of the attempt of escaping during the transport under the escort from the Râmnicu-Sărat prison to Jilava (Bucharest), the bodies of the Legionary prisoners were dripped by bullets, then, some demijohns full of vitriol were thrown over them [31]. Armand Călinescu, who was at that time Minister of the Interior, was directly involved in the execution of the royal order, his brother-inlaw - Major Dinulescu - actively participating in the killing of Zelea Codreanu, of the “decemvirs” and “nicadors”.
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In these circumstances, it is easy to understand, on the one hand, the rationale for drawing up of the denunciation that led to the imprisonment of Papacioc brothers, but also the ease with which the state authorities validated the conviction of those who had a spotted political past. Not to be neglected is the fact that the signatory was, at that time, imprisoned in the Galați penitentiary “for the execution of the prison sentence of one year”[32] and the reckless expression of his attachment to the radical policy of the monarch, who had proposed “an extermination of the entire Legionary elite”[33], was the equivalent of a favorable completion of the prisoner N. Grigorescu’s file and, implicitly, to a substantial increase in the chances of being released in advance. The monitoring of all those suspected of legionary activity is also confirmed by the interception of the correspondence of Anghel Papacioc, Radu Papacioc, Ioan Papacioc [34] and Vasile Turcu who had written to the parents that at night when leaving work, they gather in the forest near the factory where they were employed. An act as natural as possible! The children, far from home, assured their parents that they were okay, that they were able to accommodate and bond their friends. The dimension of the historical trap in which the man was thrown appears from the key of interpretation of the Interior Minister who is willing to proceed with checks regarding the ones mentioned above, because “they probably supply the ammunition and the material that was found to the legionaries”[35]. The paroxysmal level of the generalized suspicion is also underlined by the frequency of arrests of those who had received the label of Legionaries. During 1938 Radu Papacioc had been arrested three times and each time the investigations resulted in the resolution: innocent. Thus, on April 18, 1938, he was imprisoned for 30 days at the Brașov Court Penitentiary on
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the grounds that at the house search “old legionary leaflets were found” [36] (the decision that led to his acquittal followed the pattern of his brother’s first arrest, Anghel Papacioc). At a distance of fewer than 4 months (August 10, 1938), he is brought to the Legion of Gendarmes Brașov, together with “several accused from Brașov County”, from where he will be released for lack of evidence after two days. The third arrest is the one presented in the lines above, the mobile constituting the denunciation of an inmate. Predictably, also this time, following the verification by the Legion of Gendarmes Brașov of the declaration made by the priest N. Grigorescu, it is found that the arrest is unreasonable. Regarding Radu Papacioc, the investigations deny any trace of guilt and this because, first of all, he “was not at the same time in the penitentiary with Radu Papacioc”[37] and, therefore, the possibility of being heard talking by the abovementioned was excluded; furthermore, “on July 2, 1938, when H.M. King Carol II visited the «Malaxa» factory, he was not present in the factory, but was sent in the interest of work to Bucharest”[38]. In the Report on December 17, 1939, Captain I. Chirculescu from the Legion of Gendarmes Brașov proposed that “the individual Radu Papacioc to be released”[39], a proposal confirmed by the head of the Gendarmerie Service, Lt. col. Ștefan Gherovici and the Head of the Second Section State Security, Major Florian Stoenescu in a report on January 21, 1939. A day later, General Bengliu called for a resolution: “Let freedom be granted to R. Papacioc, but be warned that if he only moves in the Legionary sense, we will take the most drastic measures against him and those belonging to him. For the other, continue the investigations in a diligent way”[40]. The threatening formulation connotes the dimension of the program of measures taken by Carol II’s government
against the Legionary Movement. Another aspect that reconstitutes the condition of the simple man, caught in the game between powers, also results from the simple reading, among the rows, of another leaf in the files of the Security. We have already indicated that at the time of the arrest Radu Papacioc did not follow Anghel Papacioc in the detention camp at Miercurea Ciuc because he had “several wounds to the head, face, and hands that were caused by an explosion in the workshop of the «Malaxa» ammunition factory on December 15, 1938 and his transport would endanger his health; so he was admitted to the Military Hospital «Regina Maria» in Brașov, sent with the report of the Legion no. 502 on December 18, 1938 ”[41]. The commander of the Gendarmerie Legion Brașov C. Brădescu did not forget to assure the General Inspectorate of the Gendarmerie that he would be imprisoned as soon as they receive the doctors’ approval [42] and that they sent to their place of work – “Malaxa” Factory - address no. 1058 by which they warned that the Papacioc brothers “can no longer render service at that factory” [43]. And then, what was the basis of Anghel Papacioc’s detention? Which were the pieces of evidence of his guilt, in the conditions in which even the head of the Gendarmerie Service, Lt.-Col. Ștefan Gherovici, in the Report on January 22, considered that “As for Anghel Papacioc, the Legion also has a reserved attitude about to what extent the statements of the priest Grigorescu can be based on”[44]? Following the same line, the appreciation of the Legion’s captain, I. Chirculescu, was written on December 17, 1939: “Given that the justice did not condemn any of these Radu or Anghel Papacioc and that lately they did not show anything hostile to the laws of the state, we propose that the subject Radu Papacioc to be released, and for the subject Anghel Papacioc, the superior forums would appreciate to what extent the
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declaration of the priest N. Grigorescu can be believed”[45]. In fact, the only difference between the situations of the Papacioc brothers was that the period July 15-18, 1938, when Anghel Papacioc was detained, the priest N. Grigorescu was also at the Brașov Penitentiary. However, the lack of any basis for the accusation was obvious: “it is clear from the penultimate paragraph of the priest’s statement that he could have easily assaulted the King’s life because he was in the factory right in front of H.M., the King. From the document of «Malaxa» factory no. 234/1939 annexed to this report, it turns out that H.M. The King did not visit the workshop where Anghel Papacioc was working ”[46]. In the Personal Sheet drawn up on December 10, 1938 by Major Costescu, during the administrative detention in the Miercurea Ciuc camp [47], the following portrait was shaped, in a few words: “Quiet and obedient. There was no manifestation whatsoever ”[48]. On November 25, 1939, Anghel Papacioc submitted his first request for release: „To His Lordship, the Minister of Public Order of Bucharest”: As one who has rued, I am apologizing, respectfully asking to allow me to return to my yearning family and to the society for engaging in the fight for the achievement of Romania envisaged by our wise King Carol II to atone for a moment’s wandering”[49]. It is appropriate to focus on a few key terms of the above-quoted fragment. What was the ruefulness? The same document clarifies this aspect: „In honor and conscience I am dissociated from the former Legionary organization, as well as from any action taken on behalf of that organization, with which I understand that I have nothing in common, as compared to the imminent danger it presents to the Country and The People, making sure that I will not swerve from my duties towards the Throne and the Country”[50]. Moreover, the
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practice of signing these „declarations of desolidarisation” was an extremely efficient invention of the Security Service, which, as the investigation was advancing (relying, obviously, on decreasing the resistance of the subjects), presented various formulas of declarations in this regard. Subsequently, the desolidarisations were successfully disseminated by the press of the time, the purpose of the government authorities being to disorient the Legionaries and their supporters. Another significant phrase is „yearning family”. What was it about? It is a well-known fact that on September 21, 1939, at 2 p.m., the Prime Minister, Armand Călinescu, was assassinated. The reply of King Carol II was ruthless. He ordered not only the capture and execution of the eight legionaries, who had composed the commando group, in the same place where they committed the crime (at the intersection of Barbu Ştirbei Street with the Cotroceni Bridge) but also the killing, in each county of the country, of two or three exemplary group heads from the respective area. The atrocity of the royal repression went even further so that above the corps of the legionaries, left for days in the sight of the world, was placed banners with the inscription: „This will henceforth be the fate of the country’s treacherous assassins”[51]. Finally, the order resulted in 252 victims, the king himself later appreciating the action in the following terms: „It is a horrible measure, in fact outside the law, but which, following the events, has its justification in the interest of the peace of the country. Today we can no longer play, today we can no longer trade the future when such acute dangers lurk the country inside and outside. It is a crime that is not only a crime but also an act of high treason in these times”[52]. In this context, the brother of our subject, Radu Papacioc, released, as we showed on January 25, 1939, would end up shot a few months
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later (September 22, 1939), at the Turkish Bridge in Tohanu Vechi commune, and his corpse, after being exposed for two days in the manner explained above, reached a common grave of Râșnov cemetery [53]. The fact that Anghel Papacioc will express in this request not only the attachment to the monarch [54] but also the disapproval with all the energy of his being „of the criminal gesture committed against the prime minister Armand Călinescu, considering it as the most filthy act in the Romanian people’s history”[55] has, in the given situation, multiple and profound meanings. Regarding the “wandering for a moment”, we consider that the meaning of the phrase has been revealed from the above. Consultation of the C.N.S.A.S. Archives helps us to identify the data by which the authorities justified their diagnosis of Legionnaires. From the Individual File, drawn up on December 18, 1938, by the gendarmes legion of Brașov, for the political detainee Anghel Papacioc, who was in house arrest „according to ord. Nr. 36368/940 to the Command. Body Gend.”[56] we select the following: date of birth - August 15, 1914; the name of parents - son of Vasile and Stanca; former profession - team leader at the Malaxa weaponry factory; military situation – “the military duty serviced in the 40th Infantry Regime” [57]. Another Personal File from the Archive completes the biographical picture as follows: “The above-mentioned [Anghel Papacioc] attended the primary school in his native village [Misleanul], after which he enrolled in the School of Arts and Crafts in Bucharest, which he completed in 1929. After finishing the School of Arts and Crafts he worked as a workshop manager at the Rogifer Tohanul Vechiu factory in Stalin city, then at the Malaxa factory[58] in the same locality. From 1933 he joined the Legionary Movement, acting as a Legionary leader and Legionary propagandist, and later as a Legionary instructor (…) ”[59].
On September 2, 1939, Papacioc Anghel signs a declaration that reiterates his devolution of the legionary organization and his devotion to the monarch, ending with the phrase: “I want to be an element of order and to serve H.M. King Carol II faithfully”[60]. In about four months - January 10, 1940 - he signs a third document requesting the release: “After 13 months of tormented life in this confined space I check today the diagram of all the modulations of my soul, naive and unstable, characteristic of youth. These are the reasons I owe my wandering (...). Today, sick of my lungs and heart, with the thought of my mother’s unhappy old age, I respectfully ask Minister, to order my release ”[61]. However, his efforts failed. Although the Command of the Gendarmerie Corps, the Gendarmerie Service took note of its repeated requests and ordered by secret order no. 35421/940 drawing up the file of the detainee Anghel Papacioc, the Commander of the Gendarmes Legion Brașov, S. Bărnuțiu, would draft, in turn, three other documents expressing his deep disagreement regarding his eventual release. Thus, on February 9, 1940, he justified his opposition by the following three aspects: “he was one of the most outspoken propagandist Legionaries in Brașov county”, “even after the dissolution of the political parties he continued to work for legionaries”, respectively that “his whole family were fierce legionnaires [sic!], some even suffered convictions from the activity they carried out in this direction”[62]. The second document is the Individual Personal Sheet [63], drawn up in the same spirit, so that on 17 February 1940 Commander S. Bărnuțiu signed a final act, meant to strengthen the portrait of instigator and Legionary propagandist, capable of committing acts of terror. Thus, he added that he held lectures and shared leaflets and brochures, making “man-to-man propaganda” [64]. We
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conclude that repressive rhetoric justifies only obstruction, falsification or, at best, ignorance of a common-sense truth - the absence of any legal basis for the detention of Anghel Papacioc, the guilty without guilt. The liberation would come only on April 10, 1940. On September 6, 1940, when Carol II’s dictatorship established on February 10, 1938 was overthrown by the establishment of the “national-Legionary state”; Anghel Papacioc was in Zărnești, where he was employed as secretary at a law firm. Conclusions What was the Carol II dictatorship, how it worked and especially the consequences of its installation is no longer a mystery. However, its history is not as simple as one might think and the clash between the Legionary group and Carol II’s government has many nuances. The study of the archives at CNSAS, mentioned in the present study, has favored, we hope, elucidation of certain aspects, related to the “confinement biography” under the Carol II’s dictatorship, of the one who was to complete his existential journey at the Techirghiol monastery, Constanța county, space where Archimandrite Arsenie has lived uninterruptedly for 35 years (January 1976 - July 19, 2011), his luminous image placing him, even during his life, among the great Romanian Orthodox Fathers. It can be seen, at a simple analysis of what has been published so far, that the recovery of this speck from the life of Fr. Arsenie Papacioc often includes a series of inaccuracies. The nature of events in the youth of the great confessor cannot be understood without a sine ira et studio research of the historical context. It is a matter of common sense to admit that no dictatorship can be established and, above all, cannot survive unless it maintains a climate of terror. Why? Simple. Because
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the State terrorism is the ideal justification for the subordination of the judicial and legislative powers to the executive. You do not need to be a political scientist to understand that any dictatorship is an imbalance between the powers of a State whose principal appeal is repression. The reconstruction of the biographical itinerary of the proposed subject in the present work summed up an extremely heterogeneous range of repressive actions: abusive arrests, tortures, even summary executions, as a rule, in the absence of a trial. It is sufficient to extract a few template-words from the speech of those who served to defend the interests of Carol II’s government to understand that in this struggle the means were no longer counted. The imperative of abolishing all that was considered to endanger State Security justified almost everything. As we have shown, the Papacioc brothers were repeatedly imprisoned and sent to the penitentiaries, as a result of the adverse political climate which led to direct actions against those considered “fiery Legionary, capable of acts of terror, even against H.M.The King”. Although, each time, the information gathered from the research carried out by the Legion of Gendarmes Brașov has invalidated their guilt, the multiple metamorphoses of historical time make ambiguous the relations between legitimate and illegitimate, truth and lie, patriot and traitor. In these circumstances, the denunciation, the blackmail, the torture, the murder become tasks that are in the job description of those charged with supervising the potential traitors of the nation and the country. We had previously mentioned the ambiguity of the traitor. What did it mean to be a traitor of the nation and the country at that time? The words, nation, respectively, country, underwent a resemantisation, they assuming at that time the overlap with the
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notion of monarch (Lord, supreme ruler), echo of the well-known formula: L’Etat, c’est moi. In this state of generalized confusion, in the name of defending of this justice, Radu Papacioc has an ignoble end, as evidenced by the previous exposure. Behind this act of shaky cruelty lies the sad picture of a divided country. Only a few months after the release of Anghel Papacioc from MiercureaCiuc camp, the political situation is reversed. The installation of the National Legionary state gives him the opportunity to bury his brother, according to the Orthodox ritual, in Râșnov cemetery on October 19, 1940 [65]. This is why we consider that without contextualization, without careful confrontation of the archival documents (containing the unilateral perspective of the repressive apparatus) with the testimonies of the survivors, the debate of a topic of this nature remains outside a scientific approach. It should also be said that the act of examining the history of those times - by placing Anghel Papacioc under the magnifying glass - constitutes not only a historiographical but also a moral one. Moreover, the scrutiny of the extreme experiences that he went through is, in our view, an efficient method of reconstructing some historical phenomena and processes that can equally facilitate the highlighting of occult areas. In fact, the presentation of the two incarcerations in which Anghel Papacioc was involved is added to the sacrificial evidence of this emblematic personality, who has directed his entire existence under the sign of a continuous struggle, because the advancement of the Orthodox faith, in the sacred and social dimension, rooted in the liturgical horizon, has been a constant and fervent mission of our subject. The Carol II’s dictatorship was for Anghel Papacioc, paradoxically, a time of deepening his spiritual pursuits, a stage in the shaping of this representative figure
of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which managed to evade the tribulations of the World Wars and totalitarianism, in order to continue, undefiled, the sacred ascension. References [1]
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Tudor, Arhimandrit Andrei and Mariana Conovici, Iuliana Conovici. Părintele Arsenie Papacioc în dosarele Securității: Am înţeles rostul meu…, ed. Iuliana Conovici, București, Editura Humanitas, 2014 [Tudor, Archimandrite Andrei and Mariana Conovici, Iuliana Conovici. Father Arsenie Papacioc in Security files: I have understood my sense…, coord. Iuliana Conovici, Bucharest, Humanitas Publishing House, 2014] – volume in which there is a considerable number of documents of the Security with reference to Father Arsenie Papacioc. Highlights of the biography of the great Father confessor, based on the information in the archives of the C.N.S.A.S., have also been reconstructed through the efforts of the historians George Enache and Adrian Nicolae Petcu. See, in this regard: George Enache „Trecerea prin veac a Părintelui Arsenie Papacioc”, Rost, an III, nr.28, iunie 2005, p.11; Adrian Nicolae Petcu, „Părintele Arsenie Papacioc în documentele Securității (1938-1958)”, în Caietele CNSAS, Revistă semestrială editată de Consiliul Naţional pentru Studierea Arhivelor Securităţii. Anul V, nr. 1-2 (9-10), 2012, pp. 249-280; Idem, „Jertfa părintelui Arsenie Papacioc în închisorile comuniste”, în Lumina, 21 iulie 2011; Idem, „Epistolar monahal în vremuri de prigoană: duhovnicul Arsenie Papacioc către o maică din Agapia”, în Lumina, 18 iulie 2012; Idem, „Despre viețuirea părintelui Arsenie Papacioc în temnița Aiudului”, în Lumina, 20 martie 2013, Idem, „Arsenie Papacioc la începutul vieții monahale”, în Lumina, 17 aprilie 2013; Berdiaev, Nikolai, Sensul creației, București, Editura Humanitas, 1992 [George Enache “The passage through the century of Father Arsenie Papacioc”, Rost, year III, no. 28, June
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[2]
[3]
2005, p.11; Adrian Nicolae Petcu, “Father Arsenie Papacioc in the Security documents (1938-1958)”, in the CNSAS Notebooks, semiannual magazine edited by the National Council for the Study of Security Archives. Year V, no. 1-2 (9-10), 2012, pp. 249-280; Idem, “Father Arsenie Papacioc’s Sacrifice in Communist Prisons,” in The Light, July 21, 2011; Idem, “Monastic epistolary in times of persecution: Father confessor Arsenie Papacioc to a nun from Agapia”, in The Light, July 18, 2012; Idem, “About the life of Father Arsenie Papacioc in the prison of Aiud”, in The Light, March 20, 2013, Idem, “Arsenie Papacioc at the beginning of the monastic life”, in The Light, April 17, 2013; Berdiaev, Nikolai, The Meaning of Creation, Bucharest, Humanitas Publishing House, 1992]. Eliade, Mircea. Memorii, vol. 2, București, Editura Humanitas, București, 1991, p.27 [Eliade, Mircea. Memories, vol. 2, Bucharest, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 1991, p. 27: “Much of the «legionary activity» consisted of sermons, memories, black fasting and prayers” and p. 30: “the legionary movement had a structure and vocation of a mystical sect, and not of a political movement”) or Gheorghe Racoveanu, The Legionary Movement and the Church, Bucharest, Samizdat Publishing House, 2002, p. 25 (where it can be found the statement of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the founder of the Legion of Archangel Michael, about the founding members of the Guard: “We all believed in God. There was no atheist among us”)]. Eliade, Mircea, Istoria credințelor și ideilor religioase, București, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1988 [Eliade, Mircea, History of religious beliefs and ideas, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, 1988]. Codreanu, Corneliu Zelea. Doctrina Mișcării Legionare, Editura Lucman, București, 2003, p. 100 [Codreanu, Corneliu Zelea. The Doctrine of the Legionary Movement, Lucman Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003, p. 100].
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[4]
[5]
[6]
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Papacioc, Arhim. Arsenie. Cuvânt despre bucuria duhovnicească, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Eikon, 2003 [Papacioc, Archim. Arsenie. Word on the sacred joy, Cluj-Napoca, Eikon Publishing House, 2003]; Papacioc, Arhim. Arsenie. Veșnicia ascunsă într-o clipă, AlbaIulia, Editura Reîntregirea, 2004 [Papacioc, Archim. Arsenie. The eternity hidden in a blink, Alba-Iulia, Reîntregirea Publishing House, 2004]; Papacioc, Arhim. Arsenie. Despre viața de familie și diverse probleme ale lumii contemporane, Ed. Supergraph, Constanța, 2011 [Papacioc, Archim. Arsenie. About family life and various problems of the contemporary world, Supergraph Publishing House, Constanța, 2011]; Iată duhovnicul. Părintele Arsenie Papacioc, ed. a II-a, vol. 1-3, București, Editura Sofia, 2007 (prima ediție a apărut la Mănăstirea Dervent, Constanța,1999) [Here is the Father confessor. Father Arsenie Papacioc, ed. II, vol. 1-3, Bucharest, Sofia Publishing House, 2007 (first edition appeared at Derv ent Monastery, Constanța, 1999)]; Ne vorbeşte Părintele Arsenie, text îngrijit de arhimandritul Ioanichie Bălan, ed. a II-a, vol. 1-3, Vânători, Editura Mănăstirea Sihăstria, 2001(vol. 1), 2004 (vol. 2-3) [Father Arsenie speaks to us, text curated by Archimandrite Ioanichie Bălan, ed. II, vol. 1-3, Vânători, Sihăstria Monastery Publishing House, 2001 (vol. 1), 2004 (vol. 2-3); 1984 (vol. 1), 1988 (vol. 2)]; Părintele Arsenie Papacioc, Testament. Cuvinte de folos, volum coordonat de Danion Vasile, ediția a II-a revăzută și adăugită, București, Editura Areopag și Meditații, 2012 [Father Arsenie Papacioc, Testament. Useful words, volume coordinated by Danion Vasile, the second edition revised and added, Bucharest, Areopag Publishing House and Meditations, 2012]. A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 5 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 5]. A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 3 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no.
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6896, p. 3]. A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 3 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 3]. [8] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 5 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 5: On July 18, 1938, the Military Prosecutor, Major Magistrate C. Chifu communicated to the Principal Penitentiary Brașov the following: “I have the honor to ask you to please immediately release the individuals Sperchez Nicolae and Anghel Papacioc, both from Zărnești commune, Brașov county. , which were filed with the deposition mandates no. 18942 and 18944 of July 15, 1938”]. [9] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 5 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 5]. [10] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal Bv., dosar nr. 6896, f. 7 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 7]. [11] The Report of January 5, 1939 with a proposal to classify the criminal action against Anghel Papacioc and Nicolae Sperchez was justified as follows: “Given that the above mentioned fact constitutes the offense provided by Ordinance no. 17 a Body. 5 Army, issued on November 16, 1938, provided that the old legionary material was found at the person concerned after the 10-day deadline after the ordinance was displayed, granted for submitting the material. Considering that the legionary material mentioned above was found prior to the issuance of the ordinance, the result of which is that the above is neither a criminal offense by that ordinance nor any other offense. and, based on art. 80 C.P., confiscation and destruction of found material” (A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals Bv., file no. 6896, p. 7). [12] Significant is, in this sense, “Corneliu Zelea Codreanu’s Declaration on the Foreign Policy of the Iron Guard”, published in The Good News of November 30, 1937: “I am [7]
against the great democrats of the West, I am against the Little Agreements, I am against the Balkan Agreement and I have no respect for the League of Nations in which I do not believe. I am for a foreign policy alongside Rome and Berlin. Together with the states of national revolutions. Against Bolshevism. Says a man who has not travelled and asked for nothing, neither from Rome nor from Berlin. In 48 hours after the victory of the Legionary Movement, Romania will have an alliance with Rome and Berlin, thus entering the line of its historical mission in the world: the defense of the Cross, of the culture and of the Christian civilization”. [13] „Scrisoarea lui Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, către Nicolae Iorga”, în Mihail Sturdza, România şi sfârşitul Europei. Amintiri din ţara pierdută, Ed. Fronde, Alba Iulia-Paris, 1994, pp. 299-300 [“The letter of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, to Nicolae Iorga”, in Mihail Sturdza, Romania and the end of Europe. Memories from the Lost Country, Fronde Publishing House, Alba Iulia-Paris, 1994, pp. 299-300]. [14] Ibidem, p. 300: “From the margins of my human powers, with which I respected you, I cry to you: You are wrong. You are a dishonest soul. (…) You, Professor Iorga, nor all the others who have assumed responsibility for a bloody and unjust oppression, will meet no violence, not even opposition. But from now until I close my eyes, Mr. Iorga, and after that, I will look at you as you deserve.” [15] Ştefan Palaghiţă, Istoria mişcării legionare, Ed. Roza Vânturilor, București, 1993, p. 29 [Ştefan Palaghiţă, The History of Legionary Movement, Roza Vânturilor Publishing House, Bucharest, 1993, p. 29]. [16] Condamnarea domnului Corneliu Z. Codreanu în „Universul”, 55, nr.110 din 21 aprilie 1938 [The conviction of Mr. Corneliu Z. Codreanu in “Universul”, 55, no. 110 of April 21, 1938]. [17] Repression of the Iron Guard agitations, in the “Universe”, no. 112 of April 23, 1938.
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Ioan Scurtu, Culegere de documente şi materiale privind istoria României (1938 – 1940), Ed. Universității, Bucureşti, 1974, pp. 113-114 [Ioan Scurtu, Collection of documents and materials regarding the history of Romania (1938 - 1940), University Publishing House, Bucharest, 1974, pp. 113114]. [19] Eliade, Mircea. Memorii, vol. 2, Ed. Humanitas, București, 1991, p. 27 [Eliade, Mircea. Memories, vol. 2, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 1991, p. 27]. [20] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 35 și f.52 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 35 and p.52]. [21] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 5690, f. 8 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 5690, p. 8]. [22] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 38 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 38]. [23] The denunciation continued: “He said he was thinking of easing the implementation of this demented fact but since he had no order he could do nothing. I do not know exactly which one of the two above-mentioned factories [the Astra or Tohanu Vechi Brasov weaponry factory] works because I did not meet him but only heard him discussing and after a few days he left prison. The subject also has a brother at one of the two factories and he is also arrested and released. “ (A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, f. 50). [24] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 57 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 57]. [25] Ibidem, p. 57. [26] Ibidem, p. 57. [27] On December 16, the National Renaissance Front was formed under the supreme leadership of King Carol II. [28] The Constitution on February 27, 1938 in the “Official Monitor”, no. 48 of February 27, 1938. [18]
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Decree-law for the dissolution of associations, groups and political parties in the “Official Monitor”, no. 75 on March 30, 1938. [30] Decree-law for the establishment of the National Renaissance Front in the “Official Monitor”, no. 293 on December 16, 1938. [31] Ştefan Palaghiţă, Garda de Fier spre reînvierea României, Buenos Aires, 1951, pp.102-103 [Ştefan Palaghiţă, The Iron Guard for the resurrection of Romania, Buenos Aires, 1951, pp.102-103.Printing of the volume was completed on December 30, 1950 but on the title page it is indicated as the year of appearance 1951. Priest Stefan Palaghiță is the first legionary historiographer, his book containing a series of unique data and precise information related to the Legionary Movement. We note that his research project started in 1945, when Horia Sima appointed him, along with two other legionaries in exile, to gather “all the documentary material that interests the history of the Legionary Movement” (quoted ed. p. 15). However, his History recovers Horia Sima as an evil character who, together with Carol II and General Ion Antonescu, put the Movement on a “hard test” (quoted ed., p. 83). At the same time, he appreciated that Sima was directly responsible for the assassination of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, of the Nicadors and of the Decemvirs, an act triggered by the terrorist actions of 1938, dictated by the same character: “Comparing to Carol’s persecution [1938], the Captain had fixed on the spiritual line of the Movement […] Horia Sima either did not understand or did not want to understand the tactical and strategic plan of the Captain […] He worked against the Captain’s provisions, against the line adopted by the Commander, taking a personal action in total disagreement with the received provisions and with the realities, disregarding the most elementary notion of legionary discipline ”(quoted ed., p. 98)]. [32] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 45 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file [29]
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no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 45]. A.M. Stoenescu, Istoria loviturilor de stat în România, vol. 3, Ed. Rao, București, 2002, p. 193 [A.M. Stoenescu, History of coups in Romania, vol. 3, Rao Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002, p. 193]. [34] The minutes on December 17, 1938 contained edifying information, in this sense: “we are four brothers: I, Radu Papacioc from Zărnești at the” Malaxa “Factory, Ion Papacioc from Tohanu-Brașov at the” Malaxa “Factory, Anghel Papacioc from Tohanu to the “Malaxa” and Filoptian Papacioc from Misleanu, Ialomița county “(ACNSAS, Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 61). [35] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 57 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 57]. [36] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 61 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 61]. [37] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 45 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 45]. [38] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 45 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 45]. [39] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 44 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 44]. [40] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 34 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 34]. [41] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 60 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 60]. [42] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 60 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 60: “As soon as the Military Hospital announces that it will be transportable we will send him to Miercurea Ciuc Camp”]. [43] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 60 [A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar [33]
nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 60]. A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 34 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 34]. [45] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 34 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 34]. [46] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 000202, vol. 6, f. 45 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 000202, vol. 6, p. 45]. [47] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 44 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informativ annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 44]. [48] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 44v. [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informativ annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 44v.] [49] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 57 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informativ annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 57]. [50] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 57 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informativ annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 57]. [51] Carol al II-lea, Între datorie şi pasiune. Însemnări zilnice (1939-1940), vol. al IIlea, ed. Marcel-Dumitru Ciucă, Ed. „Şansa”, Bucharest, 1996, p. 5. [52] Ibidem, p. 6. [53] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 84 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 84]. [54] “I swear to be faithful to His Majesty the King Carol II, whom I want to serve with love and devotion” (A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative anals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 57). [55] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 57 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 57]. [56] Ibidem, p. 48. [57] Ibidem, p. 64. [58] The information is confirmed by Father [44]
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Arsenie’s testimony from the volume edited by Ieromonahul Bogdan Stancu, Iată duhovnicul, Ed. Sofia, București, 2010, p. 10 [Hieronymite Bogdan Stancu, Here is Father confessor, Sofia Publishing House, Bucharest, 2010, p. 10]. [59] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Informativ, dosar nr. 211015, vol. 2, f. 67 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Informative annals, file no. 211015, vol. 2, p. 67]. [60] Ibidem, p. 56. [61] Ibidem, p. 52. [62] Ibidem, p. 50. [63] The document signed by the Commander of the Legion of Brașov contained the following 12 points of the form: “1. Name and surname: «Papacioc Anghel» 2. Place of birth: «Misleanu Commune, Ialomița County». 3. Marital status: «single» 4. Material status: «Good» 5. Ethnic origin: «Romanian» 6. Stable domicile: «Tohanul Vechiu commune, Brașov county» 7. Whether or not he has family difficulties: ‘No’ 8. Profession and age: «Team leader Malaxa factory. 26 years”. 9. The activity carried out in the legionary movement before the dissolution of the political parties: «He was a nest leader in the legionary movement. He was active in the legionary realm, holding meetings in closed places or under the open sky. Together with his brother Radu Papacioc were some of the most fierce political fighters of The Iron Guard in Brașov region [sic!] ». 10. Specific data on the activity carried out in this movement after the dissolution of the political parties: «He continued to work undercover and, after the dissolution of the political parties, together with his brother, Radu Papacioc [sic!]». 11. Reason for hospitalization in the compulsory domicile: «For legionary political activity, after the dissolution of the parties». 12. If he is capable of committing acts of terror: «He is capable [sic!]». [64] Ibidem, p. 47. [65] A.C.N.S.A.S., fond Penal, dosar nr. 40660,
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vol. 2, f. 48 [A.C.N.S.A.S., Penal annals, file no. 40660, vol. 2, p. 48].
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 317 - 325
DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
“Old” and “New” Europe, as blue flame for the European Union Dmitri Delistoian, Ph.D.
Faculty of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering Ovidius University of Constanta Romania
Viorel-Bogdan Radoiu, Ph.D. Faculty of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering Ovidius University of Constanta Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 10 October 2019 Received in revised form 24 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.29
The European Union is the largest energy importer in the world, and this leads to the fact that in recent years there has been a struggle between the most significant energy producers. All this happens in the background of the artificial division between the “Old” and “New” Europe. At the same time, the US is showing itself as a caring father who worries about the EU’s energy security by offering its LNG. The EU faces a choice: to buy LNG from the USA received by sea or to continue to buy gas through a pipeline from Russia. Who will win, caring father (about his pocket) or national interest? In all economic battles, all known and unknown methods are applied that affect the national sentiments of the peoples of the EU.
Keywords: EU; energy; pipeline; Russia; USA; LNG; ethics; security; strategy; gas; nuclear; market; ecology; national; sanctions;
© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2019 Dmitri Delistoian, Radoiu Viorel-Bogdan. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is Citation: Delistoian, Dmitri, and Viorel-Bogdan Radoiu, ”“Old” and “New” Europe, as blue flame for European Union,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.29, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 317-325.
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I. European Union Energy Production
Energy security challenges test the viability of the European Union. The main unsolved to date internal problems of energy supply in the European Union are: insufficient energy production of the EU member states; excessive energy consumption of the economies of the EU member states; insufficient integration of the energy networks of the EU Member States, which does not meet the modern requirements for energy supply of the entire European Union in the event of natural disasters or emergency or; adverse environmental impact of the energy sectors of the EU member states, primarily due to greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The political and legal documents of the European Union set the parameters for the internal energy policy of the European Union. The energy policy of the European Union has four goals [1]: 1. improving the security of energy supply; 2. achieving competitiveness of the economies of the EU member states; 3. energy sufficiency at an affordable price; 4. environmental conservation and the fight against climate change. The EU energy policy is based on three principles: 1. full respect for the choice by the EU member states of the combination of the types of energy used; 2. full respect for the sovereignty of EU Member States on national energy resources; 3. a spirit of solidarity between the EU member states in the energy sector. The task of the EU’s internal energy policy is to complete the formation of the
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EU Energy Union.
Fig.1 Energy Union, Source [https://ec.europa.eu/] II. European Union energy security
In the process of globalization, it has become apparent that many security threats go beyond the national state and may have regional even global nature. Due to states close cooperation, appears strong economic dependence. The violation of the stability of the world order, as observed today, affects their energy security. The European Commission in January 2007 proclaimed the next: “Energy is the main thing for the functioning of Europe. But the time of cheap energy for Europe seems to be over. All EU member states face climate changes, increasing import dependency and higher energy prices” [1]. At the beginning of the third millennium, the European Union realized the reality of the nature of the challenge - EU member states do not have their own energy resources that would allow them to develop, regardless of energy imports. The results of a study conducted by the European Commission in 2000, testified to the inevitable and in the long term
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unprecedented increase, in the dependence of the EU member states on energy imports. By 2020-2030, the external dependence of the old EU member states may be 70% for gas, 90% for oil, and 100% for coal. The dependence of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe on gas imports will increase from 60% to 90%, oil - from 90% to 94%, and from net coal exporters, they may turn into importers satisfying 12% of their coal demand [2]. The term itself “energy security” appeared as a result of the energy crisis 1973-1974 [3]. According to International Energy Agency, energy security is an uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price [4]. During last year’s, one of the principal directions of the European Union is the energy sphere. Considering the geographical proximity of Russia and the EU countries, existing transit infrastructure and successful cooperation in energy, EU countries are interested in maintaining the role of Russia as partner and supplier (Fig.2) [5].
Fig.2 Most traded goods between EU and Russia, by [6]
III. Natural gas as a friend of the
environment
Over the past ten years, the introduction of the principles and objectives of the EU energy policy has led to the emergence of new trends. One of the principal trends is increased concern for EU citizens about the preservation of the environment and the intensified efforts of EU Member States to eliminate the negative impact of energy on the environment, resulting in climate warming and this gave rise to the following tendency - rapid development of energy using renewable energy sources, which plays a key role in the decarbonization of the economies of the EU member states. The source of renewable energy is various natural environments surrounding humanity: air, sun, water, compounds of organic origin. Renewable energy sources are: air - wind energy; the sun - solar thermal and solar photovoltaic energy, water - the energy of rivers, the energy of the tides, currents and waves of the oceans, geothermal energy; compounds of organic origin - the energy of biomass (wood and other solid biofuels), the energy of biogas (landfill gas, sewage treatment gas, gases from livestock). The EU has not eliminated a number of problems that impede the development of renewable energy. The first problem is the technical problem of storing temporarily unclaimed surplus electricity. The second problem is the dispersion of renewable energy enterprises, many of which do not have the means to expand production. The third problem is the continued subsidization of fossil fuel production. In this situation, natural gas becomes a green transition solution for renewable energy. The authors of the book “Die Schlacht um Europas Gasmarkt” argue with figures in their hands that Europe cannot do without gas for a long time. Regardless of the
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plans for the European Union to switch to alternative forms of energy, gas will remain a demanding carrier for several decades. This is due to various reasons, including the different speed of energy conversion from traditional fuels to renewable energy, performed by different EU countries. In addition, it is no secret that gas deposits in the North Sea are depleted and there is a risk of interruptions in gas supplies. At the same time, environmental issues in Europe play a very important role, and therefore the shale revolution, characteristic of the United States, is impossible here [7]. It is the possibility of gas deliveries from different directions and in various forms (such as pipeline and liquefied gas) to Europe that turns gas into an apple of discord since various countries of the world can participate (and participate) in its deliveries. Moreover, gas is causing acute political crises and even military clashes, as the Syrian crisis, in particular, demonstrates [8]. IV. Political leverage vs Market arm
The main suppliers of blue fuel to the European market are, along with Russia, Qatar, Algeria. But new suppliers from the Middle East and Africa are also entering the arena. Potential gas suppliers to Europe include the countries of the Caspian basin. The recent signing of a treaty regulating the status of the Caspian opens up fundamental possibilities for filling the existing gas pipeline from Azerbaijan to Turkey with additional quantities of gas from Turkmen and, possibly, Iranian fields [9] What is more interesting than that today everyone is witnessing a fight for European gas market and all profile institutes ask themselves: Is it more convenient to receive gas through the pipeline (especially from Russia) or LNG (Liquified Natural Gas) from USA? Why does it happen? A special place is considered by the
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current contradictions related to the attempts of the American President Donald Trump to reorient European consumers to liquefied natural gas (LNG) from the United States, referring to the fact that Europe is increasingly dependent on the aggressor from the East. At the same time arises the question: To push their own interests, political leverage is used or not? The truth is that in 2018 Russian Gazprom sold to EU countries total quantity of 243,3 billion cubic meters [10]. This struggle is going on for 60 years. The first negotiations on supplies to Western Europe started in 1966 with the Italian company Eni but ended due to political differences. In 1967, after the launch of the Druzhba and Brotherhood export pipelines, Soviet gas began to flow into Czechoslovakia. A year later, in 1968, the Soviet Union Soyuznefteexport and Osterreichische Mineralolverwaltung OMV signed an agreement on the supply of natural gas from the USSR to Austria. Initially, the annual supply amounted to 142 million cubic meters(total of the USSR and Russia delivered 218 billion cubic meters of gas to Austria). In 1968, the Soviet Union signed a gas agreement with the German Democratic Republic, and in 1969 proposed that Germany exchange pipes and equipment for gas supplies (a gas-pipe deal was concluded in 1970). In 1973, natural gas supplies to West and East Germany began. The first customers were Ruhrgas and Verbundnetz Gas. To date, Germany has received more than 1 trillion cubic meters m of gas. By 1975, the Soviet Union concluded contracts with Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland, Italy and France, and increased gas supplies from 6.8 billion cubic meters in 1973 to 19.3 billion cubic meters in 1975. In 1978, natural gas began to be supplied to Yugoslavia, and in 1979 to Romania. Thus, in 1980, the total volume of Soviet gas
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exports to Europe amounted to 54.8 billion cubic meters. In 1996, on the basis of a contract between Soyuzgazexport and the DEPA state corporation, deliveries of Russian gas to Greece began (gas deliveries for all time - more than 41 billion cubic meters). In 1997, Macpetrol completed the construction of a gas main, and fuel went to Macedonia (totaling about 1.5 billion cubic meters). In 2001, deliveries to the Netherlands began via the Yamal-Europe gas pipeline system, and to Denmark via the Nord Stream gas pipeline in 2011[11]. Even taking into account the fact that there was a period of the Cold War, the USSR (Russia in the future) fulfilled its contractual obligations in a strict manner, without substituting its partners in Europe. Today, strong relations have formed between such large European concerns as OMV, Eni, Engie and Gazprom.
Fig.3 EU imports of Russian Gas, by [12] Looking at all of the above, Europe is becoming a battleground between world powers, at the same time feeling political leverage on its neck and as a result, such “projects” appear as Dieselgate, scandal with the German secret services,etc.
V. EU National Security it is Myth or
Reality?
The subject of EU national security is complex and difficult to define. Gradually building a European Energy Union, yet it is not possible the union of strategies, in fact there is no national idea. Unlike the EU, the United States resolves national security issues with the help of its army, in particular with the help of NATO. French President Emanuel Macron’s proposal for the creation of a European army represents the first step towards the integration of European society and the development of a European strategy. Starting from this moment, contradictions between the EU and NATO (more precisely the United States) begin to appear. In such a situation, USA chooses Poland as a reference country for implementation America based its geopolitical plans in Europe based on several circumstances. For example, the US military presence in Europe has been reduced from 340,000 (at the end of the Cold War) to 30,000 in 2015 year over the past 20 years [13]. The United States is not able to restore its military presence to the former scale. at a fast place. Therefore, Washington is opposed to the “quick reaction forces” that could be formed on the basis of the actual European troops, such a “mini-NATO” does not allow the United States to expand its military presence in Europe. Besides such a presence in itself (in view of the existing American contingents in the Middle East) is expensive for the USA. This is another reason why Washington has chosen Poland as an assistant to build regional security - the Polish authorities will gladly provide their territory and military assistance if Washington wants to strengthen its military presence in the region under the pretext of resolving the conflict in Ukraine. The need for a clear general line in EU foreign policy is evident - there is not a
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single state that could be fully trusted, is required in priority order to follow their own interests, and not to seek “friends” in the West, then in the East. Arrangement of explicit geopolitical development vectors, in my opinion, it could help to increase the ability of the political system to respond quickly to external challenges, but in moment when states like Poland looking in the direction of Washington and not Brussels, it’s early to talk about EU national security.
members as a “pan-European project”, is currently dividing Europe. Germany, the most interesting country in Russian energy imports, supports a diversification project for the supply routeю On the contrary, Poland, deprived of gas for the transit of gas as a result of the project, is a staunch opponent of Nord Stream-2. Thus, the separation of the EU into “Old” and “New” Europe hinders the development of unified energy policy. The choice of energy suppliers remains within the national interest.
VI. EU Energy Security
As stated in the above chapters, the energy market (especially the gas one) is a diversified one with different suppliers from third countries. Countries such as Norway and Russia hold leading positions as major suppliers of natural gas (Fig.4). In the last year, the great discord is represented by the Nord Stream 2 project. This project represents a stumbling block between the “Old” and the “New” Europe. Germany, concerned about the safe supply of resources from Russia and the increase in the capacity of energy flows, is interested in the construction of a new gas pipeline that duplicates Nord stream. Eastern European countries, led by Poland (again), said that this project is contrary to EU plans to diversify energy exporters. Warsaw managed to block the creation of a joint venture with Russia for the construction of Nord Stream-2, explaining its position by strengthening Gazprom’s monopoly on the supply of hydrocarbon. The prime ministers of the Baltic countries supported Poland and called the Nord Stream-2 political, rather than economic project. Also, Prime Minister of Poland B. Szydlo called on Germany and the European Commission to take measures in relation to the gas pipeline, which threatens the European security. The new gas pipeline, designated by some EU
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Fig.4 EU imports of natural gas, by [14] At the same time, the United States using “energy diplomacy”, trough its “partners” in the EU trying to push their LNG on European market (the US has extensive experience in applying this diplomacy, such as sanctions, trade wars, pressure on its “allies”, etc.). In this regard, Washington does not hide that it intends to oppose the implementation of the Nord Stream-2 project. This intention was most clearly manifested in the introduction of the latest sanctions against Russia. On June 14, 2017, the Senate approved a bill to tighten and expand sanctions against Russia. Its legislative design is explained by the desire to prevent the US president from independently lifting anti-Russian sanctions in case of such a desire [15]. On August 2, 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump signed a bill on new sanctions against Russia. These
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sanctions are actually aimed at disrupting and stopping the construction of Nord Stream-2. In particular, the following provisions are included in the bill: granting the president the right to impose sanctions on individuals who have invested $ 1 million or more in construction of the Russian government to export pipelines or to provide equipment, technologies, and services for this. The amount of such transactions during the year is limited to $ 5 million. [15]. As an Ohio congressman Tim Ryan frankly stated, “... we need to focus on getting our gas to Europe so that it does not depend on Russia. That is why we must impose sanctions and send liquefied gas” [16]. These sanctions affected not only Russia but also the EU. The construction of the Nord Stream-2 involves European oil and gas companies such as Shell, OMV, and others. To date, these companies have already invested significant amounts to the project. In total, the Nord Stream-2 estimate is about 10 billion euro. Of these, a fifth has already been used up. Thus, US sanctions have provoked strong opposition from the EU, as they jeopardize the energy security of Europe. President EC Jean-Claude Juncker, in particular, stated that if the United States does not heed the EU’s concerns, the EU is ready for retaliatory actions and that the “America Above All” principle can not mean that Europe’s interests are in last place”. The Director-General of Engie, Isabelle Kosher noted: “The application of US sanctions to a project located outside the US that is not implemented by non-US companies and which is not funded in US dollars is an intervention in the affairs of European countries that is unacceptable” [17]. The resilience of energy companies to US energy diplomacy is primarily dictated by economic benefits. The principle that the price of energy directly affects the competitiveness of the state economy has not been canceled.
The modern development of the world economy and especially the globalization processes of the world economy, the increased interdependence of economies, the formation of global commodity and financial markets have led to increased interest in the problem of increasing international competitiveness in the countries included in these processes. The issues of competitiveness at the economic level in terms of relevance come out on top among issues of national importance, since they are closely related to achieving dynamic economic development of the country and improving the living standards of its population. At the same time, in the EU, the problems of an aging population and the maintenance of a high standard of living are the most urgent challenges of all member states. VII. Confidence in Tomorrow
The standard of living of European society (within the EU) is one of the highest in the world. The achievement of this level was the investment of many generations in the welfare of their states. The new world order poses many challenges to modern society as well as to EU countries. At present, the problems of studying for which economies will occupy the top of the competitiveness rating in the future and which ways of increasing competitiveness for a particular economy will be most effective are currently important for most countries of the world, are being solved in the changing conditions of the functioning of the entire world economy. Thus, each country, in a situation where there is no consensus on which way the future world development will go after the end of the financial and economic crisis, should develop a strategy to increase national competitiveness in this uncertain future. To postpone the solution of this issue to
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the post-crisis time, when the main trends will appear in the future development of the world economy is impossible, since the problem of increasing competitiveness is most closely related to solving the most important issues for the development of any country - sustainable economic and social development, achieving a high standard of living. Currently, the EU is facing the problem of a lack of a common strategy. Periodically there is a division into “New” and “Old” Europe (of course, not without the efforts of partners from outside). This analysis is nothing new because in the dream of Nebuchadnezzar it was indicated that the states formed after the Roman Empire would live in the neighborhood but would not be able to unite according to one national idea [18]. At the same time, the great struggle between God and Satan is not new. We are witnessing how the boundaries of the Christian brotherhood are blurring in the territory of geographical Europe. Black becomes white and white becomes black, but worst of all when everything turns gray. No one argues that energy resources are the key to prosperity, comfort, and development of any state. Resources will never be an obstacle in the relations of Christian countries (Catholic, Orthodox or Protestant does not matter), only when the economic rules will be in constant connection with the divine Christian principles. Enormous responsibility rests with the leaders of the EU, through which relations between countries will change, and society will not live under the pressure of information propaganda and will not be afraid of tomorrow. Unfortunately, some countries, through their organizations, are engaged in Goebbels propaganda, according to which, a thousand times repeated lies become true [19]. Thus, the opinion of modern society is formed.
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References Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the commission to the European Council and the European parliament an energy policy for Europe, 2007, Accessed 15.08.2019 https://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. do?uri=COM:2007:0001:FIN:EN:PDF [2] Commission of the European Communities, Green Paper - Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply.2000, Accessed 20.08.2019 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52000DC0769 [3] Zilvanas Silenas, Energy Security Lessons for UE: The U.S. Oil Crisis of 1973?. Accessed 02.09.2019. http://4liberty.eu/energysecurity-lessons-can-the-eu-learn-from-the-us-oil-crisis-in-1973/ [4] International Energy Agency, Energy Security, Accessed 05.09.2019 https://www.iea.org/ topics/energysecurity/whatisenergysecurity/ [5] Nord –Steam AG, Nord –Steam AG shareholders, Accessed 05.09.2019. https:// w w w. n o r d - s t r e a m . c o m / a b o u t - u s / o u rshareholders/ [6] Eurostat, Statistic explained 2018, Accessed 06.09.2019 https://ec.europa. eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index. php?title=File:Most_traded_goods_between_ EU-28_and_Russia,_top_20_of_SITC_ level_3_products,_2018.png [7] Nikiforov O., Hackemesser G., Die Schlacht um Europas Gasmarkt. Accessed 12.09.2019 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/9783-658-22155-3 [8] Delistoian Dmitri, Offshore pipeline influence on middle east spiritual Condition, 2017. Dialogo – Conf Conference. http://www. dialogo-conf.com/archive/?vid=1&aid=2& kid=170401-23 [9] Commission of the European Communities, Diversification of gas supply sources and routes. Accessed 15.09.2019 https://ec.europa. e u / e n e rg y / e n / t o p i c s / e n e rg y - s e c u r i t y / diversification-of-gas-supply-sources-androutes [10] Gazprom, European gas market. Accessed 26.09.2019 https://www.gazprom.ru/about/ [1]
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marketing/russia/ Gazprom, History of Natural Gas delivering in Europe, Accessed 26.09.2019 https://www. gazprom.ru/about/history/events/ [12] Independent, EU imports of Russian gas Accessed 15.08.2019 https://www. independent.ie/business/world/gazpromeurope-will-become-more-reliant-on-ourgas-30062968.html [13] BBC, Trump: What does the US do for NATO in Europe? Accessed 08.10.2019 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-44717074 [14] European Commision , EU imports of energy products, Accessed 15. 08.2019 https:// ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/ pdfscache/46126.pdf [15] Covington, Congress Adopts Significant New Sanctions Against Russia, Iran, and North Korea. Accessed 12.09.2019 https:// www.cov.com//media/files/corporate/ publications/2017/07/congress_adopts_ significant_new_sanctions_against_russia_ iran_north_korea.pdf [16] Vesti. The Great Gas Game. Accessed 24.09.2019 https:// w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? t i m e _ continue=29&v=CXRhwT4MePQ [17] Financial Times, EU Energy groups criticise US sanctions threats to Nord Stream pipeline. Accessed 26.09.2019 https://www. ft.com/content/c37ed1fe-632d-11e7-91a7502f7ee26895 [18] The Bible, Daniel 2:14-36. Accessed 27.09.2019 https://biblia.com/bible/esv/Da [19] Britannica, Paul Joseph Goebbels, Accessed 02.10.2019 https://www.britannica.com/ biography/Joseph-Goebbels [11]
Biographies Phd Delistoian Dmitri was born in the Republic of Moldova at 31.10.1983. Graduated Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania with engineer degree (Department of Shipbuilding) at 2008. In present he is a Ph.D. Student at Constanta Maritime
University (Department of Engineering Sciences in the Mechanical Field and Environment), Constanta, Romania. The field of study is pipeline construction. Between 2008 and 2012 it was an engineer at steel construction company and from 2012 he is Assistant at Faculty Faculty of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering from Ovidius University of Constanta. Phd. Radoiu Viorel-Bogdan was born in 22.11.1974. He graduated the Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania with engineer degree (Department of Shipbuilding) in 1998 and in 2006 obtained his Ph.D. in Constanta Maritime University. His work experience is starting with Assistant position and continuous with Lecturer at the Ovidius University of Constanta. From 2010 till present occupying the position of Chief of the Department of Naval, Port and Power Engineering at Ovidius University of Constanta. He is the author of the following books: • Strength of materials – Virom, 1999. • Computer-aided graphics – Ovidius University Press, 2015. Member of the project research teams: • Train-Res, “Innovative vocational training concept for promoting renewable energy sources in rural areas in Europe,“ Contract no LLP-LdV-ToI2012-RO-016/2012-1-RO1-LEO05—21099; • CEEX project;
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 329 - 342
DIALOGO
This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
The Tolerance and The Need for Absolute Fr. Assist. Prof. Nicolae Popescu, Ph.D. The Faculty of Theology, Ovidius University Constanţa Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 23 September 2019 Received in revised form 22 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.30
Since ancient times, people have felt the need to know and control the absolute truth, to ensure their security of life in this ephemeral world. The need for the absolute has determined man to adopt dogmas, laws, axioms, theories, and teachings. In this way he was able to organize himself socially, but imperfectly because the ordinances created by man are temporary, relative and contextual. But discovering that, by his natural powers, man is not able to know the absolute reality, some people have rejected very early the religious way for a path of science and technology. By default, those people lost the communion of faith when they rejected the absolute knowledge for some relative knowledge. In this unstable situation, inevitably the humanity faced violence and in order to find a reasonable solution for the stable functioning of society after they rejected the divine absolute and preferring the human relativity, the same people invented Tolerance. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Tolerance; absolute; relative; knowledge; manifest truth; human rights; political correctness; the way of religion; the method of science;
Copyright © 2019 Popescu Nicolae. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Popescu, Nicolae, ”The Tolerance and The Need for Absolute,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.30, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 329-341.
I. Introduction
Tolerance is more necessary than ever in the modern world. We are living a time marked by the globalization of the economy and the acceleration of mobility, communication, integration and interdependence, migrations and large
displacements of populations, urbanization, and mutations in the sphere of social organization. And since, in no part of the world, is there a situation that is not characterized by diversity, the increase of intolerance and confrontations is a potential threat to any region. Perhaps that is why the subject of
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tolerance is widely debated today in relation to religion and human rights, respectively from the perspective of reason and faith. II. The perspectives of reason and of
faith
From the perspective of reason and the truth of science, philosophy, art, etc.) Andrei Pleșu summarizes the reasons for being tolerant and says (in an article): „We can be tolerant in the name of reason, establishing that everyone has the right to their own opinion and that the principle of this right is the very rationality of our specific composition, but we can be tolerant also in the name of the precariousness of reason, establishing that we do not have access to the universal truth, therefore to the ultimate certainty and that our claim to always have rightness has no cover”[1]. Not only so, but the very imperfection and ephemerality of our world make, in the absence of the absolute, the world relativity imposing us the tolerance like necessary. Thus we understand why the modern conception of mathematics is much different from the classical one, and our contemporaries have witnessed what Bouligand calls the „decline of the mathematical absolute”. The axioms are no longer considered as evidence, but as mere contingent operative conventions, and the sentences that follow from them lose, in their turn, the character of absolute truths. Thus, a mathematical truth ceases to be absolute because it is relative to the chosen axiomatics [2]. Strictly speaking, the scientific experience can never definitively and absolutely verify a theory. It can only disable it, overturn it, or, as Karl Popper[3] says, „falsify” it (that is to say that the theory is false). The truth of a scientific theory is therefore always relative[2]. This does not mean that relativism is good and we should give up the effort to
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know the absolute truth. In a famous book analyzing the „crisis of the American spirit”, an American professor shows systematic indoctrination with relativism and tolerance, to which students from American universities have been subjected: „There is one thing a teacher can be absolutely sure of: almost every student who enters university believes or says he believes so, that the truth is relative. But if this belief is tested, one can count on the reaction of the students: they will not understand why. The fact that someone would look at the sentence as not self-evident astonishes them as if they were questioning 2 + 2 = 4 .... The relativity of truth is not a theoretical understanding, but a moral postulate, the condition of a free society. , or at least that’s how they perceive it. They were all equipped earlier on with this framework ... The danger they were taught to fear from absolutism is not error but intolerance. Relativism is necessary for openness, and this is a virtue the only virtue that has been endeavored to print the whole elementary education for more than fifty years”[4]. However, let us make the minimum mention that the expression „all truth is relative” refers only to the „truths” of scientific knowledge that are confirmed today, and tomorrow are denied. This expression cannot be applied to the truth about this world, which can only be one: a single coherent explanation of its society. “The fact that there have been differing opinions about good and evil at different times and places does not show in any way that neither one is true or superior to the other. To say that this proves is just as absurd as to say that the diversity of views expressed in a university dispute shows that there is no truth”[4]. On the other hand, from the perspective of universal faith and truth - manifest or absolute - religion and especially Christian religion, but, not least Islam, or Eastern religions, are even defined through the
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teachings on tolerance. We can identify here the following situations, the first two from the perspective of reason and the third from the perspective of faith, respectively: 1. All people have the right to their own opinion, and it is necessary to allow one another; 2. But, moreover, according to reason we must allow one another because we do not have access to the universal truth, because of the precariousness of reason; 3. Finally, we have the situation in which man also appeals to faith, not just to reason, and there is a majority „opinion” that man can experience the certainty of universal truth through faith. In each of the three situations regarding tolerance, we note that the common term is absolute, in the form of universal truth or manifest truth, which should not surprise us because „the need for absolute” is a constant which defining humanity from ancient times. A form of „expression of the absolute” is Art and Hegel said that: „Art was in Greece the highest expression of the absolute, and the Greek religion is the religion of art itself”[5]. But if we look at things strictly formally, it seems that the absolute is prior, that is, it has a kind of ascendancy over tolerance, which is not strictly true, because, once again, tolerance - like the absolute - is „the apanage of humanity”.Like Voltaire said „What is tolerance? It is the preserve of humanity. We are all fraught with weakness and error; the first law of nature requires us to forgive each other the errors we make”[6]. Anyway, tolerance exists from the same time with humanity, even if it began to be a major social concern only now by a short time ago, (several hundred years), if we refer to the absolute need of humanity that manifests itself from the dawn of history. But it is increasingly evident today that the
absolute truth is represented by faith while tolerance increasingly invokes the relativity of reason. Man has always expressed need to the absolute to control his life in this permanently changing world. This need of the human being he has externalized it as a law, axiom, dogma, proverb, and thus he has been able to organize himself socially, but imperfectly because the ordinances created by man are temporary, relative and contextual. If this had been his only way of survival and the social organization he would not have been able to find stability and would have been destroyed. However, mankind has been around for a long time and has evolved socially to reach levels that could not even be thought of before. This is due to absolute truths that revealed to man. Without these truths, man would have been condemned to darkness, being incapable of knowledge in absolute but only relative terms. Only religion offers these absolute truths, and science, philosophy, and other human theories offer just simple statements, which can be hypotheses or opinions, temporary, relative, and contextual. Through his human powers man is not able to know the absolute reality. By rejecting religion for science and technology, man implicitly rejects absolute knowledge for relative knowledge. In this unstable situation, the results inevitably lead to violence. In order to find a reasonable solution for the stable functioning of society after rejecting the divine absolute and preferring the human relativity, humans invented tolerance. III. The New and Old Tolerance
Today, tolerance is an extremely present topic, especially for several decades and at the same time, very frequent calls for
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tolerance are heard, as well as vehement accusations of intolerance[7]. As a term, tolerance was the supreme word of the Lights era. “The concept of tolerance is never defined. The historian Jean de Viguerie summarizes it in four precepts: • not to do to another what you do not want to be done to you; • any truth is subjective and therefore no one has the right to impose its norm; • any religion is an opinion among many others; • the state should not intervene in matters that involve a definition of eternal salvation. In fact, when philosophers define tolerance, they do so by its opposite: fanaticism. Any thought that relies on dogma is declared fanatical. But Christianity does not conceive of faith as opinion among others, but as a revealed truth”[8]1. For Christians, faith is a gift of God, a supernatural virtue shed by God in man, it is the outside help given to man in order to understand the message of divinity. Therefore, on the basis of faith, on divine help, on revelation, the whole Christian teaching is built, for God cannot be known by man only by his own powers. „No one has ever seen God; The Only-Born Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He made Him known” (John 1:18). Man cannot believe in Jesus Christ without sharing in his Spirit. It is the Holy Spirit that reveals to people who Jesus is. For „no one can say: „Jesus is Lord”, except under the action of the Holy Spirit” (1 Corinthians 12: 3). «The Spirit searches all, even the depths of God. (...) No one knows the things of God, only the Spirit of God” (1 Corinthians 2: 10-11). Only God knows God fully. We believe in the Holy Spirit because He is God. Revelation is a 1 Here is a description of the ideas that made the birth of the “god of tolerance” possible.
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supernatural knowledge that has its source in the absolutely free freedom of God to communicate itself. Therefore revelation is the absolute presupposition of theological thinking and on it bases every act of human knowledge[9]. In history, tolerance has had two meanings: the first we can consider old today and the second we consider new. The old one (ancient and medieval) was of a divine nature and had a religious expression. The new (modern) is human in nature political, philosophical and scientific and has an ideological expression. „Political correctness is not intolerant of any particular content, but of intolerance itself”[10]. For this reason, the Christian truth is not fought by any higher idea, (today nothing compares with anything, because the criteria of discernment have been rejected), but due to the very fact that it claims to be the only way to God, left by God himself. The truth of the Christian faith is not challenged, but the very legitimacy of upholding this truth as unique. Despite contemporary reality, tolerance presupposes opposition to any violence against those who hold views other than our own. This connotation of the word was and is strongly supported by Christian teaching, even though some have used seemingly Christian arguments to support their hatred, violence, and other passions. On the other hand, the word tolerance has been interpreted as trying to support the absurd theory that „everyone has his truth” and that we must be tolerant, in the sense of never claiming that only teaching (religion) can have the truth. In this acceptance of the word, in the category of acceptance of the „different”, we try to put on the same plane the normal difference (of race, nationality, belonging to a certain culture, intelligence) with sin (homosexuality, heresy, atheism,...). Eliminating the Christian criteria for evaluating things has led to moral relativism,
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which can only lead to the disintegration of a society, chaos and „drowning” with our own tolerance. That, because, „No system, whether mechanical or biological, can survive under the conditions where its „tolerance field” is overloaded. No assembly can tolerate principles or states of affairs that undermine its reason for being.”[10]. The solution of contemporary „tolerance” is not the normal one, because it cannot lead to true communion between people, but only to a simple non-violent cohabitation. Therefore, I believe that it would be natural for people to unite in truth (That all may be one, as You, Father, in Me and I in You, so they in us (John 17:21), because a Christian can assert that the Christian-Orthodox teaching is the only true and coherent explanation of its world[11]2 and at the same time to have a merciful love for those who do not believe the same. And it cannot be disputed that a negligent exercise of tolerance, its demagogic overload implies the risk of anarchic evolutions, in which the once allowed exception becomes a vicious circle, first selfreliant and then discriminatory, which ends right in intolerance. In his book on Open Society, Karl Popper, he rightly observed that „limitless tolerance definitely leads to the disappearance of tolerance”[12]. If until recently tolerance was defined as „allowing a thing not usually allowed”, meaning an „overlook”: „To let it be done, to allow something that is not allowed, what should be prevented, what is usually punished”[13], [14], it is now necessary to define the tolerant as the one who accepts the point of political correctness[15]3. And yet, not this criterion is changing the God 2 The Church writer Tertullian, said that man is Christian by nature.
And M. Eliade: „Christianity merges, in its authentic cases, with the very nature of man, with humanity”. 3 That politically correct, created in America to defend the rights of oppressed minorities, as an opposition to any form of racial discrimination, is now becoming a New fundamentalism.
word’s, but a hidden human authority that dictates us what we should think and whatnot, what is good and what is not. „The current European messianism is not the creation of the ordinary European, but the backstage arrangement of an elite. «Vote for or against Maastricht! For or against the single currency!» But who made the Maastricht? Euro? A social revolution? European people through democratic debates? No way! The masses were called to vote on a situation already presented as a fact”[16]. The fight for tolerance should be a fight against discrimination because discrimination is a form of inequality that prevents individuals or groups in society from exercising their fundamental rights and freedoms and enjoying the same opportunities. And a society where there is polarization in the poor and the rich, that is discrimination and exclusion cannot be considered democratic. (So is poverty, but no one is really fighting against it). Specifically, the fundamental error of the theorists of the new tolerance, committed centuries ago in the West and perpetuated to this day, consists in shifting the concept of tolerance from the state of political virtue to the state of a new philosophy of life, respectively, from ensuring a peaceful coexistence of the various faith communities, to associating and replacing the truth with the lie. IV. The (un)manifest truth and the
precariousness of reason.
In rejecting the faith, people have come to believe that there is no absolute truth or that they will never bother to seek it. Thus, one has come to the theory that „we should not believe that our way is better than another. The intention is not so much to teach students about other times and places but to make them aware that their
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preferences are just accidents of their time and place”[4]. Through these theories, the idea of universality of any truth and any faith is struck, with Christianity becoming only one of the possible explanations of the world. The new relativistic inquisition is roaring like a lion, popularizing the multitude of opinions in the world, seeking whom to swallow (I Peter 5, 8) in its nihilism and frightening those with firm faith by various denigrating epithets. „The true believer is the real danger,”[4] she says. „While tolerance was considered a necessary evil in the seventeenth century, today it is seen by many as a value in itself”[17]. From the virtue that fulfilled the word of the Lord when He told us to let the tares grow with the wheat (Matthew 13: 29), knowing that the unbelieving man is sanctified by the faithful woman (I Corinthians 7: 14) and by the Christian tolerance, what it was defined as it was revealed, by „carrying the tasks of one another”, by patient for the another who is falling from the Truth with the hope of his return, so a tolerance that does not allow the freedom of the neighbor to be forced, it’s reached „epistemological tolerance”, that mean it’s passed to a tolerance in the plane of physical nonviolence, a tolerance infiltrated in the plane of truth and falsehood, in the plane of human knowledge, where it became „to make the law”. The characteristic of this new-type tolerance is (atheist) agnosticism because man cannot know the truth, and consequently it is reasonable to tolerate any faith because it cannot be stated which is the true and which is false. In this way it went from the plane of the absolute to the plane of relativism, and from a tolerance based on the discovery and commandment of the Lord, it went insidiously to the tolerance based on human teachings. It is obvious that tolerance involves
support[18]4 and patience. Your support, that means bear a weight, also what you support is very depressor, and sometimes it gets crushing. But you are patience, that means you enduring something you disagree with, something that aggressively or in someway attacks your conscience or existence, an abnormality that should be solved somehow. In Christianity, one speaks of the long-suffering. That because, for the most part, the whole life of a human being is indeed a long exercise of patience, of giving up one’s own will or of one’s own comfort to make room for others, different from yourself. It is one of the lessons that the Holy Fathers ask us to teach thoroughly because „patience” is a virtue that is the foundation of the other virtues. In situations of close coexistence, one can tolerate even the incompetence! This is understandable and acceptable, but until the problem of sin is reached. The patience of sin, self or others, should be limited. And, of course, even if sin cannot be foolish, the sinner can be pitied! The patience of something or someone implies a certain suffering, smaller or more significant. Even the Latin root of the word tolerance encompasses this meaning of suffering[18]. As the newer researchers say, „Tolerance of the Middle Ages is a much more coherent and powerful concept than the ambiguous notion of tolerance of modern political discourse, precisely because it has nothing to do with religious freedom or the plurality of truth. ... In the eighteenth century, the distinction of canon law was no longer made between tolerating and approving. ... When Voltaire pleaded for „tolerance” in religious matters, what he had in mind was, in fact, the peaceful coexistence of the various beliefs that had no significance for him anyway. ... The medieval authors never doubted that they possessed the absolute truth, but they developed the concept of tolerance to be a means of living 4 Like definition of the Latin root of the word that gives us the following meanings: to wear, to support.
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together with the untruth”[19]. But they did not seek to legitimize the untruth. However, „The false optimistic epistemology of Bacon and Descartes was the main inspiration of an unprecedented intellectual and moral revolution in history. It encouraged people to think through and for themselves [that is, to no longer obey the teachings of the Church and to no longer take the truth ready from God from it, n.n.]. It gave them hope that through [rational, n.n.] knowledge they could free themselves and others from servitude and poverty. It has made modern science possible. It became the basis of the fight against censorship and the suppression of freethinking. It became the foundation of nonconformist consciousness, of individualism, of a new understanding of human dignity, of the desire for universal education and of the dream of a free society”[20]. The justification for this process is the theory of the new philosophers (eg, K. Popper) who bases his concept of tolerance on the idea that „the truth is not manifest”, respectively, that the truth is not accessible, nor obvious to everyone, which is good, because, on the other hand, those who believed in „manifest truth” would be precisely those who gave birth to totalitarianism, though not in the theory of „manifest truth” the source of totalitarianism and intolerance must be sought, but in the passions of uneducated people. This is what the Lord Jesus Christ Himself said when He told the merciful rich man that no matter how manifest the truth might be, the people would still sin because: „If they do not listen to Moses and the prophets, they will not believe even if one it raises from the dead” (Luke 16: 31)!? The theory of non-manifest truth is part of a more complex philosophy, namely that of doubt, unbelief and uncertainty, which we are increasingly sinking into, trying through arguments that are more sophisticated
than the false vision that philosophically perpetuates and legitimizes. It tells the conscience: „be quiet, you must not choose the Christian path of need, since everyone knows and even the great philosophers have said it: all the ways are good. And even if it were just the good Christian, you could always say, where was I to know?” That is what K. Popper, one of her main promoters, says: „This false epistemology has led to disastrous consequences. The theory that the truth is manifest, that anyone can see it, provided they only want to see it [You will know the truth, and the truth will set you free. (John 8:32), n.n.], is the basis of the fanaticism of almost all kinds. Because only the lowest of in wickedness can refuse to see the manifest truth. [Blessed are the pure in heart, that they shall see God, the Truth, (Matthew 5, 8), n.n.]: only those who have reason to fear the truth conspire to suppress it. [For every one that doeth evil hateth the Light, and cometh not to the Light, lest his deeds should be made manifest. (John 3:20), n.n.] But the theory that the truth is manifest not only gives birth to fanatical, people who are in control of the belief that all who do not see the manifest truth are surely possessed by the devil - but can lead to authoritarianism. [Or, if I know the truth, it does not mean that I have no mercy on those who is „possessed by the devil”, n.n.] The purported truth, therefore, needs not only interpretation and affirmation, but also reinterpretation and reaffirmation. It is required that there be an authority who declares and establishes what the manifest truth consists of, and it may end up doing this in an arbitrary and cynical way”[21]. [This authority from God founded and guided by God is the Orthodox Church itself, and by two thousand years since it exists, I do not think it has ever decided anything „arbitrarily and cynically”, n.n.]. Popper’s idea is that both pessimistic epistemologies (knowledge is impossible
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or accidental) and optimistic ones (manifest truth theory) eventually lead to the establishment of an uncontrollable authority, in whose good faith or truth we must abandon ours. [But the Lord tells us that need abandonate ourselves only to Him: „Coming to Me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will rest you on you !” (Matthew 11:28).][7]. V. Christian tolerance and Political
correctness
It is desired to impose a New World Order, which will no longer be based on the true word of our Lord Jesus Christ, so on the Christian principles on which the whole European society has been built for 1000 years and better. What is now called Europe, it formerly called the Christian Republic, and today it is no longer wanted to mention Christianity in the European constitution even as a historical heritage. Eminescu, realizing the positive impact of Christianity on the whole world, said: “These are 2000 years since the biography of the Son of God is the book after which humanity grows. [...] Thus, sacrificing Himself for His fellows, not out of pride, not out of a sense of civic duty only, but out of love, has remained since then the highest form of human existence.”[22]. Almost 1000 years had to be created the ideology and anti-Christian institutions that promote the teaching exactly opposite to Christianity, even if the only absolute model of tolerance is the Savior during his life, and perhaps the most suggestive example of tolerance in the face of violence/intolerance. we have in the episode of His capture by the servants of the archers and the like - Judas, one of the twelve, and with him a great multitude, with swords and plagues, from the archers and from the elders of the people. (Matthew 26:47); tolerance that culminates in the prayer of our Lord to the Father to
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forgive those who do not know what they are doing by crucifying Him. (See Matthew 26: 50-56). But was Christ tolerant? With sinners, with the Pharisees, and with the scribes, with the temple daisies, with the Samaritans, with the hierarchs? Did He try to ignore the falls and the deviations, to overlook or to quietly past sins? Was Christ the follower of compromises in matters of faith or of natural life, according to the ontological constitution of man, that of being created in the image and likeness of God? Not! On the contrary, he lost no opportunity to wither any wrongdoing, any fall, any wrong reporting to God. He rebuked with time and without time, sometimes with great vehemence („Alas, to you ...!”). Rarely, He went on to explicit gestures, that in the case of the money changers or the fruitless fig tree, the exhortation of Christ was unequivocal: „But your word be: Yes, yes; No no; and what is more, all are from evil” (Matthew 5:37). And yet, Christ was extremely tolerant if we consider His purity and values and also if we refer to His power to punish the transgressions and transgressions of the law. At any moment Christ could have summoned legions of angels to cause many wounds and punishments to sinners. But he did not and he endured theirs. Because He tolerates everyone equally because all are sinners and he is not a man without sin. Therefore, Christian tolerance can be defined by the words with which the Holy Apostle Paul describes Christian love[7]. Next, we may ask ourselves: does Christ put an end to His patience? On the occasion of the healing of a lunatic (Matthew 17:17), He says these words to those around Him, but more to himself: „Oh, unbelieving and ruthless nation, until I am with you? How long will I suffer you?...”. Following this somewhat rhetorical question, seeing bitterness about people’s
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bravery and their persistence in a weak, unworkable faith, Christ continues his mission unabated, which will ultimately lead him to the supreme, redeeming sacrifice for the human nature as a whole, for each individual. But, the question can be asked and vice versa. Were the Jews of that time tolerant of Christ? Obviously not. They denigrated him, they mocked him, they begged for his death, they enjoyed it. At the same time, it can be easily observed that, in rebuking, Christ has always tried to recover the fallen or lost ones. He was very merciful and always willing to help them straighten out. He sought not death, but the correction of the sinner (cf. Ezekiel 33:11). He entered their homes, bandaged them, healed them, spoke to them, and taught them, often through parables, for a more understanding. At the same time, the exhortation of Christ is one of total forgiveness (Mark 11:25). He asks us to go even further. More than forgiveness, Christ calls us for the love of the enemies. Now, by virtue of this love, it is necessary to heal them, to guide them on the path that will lead them to salvation. Of course, it is about that compassionate love and always ready to sacrifice, which the Apostle Paul tells us in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, that love who „endures long” (13, 4), „all suffer”, „all endure.” (13, 7). But - attention! - we must never forget that it is, at the same time, a love that „truly rejoices” (13, 6). In other words, an authentic love, capable of bringing true, paradisiacal joy, is only one that accompanies the truth. This it forgets many of those who preach tolerance at any cost, being adept at relativism and laxity in relation to the truth. In all times God (through the Holy Spirit) became known to believers and sinners alike, through prophets, philosophers, scientists, and artists, a revelation that culminated with the Savior’s incarnation.
Therefore, the „Doctrine of the manifest truth” represents a veiled and subtle attack on the most important dogma of Christianity: INCARNATION. That because our Lord says: „For this I was born, and for this I came into the world, to bear witness to the truth; everyone who is into the truth listens to My voice” (John 18: 37). It is also an attack on the infallibility and authority of the Church which was given to her by God himself, and who is denied the sole attribute of divine truth. „God is the Lord and He appeared to us, the one who comes in the name of the Lord is well-spoken” (from the Songs of the Utrenia’s service); „Life has appeared and we have seen it and we confess and proclaim to you the Eternal Life, that was with the Father and was shown to us” (I John 1: 2). In principle, what is required today to be tolerated? Mostly things that contradict common sense, which was refined through a millennial experience. Those considered until recently that not allowed, today are not only allowed but are even encouraged and they are inserted between normal things. We are always required to tolerate minorities of all kinds (ethnic, sexual, religious, etc.) and to considering that they are more exposed. Unfortunately, we are often required to tolerate non-moral values, deviations from normal nature. Things often end up with incredible connotations, in the sense that the intolerance of minorities towards the majority is admitted and encouraged! In this way, positive discrimination of the majority by the minority is achieved. For example, we observe how Even though the universal and majority vote represents democracy, today, it is increasingly denied and discredited[23]. Of course, not every minority benefits from this approach. For example, Christian minorities in different countries or nonChristian areas do not enjoy an equivalent political or media majority support, most often being ignored and abandoned by the
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media and political institutions. Therefore, there is at least one false tolerance, ie selective, and it is addressed only certain needs. Even so, we can say that there is a tolerance against some discriminations with physical causes (disability, disability, disability, deficiency, impairment, etc.) and one against some discrimination with spiritual causes (in education, profession, race, sex, faith, etc.). For the reasonings against the „manifest truth” may be reproached that on its basis atheism could be defined as a voluntary and intolerant agnosticism that imposes relativism through principal intransigence. In contrast, Christians know that in fact, the truth, that is, „The true light enlightens every man who comes into the world” (John 1: 9) and they also know that „God is the Lord and He appeared to us” (Psalm 117: 27), „The Word was made flesh, and dwelt in us, and I saw His glory, the glory of the One-Born of the Father, full of grace and truth” (John 1: 14). For Christians, to know the Truth - which is not „manifest” -, it is not a real problem, but it is a problem for people who, for many centuries, had no faith, the only means by which it can know the truth. And we are not talking about the religious truth which by definition is known by faith, but we are talking about any truth, as absolute truth. Along with believers, all the people, whether philosophers, scientists, or artists, know the truth only by faith. The reason is indeed, a powerful tool, but a tool by which truth is dimensioned and expressed for communication between people, but the knowledge of the truth is made only by faith. Let’s take an example. No one has ever seen an electromagnetic field and to state: this is the electromagnetic field because in fact, rational „knowledge” - usually invoked against religious claims - is, in fact, a parareligious knowledge. It means is a pseudoknowledge.
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In fact, with rationality, people make certain assumptions, about invisible realities and based on certain visible facts, they are an experiment to confirm those assumptions. But, when the „hypotheses” of science, philosophy, and art are confirmed in practice, the knowledge of the truth is not realized, it means just that the reality behind that assumption is practically and to some extent accessible to people, but it does not mean that man has known the truth, as such. He has experienced a conjunctural relationship in which that reality is manifested, which continues to remain hidden. This is how Einstein’s theory of relativity was formulated. More effectively, Bertrand Russell expresses himself thus as to the „assumptions” of reason: „It turned out that if we take an ordinary object such as those supposed to be known by the senses, what the senses tell us immediately is not the truth about the object. as he is separate from us, but only the truth about certain sensory data, which, as far as we can tell, depends on the relations between us and the object. Thus what we see and feel directly is only „appearance”, which we think is a sign of a certain hidden „reality”. But if reality is not what appears, do we have any means of knowing if there is any reality? And if so, do we have any way to find out how she is?”[24]. Yes we have, and for religious people this means is faith, and true knowledge comes through faith - „And faith is the trust of the hoped, the proof of the things of the unseen” (Hebrews 11: 1). Only after the man assumes by faith that there is that initially assumed reality and which he calls by the expression „electromagnetic field”, he can formulate theorems, laws, theories, and different theoretical constructions can be practiced. The scientist is not an atheist but a believer like Saint Apostle Thomas, nicknamed the unbeliever, because he believed only because he saw. I would say
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that: he believed only after he has seen, and that is exactly as any rational man claims. On the other hand, the faith of the religious man is the faith required by the Savior, the faith of the one who has not seen and yet has believed (John 20: 28-29). „A sin against faith means the opposition to the proven truth of the Christian faith. For this sin the Pharisees were guilty, who disobeyed the value of the Savior’s deeds, declaring them deeds of the devil (Matthew 9:34); also all those who love to sin are guilty, and because the Christian faith stops them, they deny it, reject it, or persecution it.”[25], [26]. These statements show that in fact, there is not always that conflict invoked by ideologues, between faith and reason, but it is a harmonious relationship, which only certain people reject it because they being aware that otherwise, they should ultimately accept the legitimacy of affirmations made by faith, that is, the revealed truth of religion, and the existence of God. Jean-Jacques Rousseau says that „Those who distinguish between civil intolerance and theological intolerance, in my opinion, are wrong. These two types of intolerance are inseparable”[27]. Therefore, the solution of the alleged conflict between reason and faith is not, as some thinkers today advise us, following the words of some famous atheists, as „devoid of the unequivocal support of absolute truths, to learn to live without certainty” (cf. H. R. Patapievici who continues the reasoning of Bertrand Russell - a declared atheist), but to fight for the responsibility to acquire the certainty accessible to people by finding out and obeying their absolute Truth, that is, by our Lord Jesus Christ (John 14: 6), because this is the purpose of our lives and anything less will not satisfied to us[34]. Unfortunately, we find that there is a real conflict, between religious confessions, about which, it is supposed that they should
live in communion. Otherwise, we cannot explain the fact that the West, a heterodox space, which is so involved in ecumenical dialogue, has lost, due to heresy, the path to Truth and are blind, they insist to argue that the Orthodox are also blind and cannot access the knowledge certainty of the Truth. In fact, critics of theories about „manifest truth” invoke the impossibility of obtaining certainties and not of knowing the truth itself, because theoretically people could know the truth even without being aware that they have the knowledge of the truth. It should perhaps be noted here that there is spiritual and physical tolerance and intolerance. Those physical is most often determined by the poor management of those spiritual. So, from a spiritual point of view, certain things and situations may be considered unacceptable, but this rejection should not, in any case, lead to physical intolerance and violence, with its evil consequences. VI. Faith is the most appropriate
context to support tolerance.
Alone, true belief is the context that favors tolerance, while intolerance only shows, real spiritual blindness. The one who said, „Don’t go wrong in this!” is the same one who said, „Don’t judge others!” The term tolerance, as such, is nowhere to be found, in the Holy Scripture, however, in Leviticus 19, 14 the first somewhat antidiscriminatory law appears: „Do not speak ill of the deaf person, nor put a stop before the blind man”, and in capitol 21, 16-20 it said: „The Lord spoke to Moses and told Aaron to tell him that in the future no one of his kindred and of his relatives who has a blemish on the body should come near to bring gifts (neither blind nor lame, neither crippled, neither the one with the foot or the broken hand, nor the bald one, nor the one with white on the eyes, etc.) because the gifts are the great
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saints and even though the saints can eat, beyond the curtain they do not pass and the sacrificial, and it does not come near, so as not to dishonor the holy place.” The book of Deuteronomy (15, 11 and 28, 15-29) reminds people to be charitable, but also warns them that any disability is a punishment from God for sinners: „And if you will not listen to the voice of the Lord your God and you will not be forced to fulfill all His commandments and decisions” […] „May the Lord beat you with madness, blindness, and numbness of heart”. Christian tolerance defines the respect of the freedom of another, of his way of thinking and behavior, as well as of his opinions of any kind so that the other is not a hindrance in completing our own freedom. (See: 1 Corinthians 8: 1-13). That is the common sense of not being selfish and of understanding, that what is important to you may mean so much to another also. Finally, Christians are waiting for the time when people will experience the difference between the normal and the disabled, such as the difference between a green-eyed and a brown-eyed man, meaning the difference won’t bother anymore, only then we could say that we are beings in the image of God giving light and heat and over the good one and the bad one. Until then, all we do is just to practice and often mimic tolerance, educated spirit, empathy, social assistance, with ungrateful hypocrisy. References: [1] A. Pleşu, Toleranţa şi intolerabilul. Criza unui concept, [Eng. Tolerance and intolerability. The crisis of a concept], conference since 2005. http://editura.litemet.ro/ebooks/aplesutoleranta/ aplesutolerantal.html, published in the journal Cuvântul, anul XI (XVI), nr. 2 (332), februarie 2005: 11-13. [2] André Vergez & Denis Huisman, Curs de filosofie, [Eng. Philosophy course], Ed. Humanitas, 1995: 152, 159.
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[3] K. Popper, Logica cercetării, [Eng. The logic of research], transl. in rom., Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1981: 245. [4] Allan Bloom, Criza spiritului american, [Eng. The crisis of the American spirit], transl. by Mona Antohi, Ed. Humanitas, București, 2006: 23, 24, 29, 41. [5] Pierre Auregan, Guy Palayret, Zece etape ale gândirii occidentale, [Eng. Ten stages of western thinking], Bucureşti, Editura Antet, 1999: 10. [6] Dicţionarul filozofic[The philosophical dictionary]Voltaire, Editura Polirom, București, 2002: 218. [7] Zeul toleranţei şi descreştinarea creştinismului: o perspectivă ortodoxă, [Eng. The god of tolerance and decriminalization of Christianity: an orthodox perspective], pref.: Costion Nicolescu, Bucureşti, Ed. Christiana, 2009: 5, 10, 28, 34. [8] Jean Sevillia, Corectitudinea istorică, [Eng. Historical correctness], trad. de Anca Dumitra, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2005: 158. [9] L’Enciclopedia della Filosofia e delle Scienze Umane, [Eng. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy and Human Sciences], 1996, Instituto Geografico De Agostini, Novara, (translated in Romanian, Editura All Educaţional, Bucureşti, 2004: 933). [10] S. D. Gaede, When Tolerance Is No Virtue: Political Correctness, Multiculturalism & the Future of Truth & Justice, InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois, 1993: 23. [11] Mircea Eliade, „Mentalitatea francmasonică”, [Eng. The Freemason mentality], in Oceanografie, [Oceanography],Ed. Roza Vânturilor, Bucureşti, 1990: 122. [12] K. R. Popper, Societatea deschisă și dușmanii ei, [Eng. The open society and its enemies,], vol. 1 – Vraja lui Platon, [Eng. Plato’s spell], Ed. Humanitas, București, 2005: 373. [13] DEX, [Eng. The explanatory dictionary of the Romanian language], Ed. Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureşti, 1996. [14] C. Andreea-Adamescu, Dicționar enciclopedic ilustrat, [Eng. Illustrated encyclopedic dictionary], Ed. Cartea Românească, Bucureşti, 1931: 1311. [15] Umberto Eco, Pliculeţul Minervei, [Eng. The Minerva envelope], trad. de M. Şchiopu, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2004: 29. [16] Ovidiu Hurduzeu, Sclavii fericiţi Lumea văzută din Silicon Valley, [Eng. Happy slaves The world seen
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in Silicon Valley], Ed. Timpul, Iaşi, 2005: 73. [17] Eva M. Synek, The Limits of Religious Tolerance a European Perspective, Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, vol. 3 (2002): 45. [18] I. Nădejde, Dicţionar latin-român, [Eng. Dictionary Latin Romanian], Ed. Contemporană, Ediţia XIX, f. 1, f. a.: 660. [19] Istvan Bejczy, „Tolerantia: a Medieval concept”, in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 58, Nr. 3.(1997): 383. [20] K. R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, ed. V, Routledge, 2002: 10. [21]– K. R. Popper quoted in ch. „Adevărul manifest şi socialismul” [Manifest truth and socialism], by H.-R. Patapievici, Omul recent, [Eng. The recent man], Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2005: 192. [22] Mihai Eminescu, Opere, [Eng. Works], vol. XII, Ed. Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1985: 134. [23] Arend Lijphart, Modele ale democrației. Forme de guvernare și funcționare în treizeci și șase de țări, [Eng. Models of democracy. Forms of government and functioning in thirty-six countries.], Polirom, Iași, 2000. [24] Bertrand Russell, Problemele filosofiei, [Eng. The problems of philosophy], trad. Mihai Ganea, pref.: Mircea Flonta, Ed. a III-a, Ed. BIC ALL, Bucureşti, 2004: 6-7. [25] Învăţătura de credinţă ortodoxă, [Eng. The teaching of orthodox faith], Editura Institutului Biblic și de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 2000: 361. [26] Sfântul Petru Movilă, Mărturisirea ortodoxă a credinţei universale şi apostolice a Bisericii Orientale, [Eng. Orthodox confession of the universal and apostolic faith of the Eastern Church], transl. by Traian Diaconescu, Ed. Institutului European, Iaşi, 2001: 211. [27] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Contractul social, [Eng. The social contract], Ed. Moldova, Iaşi, 1996: 210.
BIOGRAPHY Born on 09/01/1977. Attended the Theological Seminary (1992-1997), Faculty of Theology (1997-2001) and Faculty of Law (2000-2005), graduated from the same faculty and graduated level
courses (Theology - 2001-2002) and (Law 2003-2004). Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Theology, „Ovidius” University of Constanta since 2007. Published three works along with Pr. Prof. Emilian Corniţescu,PhD,:Old Testament andtimeliness and The Old Testament cultural and social moral religious issues at the Europolis Publishing House in Constanta in 2008, and Biblical Studies at the Archdiocese of Tomis Publishing House in 2015, as well as other books, studies and articles. The Rich Man’s Worry about Tomorrow. In „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic. ISSN-L 2392-9928, Volume: 4.2, doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2018.4.2.7, June 2018, pp. 64-73. How can a Confessor better call unop Believers to achieve Perfection?. In „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic. ISSN-L 2392 – 9928, vol. 3 „Bridging Science and Religion: SELF - SOUL – CONSCIOUSNESS. Dialogo Conf 2017 SSC”, ISBN: 978-80-554-1338-9, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2017.3.2.10, pp 110-124. Church, Society, and Conflict. In „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic. ISSN-L 2392 – 1744, vol. 2 „The 3nd Virtual International Conference on the Dialogue between Science and Theology. Dialogo Conf 2016”, ISBN: 978-80-554-112085, DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2016.3.10, pp 96-111. Tolerance Edict of Milan and Religious Freedom in a Biblical Perspective, la „Conferința științifică internațională – Libertatea religioasă și de conștiință în contextul securității sociale”, 29 septembrie 2016, Palatul Parlamentului, București, în „JURNALUL LIBERTĂȚII DE CONȘTIINȚĂ – SUPLIMENT” (JOURNAL FOR FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE), Editions IARSIC, 2016, France,
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ISSN: 2495-1757, pp. 64-82. St. Ap. Thomas and steps of faith. In „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic. ISSN-L 2392 – 9928, vol. 2 „The 2nd Virtual International Conference on the Dialogue between Science and Theology. Dialogo Conf 2015”, ISBN: 978-80-554-1131-6, DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2015.2.1, pp 302-317. PhD in Theology since 27/11/2009.
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 243 - 354
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
Multidisciplinary JOURNAL Available online at www.dialogo-conf.com/dialogo-journal/
held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The Distinction between Science and Christian Orthodox Theology in Cosmology Eugen GANȚOLEA, M.Eng / Ph.D. Candidate, “Andrei Șaguna” Orthodox Theology Faculty “Lucian Blaga” University - ULBS Sibiu, Romania
article info
abstract
Article history: Received 29 September 2019 Received in revised form 23 October Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.31
Science and theology are covering two distinct domains of our reality: physics and metaphysics, using two distinct methods of investigation: epistemology and gnoseology, respectively. As such, a conflict between science and theology should not be possible because there is no overlapping area. Science only offers paradigmatic explanations of how the universe works, without having the scope to provide scientific explanations for the cause and purpose of the universe and all beings’ existence. On the other hand, using gnoseology, Christian Orthodox theology, especially the apophatic one, can offer spiritual ontological understanding for the cause and scope of the universe and all beings’ existence, without providing detailed functional explanations for them. Gnoseology is based on the human spiritual cognition, in direct interpersonal collaboration with God. This article is focused on the complementary approach between science and Christian Orthodox theology. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Science; Theology; Orthodox; Creation; Saint Luke of Crimea; the scientific method;
Copyright © 2019 Eugen Gantolea. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Gantolea, Eugen, ”The Distinction between Science and Christian Orthodox Theology in Cosmology,” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.31, ISSN: 2393-1744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 343-354.
I. Introduction
Every honest scientific person knows that the current scientific cosmological paradigm who includes the Big Bang model also implies recognizing the impossibility of infinite extrapolation into the past using the laws of physics. As Lecourt would put it,
from a scientific perspective “we don’t know anything about the origin of the universe and neither about the origin of time does not matter if the original term is considered here with chronological meaning or explanatory meaning” [1]. Presently, the scientific explanation of the reality of physical objects’ functionality
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(based on the cause-effect mechanism) cannot be separated from the existential philosophical meaning of this reality. While Newton’s classical physics considered that science can offer functional explanation independent of an observer (an objective reality was implied), presently physics (theory of relativity, quantum mechanics) clearly states that it cannot offer a complete scientific explanation for the universe’s functionality, independent from the research methodology and the observer (the human being that has the most advanced and complex intellectual cognition from the all known beings in the universe). In other words, the subject of discussion, on one hand, is the objectivity and the exhaustive potential of the scientific paradigms; on the other hand, the independence of science from philosophy. A subject of great importance is the possibility of science to offer a paradigmatic explanation of how the universe works independently from the existential (philosophical) meaning of this way of working. The consideration of a clear border exists between the observations and scientific conclusions, along with the apparent objectivity of scientific methodology, which has to be reanalyzed within the scientific context. Physical science offers paradigmatic explanations for the universe functionality through scientific theories, which are elaborated using the scientific method and based exclusively on epistemology. It is not in the scope of science, as we define it today, to also offer an explanation for the universe’s functionality in this way, which is considered to be natural. These functional explanations have to be interpreted by the human cognition in order to classify them with an existential (metaphysical) meaning. Therefore, philosophy and theology are called to explain the existential scope of the universe and all beings. Theological gnoseology, by its specific spiritual
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methodology, is able to extend the human cognition beyond the physical reality into the metaphysical spiritual reality through spiritual perception. The beauty of poetry, songs, paintings, flower, etc. cannot be scientifically explained, as they are addressed to human subjective esthetical cognition. The art in whichever form cannot be scientifically quantified. The present cosmological paradigm explains the functionality of the universe using two distinct scientific theories: theory of relativity for the atomic scale (which implies the Big Bang) and quantum mechanics for the subatomic scale. Just a few years ago, NASA’s Gravity Probe B Program confirmed experimentally two of Einstein’s Space-Time Scientific Predictions of General Relativity Theory [2] a) geodetic effect, the warping of space and time around a gravitational body, and b) framedragging, the amount a spinning object pulls space and time with it as it rotates. There are three measurable signatures that fundamentally support the Big Bang [3], considered the orthodox cosmological theory: a) the expansion of the universe, b) the abundance of the light elements H and He, and c) the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. It is beyond the realm of the Big Bang model: a) To explain what generated space and time, b) to postulate what the universe is expanding into, and c) to say what gave rise to the Big Bang. The honesty of science can be easily observed in these cosmological theory limitations. The elaboration of theories about the cause and purpose of the universe’s functionality are not part of the cosmological scientific endeavor because the method for empirical science [4] is not applicable in these metaphysical areas. Therefore, since we cannot presently validate any scientific hypothesis regarding the cause of the universe, these subjects are only part of philosophical and theological discussions.
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Regarding the universe’s functionality, we consider it adequate to stress the necessity to make the distinction between the fact that evolution in cosmology [5] and biology [6]) is indisputable and that the scientific theories that describe the way of evolution are something different, [7] being the result of scientific endeavor. For Quantum mechanics, only the Copenhagen interpretation [8] will be taken into account in this article, as it is considered the orthodox interpretation in quantum physics. Also, only the Standard Model of particle physics will be referred to in the article, although this theory is not complete as there is no evidence for the graviton [9] hypothesis. Of course, the discovery of the Higgs boson [10] in 2013 has filled a huge gap. The Standard Model is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear interactions, as well as classifying all the known subatomic particles. Regarding theology, in this article, we will refer only to the Christian Orthodox theology. There are mainly four theoretical approaches [11] for the dialogue [12] between Christian theology and science: a) scientism (atheistic fundamentalism that denies completely the spiritual reality); b) literalist creationism (fundamentalist, literalist, biblical interpretation of Genesis, which rejects present cosmological and anthropogenesis scientific paradigm in particular, and scientific endeavor in general, considering theology as a substitute for science); c) intelligent design (pseudo-scientific approach based on the consideration that the explanation of universe functionality implies physical direct divine intervention, that can be scientifically measured within the current paradigm); and d) theistic evolution/BioLogos (complementarity between science and theology) [13]. In this article, we will focus on the
theoretical support for the fourth approach, [14] that I consider being pertinent, based on my certified competencies in both domains, science and theology, and on personal experience on this subject so far. II. Theoretical and Methodological
Approach
Like an onion, reality consists of multiple layers (physical, mathematical, esthetical, spiritual), and human beings have adequate perception mechanisms for each of them. We can use an analogy with a physical object, whom we perceive using our five senses complementarily, in order to have appropriate cognition. As for the physical objects, each sense is getting a distinct perception, and sight and hearing, for example, do not overlap and cannot be used to “convert” its specific sensorial perception; the same situation occurs with the complex metaphysical reality. How can someone explain in words to a blind person the beauty of a painting? Or how can somebody explain to a deaf person the beauty of music? We propose the same theoretical approach for the human perception of physical and metaphysical reality for science and Christian Orthodox theology. As a result of these considerations, in the theistic evolution [15], opposition or contradiction cannot exist between Christian Orthodox theology and science, as they complete [16] each other in describing the complex reality [17] composed of physical and metaphysical (spiritual) objects and phenomenon. Both the scientific method and Christian Orthodox theology reject rationalism. The scientific method is based on epistemology and the spiritual method of gnoseology. Both epistemology and gnoseology rely on empirical evidence, first from the physical part of reality and second from the spiritual one. “The theological gnoseology does not
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constitute a preoccupation solely theoretical and a work of the dogmatists only” [18] but is the real way of life of the Church body’s members, who are imprinted in the monuments of the church communities and even in those of the culture and society where they live. Indeed, between the Christocentric Christian Orthodox theology and any reductionist materialistic existential philosophy (e.g. the scientism), there is an obvious opposition, based mainly on anthropogony with direct ontological implications. Yet, science must not become a collateral victim of these metaphysical philosophical polemics. The cosmological functional explanation was never a part of the Church dogma, and it will stay this way, as theology is not a substitute for scientific endeavor [19]. In an excellent synthetic exposition of Saint Gregory Palmas’s life and theology (based on empirical spiritual evidence using monastic Hesychast methodology), John Meyendorff states “Keeping the general and biblical idea of ontological unity in human being, Palamas does not want to dogmatize a particular physiological system and leaves complete freedom for the scientific research. Indeed, the (spiritual) Revelation does refer only to the eternal truths regarding salvation and not to physiology” [20]. Church’s dogma, in general, does not claim to formulate complete statements about the Creation, but only what can be known about the Creation and can be expressed according to the culture of the time when the dogmatic statements are elaborated. An eloquent example is the Church Creed; for cosmology, it simply states: “God the Almighty, Creator of Heavens and Earth, all things seen and unseen.” It does not go into physical details for how God has made His physical Christocentric creation. The theological endeavor aims to show people the right way to be in a personal,
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loving relationship with God and each other; it also shows people how to live their lives in harmony with the universe and all beings. Therefore, the scope of theology in regards to the universe and the existence of all beings is to understand the Creator’s existential meaning for them, not to offer a detailed explanation of how they physically function to exist. It is similar to purchasing a car. It is essential to know the purpose for which the vehicle was built—sports car, limousine, van, off-road vehicle, etc.—to be able to use it accordingly. It does not matter how much we understand about the car’s electrics, electronics, mechanics, etc. We just have to know how to use it according to the manufacturer’s specifications for its purpose. This is the reason why the car manufacturer provides the car manual, which is only the base guidance for the car’s functionality. Reversing the engineering for physical objects and organisms does not imply we understand the purpose of their existence. A nuclear reaction can be used in a “good” way, to produce controlled energy for industrial purposes, but it can also be used in a “wrong” way, to cause tremendous destruction to people, beings, planet, and universe. All things, energy can be used in a good way or in a bad way, but to decide what is good and what is bad it is not in the scope of scientific endeavor. III. The ANALYSIS A. Cosmology
The biblical cosmology, according to the Church Fathers’ interpretation (which is allegorical exclusively on how the universe was created and works but not on the cause and existential purpose of the universe that is Christocentric), taking into account the present scientific paradigm, is presented adequately in contemporaneity by Saint Luke the Archbishop of Crimea (1946–1961).
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“It has been proven that in the world of the smallest particles known to us – molecules, atoms, electrons – the classical mechanics it’s ceasing its applicability and has to give way to a more precise theory, which is the same time is more complex and more abstract: the quantum mechanics. Yet, the quantum mechanics it’s not something that contradicts entirely Newton’s classical mechanics, but includes it as a related domain, necessary to examine objects with sufficiently high molecular mass.” [21] Speaking primarily to those people in the Christian Orthodox Church that are against the scientific explanations of the present paradigm, St. Luke of Crimea clearly states: “We do not have the right and the reason to stand against the most important achievements of the modern physical science.” [22] Using his vast scientific knowledge and experience as a medic, Saint Luke sustains his assertions by briefly describing the contemporary cosmologic and anthropogenic paradigms in his theological books. Not only is quantum mechanics presented but also the theory of relativity, precisely the mass-energy equivalence: “From the fact that particles can modify their mass—as it has been demonstrated lately with the particles from cosmic radiations—or simply from their cease of existence as particles while transforming into the electromagnetic radiation (the annihilation of electrons and positrons), we cannot conclude that matter is disappearing, therefore the electromagnetic field must be considered another form of existence for matter. Both these forms of existence can transform into each other, similarly to the liquid substance that can take solid and gaseous state. But these kinds of transformations are taking place following the laws of energy conservation. The energy cannot disappear or appear from nothing. The energy can only change its state, the
quantity remaining the same. [...] The matter is decomposing into elementary particles: neutrons, protons, mesons, electrons, positrons, etc. Through movement and interaction of these particles, the magnetic field is generated, also the electromagnetic waves of various amplitudes, infrared radiation, white light, ultraviolet radiation, and gamma radiation.” [23] In contemporary academic orthodox theology, Nikolaos Matsoukas emphasizes the responsibility of theology to functionally combine the revealed theological elements about the universe with the paradigmatic scientific explanations of how the universe works. Therefore, the contemporary Orthodox theology must follow the traditional patristic methodology, without considering incorrect the paradigmatic scientific explanations that are different from the patristic era (first centuries AD). B. Anthropogony and Anthropogeny
Regarding the anthropogenic part of creation, the Church Fathers from the patristic era (Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory of Nyssa) present remarkable opinions, which have similarities to the contemporary scientific evolutionist explanations [24]. Also, one of the most popular Christian Orthodox saints of the twentieth century, Saint Seraphim of Sarov, explains the creation of the first man [25], Adam, in a way similar to biological evolutionist description. “In the known stages of creation, the different species have not been created from the beginning in their today known form, but they come from the seminal deposits that God’s creative work has deposited into the earth. Therefore, at this subject, Saint Basil the Great introduces the scientific theories of his era and attaches them functionally harmonious with Genesis revelation. Being consequent to his direction that the way of how creation was made is detailed through scientific research and
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does not belong to the charismatic inspired cognition, he completes in a very interesting way the facts taken from the Bible. Any contemporary theology has the duty to follow this harmonization and not to hurry in condemning the theories of scientific community. Besides, Saint Gregory of Nyssa, completing in a certain way the Saint Basil the Great’s, speaks about creation as of instant energy (work) of God, through whom were made from the beginning all the beings deposits. After that, begins the dynamical development and manifestation of all universe, world and life varieties.” [26] In this way, the human being “is developed.” His deposit lays with the whole other beings’ deposits. Therefore, his primordial existence is not a historical one of Adam and Eve but one not generated and seminal [27]. Exactly in this seminal deposit, there exists within trough omniscience and God’s power, in the image and likeness of God, as the possibility of human being development into man and woman. With this elegant view, we can see the distinction between the cause of creation and the way of its realization and development in an extraordinary and clarifying mode, according to the Orthodox theology ethos. The Holy Trinity, God, is revealed through charismatic cognition realized through theophany, showing that He is the cause of Creation. “Yet, the charismatic cognition does not describe this modality in scientific ways, but symbolically, even in a certain scientific tendency. Therefore, all are accepting God as the unique cause of creation (that was made from nothingness and not from the substance of Being), but explain the way of creation using the scientific knowledge” [28]. In the anthropological context, Saint Luke of Crimea, also a genius medic, briefly presents the phylogenetic tree “From the protozoan branch, two grand worlds of living beings emerge, plants and animals. The complexity of the vegetal world has
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reached amazing forms, like the wonderful smelling flowers, palms and elegant cypresses, grandeur of Lebanon cedars, oaks and mighty sequoia trees, living up to three thousand years […]There is no doubt that entire vegetal al animal world has the primordial gift of the Holy Spirit – the spirit of life.” [29] For the spiritual man, centered on the spiritual life, who has the cognition of Jesus Christ is the “crown of creation” and not the man Adam, the contemporary scientific paradigm that includes the progressive development exclusively of biological life (described accurately by the genetics) does not undermine the Christocentric creation but rather make it more obvious, as it is clearly shown by the life, activity (both spiritual and scientific), and teachings of Saint Luke of Crimea. With great eloquence and accuracy, following the Church Fathers’ methodology, he was able to “translate” the patristic cosmology concepts into today’s scientific and philosophical language, also taking into account the present scientific paradigm. According to the Church Fathers’ theology, (e.g. Saint Simenon the New Theologian), we consider it appropriate to state that mechanical determinism (based on the way the universe works) is limited in the case of living organisms only in physiological aspects and the specific cognition based on sensorial perception, but human cognition is different from other intelligent species cognition because it includes the intellect (mind, “nous” in Greek ancient philosophy). There are many intelligent species, and there is also artificial intelligence, but we cannot speak of animal or artificial intellect. Some of the contemporary prominent scholars, such as Roger Penrose for example, consider that it’s not possible to develop an “artificial intellect.” [30] Today it is obvious that the difference between the human species and other species has only
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a cognitive (intellectual) nature and not a physiological (with direct psychosomatic implication). “The only difference compared with other animals is our intellectual capacity of thinking and planning. Other animals can only react to various situations based on the genetic heritage of their brain and through repetitive behavior. They cannot think, but only react” [31]. Of course, the human brain assures us of intellectual human cognition, yet “the functional understanding of the brain is still in a rudimentary state. The advanced technology is allowing us now to study the brain’s functionality, but the understanding of it does not go over the basic stage” [32]. Science cannot offer a clear explanation for the human’s consciousness, although the role of time in conscious perception is known. Presently, for Christian Orthodox theological studies, we can easily note the tendency to clearly make the distinction between the cause and the way beings exist. As such, how the universe and all beings are functioning is not a subject that Holy Scripture covers; by extension, theology is not addressed. As Nikolaos Matsoukas states, history knows inadequate approaches between Christian theology and science “In the past there were inappropriate apologetic polemics from those theologians who considered that Holy Scripture and theology provide clear and categorical answers to both questions: 1. Who has made the world? 2. How was it made? They considered that symbolical language of the book of Genesis reports, regarding the creation of the world, was enough to exactly say how the world was made and not only who has made it. This approach generated not only unusual situations but altogether a lot of damaging problems. In this way, in the west, were most of the theologians were accepting even in the 19th century the literal inspiration and of course they didn’t knew
nothing about the symbolical theology of the Eastern Church Fathers, the followers of Darwin were persecuted—as was in the persecutors power to do so—, or accused of counterfeiting the true science, that one harmonized with the religion in their rigid consideration! In time, the apologists were conducted by the reality to adapt at scientific rigors and cease the war” [33]. Reality (especially molecular biology scientific results) constrained the literalist apologists, not on the theological premises, to finally make the distinction between who has made the world (the teachings of the Bible and inspired theology) and how the world was made (the symbolic language of the Bible and the purpose of scientific research, as already observed by Saint Basil the Great in 370 AD, Hexaimeron). [34] The orthodox theology of a long tradition was able to separately distinguish both subjects that referred to who created the world and how was it made. Both independent domains, theology and science, were functionally complementary and unified and were never considered dialectical. Therefore, Nikolaos Matsoukas, in accordance with the Church Fathers’ teachings, states “Theology as the holy writer of the book of Genesis, can speak of both the cause and the way of beings genesis, but has the duty to know that the first subject clearly belongs to the theological domain, of the charismatic cognition, and the second one belongs to the research domain of scientific knowledge simple and advanced.” [35] A wonderful composition of this kind and an unequaled combination of these two domains was elegantly realized by Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory the Great in their works about Hexaimeron, using the cosmological and anthropological paradigms of their time. Yet, in theology, regarding the cosmological part of creation, the events presented in the first chapter of
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the book of Genesis are predominant, while the second chapter of the book of Genesis is almost exclusively used anthropogenic. We consider Saint Luke of Crimea’s methodology for the complementary relationship between science and Christian Orthodox theology to be adequate and relevant. His medical and scientific activity are in accordance with the specific scientific methodology and ethos; his theological activity is also in accordance with the Christian Orthodox theology ethos. He never tried to use the spiritual theological activity as a substitute for adequate scientific medical activity; he used only as a help to improve his scientific work by elaborating new, specific scientific medical methods to cure people and to avoid human errors and mistakes as much as possible. His scientific medical activity helped him in the theological activity, especially in the cosmologic and anthropogenesis part, where he was able to present, with great eloquence, the Christocentric Universe (including anthropogony) using present cosmological (Big Bang) and anthropogenesis (evolutionist) paradigms. Indeed, Saint Luke followed the Church Fathers’ methodology, who used the scientific paradigms of their time to present the Christocentric Universe and anthropogenesis. IV. SPACE AND TIME
We cannot speak of the universe without mentioning time. With a bit of humor, we can say that time is the most convenient way to prevent all events to happen all at once. Because the time notion is fundamental in many domains (science, theology, philosophy), the appropriate definition is required for each domain. Time is a primary notion being perceived and correlated with the event notion. Time is extremely important in human intellectual cognition because it senses the events’ order. The
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time implies the notion of temporal interval. In science, precisely in the physics domain, time is one of the fundamental measurement units that, according to present knowledge, cannot be defined using other units. Clocks do not measure a certain time quantity, but they measure cyclic, recurrent movement that can be compared with world events. All calendars, such as Babylonian, Mayan, Julian, Gregorian, Judaic, and Muslim, are based on the cyclical movement of the Earth around the Sun, the cyclical movement of the Moon around the Earth, or both [36]. In this way, the duration of years, months, and days are established. Is time absolute, a real dimension frame of the universe (as considered by Plato and Newton), or does time not exist in reality being relatively generated by the movement of physical objects (as considered by Aristotle, Leibniz, and Einstein)? In the following, we will briefly offer the answer (based on the present scientific paradigm and orthodox theology) to this fundamental question that concerns humankind. Saint Augustin said that God created the Universe with time but not in time [37], At least two types of time exist the physical time of the clocks and the subjective time of the consciousness. The first time is considered to be independent of human intellectual cognition and uniform and measurable with precision. The second type of time is the time we human beings “measure” by (intellectual) cognition through perception, which depends on us and is not “flowing” uniformly; therefore, the notion of time interval is perceived relatively by every human subject. The way we human beings are estimating the temporal intervals depends on our age, as well as the cognitive significance and intensity of perceived events [38]. Aristotle and Leibniz considered that time implies movement; therefore, if all would freeze (and stay motionless) for
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a minute or one hundred years and then would come back to life, nobody would notice. Plato considered that time is like an empty container that can be filled up with objects and events, through whom they can move. As we can see from above, Aristotle disagreed with Plato, saying that time implies movement; therefore, if any movement will stop, then time will stop, too. Presently, we know that “the time does not exist independent of movement that means the time without movement has no sense” [39]. Therefore, all discussions regarding time can be reduced to the events that are taking place. Peter Atkins, based on Einstein’s theory of relativity, states that space-time is just a human (intellectual) cognition of our perceived way of existence and they are not conditions (dimension frame) in which we live. “Space and time are modes by which we think, and not conditions in which we live” [40]. As such, space and time do not constitute an arena where all interactions are taking place; on the contrary, the physical phenomenon is that determining space and time and make possible their definition. In physical science, cosmology more precisely, the definitions of time according to different theories are incompatible. Take, for example, Newton’s mechanics and relativity. Also, in quantum mechanics, time cannot even be defined. In Christian Orthodox theology, different metaphysical time is defined, the eschatological [41] time of the Church (the eighth day) that can be perceived during the Holy Liturgy. CONCLUSIONS Cosmology, according to the contemporary scientific paradigm, explains the way that the universe works almost exhaustively. Yet, cosmological (and anthropogenesis) science (according to the present definition and methodology) will
never be able to offer a scientific explanation for the cause and the purpose of the universe and human beings’ existence. Father Filotheos Faros states “we can say that western science has conquered a major part of what is representing the human knowledge, adopting a mechanical understanding that was expanding also in those domains of knowledge where it’s justification was at list suspect as for example the research of living organisms and especially the human being [42]” because the existence of the human being cannot be reduced to a physiological (psychosomatic) explanation (that completely ignores the spiritual component). In our times, the distance between science and scientism, between ideology and epistemology, came to be realized more than ever. In the same time, we can speak about a rejection of the so-called formal research character; the assumed neutral character of science from politics, art, or beliefs is being debunked. Now there is a need to save science from becoming ideologized (e.g., scientism), from becoming an idol, as well as the theological need to be saved from those cosmological and anthropological literalist interpretations of the Bible, which leads to fundamentalist behavior. From the Christian Orthodox theology point of view, it is necessary to analyze the present scientific paradigm according to the Church Fathers’ model and methodology, of which Saint Luke of Crimea is an eloquent model. From the cosmological perspective (including anthropogony) the Christocentric cause and the purpose of creation has to be clearly presented, taking in account the present scientific paradigm and using contemporary scientific and philosophical language. The “crown of creation” is Jesus Christ, not the man Adam. The general theory of relativity has explained that space and time are dynamic dimensions. The base principle of the theory
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of relativity is that matter and energy determine the space-time curve and that the curvature of space-time determines the way matter moves, as well as its path. Space and time influenced and are influencing the events in the universe; moreover, they are finite and have a beginning to their existence (Big Bang). As we cannot speak of events in the universe without the direct implication of space and time, in the same way we cannot talk about space and time outside of the universe. [43] We consider it necessary to emphasize that science (defined as the study of nature by observation and reasoning) is limited by its nature only to describe (through paradigmatic scientific laws) the way the universe works and will never be able to scientifically explain the cause and the purpose of the universe’s existence (and, of course, the existence of man himself). Different scientific paradigms offer different levels of explanation of how the universe works; a new paradigm does not imply the invalidation of the preceding ones. For example, the scientific paradigm based on Newton’s classical mechanics is incompatible with the scientific paradigm based on the theory of relativity because of the different explanation of gravity and space-time definitions, but both paradigms are describing, almost with the same precision, the universe’s phenomena that are taking place in their common domain of application (phenomena that are taking place at low speeds compared with the speed of light). But, the theory of relativity offers explanation also for the universe phenomena that cannot be explained by the classical newton mechanics. We consider eloquent the neopatristic synthesis that is continuing the tradition of the “golden age” of the Church Fathers when they were able to adapt the presentation of the divine truth to the way of thinking and speaking of the Hellenistic culture. They
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used the philosophical-scientific paradigm of their time, based on geocentrism as a functional model for the universe, but not as an exclusive model. Also, they took from this culture the terminology and concepts that detailed the exposition of the revealed divine truth in regards to how the universe works, including the psychosomatic functioning of the living organisms and, of course, emphasizing the spiritual intellectual cognition of human beings. For the relation between science and Christian Orthodox theology, we consider that the theistic evolution is the pertinent complementary approach, which adequately takes into account the distinction between the physical and metaphysical domains. References [1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
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Dominique Lecourt, Dicționar de istoria și filozofia științelor [Dictionary of history and philosophy of science] (București: Polirom, 2009), 1397 (translation by author). NASA Gravity Probe B, The Relativity Mission, “NASA’s Gravity Probe B Confirms Two Einstein Space-Time Theories,” accessed February 13, 2011, http://www.nasa.gov/ mission_pages/gpb/. NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, “Cosmology: The Study of the Universe,” last modified March 16, 2010, http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/WMAP_ Universe.pdf. Lecourt, Dicționar de istoria și filozofia științelor [Dictionary of history and philosophy of science], 951–52. NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, “Cosmology: The Study of the Universe.” Francisco J. Ayala, Darul lui Darwin catre Stiinta si Religie [Darwin’s gift for Science and Religion] (București: Curtea Veche, 2008), 102–19 (translation by author). Ioan Ică and Dr. Alexandros Kalomiros, Sfinţii Părinţi despre originile şi destinul cosmosului şi al omului [Holy fathers about the human and cosmos origins and destiny] (Sibiu:
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Deisis, 2003), 92 (translation by author). Bruce Rosemblum and Fred Kutter, Enigma Cuantică [Quantum Enigma] (București: Prestige, 2011), 220 . [9] CERN, “Extra Dimensions, Gravitons, and Tiny Black Holes,” accessed on February 23, 2011, http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/ extra-dimensions-gravitons-and-tiny-blackholes. [10] CERN, “The Higgs Boson,” accessed on February 23, 2011, http://home.web.cern.ch/ topics/higgs-boson. [11] Centrul Bisericesc Munchen, “Teoria evoluţiei şi creştinismul. Sunt ele incompatibile?” [“Theory of evolution and christianity. Are they incompatible?”] Last modified January 1, 2012, (translation by author) http://cbrom. de/ro/spiritualitate/articole/calin-emiliancira/teoria-evolutiei-si-crestinismul-sunt-eleincompatibile. [12] Francis S. Collins, Limbajul lui Dumnezeu [The language of God], (București: Curtea Veche, 2009), 169–207 (translation by author). [13] Denis Alexander, Creaţie sau Evolutie. Trebuie sa alegem? [Creation or Evolution. Do we have to choose?] (București: Curtea Veche, 2010), 239–274 (translation by author). [14] Ică and Kalomiros, Sfinţii Părinţi despre originile şi destinul cosmosului şi al omului [Holy fathers about the human and cosmos origins and destiny], 15–122. [15] Collins, Limbajul lui Dumnezeu [The language of God], 209–11. [16] Alexander, Creaţie sau Evolutie. Trebuie sa alegem? [Creation or Evolution. Do we have to choose?], 204–11 . [17] Mircea Flonta, Darwin şi dupa Darwin. Studii de filozofie a biologiei [Darwin and after Darwin. Philosophical studies of biology] (București: Humanitas, 2010), 246–60 (translation by author). [18] Nikolaos Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological gnoseology] (București: Bizantină, 1997), 17 (translation by author). [19] Saint Luke of Crimea, Puterea inimii [The power of the heart] (București: Sophia, 2010), 17 (translation by author). [8]
John Meyendorff, O introducere in studiul vieţii şi operei Sfântului Grigorie Palama [An introduction into the study of life and work of Saint Gregory Palamas] (București : Nemira, 2014), 307 (translation by author). [21] Saint Luke of Crimea, Puterea inimii [The power of the heart], 17. [22] Ibidem, 17. [23] Ibidem, 17–23. [24] Ică and Kalomiros, Sfinţii Părinţi despre originile şi destinul cosmosului şi al omului [Holy fathers about the human and cosmos origins and destiny], 15–122. [25] Lazarus Moore, Sfântul Serafim de Sarov. O bografie spirituală [Saint Seraphin of Sarov. A spiritual biography] (Bucureşti: Agapis, 2002), 148–49 (translation by author). [26] Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological gnoseology], 127. [27] Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological gnoseology], 127. [28] Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological gnoseology], 128. [29] Saint Luke of Crimea, Puterea inimii [The power of the heart], 72. [30] Roger Penrose, Mintea noastra cea de toate zilele [Our everyday mind] (Bucureşti: Tehnică, 2006), 668–806 (translation by author). [31] Alan Pease, De ce bărbații se uită la meci și femeile se uită în oglindă? De ce suntem diferiți și ce-ar fi de făcut [Why men are watching football and women are looking into the mirror? Why are we different and what should be done?], (Bucureşti: Curtea Veche, 2009), 26 (translation by author). [32] Alan Pease, De ce bărbații se uită la meci și femeile se uită în oglindă? De ce suntem diferiți și ce-ar fi de făcut [Why men are watching football and women are looking into the mirror? Why are we different and what should be done?], (Bucureşti: Curtea Veche, 2009), 58. [5] Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological [20]
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gnoseology], 124. [6] Ică and Kalomiros, Sfinţii Părinţi despre originile şi destinul cosmosului şi al omului [Holy fathers about the human and cosmos origins and destiny], 15–122. [7] Matsoukas, Introducere în gnoseologia teologică [Introduction into theological gnoseology], 124–25. [8] Adam Hart-Davis, The Book of Time: The Secrets of Time, How It Works and How We Measure It (London: Mitchell Beazley, 2011), 10. [33] “Gravity Probe B—Testing Einstein’s Universe,” Stanford University, accessed on January 9, 2014, http://einstein.stanford.edu/ spacetime . [34] Lecourt, Dicționar de istoria și filozofia științelor [Dictionary of history and philosophy of science], 1393. [35] Hart-Davis, The Book of Time, 11. [36] Peter Atkins, Amprenta lui Galileo. Cele 10 mari idei ale științei [Galileo’s fingerprint. The top 10 science ideas] (Bucureşti: All, 2007), 275 (translation by author). [37] Ică and Kalomiros, Sfinţii Părinţi despre originile şi destinul cosmosului şi al omului [Holy fathers about the human and cosmos origins and destiny], 73. [38] Filotheos Faros, Mitul bolii psihice [The mental illness myth] (Galați: Egumenita, 2009), 9 (translation by author). [9] “Gravity Probe B—Testing Einstein’s Universe.”
“Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Romania; “Andrei Șaguna” Faculty of Orthodox Theology; Specialization Biblical and Systematic Theology. 2003: Master of Science in Electrical Engineering (MSEE); “Transilvania” University, Brașov, Romania; Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer science; Specialization Electrical Drives. 2002: Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering (BSEE); “Transilvania” University, Brașov, Romania; Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science; Specialization Electrical Drives. Published Books: Co-author of “Biological life and spiritual life: Man, the crown of creation” published by “Lucian Blaga” Univeristy, Sibiu, Romania, 2011. CIP Description of Romania National Library: Ganţolea Eugen, Viața biologică și viața duhovnicească: Omul cununa creației/ Ganţolea Eugen, Ranga Horia Ioan. – Sibiu: Editura Universității “Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu, 2011; ISBN 978-606-12-0136-5. Volume coordinated by Pr. Prof. Univ. Dr. Nicolae Moșoiu and published with the blessing of IPS Dr. Laurențiu Streza Metropolitan of Ardeal and Archbishop of Sibiu.
BIOGRAPHY Eugen GANȚOLEA, Ph.D Candidate, M.Eng. Education: 2012: Licensed in Orthodox Theology; “Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Romania; “Andrei Șaguna” Faculty of Orthodox Theology; Specialization
Pastoral Theology. 2009: Master degree in Orthodox Theology;
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DIALOGO JOURNAL 6 : 1 (2019) 355 - 359
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This paper was presented at
The 10th Scholarly Meeting on the Dialogue between Science and Theology (DIALOGO-CONF 2019)
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held online, from November 3 - 12, 2019
The Impact of Cosmic Forces on Human Mind Pratibha Gramann, Ph.D.,
De Anza College PO Box 320563, Los Gatos, CA 95032 USA article info
abstract
Article history: Received 11 October 2019 Received in revised form 30 October Accepted 02 November 2019 Available online 30 November 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.6.1.32
Considerable focused attention has been given to the differences and oppositions between science, religions, theologies, and spirituality. Could there be a cause or substratum among these that is shared, yet unexplored? Little attention has been directed to the possibilities of cosmic forces that preceded the creation of the universe, and our world of time, space, forms, processes, creatures, science, religion, theologies, philosophies, humankind, and thought processes. This paper aims to delve behind the created universe to a cosmological dimension that existed prior. During the earliest period of creation, there may have been cosmic forces responsible for the first subtle substances, processes, stages, and all creation. Some peoples claim that creation was performed by a divine being or God; others claim that creation of the universe was a natural process of cosmic intelligence. Either due to a divine cosmic being orchestrating a substratum of cosmic forces, or due to a phenomenon of cosmic intelligence, the entire creation occurred. Science and theologies both have interest in what exists beyond materiality. Perhaps the concept of consciousness referred to by science is synonymous with what religious and spiritual systems refer to as transcendence. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.
Keywords: energetics; light; action; dullness; cosmic forces; nature/materiality; human mind; qualities;
Copyright © 2019 Pratibha Gramann. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Gramann, Pratibha, ”The Impact of Cosmic Forces on Human Mind” DIALOGO, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2019.6.1.32, ISSN: 23931744, vol. 6, issue 1, 2019, pp. 355-359.
I. Introduction
This paper refers to all dimensions of creation as Nature or Materiality, both subtle or unseen, as well as that which is easily discernable. A thought can be subtle,
but a verbal expression is easily discernible. The term cosmic forces is intended to mean three dynamic forces identified both by the science of physics and by an ancient cosmological science. An ultimate goal of human life is not explored in this paper,
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but it is presupposed to be Consciousness, which like the sun, it enlivens by its presence of illumination. So, both Nature and Consciousness are considered as universal principles. The dynamic cosmic forces belong to the principle of nature/materiality. Cosmic energetics are explored here in the following ways: as the substratum of the created universe, their dimensions and qualities, and their psychological impact upon the human mind. II. CAUSE OR SUBSTRATUM OF THE
WORLD
Three dynamic energetics, identified by the science of physics, observably matches three dynamic substratum energies of ancient origin. In physics, there is light, kinetics or motion, and dullness or inertia. In the 2700 year ago cosmological scripture Samkhya, sage meditator Kapila wrote that the universe is said to have evolved from three dynamic energetics gunas: light sattva, motion rajas, and dullness rajas. A most essential question is whether light, motion, and inertia identified by physics is one and the same as the three cosmic energetics gunas. The energetics gunas are a simple, yet multi-dimensional operation that unceasingly interacts even to this day. The light, kinetics/motion, and inertia of physics are an integral part of our ability to live. The operation of the world would cease and die out in a short time without these cosmic qualities, and especially if there is no light. If light alone ceased for a period of days, many items and creatures would quickly die off. So, the essential importance of the three cosmic energetics is an assumption beyond question to be understood. The Samkhya describes three underlying qualities responsible for all that created the world. Their continual interaction supports everything subtle such as thought, and
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everything with form like humans. The three gunas move nonstop, and create innumerable, varying proportions of light, movement, and inertia which come into formation as part of the processes of materiality. Humans are considered to have the most advanced intellect and ability to determine their own destiny through free will and can create advanced systems. So unlike other creatures, humans are able to direct the light, motion, and dullness that comes into their minds. It may seem that the essence of light, motion, and dullness are cosmic forces residing in the sky, and appeared on earth only in forms. In fact, both the subtle and apparent forms are present with every object and situation. Light, kinetic movements, and inertia seem best characterized according to their operations. Trees as an example can be described as having varying proportions of light, movement, and dullness. The spectrum of colors in the tree is the light; the action is in the movement of growth of the tree, and as moving air moves the leaves; and dullness is apparent in the treeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mass and density. Each tree and form of life has degrees of light, medium and dark colors; slow, medium, and fast movements; and small, medium, or large amounts of dullness.
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FIGURE 1
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III. Dimensions And Qualities Of The
Energetics
FIGURE 1 shows Sattwa as an orange color of light, closest to the radiating sun, and having the power to reveal and give clarity. Rajas guna is red because action can create heat and project due to radiation of the heat. Tamas guna is the black color, absent of light and is therefore the veiling quality of ignorance. The quality of Sattva guna embodies that which we desire in a harmonious life. It includes clarity, pleasantry, attention, truth, and happiness. The qualities of Tamas guna are the opposite of Sattva. Tamas qualities are dullness, density, doubt, confusion, resistance, and indifference; stability and structure are also aspects of tamoguna. Rajas is characterized by activity and action, and it is the transformational agent between Sattwa and Tamas. Example: The state of sleep is an example of tamoguna, yet the proportions of gunas are variable. The support of rajoguna in sleep is the amount of restlessness and dreaming. The support of sattoguna is in pleasantry of peaceful sleep. Different types of dreams can be characterized by the dominance of one guna and supported by the other two. Every thought, emotion, and action has its cause in the proportions of the gunas. They are never separated; rather they work due with constant change. Rajas continually moves between sattwa and tamas, and this shifts the proportions of dominance between sattwa and tamas and rajas. Does the light, kinetics, and inertia work together in the same way according to the science of physics? IV. Cosmic Forces Create 5 Basic
Elements
The first forms of creation by the
energetic gunas is claimed to be five elements: ether, air, fire, water and earth. These in turn become evolutes for the rest of creation. In science, the table of elements identifies 92 substances. Though it has not been scientifically investigated, there could be potential verification that all chemistry is derived from combinations of the 5 elements. This would mean that hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon are each a unique quantity and quality of the 5 basic elements. Gaseous formations will contain more ether and air, volatile formations will contain more fire, and dense formations will contain more water. Earth as an element that consists of all five elements. The soil has solidity; it holds water; it can be porous like air; it has the ether of space between granules, and it can hold heat, a quality of fire. V. THREE ENERGETICS AFFECT THE MIND
Humans, like all creatures, have a psychophysiological constitution. The human form, nerves, and psyche are each characterized by varying qualities of light, motion, and dullness. No one is found to be exactly like another’s form, nervous system or psyche because of the constant moving and shifting gunas. This action is due to rajas guna pulling between sattwa and tamas. Consider the example of the differences that occur between twin infants born under the same situation. There is a dimension of time that is different for each birth. Each infant has a unique psychophysiology. The 3 energetics remain together like a braid or a rope of three strands. In the mind, the dominating guna becomes like the intention in the mind, and the other two support. Because the energetics constantly move, there is a continual shift in one dominating, and the other two supporting. This underlies the claim that change occurs in everything moment to moment, and it is
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also true for the human mind. So also, the question comes up to inquire whether there is a way to control the energetics that comes into the mind. VI. Five Senses, Intellect, Ego
The human mind is complex, and each person has a uniqueness with varying tendencies. Yet, each person’s mind is made up of three mental aspects that work together. These are the senses, the intellect, and the ego. These three can manage the cosmic energetics that continually enters the mind. A lot has to do with attitude. Example: Even though it is still dark (tamasic energy) in the morning, the sattvic intentioned mind can get up more easily than the tamasic intentioned mind. A sattvic-intentioned mind accompanied by rajas will find it easier to make changes. The mental aspects of 5 senses, intellect, and ego have the ability to process the light, movement, and inertia that comes into the mind. Basically, the senses bring the information, identification, and analysis of the information is done by the intellect, and the ego agrees and accepts or rejects. In this way the mind has the ability to change attitude, feelings, and emotions about what comes into the mind. Example: If a person has a large amount of tamasic energy, the choice can be made to continue lethargy, or by exerting free will, one can decide to be more sattvic. Each choice will affect how the mind operates and views situations. Especially, it is the ego that accepts or rejects. It is this process that allows the person to make choices; create enthusiasm, memorize; focus attention, develop skills or any quality. Example: It is raining moderately and time to go out of the house. With a sattvic dominant attitude, a person can think this is no problem and unites with rajasic energy to feel okay about leaving the house. On the contrary, a tamasic
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attitude may hold back and prefer to wait out the rain. A sattvic dominant mind will seek to keep the mind pleasant. A tamasic attitude will have more resistance. Looking closely at varying creatures, structures, and seasons, the qualities of light, lightness, darkness, density, ignorance and more can be identified according to guna. Most important to humankind is the presence of these qualities in the human mind. Here can be found the key to developing concentration, focus, attention, and clarity for directing one’s own life, abilities and psychological wellbeing. In the case of ordinary life filled with routine, it can become boring and stressful. Negative thinking and depression can set in. In this instance, if the mind is examined according to thoughts and feelings, it will be apparent which guna is dominant. Depression has a tamasic density and lethargy too. By making use of mental choice to be more sattvic, the mind begins to have more sattvic feelings of lightness, and less oppressed feelings. Following a mental transformation of depression from tamas to sattva, the emotions of wellbeing and happiness will become more apparent. In this example, the three gunas in the mind have shifted from the dominance of tamas to a dominant sattva. This was caused by the movement of rajas guna, directed by the will. The 3 gunas can be experienced in the mind as a personal, psychological tool. Experienced in this way, the operation of the gunas is a model for transformation. Using the will to increase the qualities of light and inspiration that characterize sattwa guna, it can be a worthwhile experiment to observe the effects. A person can feel more inspired about themselves when they have the ability to choose -- to be more sattvic and rajasic relative to the way they live, work, and interact with others. The sattvic energetic is closely aligned to the cosmic principle of consciousness related to awareness and
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alertness. The tamasic energy is the basis for more pain and suffering.
ourselves as the universe, and as co-creators of our quality of life.
VII. SCIENCE, THEOLOGY, CREATION,
References
PSYCHOLOGY
The subjects of science, theology, and the principals of creation belong to the same family of interests for studying the universal meanings and purposes of life. They each refer to ideas or discoveries of how the universe is structured. Consequently, this stirs a connection of interest to know more about humankind’s relationship to the universe. The study of science, theology, and principles of creation give guidance toward the knowledge of behavioral sciences and the psycho-physiological life of humankind. It seems to be a wholesome way of thinking to include these in the search to understand the connection between, science, psychology, creation, and spirituality. Theology typically refers to Christian ideals and the path of spirituality. Yet it also fits into a broader family of words referring to philosophy. It is used in this paper to refer to the broader category of philosophy even if different words are generally used to indicate other systems. Is it not wholesome and universal to learn about others who seek to live and hold wholesome ideals? Conclusion and Implications In conclusion, the effect of the cosmic forces on our psyche and our life is very significant. The more we learn about the properties of each guna, and the interacting qualities of light, movement, and dullness, we can glean opportunities to direct them. Through willful desire, a person can become more sattvic. Shifting intentions can make a person adopt new methods that refine tamasic energetics into sattvic energetics. This indicates a specific way to view
[1] Digambarji, Swami, Glossary of the Sankhyakarika. Maharashtra: Kaivalyahhama Samit, 2012. [2] Gramann, P. (2012). “An exploration of the effects of pranayama breath procedures on work, relationships, health, and spirituality,” Saybrook University, [dissertation] http:// gradworks.umi.com/35/63/3563528.html [3] Gramann, P. (2016) “Consciousness, Free Will, and Transformation, Ancient Samkhya” JPsychol Clin Psychiatry 5(5). [4] Larson, G. James, Classical Samkhya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969/2014. [5] Rao, K. Ramakrishna, Handbook of Indian Psychology. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India, 2008. [6] Virupakshananda, Swami, Samkhya Karika of Isvara Krsna. Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 2006.
BIOGRAPHY P r a t i b h a Gramann, Ph.D. Psychology and Spirituality doctorate 2013, Saybrook U. San Francisco, California. College Dean, Instructor of psychology, and Career Educator: Truman State Un and De Anza College. Research Scholar: Ancient Scriptures, Consciousness, Cosmology, Samkhya. Member of The Society for Consciousness Studies. Realized Yogin: She teaches methods of psychology for transformation and enlightenment. She teaches pranayama, guided meditation, yantra-mantra, and soon starting Scriptures Online: Samkhya; Patanjali’s YogSutras
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