SFCC Report - The use of nano and other emerging technologies by CIPs at Newham College

Skills for Climate Change

The use of nano‐ and other emerging technologies to support environmentally‐responsible construction and building services Report and recommendations Prepared by the Institute of Nanotechnology 31 July 2012

Contents Executive Summary

Introduction

Trends and needs in the use of novel technologies to create “smart buildings”

What is included under the term “construction”?

What are “smart buildings”?

The political landscape

Improving societal benefits

Meeting the needs of a demographically‐ageing population

Economic trends in building and building materials

Potential barriers to implementation

Economic and social drivers

Overview of nano‐ and other emerging technologies available for the construction and building services and engineering sectors 16

What is nanotechnology?

Descriptions of building products utilising nanotechnology

Technology Readiness Levels

Managing risks and addressing health and safety issues

Facilitating the skills required to implement novel technologies

The creation of new learning tools

References

Appendix A: Example of employer questionnaire

Appendix B:

Responses to questionnaire

Appendix C:

Draft “core” NVQ Level 3 module on nanotechnologies

Environmental impacts

The use of nano‐ and other emerging technologies to support environmentally‐responsible construction and building services

Executive Summary Construction is one of the largest sectors and employers in the UK. According to the UK Government’s Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS), the UK construction industry comprises more than 300 000 firms employing over 2 million people in a multitude of roles. The construction sector is defined as one which embraces the construction materials and products; suppliers and producers; building services manufacturers, providers and installers; contractors, sub‐ contractors, professionals, advisors and construction clients and those organisations that are relevant to the design, build, operation and refurbishment of buildings1. BIS also estimates that the UK construction sector contributed 8.3% of the nation’s GVA (Gross Value Added) in 2008. In the UK, the use of buildings is estimated to account for about 50% of total CO 2 emissions. Construction activity itself contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use the most energy and create the highest CO 2 emissions in the UK from a specific sector and contribute also to other forms of pollution. The Federation of Master Builders (FMB), an organisation representing thousands of small and medium‐sized (SME) member building companies in the UK, believes that the building industry should be a lead player in the move towards a low‐carbon built environment and has made policy recommendations to government and opinion formers to enable builders to play a constructive role in contributing to greener, more energy‐efficient building. The FMB also plans to work closely with the UK Government to support the UK’s new “Green Deal” building energy efficiency initiative to the benefit of the economy, consumers and the environment. The objective of the additional research carried out in the current study has been to examine whether emerging technologies, such as nanotechnology, can make a contribution towards a low‐ carbon and environmentally‐friendly construction and building services industry. The use of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies is becoming widespread across a range of industry sectors and, according to an inventory by the US Project for Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN), there were some 1,317 nanotechnology‐containing consumer products on the US market in March 2011, an increase of 521% in the five years since March 20062.

Over recent years, a range of materials and products containing nanomaterials or based on nanotechnologies have appeared in the construction sector and, in general terms, are aimed at providing novel high‐performance materials, improving the efficiency of buildings, reducing material consumption, reducing energy consumption and energy loss, facilitating the capture and storage of renewable energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to “smart” and networked homes and other buildings. An overview is provided in this report of a number of different materials and products that can contribute towards meeting these objectives across a range of applications. While the UK is amongst the leaders in terms of nanotechnology research and whilst degree and postgraduate courses in various aspects of nanotechnology are becoming established at university level, there is a scarcity of information, learning resources and training materials available at vocational training levels (e.g. NVQ Levels 1 to 4) and below, and almost none on the subject of applying such technologies to “green construction”. In this context, the UK’s Nanotechnology Strategy of 2010 (reviewed in greater depth later in this report) concludes that –

“people with sufficient skills in this high‐value, high‐skilled, knowledge‐based market are essential to drive innovation and sustain the development of nanotechnologies. Currently the two most important barriers to the supply of skilled people are the lack of adequate training programmes and the high cost of those that do exist”

–

there is a need to work with the relevant sector skills councils and UK Commission for Employment and Skills to identify longer term skills needs in advanced sectors and ways in which these needs can be addressed;

Taking into account the novel technologies emerging within the construction and building services sector, this report identifies some of the knowledge gaps that exist and makes recommendations towards the development of training and learning tools that could contribute to addressing these skills gaps and which could complement other emerging initiatives. These proposed tools include: –

the continued development of a “core module” for NVQ levels 2 and 3 addressing the application of nanotechnologies to the construction, facilities management, and energy and utilities sectors, and inclusion in this module of reference to sustainable construction and use of nanotechnologies towards achieving a low‐carbon industry footprint

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Possible NVQ level 1 to 3 modules on specialist applications of emerging technologies

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the development of online self‐learning materials based on the adaptation of existing materials developed by the Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham College

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development of Newham College’s “Discovery Lab” concept into a “Discovery Lab Academy”

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the development of existing Institute of Nanotechnology materials into “training for trainers” course materials covering nano‐ and other emerging technologies 4

Introduction The construction sector has an annual turnover of almost €1000 billion in the European Union, employs around 30 million people, and accounts for about 10% of European GDP. Buildings also represent 42% of the energy use and 35% of greenhouse gas emissions in Europe3. In the UK, the use of buildings is estimated to account for about 50% of total CO 2 emissions: construction itself contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use the most energy and create the highest CO 2 emissions from a specific sector in the UK, together with other forms of pollution. The sustainable building association (AECB) have claimed that government figures on the energy performance of houses greatly underestimate the levels of CO 2 reduction that could be achieved by building energy efficient buildings. It is clear, therefore, that an environmentally‐friendly approach in the construction of highly energy‐efficient buildings will be crucial for a future development towards a sustainable construction. Nanotechnologies are increasingly being applied in construction to reduce energy consumption, improve the efficiency of building and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These uses include applications as diverse as lightweight, strong and self‐healing concrete; self‐cleaning surfaces; flexible solar panels for sustainable energy capture; surfaces that can absorb and break down NO x pollutants in the air; UV/IR blocking materials; and low energy, light‐emitting walls and ceilings. Due to the global economic downturn since 2008, the growth of nanotechnologies now exhibits a more evolutionary pattern that was previously predicted with some downward adjustment in earlier market forecasts. Lux Research’s 2009 global nanotechnology market forecast4 decreased by 4% as compared to its 2007 estimates but, nevertheless, still predicts a global market for nanotechnology‐ enabled products of around $2.5 trillion by 2015. Policymakers are often especially interested in the economic development effects of new technologies, such as nanotechnologies and their impact on low‐carbon products and technologies, including impacts on jobs and wages. According to a 2012 OECD5 paper, it is widely expected that new employment will be generated through research, manufacturing, delivery, use, and maintenance related to green nanotechnology products and processes, and associated industries and services, although predicting the number of new jobs is difficult. Existing workers may shift into green nanotechnology activities as conventional products are replaced, although the metrics for determining such activities are complex. However, according to a recent paper by Teizer et al6, while some construction industry sectors follow research and development in nanotechnology, the industry does not take on a leadership role. They suggest that, with proper knowledge of the potential products and techniques offered through an investment in 5

nanotechnology, the construction industry may potentially improve the efficiency of its processes and offer better products to clients.

Trends and needs in the use of novel technologies to create “smart buildings” What is included under the term “construction”?

Figure 1. Construction – a massive sector (Image: G Herrmann: www.sxc.hu)

The construction industry is defined in accordance with the UK Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities 20077. This industry definition includes general construction and allied construction activities for buildings and civil engineering works. It includes new work, repair, additions and alterations, the erection of prefabricated buildings or structures on the site and also construction of a temporary nature. General construction includes the construction of entire dwellings, office buildings, stores and other public and utility buildings, farm buildings etc., or the construction of civil engineering works such as motorways, streets, bridges, tunnels, railways, airfields, harbours and other water projects, irrigation systems, sewerage systems, industrial facilities, pipelines and electric lines, sports facilities etc. This work can be carried out on an own account or on a fee or contract basis. Portions of the work and sometimes even the whole of the practical work can be subcontracted out. Also included is the repair of buildings and civil engineering works.

What are “smart buildings”? There are many definitions of “smart buildings”. One description that perhaps encapsulates the concept of “smart building” well in the context of this report is from the electronics and engineering company Siemens “…only solutions which create the greatest synergies between energy efficiency, comfort and safety and security will be sustainable over the long term … solutions that turn buildings into living organisms: networked, intelligent, sensitive and adaptable”. Another important attribute 6

of smart buildings is that they can monitor and adapt to the needs of their occupants and link to external services such as utilities, healthcare and social care services.

Economic and social drivers The political landscape United Kingdom: Government initiatives UK Nanotechnology Strategy 2010 The UK Nanotechnology Strategy8 was developed by the UK government and published in 2010. This strategy, which looked at the strategic opportunities for nanotechnologies in the UK, stated that -

nanotechnologies are important to the future of the UK because of their potential to improve many types of consumer products

nanotechnologies could also help us address universal challenges such as global warming and food sustainability

the worldwide transition towards the greater use of nanotechnologies is a significant economic opportunity for the UK. The global market in nano‐enabled products is expected to grow from $2.3 billion in 2007 to $81 billion by 2015.To fully meet this opportunity, the UK will need to build upon its existing commercial strengths in nanotechnologies.

the UK is ranked third in the world, after the US and Germany, when it comes to the number of nanotechnologies companies operating. The European Commission completed a study of the economic development of nanoscale technology in 2006. According to this the UK was: -

fourth in terms of number of patents applied for in the area of nanotechnologies, after the US, Japan, and Germany;

very strong in nano‐optics, placed third after the US and Japan;

fourth on nanoscale materials after the US, Japan and Germany.

In its subsequent report “Nanotechnology: a UK Industry View, 2010”, the Mini‐ITG that contributed to the content of the Strategy went on to conclude: “People with sufficient skills in this high‐value, high‐skilled, knowledge‐based market are essential to drive innovation and sustain the development of nanotechnologies. Currently the two most important barriers to the supply of skilled people are the lack of adequate training programmes and the high cost of those that do exist”

In the section of the report entitled “Raising Awareness and Education” (Action 2.9) the UK Nanotechnology Strategy states: “The skill requirements of the nanotechnologies sector will be addressed through a range of complementary Government policies, as outlined in Government’s framework for higher education “Skills for Growth” (www.bis.gov.uk/skillsforgrowth) and “Higher Ambitions” (www.bis.gov.uk/higherambitions).”

These proposed targets and measures included: -

making 35,000 additional advanced apprenticeships available for 19‐30 year olds over the next two years to meet technical skills needs in advanced manufacturing sectors;

measures to make the adult skills and higher education systems more responsive to the needs of employers;

resources for skills focused on areas of the economy which can do the most to drive growth and jobs, including science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) at higher education level;

working with the relevant sector skills councils and UK Commission for Employment and Skills to identify longer term skills needs in advanced sectors and ways in which these needs can be addressed;

RDAs addressing skills supply for growth sectors, such as nanotechnologies, in their skills strategies, so that skills provision is responsive to regional strategic economic needs.

The “Green Deal” The Government’s flagship “Green Deal” policy9 is aimed at helping the owners of homes and businesses to improve the energy efficiency of their properties at no upfront cost, thereby helping to cut carbon emissions and lower energy bills. The Green Deal will enable many businesses to set up as Green Deal providers and offer consumers the finance to carry out energy‐efficiency retrofit work on their property. Repayment for the work will then be covered by the energy bill savings that result. The Energy Act 2011 sets out the financing mechanism and legal framework for the Green Deal. Importantly, this legislation allows the cost of the work to be attached to the building rather than the individual, so when a person moves house they no longer have to make the repayments. The first work to be carried out under the Green Deal is expected to start in autumn 2012. United Kingdom: Industry initiatives 8

The Federation of Master Builders (FMB), the largest trade association in the UK construction industry, has some 10 000 members UK‐wide. As the voice of small to medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in the construction industry, the FMB has recognised the role construction can play in creating a more sustainable Britain and is committed to ensuring that government objectives for sustainability are practical. The FMB believes there are four key drivers to bring about a low carbon built environment: 

the need to minimise waste across the industry;



the need to reduce carbon emissions from housing and other buildings through innovation in materials and process;



the need to create sustainable communities and a sustainable work force; and



the need to give as much specific and practical advice as we can, directed to real design and site activity.

The FMB is states that the building industry should be a lead player in the move towards a low carbon built environment and aims to achieve this by outlining policy recommendations to government and opinion formers to enable builders to play a full and constructive role in building the new greener, more energy efficient Britain. The FMB is also working closely with the UK Government to make sure the Green Deal initiative can be delivered successfully and can capture the benefits for the economy, consumers and the environment. Germany As long ago as May 2004, the Times Higher Education Supplement10 reported on initiatives in Germany to launch an “apprenticeship offensive”, where a particular potential for apprenticeships in the growth areas of microsystems technology, nanotechnology and biotechnology was identified. The then German Minister for Education and Research, Edelgard Bulmahn, underlined the urgency of the situation, referring to the growing demand for skilled workers and technicians, saying “The experts have all agreed that, without effective efforts in the area of training, by the year 2015, in the age group 35 to 45, we will have a shortage of 3.5 million skilled workers.” Switzerland In Switzerland, the Innovation Society, St.Gallen, with the support of several Swiss Federal Offices (OPET, FOEN, FOAG) launched the “Swiss Nano Cube” project11 in 2009 together with the Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (SFIVET) and partners from industry. The Swiss Nano‐Cube is an interactive knowledge and education gateway for micro and nanotechnology for use in vocational and grammar schools. The goal of Swiss Nano‐Cube is to awaken interest for 9

technological and natural scientific topics among young people, thereby imparting knowledge about practice‐relevant knowledge of nanotechnology for apprentices. Although being a key technology with a huge potential and diverse application opportunities, teaching material and education and formation offers for nanotechnology are scarce. Many teachers have not dealt with nanotechnology in their education and the Swiss Nano‐Cube project is therefore intended to bridge this gap.

Improving societal benefits The application of novel technologies to construction is expected to contribute significantly towards a number of societal benefits including the following: – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

affordability self‐sufficiency in energy, e.g. heat exchange, lighting, solar/heat energy a better quality of life aesthetic improvement improved building life cycles improved maintenance schedules decreased environmental impact increased use of sensors and networking, e.g. for utilities monitoring better coatings for windows, roofs, and facades increase R‐value glass control of pathogens in the home decay‐ and insect attack‐resistant woods and composites improved structural integrity improved performance of components such as adhesives, sealants and paints

Meeting the needs of a demographically‐ageing population According to the Office for National Statistics12, in the UK life expectancy at birth has now risen to 78.2 years for men and to 82.3 years for women, and this trend of increased life expectancy is expected to continue due to continuing improvements in healthcare and living standards. On a global basis, a report by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development13 suggests the cost of caring for the elderly could treble by 2050. The OECD further estimates that 10% of people in OECD countries will be more than 80 years old by 2050, up from 4% in 2010 and less than 1% in 1950, and that OECD member countries are spending 1.5 % of GDP on long term care. An illustration of the predicted changes in population age for men and women is given in figure 2.

Figure 2. Changes in population age distribution 2004‐2050

Due to pressures on healthcare systems and budgets that this dramatic increase in an ageing population will bring in the UK, there is an increasing focus on providing a range of technology‐driven and networked services, especially in the fields of patient monitoring and developing "smart homes" that provide a range of sensing, monitoring and communication systems to enable elderly people to live, and to continue to have a high quality of life, in the comfort of their own homes whilst remaining in touch with carers and healthcare professionals. Such solutions also allow scarce healthcare and social care resources to be targeted where and when they are required with a potential for massive consequent savings on costs.

Economic trends in building and building materials A variety of factors contribute to the overall short, medium and long‐term costs of building materials. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between some of these parameters and the sections that follow describe the potential economic impacts of a number of nano‐based construction materials and technologies.

Figure 3: Construction materials: needs analysis

Construction materials With a production volume of more than 14 billion tons per year, concrete is the most widely‐used man‐made material on earth. Nano‐enhanced cement and concrete have not yet become commonplace construction standard materials although they potentially offer a number of significant advantages over traditional materials. Since many of the benefits of “nanoconcrete” are environmental, the likelihood of increased legislation aimed at lowering the carbon footprint of manufacturing (around 5% of global CO 2 emissions are claimed to originate from cement and concrete production) and other advantages such as savings in materials (e.g. an estimated saving in cement of around 35‐45%) and in operational time are likely to play an important role in increasing market penetration. According to data presented at a 2007 US workshop sponsored by the US National Concrete Pavement Technology Center and the National Science Foundation14, one significant need in concrete construction is to significantly increase reliability. It is estimated that up to 10% of concrete placed in a given year fails prematurely or is below standard from the beginning. Considering that concrete construction is a US$700 billion dollar industry worldwide, even a small reduction in the such problems, many of which could be addressed by use of nano‐based materials, would amount to significant economic savings and performance benefits 12

Water and waste water

The market for nano‐enabled water and wastewater applications is predicted to reach US$6.6 billion by 2015, up from US$1.6 billion in 20075. Self‐cleaning glass The market for the coating of flat glass for low emissivity was estimated at US$1 billion in 201015 . The market for electrochromatic glass is expected to reach US$218.3 million in 2013. Insulation materials Aerogels, in substitution for denser foam‐based insulation, are estimated to comprise a US$646.3 million market by 201316, although their initial applications are expected to be as insulation in gas and oil pipes, medical devices, and aerospace rather than insulation materials in building construction. The higher current cost of these materials, relative to conventional building materials, may be a factor in initial market uptake by the construction industry, although they ultimately promise higher levels of performance. Sealants and adhesives This category of nano‐enabled products was worth €1.9 billion to the European construction industry in 2009 and it is estimated that around 10% of adhesives and sealants contain nano‐fillers.17 Nanocomposites In 2011 the global consumption of nanocomposites was US$920 million and 138,389 metric tonnes18. With a compound annual growth rate of 19% in unit terms and of 21% in value terms, the market for nanocomposites is predicted to grow to 333,043 metric tonnes with a value of about US$2.4 billion by 2016. While the majority of these nanocomposites are currently used in packing and automotive applications, applications in other sectors are also increasing due to the advantages nanocomposites offer over conventional materials. Technical textiles The current global market for technical textiles is around US $127 billion (23.77 million tonnes). It is currently estimated19 that construction textiles amount to about 10% of the total technical textiles market, corresponding to about US $12.7 billion, with a growth rate) of around 5% per year. 13

Solar energy and photovoltaics Nanotechnology‐enabled solar cells and photovoltaic applications are frequently highlighted as potential growth markets. Lux Research’s estimate of the global market for nano‐enabled solar cells for 2011 was US$1.2 billion.20 Energy storage The use of nanotechnology in energy storage was estimated to be a US$3.7 billion market by 2011 according to Lux Research (2007)20. Low‐power organic light‐emitting diode (OLED) lighting While there is limited OLED production at present, major manufacturers are gearing up for production and a global market of around US$10.6 billion is estimated by 2020.21 Plastics electronics and flexible displays IDTechEx predicts that the plastic electronics market will be worth around US$ $63.28 by 2022.22 Applications are likely to include flexible displays (sometimes referred to as e‐paper), electronic RFID tags, intelligent packaging, bio‐sensors, disposable electronics and intelligent textiles. Site remediation In the U.S. there are between 235 000 and 355 000 sites that require cleanup at an estimated cost of between €115 and 168 billion. In Europe an estimated 20 000 sites need to be remediated, and another 350 000 potentially contaminated sites have been identified by the European Environment Agency. Nano Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) is emerging as a new option for the treatment of contaminated soil and groundwater. Due to their small size, the particles are much more reactive than granular iron which is conventionally applied in reactive barriers and can be used for in situ treatment. nZVI effectively reduces chlorinated organic contaminants (e.g. PCB, TCE, PCE, TCA, pesticides, solvents), inorganic anions (perchlorate) and to remove dissolved metals from solution (e.g. Cr(VI), U(VI)).23 Biosensors A Frost and Sullivan market analysis suggests that the global revenue for the biosensors market will continue to exhibit strong growth and will rise from $6.72 billion in 2009 to €14.42 billion by 2016. 24 Annual revenue growth rates are likely to be in the region of 12% to 14% by 2016. The UK government estimates a £12.4 million market impact over 20 years impact for sensors for carbon monoxide (CO) detection alone. 14

Potential barriers to implementation There are a number of potential barriers to the implementation of nanotechnologies in the construction and building services sectors: –

lack of awareness of developments in the application of nanotechnologies to building materials and products amongst architects, civil engineering and construction contractors, and the owners and users of buildings;

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lack of knowledge of the benefits, often long‐term, of nano‐enabled products, over traditional materials, including benefits concerning environmental impact;

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cost implications: while in the long‐term they may be cost‐effective and bring additional benefits, nano‐based products may be more expensive initially than traditional products and short‐term cost savings may be a disincentive to their use;

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fears over the safety of nano‐based materials in manufacturing, use and at end‐of‐life;

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underpinning the previous points, a lack of education about nano‐enabled materials and products at various levels in the sector chain.

Overview of nano‐ and other emerging technologies available for the construction and building services and engineering sectors What is nanotechnology? Nanotechnology is a branch of science and engineering that studies and exploits the unique behavior of materials at a size scale of approximately 1 to 100nm (nanometers). One nanometre (1nm) is 10‐9 m (one billionth of a metre or about 10 000th the diameter of a human hair). At this minute size scale, the properties of matter can change dramatically due to a variety of physical effects, and these novel characteristics can endow materials and products with many useful new properties. The British Standards Institution (BSI) defines the nanoscale as being “where one or more dimensions are in the order of 100nm or less”, so a nanomaterial may be a surface or other structure as well as a particle.25 Nanotechnology is also usually taken to mean materials or surfaces that are intentionally altered or manipulated at the nanoscale (1nm to +/‐ 100nm) to provide useful new properties. These novel properties at the nanoscale can frequently be harnessed to provide increased functionality and performance to materials and products. One important point worth reinforcing is that natural nanomaterials are ubiquitous in the environment and constantly interact with the human body which has evolved over hundreds of thousands of years in the presence of such materials. In the case of novel nanomaterials, there is a clear need for thorough research to characterise their properties, identify any hazards associated with them, assess and manage risks, and undertake risk/benefit analyses to establish whether they are safe to use in products and whether any precautions are required for their use. Further information on risk and safety is provided later in this report together with a table (table 2) providing examples of benefits and risks of some materials used in the construction sector. There is sometimes also apprehension over nanotechnology due to lack of understanding of what it represents: it is a development of existing technologies in that it essentially represents the ability to intentionally manipulate materials at the nanoscale using novel tools and processes. In this sense nanotechnology can be considered an “enabling technology”.

Figure 4: Graphical representation of nano‐, micro‐ and macroscales (Image: Massey University, NZ)

The following sections provide an overview and brief description of some of the emerging products and materials based on nanotechnology that are increasingly being utilised in construction.

Nano‐concrete and cement The application of silica nanoparticles has enabled cement and concrete products to be developed that are significantly lighter than conventional concrete (up to 40% less dense), have improved viscosity and rheology, are lower in porosity and therefore have lower permeability and better wear, have good strength characteristics, can enable a substantial reduction in materials, and which can also offer other economic benefits such as reduction in operational time. Other nanomaterials can also be added to produce products such as concrete paving slabs that can photocatalyse nitrogen oxides and other urban pollutants.

Case study In 2009 the contractor Acciona, a Spanish energy and infrastructure company committed to sustainability, used a nanosilica‐containing concrete in the construction of a liquefied gas tank domed roof in Cartagena, Spain. The design requirements called for high‐strength structure with low shrinkage and an absence of flaws and fissures, good mechanical properties because of the pressures caused by the sloping design and good workability of the concrete to fill the steel reinforcement matrix. The use of the nanosilica‐based concrete – reduced the total amount of cement needed; – diminished plastic retraction and the risk of fissures; – improved its mechanical and flow properties; – provided low permeability; – gave high resistance (25 MPa in only 12 hours; 40 MPa in 2 days; 50 MPa in 7 days; 60 MPa in 28 days); – provided a cost reduction of 12% in materials as well as further savings, e.g. shorter construction time.

High‐performance self‐cleaning glass and smart glazing Self‐cleaning Surfaces Architectural glass is a widely‐ used material in modern buildings. The use of sheet glass as facade cladding is widespread in non‐residential buildings. However, ordinary window panes become easily soiled due to the intrinsic hydrophilic (“water‐attracting”) nature of glass.

Figure 5. Normal (left) vs. self‐cleaning (right) glass

A common approach to overcome such soiling has been based on hydrophobic (“water‐hating”) and super‐hydrophobic coatings using silanes. However, such hydrophobic coatings have to be placed on the outer glass pane where they are exposed to atmospheric conditions and mechanical strain which finally leads to degradation of the protective layer. A completely different, nanoscale, approach is based on the photocatalytic properties of titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ). TiO 2 is a common white pigment which is used in paints, but is also an efficient UV absorber. This property can be exploited in active coatings which are able to break down dirt through the production of free radicals. TiO 2 is a compound semiconductor which exists in three different chemical forms known as anatase, rutile and brookite forms. The anatase form, in particular, exhibits photocatalytic properties which makes it a suitable candidate for self‐cleaning photocatalytic coatings which are activated by UV radiation. A number of companies are producing such self‐cleaning glass for construction use which is self‐ cleaning. The leading UK‐based glass manufacturer, Pilkington PLC, has developed a self‐cleaning glass called Pilkington Activ™ which has an incorporated hard, dual action surface coating with hydrophilic and photocatalytic properties, based on a 15nm (nanometre) layer of TiO 2 . Organic and inorganic deposits on the surface of the glass are broken down by sunlight through photocatalysis and, because the surface is hydrophobic, are readily washed away by rain or by simple hosing. The effects are continuous and last the lifetime of the glass.

Figure 6. Photocatalytic breakdown of dirt on glass by sunlight

The same photocatalytic principle has also been applied to clay roof tiles where a self‐cleaning functionality is also activated by sunlight preventing the growth of unwanted lichens or mildew. Low‐emissivity (low‐E) coatings Glass facades allow the construction of transparent and lightweight structures. However, the comparatively high transmittance for visible light and infrared light (IR) of sheet glass is a major disadvantage. The high transmittance of IR causes a large heat transfer into the building which makes additional air conditioning necessary. However, it is possible to maintain a high transmittance for visible light and lower the reflectivity infrared selectively. Such coatings are referred to as "low‐e" or "low emissivity" coatings. A typical low‐e coating is based on layers of thin silver nanocoating (around 30nm or less) surrounded by dielectric layers. Silver loses its metallic appearance when deposited as an ultra‐thin nanocoating. Low‐e coatings can be applied to large area sheet glass using physical vapour deposition techniques. Smart glazing Besides passive functional coatings, switchable dynamic coatings for glass have also been investigated intensively. Windows with a dynamic transmittance are often referred to as “dynamic glazing” or “smart glazing”. They are divided into active and passive systems, whereby the active coatings can be switched by pushing a button and the passive ones for example react to changes in temperature (thermochromic coatings) or light incidence (photochromic coatings).

Figure 7. Electrochromic glass

Electrochromic glazings can alter their transmittance when a small voltage is applied to the electrochromic coating. Gaschromic glazings change their transmittance in the presence of suitable gases. In the case of tungsten oxide (WO 3 ) coatings, hydrogen is the element responsible for the transmittance, which can be varied continuously between 1 and 75 %. The inner surface of the insulating glazing units is coated with nanoscale tungsten oxide. This invisible film takes on a deep blue colour when it comes into contact with the smallest amounts of hydrogen. The colour is bleached away if oxygen is introduced. Polymer‐dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) glazings allow switching between a transparent and an opaque state. Such glazings do not alter the overall transmission but, rather, switch between a non‐ diffuse and diffuse transmission, and are often used in privacy glass. Another approach is based on strong anisotropy (directional dependence) in absorption by some rod‐ like nanoparticles. This technique is called a suspended particles device (SPD). SPDs allow switching between a bright and a dark state by applying a voltage. The comparatively high cost of smart glazing has, however, limited its wide use so far (privacy glass costs approximately €1700 per square metre). Anti‐reflective coatings The efficiency of photovoltaic cells suffers from reflection from the smooth silicon surface with only around two‐thirds of the incoming light being absorbed by an untreated silicon solar cell. Several approaches for reflection reduction have been developed. A common anti‐reflective coating (ARC) is based on a single quarter‐wavelength layer made of silicon nitride (SiNx). A more sophisticated, biomimetic technique is based on a low‐reflectivity, regular micro‐structure found in many insect compound eyes. For example, the compound eyes of moths have regular low‐ reflectivity conical structures of about 300 nm on their surfaces that help protect the insect from being seen by nocturnal predators. In order to mimic these natural structures, several different approaches have been carried out.

For small areas, imprinting techniques have been investigated intensively. For larger areas, the use of spin‐coating and etching have also been reported. However, since the production of regular pillars or conical protrusions at the nanoscale is cost‐intensive, porous layers and other microstructures are under investigation. The use of a sol‐gel technique (a cheap and low‐temperature technique where a “sol” (or solution) gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel‐like system containing both a liquid phase and solid phase) to produce a microporous coating through a simple dipping process is one such promising approach towards producing a broadband anti‐reflective coating which is available at reasonable cost. An alternative approach is based on a layer stack with alternating high and low refractance materials. This technique is widely used for anti‐reflective coatings for optical purposes but has also been investigated for use on photovoltaic cells. Commonly‐used materials include SiO 2 , with a comparatively low refractive index, and TiO 2 with high refraction. The alternating layers are deposited by physical vapour deposition. Precautions in handling Because of the need to protect the coatings in these various types of highly‐functionalised glass, special care and training is required during its processing, handling and installation.

Insulation materials The heating and lighting of buildings within the EU are responsible for the largest share of the total energy consumption (around 42%). Although improved thermal insulation is available on the market and the number of “passive” houses is constantly growing the vast majority of European households still have poor energy efficiency. Thermal insulation is based on the combination of porous materials and the fairly low thermal conductivity of air whereby the free flow of the enclosed air is inhibited. The thickness of the insulating layer determines the overall performance which is measured in terms of thermal resistance or thermal transmittance. The density of the material is an important measure. The lower the density of the insulating material, the more air is enclosed and the lower the thermal transmittance will be. There are a number of novel thermal insulation materials based on nanomaterials which have very high specific insulative performance and which can achieve results equivalent or superior to traditional products but with substantially lower thickness. Examples include insulation materials based on so‐called aerogels and nano‐foams, vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) and phase change materials (PCMs). Because of the much reduced bulk of these materials they are highly suitable for renovation and retrofitting projects, as well as for new builds, and, as such, are likely to be used by many trainees working in these sectors as they are introduced to the wider market. 21

Aerogels

Aerogels, sometimes also called “frozen smoke”, have the lowest thermal conductivity of all materials. Aerogels are virtually made of air with a porosity of up to 99.5% and specific surface areas of more than 1000 m²/g. Silica aerogels are normally produced in a sol‐gel process. They are a very light but brittle material which is expensive to manufacture. This has prevented a broader use of aerogels so far. Vacuum insulated panels (VIPs) Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) are heat insulating panels that are enclosed in a metallic foil and evacuated. The core material of these panels often consists of fumed silica which is a porous material with low thermal conductivity and the panels offer thermal conductivities as low as 0.004 W/mK at a typical pressure of 10mbar.

Figure 8. Vacuum insulated panels

VIPs offer a 5‐10 times better performance than traditional insulating material, but are more expensive to produce. VIPs can be used to reduce the overall insulation thickness and to improve the energy efficiency of buildings. Phase change materials Phase change materials (PCMs) are latent heat storage devices capable of storing energy in a phase change. Rooms equipped with phase change materials ensure a more constant room temperature. PCMs are able to store heat during the day when temperatures rise and to release heat at night when the room is cooling down. Wax enclosed in micro‐capsules melts at a certain temperature: the latent heat stored in the liquid wax is released upon solidification ensuring a pleasant indoor climate. The phase change temperature can be chosen adapting the PCM to a desired temperature. PCMs can contribute to ensure better comfort and towards reducing energy costs for air conditioning.

Nanostructured self‐cleaning surfaces and applied nano‐ surface treatments Nanotechnology has been applied in a number of ways to produce surface that are self‐cleaning. Glass with an incorporated self‐cleaning layer has already been described above. Another strategy has to been to follow a biomimetic approach. The leaves of a number of plants, notably those of the lotus flower (Nelumbo spp.), exhibit a so‐called lotus effect or very high level of water repellence (superhydrophobicity). Dirt particles are picked up by water droplets and, due to a complex micro‐ and nanoscopic architecture of the leaf surface, this water simply rolls off in droplets and does not adhere to the surface (see figure 9).

Figure 9. “Lotus effect” – water droplet on a leaf

Although often referred to "nano", the lotus effect is rather based on micro‐ than on nanostructures. So‐called biomimetic approaches attempt to reproduce these naturally‐evolved characteristics in man‐made materials, typically by altering the surface topography or other surface architecture of the material. Such materials are already being used in aeronautical engineering to reduce contamination and drag of surfaces and can also be applied in other sectors. It is highly likely that the application of nanotechnology and nanomaterials will underpin future biomimetic approaches where designs evolved by nature are incorporated into man‐made products. An overview of these principles together with some practical examples may therefore be of value in the training of young workers working with such novel materials. Self‐cleaning properties can also be imparted to construction products by applying a variety of surface treatments based on the nanoscale properties of materials and it is likely that trainees will also work with or in proximity to these materials. Examples of commercialized products include transparent photocatalytic coatings based on titanium dioxide nanoparticles that can be used to coat masonry products, glass, tiles and facades to prevent the build‐up of dirt, particularly in urban environments. 23

Sealants and adhesives A number of nanomaterials are already added to adhesives and sealants, including: –

nanosilica: used as a thickening agent with thixotropic properties, i.e. it can become less viscous and flow under certain conditions

–

nanoscale precipitated calcium carbonate: control of rheology, stiffness, impact resistance and weatherability

–

silane‐based products for sealing and waterproofing woods

–

titanium dioxide: e.g. as a pigment

Nano‐sealants typically contain silica or other ceramic nanoparticles, or a nanopolymer, and organise themselves to form a coating and bond with the surface after application. They can be used to seal a wide range of materials, including metals, glass, ceramics, electronics, synthetic and natural materials. If the surface is smooth and non‐absorbent, the nanoparticles combine with the surface, and repel any contaminants or liquids. If the treated surface is porous, the nanoparticles fill up the pores from the inside. Dirt, liquids or biological contaminants cannot then get into the surface and are simply repelled.

Paints and applied protective coatings, e.g. wood treatments and anti‐corrosion products Nanoparticle‐containing paints Paints have become a major application area for nanomaterials. Nanoscale titanium dioxide has been used for many years as a pigment in paints and to provide better optical and covering properties and, more recently, a variety of specialist paints have been appearing on the market that utilise nanomaterials to provide a variety of useful characteristics. Examples include: –

the use of nanosilver to produce antibacterial paints;

–

the use of nanosilica in paints that can help regulate room temperature and prevent heat loss;

–

the incorporation of ceramic nanoparticles to produce paints that are highly scratch‐resistant;

–

nanosilica‐based anti‐graffiti paints that prevent the graffiti layer sticking to the surface to be protected.

Figure 10. A nano‐enabled antibacterial and anti‐mould paint

A facade paint exhibiting a “lotus effect”, as described earlier, came onto the market as long ago as 1999 and a facade binder based on nanocomposites was introduced in 2005. Silica nanoparticles are embedded in an organic polymer matrix and this nanocomposite binder offers an increased elasticity and durability for facade paints. Anti‐corrosion coatings Anti‐corrosion coatings are of importance where metals have to be protected in harsh environments, e.g. in offshore construction. There are many types of both metallic, e.g. galvanised, or painted, e.g. fusion‐bonded epoxy‐based, polypropylene‐based, anti‐corrosion coatings. Novel painted or sprayed products increasingly incorporate nanotechnology such as an inorganic nanoparticle matrix to provide a robust and durable surface. Coatings for wood Wood, unlike metals and concrete, is a biological material that presents its own set of characteristics and challenges in protection. It is, for example, heterogeneous, porous, biodegradable, sensitive to UV radiation and hygroscopic. Novel wood coatings and protection products may therefore incorporate a variety of nanomaterials to improve protection, e.g. aluminium oxide (hardness, abrasion‐ and scratch resistance), iron oxide (UV protection), silver (antimicrobial), titanium dioxide (UV protection, anti‐microbial), zinc oxide (UV protection, anti‐microbial) and silica (hardness, abrasion‐ and scratch‐resistance, and waterproofing).

Nanocomposites and reinforced polymers A nanocomposite material is a solid combination of bulk matrix material such as a polymer and one or more nano‐dimensional phases. The components differ in their properties due to dissimilarities in structure and chemistry. Nanocomposites differ from conventional composite materials mainly due 25

to the very high surface to volume ratio of the reinforcing (nanoscale) phase. This large surface area means that a relatively small amount of nanoscale reinforcement can have a significant effect on the macroscale properties of the composite. Nanocomposites are found widely in nature, for example in the structure of bone.

Figure 11. Graphical representation of a polymer‐clay nanocomposite (Image: Osaka University

The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical and catalytic properties of the nanocomposite will differ from those of the component materials and can provide advantages over the parent materials such as strength, lightness, durability and other characteristics. Nanocomposites are widely used in the aeronautical, automotive and other engineering sectors and are beginning to make an impact in the construction sector. There are potentially thousands of combinations of matrix materials and nanofillers available with a very wide range of physical and mechanical properties. Examples of nanocomposite construction products include PVC nanocomposites used in windows and doors, and in large diameter piping and other applications requiring rigidity, nanocomposites incorporating nanoclays for fireproofing, cellulose based nanocomposites in insulation and asphalt‐based nanocomposite roofing. In view of the increasing use of nanocomposites, training needs are envisaged that provide an overview of the benefits, properties, selection, use and maintenance of these materials.

Functionalised textiles Nanomaterials can be incorporated into textiles in a variety of ways to provide them with novel or advantageous properties and it is also possible to change the surface characteristics of textiles, or the fibres that they are made from, at the nanoscale by novel processes such as low‐temperature plasma treatments. Benefits that can be gained include imparting special self‐cleaning abilities (e.g. by altering the hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the fabric surface), durability and wear resistance 26

characteristics (e.g. by incorporating silica nanoparticles), resistance to microorganisms (e.g. by light (e.g. by incorporating nanoscale titanium dioxide) and integrating sensors and electronics into textiles (for example by using carbon nanotubes or other conducting nanomaterials).

Figure 12. Nano‐treated waterproof textile

Construction textiles Construction textiles play an important role in the modernization of infrastructures, offering advantageous properties such as lightness, strength and resilience, resistance to creep, and degradation from chemicals, sunlight and pollutants. Examples where functionalized textiles may be used in construction and in facilities management include geotextiles, linings, carpets, tiles and interior furnishings and decoration. In some cases, sensors may also be incorporated into such materials (e.g. pressure sensors and security sensors in “smart buildings”). Their use can provide an aesthetic improvement for new and refurbished buildings, and new textile materials and innovative techniques for their deployment offer huge potential in the construction of eco‐friendly buildings that combine great design freedom with lightness and economy. Construction textiles are increasingly finding their way into architecture, both indoors and outdoors, for surface and hidden applications. Besides tapestries and curtains, textiles are used in roofing, insulation and cladding; in sun, water, wind, fire and noise protection; in floor and concrete reinforcement; in UV and electromagnetic shielding; in diffused lighting using integrated LED and other electroluminescent materials. High strength, high modulus textile fabrics can be used as a replacement for more traditional materials. The mechanical properties of fabrics made, for example, with aramide or carbon and glass fibres, combined with cross‐linking resin systems to form a composite, provide civil engineers with a 27

range of new materials that offer high strength and/or high stiffness in relation to their weight, and extreme flexibility in design and use. Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) is a composite material with performances comparable to steel reinforced concrete, giving lightweight structures with high durability and high quality surfaces. Innovative membranes made from composites, including textile reinforcement, can offer added value in both technical and aesthetic terms. New coatings and fillers, frequently derived from nanotechnology, are being tested, producing textile membranes combining acoustic and thermal insulation, efficient energy management, controlled light transmission and easy cleaning and decontamination qualities. Other applications include use in self‐healing concrete, localized crack repair, the reinforcement of critical walls, or the wrapping of existing columns, protection against earthquake or hurricanes, explosive incidents, or for military/defence purposes. New trends driven by forward‐thinking architects are providing new opportunities for textiles in construction. For example, an exterior envelope textile facade can be used to add a high profile, visible and dramatic effect with translucence, resembling glass. Other approaches are directed towards a building “skin” combining visible and performance features, like thermal control, water and dirt repellency, light transmission and acoustic absorption. Sun and weather protection as well as light and temperature regulation are the main requirements for textiles applications in sport facilities. ETFE fluoropolymer membranes allow 98% light transmission, water repellency, insulating properties controlling interior temperature and humidity of large sport buildings. Around 80% of newly built or refurbished stadiums worldwide have textile roofs and/or claddings. Inflatable buildings Another specialist application of textiles in architecture is inflatable buildings. High performance inflatable buildings are characterized by a unique design and construction giving them unrivalled portability and speed of deployment combined with the strength and rigidity of a metal framed structure able to withstand wind and snow loads. Each structure is typically comprised of two layers of a fire retardant composite textile connected together. The cavity formed between the layers is pressurized with air producing an extremely rigid structural element which allows large spans to be achieved whilst keeping the overall weight of the structure to a minimum. The replacement of steel cables with textile belts and ropes for tensioning and load transfer can eliminate corrosion problems and facilitate installation. Geotextiles Geotextiles form part of a group of materials known as geosynthetics and are special fabrics made for use in geological situations. Geotextiles, usually in the form of woven, nonwoven and knit fabrics, 28

have to meet specific requirements such as strong mechanical properties, filtration ability and chemical resistance so that they can perform basic functions such as reinforcement, separation, drainage and filtration. They are flexible, extremely robust, easy to install, and generally allow solutions that are less expensive than traditional construction methods. The use of geotextiles can save money by considerably reducing construction times, material and maintenance costs. Geotextiles are designed for use in civil engineering applications such as erosion control, landslide, soil stabilization, road construction, embankments, dams, and retaining walls. Nonwoven geotextiles are often used as protection layers for geomembranes in containment structures (e.g. landfill, water storage, etc.) where it is required that the geotextile prevents localized stress cracking of the geomembrane by stone projections over the long‐term usage of the constructed facility. The most common fibre polymers used for the manufacture of geotextiles are polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester, and less frequently, polyamide. The use of more specialized materials is limited, because geotextiles have to be produced in large quantities and economically. Training needs While many nano‐enhanced textiles will require few special training needs, others, e.g. those with embedded sensors or electronics, may require specific knowledge and training in terms of handling, installation or maintenance.

Energy capture systems Solar energy capture The use of material properties at the nanoscale underpins the latest generation of solar energy capture systems. There are a number of solar cell types using different technologies, many of which are increasingly at the nanoscale, such as semiconductor junctions, thin film technologies, quantum dots (a type of nanocrystalline semiconductor), silicon nanostructures, polymer cells and dye‐ sensitised cells, all of which work by converting solar energy photovoltaically (hence the alternative term “photovoltaic cell”). While early generation solar cells were limited in their efficiency, the latest “third generation” thin film devices, have a combination of a theoretical 30‐60% conversion efficiency, an ability to utilise sunlight at varying angles, and low cost materials and manufacturing processes. Other recent innovations include the development of flexible solar panels for buildings, portable rollable flexible solar panels that can be transported and stored for use.

Figure 13. Flexible solar energy panel

A further current area of research is into flexible energy‐capturing and converting coatings based on nanotechnologies, that can be applied to the exterior surfaces of buildings and which, with the simultaneous application of modern battery technologies, enable the building itself to act as its own “power station”. In terms of training, there will be needs for basic knowledge about how different solar energy capture systems work, how they combine with smart processors to utilise and store energy in electrical form and, in many cases, export excess energy to the national grid. From a practical point of view, there are clear training needs for the installation and maintenance of such systems. Kinetic energy capture Various forms of kinetic energy capture exist, e.g. hydroelectric schemes, wind energy (both large scale and micro‐generation), and wave and tidal energy systems. Nanotechnology can have a facilitating role in all of these systems including the use of advanced manufacturing and construction materials, surface coatings, corrosion prevention, control systems, sensors and measurement systems. Examples include hydrophobic and self‐cleaning nanocoatings for wind turbine blades, high strength, lighter carbon nanotube‐containing composites for wind turbine blades, high‐performance paint protection systems, and high‐performance and high‐storage capacity fuel cells for the storage of captured energy.

Figure 14. Pavegen energy‐generating tile

Novel kinetic energy systems, such as the UK company Pavegen’s energy‐capturing floor tile, have also been recently developed that can be installed in areas where there is a high level of pedestrian activity in order to generate electricity which can be stored and used for a variety of applications. There are a diverse range of materials, products and processes employed in this sector that can be supported by nanotechnologies and hence a mix of generic and more specific training needs.

Energy storage Fuel cells and energy storage In both solar and kinetic energy capture, there is a need for energy storage as the energy generation process may be discontinuous. Electrical energy is difficult to store in large quantities. One potential solution is to convert into and store this energy as hydrogen, which can then be used as a fuel source for a fuel cell. For example, with wind energy, in particular windy periods the excess energy generated by a wind farm could be converted into hydrogen and stored for use in a number of applications, or to power fuel cells. The use of nanomaterials (e.g. nanoscale metal hydrides) allows for smaller and lighter fuel cells and more efficient hydrogen storage. Nanomaterials can also improve fuel cell performance by increasing the conductivity of the electrolyte, the use of carbon nanotubes can produce battery electrodes that are ten times thinner and lighter and which have higher conductivity. In addition fuel cells require a catalyst such as platinum, which is very expensive. By using platinum nanoparticles or nanoparticles of other suitable catalytic materials costs can be lowered. Much of the research into battery design has been focused onto the use of nanomaterials to produce smaller and lighter batteries for use in an increasingly wide range of consumer and professional products. However, the use of nanomaterials can also improve the performance and storage capacity 31

of traditional types of battery where size is less of a concern and the ability to store large quantities of energy is more important. Fuel cell and advanced battery technologies are likely to become more important with an increased focus on green energy production and young trainees or apprentices will be likely to encounter such technologies in a number of settings across construction, facilities management and utilities, in terms of manufacture, installation and maintenance.

Low‐power lighting High‐efficiency OLED‐based lighting and displays

Figure 15. Flexible OLED lighting panel

Organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs) provide high‐contrast and low‐energy displays that are rapidly becoming the dominant technology for advanced electronic screens. They are already used in some cell phone and other smaller‐scale applications. Current state‐of‐the‐art OLEDs are produced using heavy‐metal doped glass in order to achieve high efficiency and brightness, which makes them expensive to manufacture, heavy, rigid and fragile. Using a layer of tantalum oxide of thickness around 70 nanometres (nm) it is now possible to produce OLEDs on flexible plastic which opens up a whole new range of potential energy‐efficient, flexible and impact‐resistant lighting and display applications. Because of the potentially ubiquitous application of such systems it is likely that young trainees will encounter them in manufacturing, installation and maintenance situations.

Flexible and printed electronics Various low‐cost printing methods can be used to create electrical circuits and devices on various substrates. Electrically‐conductive inks are deposited on the substrate, creating active or passive devices, such as thin film transistors or resistors. Printed electronics are expected to facilitate widespread, low‐cost electronics for a wide range of applications such as flexible displays and smart 32

labels. In a similar way to OLEDs, the application of nanotechnologies is underpinning the development of printed and flexible electronics. Conductive inks may be inorganic, containing dispersions of inorganic nanoparticles such as silver, gold or copper, or novel organic conjugated polymers with conducting, semiconducting, electroluminescent, photovoltaic and other properties. Due to the potentially widespread application of printed electronics, trainees are likely to be involved in their manufacture, installation and use.

Water treatment and site remediation

Case study

Veolia Water, a major water supplier in the UK, uses nanofiltration technology to treat drinking water at its Méry‐sur‐ Oise treatment plant in France. It uses nanoscale FILMTECTM membranes supplied by a subsidiary of Dow Water Solutions (a subsidiary of The Dow Chemicals Company).

The same FILMTECTM technology has also been utilised at a desalination plant in Perth, Western Australia and enable 3 cost effective desalination of 144 000 m of water per day (some 17% of Perth’s total water needs). The use of the FILMTECTM technology has reduced the cost of desalination to a level where it is now often an acceptable option.

In the construction and utilities sectors, the remediation of groundwater contamination and other site remediation activities have become increasingly important in the UK due to the limited availability of sites and the need to comply with legislation. In Europe as a whole, over 20 000 sites require groundwater remediation. The traditional approach to remediation has been to use granular iron as a permeable reactive barrier but, with the application of nanotechnology, it is now possible to inject nano zero valent iron (nZVI) into the ground. nZVI has a massively increased surface area, reaction rates that are 25 to 30 times faster than previous methods, and a much greater absorption capacity. Other benefits include reduction of treatment time and costs, reduction of exposure for workers and the environment, reduced equipment costs due to the in‐situ nature of the treatment, and effective treatment of a wide range of contaminants. Trainees in these sectors are likely to encounter these new types of nanomaterial‐based remediation treatment and there are potential training needs in both how these treatments work, methods and in health and safety aspects.

Dust reduction technologies A variety of solutions are available for dust reduction which are of importance in construction, facilities management and utilities activities. A novel solution, based on nanotechnology, works by using an ecologically‐safe, biodegradable, liquid copolymer to stabilize and solidify soils or aggregates to help prevent erosion and suppress dust. Once applied to the soil or aggregate, the long nanoparticulate copolymer molecules coalesce forming bonds between the soil or aggregate particles and cross‐linking. As the water dissipates from the soil or aggregate, a durable and water resistant matrix of flexible solid‐mass is created. Once cured, the product becomes completely transparent, leaving the natural landscape appearing untouched. Trainees may be involved in the application of such systems and knowledge and training in how they work, and of health and safety aspects, is therefore appropriate.

Pollution control, e.g. O 3 , CO, NO x , SO 2 , VOCs, particulate matter (PM) Despite a substantial decrease in many air pollutants since 1990, a significant proportion of the EU population live in cities where EU air quality limits, for the protection of human health, are exceeded. Air pollutants include: – – – – – –

ozone (O3) particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) carbon monoxide (CO) nitrogen oxides (NOx) sulphur dioxide (SO2) volatile organic compounds (VOC)

Figure 16. Industrial pollution (Image: Rybson, www.sxc.hu)

High levels of air pollutants can seriously affect those people with existing respiratory or cardiac diseases and so is a major public health issue. Coatings such as nanoscale titanium dioxide can help to break down these molecules through photocatalysis. Innovative façade materials with photocalaytic activity have been developed in recent years including anti‐soiling and anti‐staining paints and mortars incorporating titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Another recent development has been to coat concrete paving slabs in titanium oxide nanoparticles to help break down nitrogen oxides by catalysis in urban environments polluted by traffic. Carbon capture from the burning of fossil fuels can be reduced by the use of nanomembrane filters in scrubbing systems and these are reported to use much less energy than conventional capture systems. Case study Air Clean® nitrogen oxide‐reducing paving slabs, developed by FCN Betonelemente, are coated in TiO nanoparticles.

2 Their effectiveness has been tested by the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME in

Schmallenberg. Testing on a 230 m strip of road in Segrate area of Milan in Italy found an average 60% decrease in NO X

concentrations compared to an untreated section. The slabs were also tested in Erfurt, Germany, to ascertain whether they would also work in regions with less natural sunshine. The Fraunhofer Institute scientists found that there was

still a 20% reduction in NO and up to 38% reduction in NO using the optimised paving slabs. 2

It is thought that this level of reduction in NO X could substantially improve urban air quality if such a product were

deployed on a wider basis.

Nanofiltration systems are also being increasingly used to remove a range of pollutants from drinking water. A trial using nanofiltration at a water plant in France proved very successful in terms of eliminating organic matter and pesticides and reducing the taste of chlorine (important to customers). The operating costs, in comparison to traditional methods, were lower than expected. Those trainees working in the facilities management utilities sectors are likely to encounter an increasing variety of nanomaterial‐ or nanotechnology‐based pollution control systems and knowledge of how they work and their installation and maintenance is therefore desirable.

Biosensors Biosensors increasingly employ sensing surfaces based on the application of nanotechnologies or nanomaterials. A typical sensor comprises a sensing surface which may be based on a biological material, derivative or biomolecule, or an artificial biomimetic surface; a transducing system (electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric or other mode of operation) that converts the reaction between the analyte and the biosensor surface to a signal; and a means of processing the signal. 35

Biosensors can be networked and distributed widely in the environment, can be used for a huge range of measurements or detection of a huge range of analytes, including pollutants, gases, indicators of air or water quality, in “smart homes” and in security applications (see below). Biosensors may also be incorporated into other systems. A recent example, now in development at Strathclyde University, is the use of aligned, conductive carbon nanotubes in a highly‐durable surface coating based on fly ash which could potentially be used in highly‐demanding applications such as bridge‐building and offshore construction as an indicator of early structural failure. This nano‐based system is expected to cost 1% of other existing solutions. Because of their ability to be used in a wide range of networked applications across many activities in construction, facilities management and energy and utilities operations, it is very likely that trainees will be involved in the installation, operation and maintenance of biosensor networks. Knowledge of their principles of operation will therefore be useful. Biosensors in safety and security applications Biosensors also increasingly feature as part of security and safety systems, e.g. for the detection of workplace contaminants and noxious compounds, monitoring air quality and in security screening systems, and as such, may be frequently encountered in construction and facilities management settings.

Training needs In terms of training, all of the products and processes described above are likely to be encountered by trainees, apprentices and others in NVQ levels 1 to 4 training. Some materials and products also have their own special needs and precautions in terms of preparation, application and maintenance.

Technology Readiness Levels Many of the nanotechnology‐enabled products and materials described in the previous sections are already available on the open market. Others are at earlier stages of development, e.g. at proof of concept or prototype stage, or are in limited scale production, but may nevertheless be reasonably expected to become available in the near future. Indications of “technology readiness levels” (TRLs) are therefore provided in table 1 as a general guide to the stage of development and commercialisation of a range of nano‐enabled materials and products.

Table 1. Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) for some nano‐enabled technologies for construction Technology Readiness Level (TRL)

Problem identified but no solution

Principles under‐ stood

Proof of concept reached

Realistic demonstr ‐ation

System prototype

Limited scale product‐ ion

Mass scale exploit‐ ation

Nano‐concrete and nano‐cement Nanocomposites Nano‐functionalised textiles Nano‐ adhesives and sealants Nano‐containing paints & coatings Nano‐enabled self‐cleaning glass Nano‐ cleaning agents Nano‐ insulation materials

Nanoscale solar capture systems Kinetic energy harvesting systems Nano‐ energy storage systems Low power (e.g. OLED) lighting Printed/flexible microelectronics Nano‐enabled site remediation Dust reduction technologies Nanoscale pollution control Nano‐enabled biosensor systems

Environmental impacts Global warming and its consequences Figures from the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change website26 state that: –

the Earth’s surface has warmed by about 0.8°C since 1900 and by around 0.5°C since the 1970s;

–

the average rate of global warming over the period 1901 to 2010 was about 0.07 oC per decade;

–

more than 30 billion tonnes of CO 2 are emitted globally each year by burning fossil fuels;

–

average global temperatures may rise between 1.1°C and 6.4°C above 1990 levels by the end of the current century.

Furthermore the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that it is very likely (with more than 90% probability) that most of the observed global warming since the mid‐20th century is due to the observed increase in human‐ caused greenhouse gas concentrations.27 Even if all greenhouse gas emissions were to stop now, the world is already “committed” to around 0.6 (+/‐ 0.3)°C of further warming. If no action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures will rise even further. These temperature changes will not be uniform over the globe. Higher latitudes, particularly the Arctic, are likely to see larger temperature increases. As resultant changes occur, e.g. due the melting of the arctic ice cap, the average sea level could rise by 18 to 59 centimetres, or more, by the end of the century. This is not likely to be a uniform change around the world: in some regions, rates are up to several times the global mean rise, while in other regions sea levels are falling. Many low‐lying areas and many inhabited small islands are particularly vulnerable to sea‐level rise and millions of people living in these regions could be put at greater risk of flooding with some small islands could even become uninhabitable. Further likely changes include an increased frequency of extreme weather events such as heat waves and heavy rainfall throughout this century. Droughts may become more intense in some regions with the impacts of these changes likely to be worst in developing countries. These countries are often the most vulnerable and have the lowest capacity to adapt to a changing climate. Further likely consequences of climate change include: –

loss of biodiversity as habitats are lost or change and species are unable to adapt;

–

acidification of the world’s oceans as CO 2 levels rise;

–

decreases in the yield of major cereal crops in all the main areas of production resulting in an increased risk of hunger and malnutrition in the poorest regions of the world;

–

uncertainties in the availability of water for drinking and irrigation in some regions. Coupled with higher temperatures, this could lead to an increased frequency of droughts;

–

serious health implications for millions of people, particularly those with low ability to adapt to climate change, such as increases in malnutrition and consequent disorders; deaths, disease and injury due to heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts; and altered distribution of infectious disease vectors.

Several more recent scientific reports warn of the possibility of more abrupt climate change due to factors such as: –

possible slowdown or disruption of the North Atlantic ocean conveyor (thermohaline) circulation (see figure 17);

–

changes in the carbon cycle;

–

further, rapid loss of sea ice, including melting of glaciers and the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, leading to long‐term and irreversible sea level rise.

While there are uncertainties attached these changes, the risks may become significant for global temperatures 2 to 3˚C or more above pre‐industrial levels.

Figure 17. Thermohaline circulation

The costs of climate change The Stern Report suggests the costs of climate change could be enormous.28 The report estimated that not taking action could cost from 5 to 20% of global gross domestic product (GDP) every year. In comparison, reducing emissions to avoid the worst impacts of climate change could cost around 1% of global GDP each year. 40

The contribution of the construction industry As stated in the introduction to the report, in the UK, the use of building accounts for about 50% of total CO2 emissions: construction itself contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use the most energy and create the highest CO2 emissions for an industry sector in the UK, together with other forms of pollution.

Meeting the low carbon agenda “Green Deal” The UK Government’s Energy Act of 2011 includes provisions for the new “Green Deal”29, which is intended to reduce the cost of carbon emissions by revolutionising the energy efficiency of British buildings. The Green Deal introduces new, innovative financial mechanisms that eliminate the need to pay upfront for energy efficiency measures and instead provide reassurances that the cost of such measures can be covered by savings on electricity bills. Energy Company Obligation (ECO) Scheme A new obligation on energy companies will be integrate with the Green Deal, allowing supplier subsidies and green deal finance to come together for the benefit of the consumer. UK Green Building Council The UK Green Building Council is an organisation that campaigns for a sustainable built environment. It seeks to promote refurbishment, “zero carbon” for new buildings, sustainable project development, linking to international best practice, and “green skills” for the construction industry through education and training. It also seeks to influence government policy on sustainable development and in promoting green business.

Challenges for the environment in the short, medium and long term Waste According to DEFRA, the quantity of waste sent to landfill from the construction industry in 2004 was about 100 million tonnes.30 This is more than three times the amount of domestic waste collection (28 million tonnes) and rose from about 70 million tonnes in 2000. Sustainably building proponents estimate that this is equivalent to one house being buried in the ground for every three built and that it is an important consideration when the embodied energy of a building is being calculated. 41

Furthermore, increasing regulations concerning waste disposal from construction, including common products like gypsum plasterboard and mineral wool insulation which are now labelled as hazardous, sometimes necessitates special disposal.

Environmental legislation A number of manufacturing sectors, including construction, have their own product‐specific legislation or regulations and these vary widely in the level of intervention by authorities and control of how materials are used in products. None of these regulations were specifically drafted with nanotechnology or nanomaterials in mind although some have since been reviewed in the light of the potential impact of nanotechnologies. Chemicals Europe Chemical substances are regulated in Europe by the 2007 Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation31. In 2008, the European Commission argued that, although there are no specific provisions in REACH referring to nanomaterials, the definition of a “chemical substance” covers nanomaterials and that the registration dossier should include data on the specific properties, classification and labelling of the nanomaterial together with any additional risk management measures. While companies are urged to use existing REACH guidelines the Commission, together with its Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly‐Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) and others, has pointed out that these may not be appropriate for assessing risks associated with nanomaterials. Mass threshold limits as set by REACH are also questioned as being appropriate for nanomaterials. While the REACH Regulation covers the regulation of chemicals in nanomaterial form, the position for companies in terms of registration, evaluation and authorization aspects still remains unclear at this stage. Recommendations concerning implementation issues are also being made by national authorities on the basis of their ongoing experience. USA The US Toxic Substances Control Act (TCSA)32 requires manufacturers of new chemical substances to provide specific information to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for review prior to manufacturing or introducing them into commerce. The EPA has the authority to review and regulate nanomaterials through a procedure called “significant new use rules” (SNURs). This is a notification asked of companies for significant new use of existing chemicals.

Under SNURs, the EPA can require premarket notification similar to those required for new chemicals and can limit the uses of nanomaterials, limit their release to the environment, require workers to be protected, and ask for tests to generate health and environmental effects data. Electrical and Electronic Equipment The use of materials in electrical and electronic equipment is addressed by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive.33 A revised text of the Directive was adopted on 27 May 201134 and, whilst a widely‐debated ban on asbestos‐like long multi‐walled carbon nanotubes and nanosilver was not included, nanomaterials will, at the insistence of the European Parliament, come under future scrutiny as further scientific evidence becomes available, in line with parallel developments under REACH and the Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)35.

Managing risks and addressing health and safety issues Most of the issues arising in relation to the responsible development of nanotechnologies are common to any emerging technology. Nanotechnology is still, however, a relatively “young” technology and the most important current safety issues mainly concern the possible harmful effects of non‐degradable “free” engineered nanomaterials (i.e. nanomaterials that are not bound into a substrate but, rather, may be breathed in, ingested or otherwise be taken up into the body or pass into the environment). However, potentially revolutionary (and beneficial) applications of nanotechnology, sometimes using novel nanomaterials, are under development, and the need to address these during the training of young workers should already be anticipated. There are still many knowledge gaps in relation to nanomaterials, and important challenges to the governance of nanotechnologies include: -

insufficient scientific knowledge about the characteristics and behaviour of some nanomaterials, including data on exposure and hazards;

lack of standardised definitions;

lack of standardized methodologies to manage environment, health and safety (EHS) issues;

difficulties for regulation to keep pace with scientific developments, the emergence of new products and applications, and increasing commercialisation of nanotechnologies;

lack of knowledge, in some cases, about how nanotechnologies and nano‐based are regulated;

limited exchange of information amongst various stakeholders along the value chain and beyond;

uncertainties, in some instances, about public acceptance, resulting from a lack of transparency about EHS and ethical legal and social issues (ELSI); weaknesses in education concerning nanotechnologies.

Further perspectives on hazards, risks and risk management Hazards, risks and risk management In addressing some of these questions, particularly with regard to training aspects, a distinction should be made between a hazard, a potential source of harm, and a risk, which is generally defined as the likelihood of harm occurring and, if so, the severity of the harm. There may, for example, be a greater risk involved in the use of materials containing free nanoparticles that in the use of a product where any nanomaterial is locked into the products. In addition, risks normally need to be assessed and, where appropriate, mitigated during the whole lifecycle of a product, from its inception, through manufacturing, to use, and ultimately to final disposal of that product at its end‐of‐life. In addition, all novel technological activities carry some element of risk (to health or to the environment) and, generally, a risk management process will balance the mitigation of such risks against the benefits of the material or product. These are elements that need to be addressed in any educational and training initiatives bearing in mind that the target group are likely to be involved in the handling and use of such materials and will require a basic understanding of these principles. Table 2 provides an overview of some of the benefits and potential risks of nano‐enabled materials and products that may be encountered in the construction, building services and related sectors. COSHH Regulations In the UK, the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 (as amended)36 require employers to control substances that are hazardous to health and address aspects such as – – – – – – – – –

finding out what the health hazards are in relation to a substance determining possible routes of exposure to hazardous substances deciding how to prevent harm to health (risk assessment) providing control measures to reduce harm to health making sure they are used keeping all control measures in good working order providing information, instruction and training for employees and others providing monitoring and health surveillance in appropriate cases planning for emergencies

As for “traditional” materials, the Regulations also cover working with materials and products based on nanotechnology. 44

Table 2. Examples of benefits and risks for some nano‐enabled products used in construction Category

Nanomaterial

Products/Uses

Benefits

Risks

Cleaning products

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles

Self‐cleaning surfaces and glass, window cleaning products, stain resistant textile coatings

Improve ease of cleaning, reduce cleaning associated costs

Incorporated within the textile fibres.

(sometimes in combination with nanoparticulate zinc oxide)

Potential of nanomaterials to leach , e.g. from textiles

Colloidal micelles

Soaps and cleaners Bio‐based and biodegradable

No risks as naturally based substances.

Silver nanoparticles

Antibacterial coatings for surfaces and textiles, antibacterial paint, cleaning and disinfection solutions, washing machines, and children’s toys/products.

Improve hygiene levels and reduce infection rates particularly in high‐risk areas such as hospitals and schools.

Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.

Transport

Silver nanoparticles

Air filtration systems

Significant reduction in viruses, bacteria and fungal spores, and odour concentrations.

Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.

Nanostructured composites and metals

Aircraft bodies

Weight reduction leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions

No risk

Nanostructured surfaces

Coatings

Non‐toxic solutions to reduce fouling

No risk

Copper oxide nanoparticles

Antifouling paints

Reduction in fouling

Evidence of toxicity to aquatic environment.

Cerium oxide nanoparticles

Fuel additives

Reduces fuel consumption and harmful emissions.

In a number of studies has been indicated as potentially harmful (lung and liver toxicity indicated in rat/mice studies) in their free particle form. Uncertainties remain over form of nanoparticles on emission from vehicles.

Metal oxide nanoparticles

Coatings for windows

Improved anti‐ fogging, abrasion resistance, and UV protection properties.

Incorporated within coating so exposure potential is very low if applied according to instructions for use.

Energy

Lithium titanate nanoparticles

Batteries for use in laptops, electric bikes, and electric vehicles.

Reduced charge time, longer lifetime and higher performance.

Coated onto electrodes within the battery therefore very low risk of exposure.

Functionalised nanoparticles

Wind turbine blade coatings

Reduced surface friction and fungus formation to improve power output.

Embedded within silicon matrix so exposure risk is very low.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles

Dye sensitised solar cells

Improved efficiency and not dependent on the angle of light.

Embedded within a film within the solar cell so exposure risk is very low.

Carbon nanotubes

Wind turbine blades, fuel cell electrodes

Stronger and lighter blades for improved efficiency, thinner and lighter electrodes with higher performance.

Incorporated into a plastic resin, or coated onto component within fuel cell so exposure risk is very low.

Palladium nanoparticles

Fuel cell catalyst

Reduced material cost and improved performance.

Embedded in a matrix and confined in final product so very low exposure potential.

Metal hydride nanoparticles

Hydrogen storage

Smaller and lighter storage solutions.

Textiles

Silver nanoparticles

Antibacterial textiles

Reduce odour, prevent infection, and address fungal infections.

Nanoclay

Fire‐resistant textiles

Nanoclay‐based Applied to textile so coating renders risk is low. textiles fire‐ resistant

Silica and metal nanoparticles

Durable textiles and clothing

Greater Applied to textile so improved risk is low. abrasion resistance and wear properties

Construction

Silicon oxide aerogels

Thermal insulation in buildings

Improve energy Not found to be efficiency of toxic or buildings. carcinogenic; however, they are mechanical irritants with continued exposure.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles

Low emissivity windows or window coatings

Reduce heat transfer through windows to allow for better building temperature control and reduced energy requirement.

Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound or released during wear; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.

Incorporated within thin films or coatings. Small risk of exposure if material is degraded.

Nanosilica, carbon nanotubes

High performance concrete

Improved strength and crack resistance.

Silicon dioxide nanoparticles

Scratch resistant coatings for floors and furniture

Reduce wear Incorporated within and tear to thin films or extend lifetime. coatings. Small risk of exposure if material is degraded.

Electronics

Nanostructured gold thin film

Displays

Size and weight reduction, reduced glare and low power consumption.

Nanoscale silver

Coatings for electronic equipment such as laptops

Antibacterial action.

Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.

Historically a link to silicosis; however, nanomaterials will be incorporated within the concrete mix so the exposure potential is low. The exposure potential may rise during demolition situations.

Carbon nanotubes

Transistors, Random Access Memory, display screens.

Higher speed transistors, more memory storage, lower power consumption and costs, replace finite materials, and lightweight, bright and thin displays.

Bound to surface or embedded within material within product so low risk of exposure. In their airborne free form concerns over asbestos‐like behaviour in lungs.

Nanowires

Electrodes for flat panel displays such as in ‘heads up’ car windscreen displays.

Allows displays to be flexible and thinner than current technologies.

Nanowires are bound to substrate material and therefore potential for exposure is very low.

Gold nanorods and nanoparticles

Data storage

Potential to store 10TB on disc similar to DVD, increased flash memory storage.

Bound to substrate material within product so exposure risk is very low.

Security

Zinc oxide nanorods

Gas sensors

High sensitivity and low cost production.

Carbon nanotubes

Sensors for toxic gases or fire, explosives detection

Much higher sensitivity than existing technologies

Bound and contained within sensor so exposure risk is low. In their airborne free form concerns over asbestos‐like behaviour in lungs.

Shear thickening fluids

Body armour, helmets

Flexible and easy to wear compared with existing bulky and uncomfort‐ able protective clothing.

Environmental monitoring & remediation

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles

Building coatings/paints for air pollution absorption,

Reduce air pollutant levels particularly in urban areas.

Bound within a matrix material so limited risk of exposure.

Nanostructured membranes

Water filtration, desalination, and carbon capture.

Improvement and provision of clean drinking water, and reduction in carbon emissions from fossil fuel power plants.

No risk as contain no nanomaterials/nano particles

Nano zero valent iron (NZVI)

Groundwater and soil remediation

Improved performance, reduced treatment time and cost, in situ so reduced equipment costs, effective targeting against host of contaminants.

Free particles but within a slurry, limited risk due to degradation of particles; however, potential impacts are unclear and bacterial toxicity has been suggested.

Nanoscale metals/metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, magnetic nanoparticles

Wastewater remediation

Much more efficient for removal of contaminants such as heavy metals, hormones, organic matter and nitrates.

Free particles therefore potential for release into environment and human exposure.

Facilitating the skills required to implement novel technologies Skills and training gaps in relation to nanotechnology and construction A recent Learning and Skill Improvement Service (LSIS) feasibility study on nanotechnologies and NVQ Level 1 to 3 training identified a number of potential training needs for the construction sector. These are summarised below in table 3. Table 3: Summary of nanotechnology‐enabled products and possible training needs Sector Type of nanotechnology‐enabled product Possible training needs Construction and related sectors

Nano‐ concrete and cement Nanocomposites and reinforced polymers Self‐cleaning glass Self‐cleaning surface treatments Nano‐structured surfaces, e.g. for water repellence Insulation materials, e.g. aerogels and nanofoams

General note: There is a degree of overlap between the products and skills required in this sector and those in related sectors, e.g. the facilities and energy/utilities sectors. Therefore, there will probably be a core of training needs that are common to such related sectors, as well as products and processes. However there will be other training needs that are more sector‐specific. Core training needs

Paints and other applied protective coatings, e.g. wood treatments, anti‐corrosion products and concrete coatings

what is nanotechnology?

why nanotechnology improves the performance of these products

Fire protection products

benefits over traditional products

Sealants and adhesives

working with nanomaterials ‐ what does the user need to know?

Solar energy capture

nanomaterials ‐ fixed in products or free?

Kinetic energy capture

Large‐scale building‐integrated energy capture and storage

how nanomaterials can get into the body and potential exposure routes

what are the risks, if any, in manufacture, use and disposal at end of life?

any preparatory treatments needed?

special precautions to be taken with each type of products

what to do in case of exposure to

Functionalised textiles

Fuel cells Energy storage High‐efficiency OLED‐based lighting and displays Flexible and printed electronics

materials or accidents

Site remediation products Dust reduction products

reporting on incidents or problems

Pollution control, e.g. e.g. O 3 , CO, NO x , SO 2 , VOCs, particulate matter (PM)

applicable legislation and standards

the precautionary principle – implications?

Sensors

Widely‐distributed and networked sensors Product‐ or site‐specific training needs as part of an integrated energy management - how to use the product effectively and system safely Monitoring of structural integrity - product safety sheets Security applications - specific product risks Cleaning agents - specific precautions and safety measures Anti‐bacterial coatings and surface Dividing above into class and on‐site training treatments units Anti‐graffiti treatments

One outcome of the LSIS feasibility study has been to recommend the creation of a “core module” addressing essential general aspects of nanotechnologies as indicated under the column “possible training needs” in the table above for NVQ levels 1 to 3. This core module, which has been formulated in the first instance for the construction, facilities management and energy/utilities sectors, would also be potentially useful for other industry sectors seeing the introduction of nanotechnology‐based materials and products. The draft module is attached for information in Appendix C. The LSIS feasibility study goes on also to recommend the possible creation of additional modules addressing particular nanotechnology‐based products or processes for individual specialist subsectors as further training gaps and needs are identified.

Current teaching competencies Studies to date suggest that there is little detailed knowledge of nanotechnologies and nanomaterials outside of university level teaching despite the fact that apprentices, trainees and workers at NVQ levels 1 to 3 in the construction and related sectors are very likely to come into contact with a wide range of nanotechnology‐based materials or products in their working environment (see the list of nanotechnology‐containing products described earlier in this report). At an LSIS project reporting meeting on 4 July 2012 in Birmingham, discussions between the author of this report and a number of representatives of different UK Colleges of Further Education and skills councils concerning the LSIS feasibility study on nanotechnologies suggested that there was 53

little existing knowledge of the impending impacts of nanotechnologies across a variety of sectors amongst trainers at NVQ levels 1 to 3. However, when alerted to examples of some of the current and emerging uses of nanotechnologies in manufacturing and in products, there was also enthusiasm for the development of basic learning and training tools both for trainers and trainees, and general support for the outcome of the LSIS project concerning nanotechnology and apprentice training materials in the construction, facilities management and energy/utilities sectors.

The creation of new learning tools General There are already some excellent learning tools available for young people concerning climate change such as the Department for Energy and Climate Change’s “My 2050”, an interactive web‐ based resource where the young person can visualise the impact of a variety of different measures and solutions on a hypothetical outcome. 37 There are also a number of emerging web‐based educational resources concerning nanotechnologies, including games, although there is still a notable absence of the topic from educational curricula at pre‐university level. The LSIS study revealed only one pre‐existing training module covering nanotechnologies, developed by Edexel aimed primarily at laboratory technicians at NVQ level 4.

Existing learning tools for nanotechnologies to reduce climate change No specific learning resources concerning the application of nanotechnologies to reducing climate change, and to addressing the low‐carbon agenda, in relation to construction‐based activities have been identified below university level within this study and it is suggested, on the basis of the technologies identified in this report and discussions with industry and training professionals, that there are knowledge gaps in this area. Furthermore, there appears to be a mismatch between the emergence of such technologies onto the market, the UK Government’s conclusion in 2010 that around 35 000 additional advanced apprenticeships should be made available for 19‐30 year olds over the next two years to meet technical skills needs in advanced manufacturing sectors, and the availability of suitable training and learning materials and initiatives. 54

A need for several levels of learning/training materials Employer feedback From the perspective of companies operating in these sectors, several key needs have emerged, namely: –

information on novel construction products and processes, how they work and the principles underpinning their use, that can used by senior staff engaged in the design and specification of buildings;

–

case studies on the use of new materials and products: the construction and building services industries claim to be open to new materials and processes but, at the same time, are strongly customer‐focused and therefore depend on the availability of relevant data and information on new materials, products and processes, especially concerning their performance, benefits and safety , at a professional level before investing in their use;

–

for trainees at apprenticeship level, it is suggested that there is a need for basic information about new technologies, materials and products at a “in‐context” learning level, i.e. understanding the characteristics, properties and benefits of those materials and products at the level at which they may handle, install or maintain them and that are necessary for them to work safely and effectively with the products. A detailed understanding of the underlying science is seen as less important at this level.

Online vs. written learning materials Amongst those contacted as part of this research, the majority expressed a preference for the development of web‐based learning materials. Developing new learning and training tools The development of several types of learning and training tools are therefore recommended, as detailed in the following sections.

Proposals for learning and training resources concerning the application of nanotechnologies to reducing climate change and to addressing the low‐carbon agenda “Core” nanotechnology training module at NVQ levels 1 to 3 Those interviewed as part of this study supported the development of training materials for construction and related sector trainees that address emerging technologies at NVQ levels 1 to 3, as proposed in the recent LSIS feasibility study, and one outcome of that project will be the 55

development of a core module addressing basic concepts and understanding, benefits and risks, health and safety aspects, and other important “horizontal” aspects of nanotechnology, nanomaterials and nanomaterial‐containing products that are common to a number of industry sectors and which could be incorporated into existing training programmes (see Appendix C). As outlined in the current study, emerging technologies such as nanotechnology underpin many new approaches that could support sustainable construction and help reduce CO 2 emissions. Such sustainability aspects are referred to in the proposed core module and a draft version of module is attached to this report (Appendix B) for information. Specialist nanotechnology training modules The LSIS report further suggested that there may be scope to develop further training modules, possibly at NVQ levels 3 and 4, on more specific aspects of how nanotechnologies can contribute to specific industry sectors and to specialist products and solutions used in those sectors. Again, sustainability could form a key underlying element of the content of such modules. Online self‐learning materials Most of the organisations consulted expressed enthusiasm for the development of web‐based, self‐ learning materials. An internet search reveals little such material covering emerging technologies such as nanotechnologies as a support to sustainable construction and building services, especially at the level of training young people. A number of learning/training materials were, however, developed by the Institute of Nanotechnology for a 2010 initiative by Newham College of Further Education in relation to engagement with local SMEs across a number of sectors. These materials include slides for self‐ learning covering: – – – – –

an introduction to nanotechnology nanotechnology applications in construction nanotechnology applications in cleaning and decorating nanotechnology applications for the environment nanotechnology applications in the energy sector

It is proposed that these learning materials which are available as sets of self‐explanatory slides, which are pitched towards basic awareness of the technologies involved across a range of applications and which do not require any prior specialist knowledge, could be readily adapted and updated as a resource to support the Skills for Climate Change project with the agreement of the Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham College, and could be made available online through SFCC. 56

“Discovery Lab Academy”

Newham College of Further Education currently hosts and operates a resource called the “Discovery Lab”. The Discovery Lab was initially set up as a resource and space to showcase and demonstrate a range of passive and active radio frequency identification (RFID) and communications technologies. It has since been extended to showcase other emerging technologies, such as nanotechnology, and has a wide range of nanotechnology products on display that can be viewed and used in “hands‐on” practical exercises by students and other visitors. The concept has proved popular and the Discovery Lab has received many national and international visitors from the FE sector, including interest from Saudi Arabia, as well as local and visiting SMEs and Newham’s own students. Newham College is keen to extend the Discovery Lab concept and is planning to establish a “Discovery Lab Academy” that is open to membership from other FE colleges and external bodies and which can provide a useful, practical learning resource. It is proposed that a future Discovery Lab Academy could also develop further practical resources, practical exercises and materials that could support the Skills for Climate Change Initiative is a way complementary to other proposed tools. “Training the trainers” courses The Institute of Nanotechnology has run a successful series of nanotechnology training courses since December 2007 across several sectors. More recently, the Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham College of Further Education collaborated, in February 2012, in presenting a one day training course at Newham entitled “The Smart Building of the Future” with attendees from the UK and Europe. The course addressed the application of nanotechnology and other emerging technologies to the construction sector and showcased a number of technologies aimed at energy capture, energy efficiency and smart materials. It is proposed that, on the basis of this experience, that similar courses, facilitated through Newham College and involving appropriate external experts as presenters, could be offered to those responsible for NVQ‐level training in colleges of further education to raise awareness of technologies aimed at environmentally‐sensitive construction and related technologies.

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Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, Inventory of Consumer Products, March 2011, http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/updates/ (accessed July 2012)

ObservatoryNano FP7 Project, General Sector Reports ‐ Construction ‐ Sustainability and Environment, http://www.observatorynano.eu/project/catalogue/2CO.SE/ (accessed July 2012)

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Teizer J, Venugopal M, Teizer W, and Felkl J (2012), Nanotechnology and its Impact on Construction: Bridging the Gap between Researchers and Industry Professionals, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 138(5), 594–604.

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Department of Energy and Climate Change, Tackling Climate Change, Green Deal http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/tackling/green_deal/green_deal.aspx

10. Germany to create more apprenticeships in nanotechnology and biotechnology, The Times Higher Education Supplement, 7 May 2004, http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=188572&sectioncode=26 11. Swiss Nano Cube, Plattform für Wissen und Bildung zu Nanotechnologien, 2009, http://www.swissnanocube.ch/home/ 12. Office for National Statistics, Life Expectancies, http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/population/deaths/life‐expectancies/ 13. OECD, Help Wanted? Providing and Paying for Long‐Term Care, 2011, http://www.oecd.org/health/healthpoliciesanddata/helpwantedprovidingandpayingforlong‐termcare.htm 14. Workshop on Nanotechnology for Cement and Concrete, US National Concrete Pavement Technology Center/US National Science Foundation, 2007, http://www.intrans.iastate.edu/cncs/nanotech‐wkshprpt.pdf 15. Bax, L. (2010). Briefing No. 3: Construction – Nano‐enabled Insulation Materials. ObservatoryNANO. http://www.observatorynano.eu (accessed July, 2012) 16. BCC Research, Advanced Materials, Report AVM052B, (2009), http://www.bccresearch.com/report/aerogels‐avm052b.html (accessed July 2012) 17. ObservatoryNano, General Sector Reports – Construction, Focus Report 2010, Adhesives and Sealants, http://www.observatorynano.eu/project/catalogue/2CO.FO/ (accessed July 2012) 18. ObservatoryNano Briefing No. 30, March 2012, http://bwcv.es/assets/2012/4/19/ObservatoryNANO_Briefing_No_30_Nanocomposite_Materials.pdf (accessed July 2012)

19. ObservatoryNano Briefing No. 33, March 2012, Nano‐enabled Textiles in Construction and Engineering, http://www.observatorynano.eu/project/filesystem/files/ObservatoryNANO%20Briefing%20No%2033%20Nano‐ Enabled%20Textiles%20in%20Construction.pdf (accessed July 2012) 20. Lux Research, State of the Market Report: Nanotech's Impact On Energy And Environmental Technologies, June 2007, https://portal.luxresearchinc.com/research/report_excerpt/2799 21. GBI Research, Energy Efficient Displays Technologies to 2020, June 2010, http://www.marketresearch.com/GBI‐Research‐ v3759/Energy‐Efficient‐Displays‐Technologies‐Organic‐2718778/ (accessed July 2012) 22. IDTechEx, Printed, Organic & Flexible Electronics Forecasts, Players & Opportunities 2012‐2022, http://www.idtechex.com/research/reports/printed‐organic‐and‐flexible‐electronics‐forecasts‐players‐and‐opportunities‐ 2012‐2022‐000301.asp 23. ObservatoryNANO Focus Report 2010, Nano zero valent iron – THE solution for water and soil remediation? http://www.observatorynano.eu/project/filesystem/files/nZVI_final_vsObservatory.pdf (accessed July 2012) 24. Frost & Sullivan, Analytical Review of World Biosensors Market, June 2010, http://www.giiresearch.com/report/fs121525‐ world‐biosensor.html 25. British Standards Institution, PAS 136 Terminology for Nanomaterials, 2007, http://www.bsigroup.com/en/sectorsandservices/Forms/PAS‐136/Download‐PAS‐136/ 26. Department for Energy and Climate Change, 2012, http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/tackling/explaining/explaining.aspx (accessed July 2012) 27. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) 2007, https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/contents.html 28. Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, HM Treasury and Cabinet Office, 2006, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.hm‐treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm 29. Department of Energy and Climate Change, Green Deal, 2012 http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/tackling/green_deal/green_deal.aspx (accessed July 2012) 30. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK Waste Data 2004‐2008, http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/environment/waste/wrfg01‐annsector/ (accessed July 2012) 31. Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals Regulation (REACH), European Communities, 1 June 2007, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/chemicals/documents/reach/index_en.htm 32. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), US Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/lsca.html 33. Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive, European Parliament and Council, 2002, http://eur‐ lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0095:en:HTML 34. Recast of ROHS Directive, 2011, http://eur‐lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:174:0088:0110:EN:PDF 35. Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), Official Journal of the European Communities, L 197, Volume 55, 24 July 2012, http://eur‐ lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:197:SOM:EN:HTML 36. Health & Safety Executive, Control of substances that are hazardous to health (COSHH), COSHH Basics http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/basics.htm 37. Department for Energy and Climate Change, “My 2050”, http://my2050.decc.gov.uk/

Appendix A Skills for Climate Change – Example of Employer Questionnaire Name:

Company:

Job role:

Date:

Yes

No Not

□ □ □

sure

Does your company have a policy on reducing environmental impact?

Are you aware of any nanotechnology‐based products used in your sector?

If so, does your company use them in its professional activities?

Do you know how novel technologies, e.g. nanotechnologies (or other), can help reduce environmental damage?

□ □ □

Does your company recruit and train young people at NVQ levels 1 to 3?

If so, do these young people go through an apprenticeship scheme?

Does their training include elements on the application of novel technologies?

Would new learning materials on technologies for “green building” be useful?

If so, in what form? 9.1 “Core” NVQ‐level training module(s)?

9.2 Specialist NVQ‐level training modules?

9.3 Written learning materials?

9.4 Online self‐study materials?

10. If developed, would your company encourage trainees to use such materials?

□ □ □ □ □

□ □ □

11. Do you think the UK should develop such training: 11.1 To help meet its environmental and “low carbon footprint” targets?

11.2 To be competitive with other countries?

12. Do you have any further comments or questions?

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Appendix B

Responses to questionnaire

Companies and organisations contacted Most of the questionnaires were completed by telephone discussion, although several companies refused to answer by telephone and were sent the questionnaire by email. The following companies and organisations were contacted: –

Federation of Master Builders (construction industry association representing several thousand small and medium‐sized building companies)

–

Home Builders Federation (construction industry association – it’s building company members account for around 80% of new homes built)

–

O’Keefe Construction

–

United House

–

BAM Construction

–

Interserve

–

Laxcon Construction

–

Cliden Construction

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Avondale

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Oakside Construction

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Jacobs Construction

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Barratt

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Balfour Beatty

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Abbotts Building Contractors

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Incommunities

Feedback The following graphics summarise the feedback received. In some cases comments were received and are appended against the relevant question. 62

Does your company have a policy on reducing environmental impact?

Comment. All the companies and organisations contacted stated they had a policy on reducing their, or their members’, environmental impact.

Are you aware of any nanotechnology‐based products used in your sector? Comment. Where “yes”, for more familiar nanomaterial‐containing products such as paints. One company felt that the industry needed to grasp such novel technologies in order to meet new challenges.

If so, does your company use them in its professional activities? Comment. Some companies stated they did not know of any nanotechnology‐based products but, when given some examples, stated that they had handled such products, e.g. lightweight concrete, self‐cleaning glass, specialist paints.

Do you know how novel technologies, e.g. nanotechnologies (or other), can help reduce environmental damage?

Comment. Some companies were aware of some new products that could reduce environmental impacts but did not necessarily link these with nanotechnology. Case studies of successful applications were felt to be useful.

Does your company recruit and train young people at NVQ levels 1 to 3? Comment. Some companies only take a few apprentices because they recruit mainly graduates and some others do not take on apprentices themselves but are aware that their subcontractors do so and have an interest that they are properly trained.

If so, do these young people go through an apprenticeship scheme

Does their training include elements on the application of novel technologies?

Would new learning materials on technologies for “green building” be useful? Comment. A major industry federation felt that additional learning materials for “green building” would be useful to complement its own initiatives on sustainable building. Such materials would be useful at both senior and lower levels: the latter especially should be “in context” to the roles young trainees have. Case studies were also deemed very useful.

9.1 If so, as (a) “Core” NVQ‐level training module(s)?

Comment. Most respondents felt that this was an excellent initiative with one company hoping that it would be available “as soon as possible”.

9.2 If so, as specialist NVQ‐level training modules?

9.3 If so, as written learning materials?

Comment. Some respondents felt that it was important to retain a level of formality in training.

9.4 If so, as online self‐study materials?

Comment. One respondent stressed the value of having CPD‐accredited training in novel construction technologies available for its staff.

10. If developed, would your company encourage trainees to use such materials?

11.1 Do you think the UK should develop such training to help meet its environmental and “low carbon footprint” targets?

11.2 Do you think the UK should develop such training to be competitive with other countries?

12. Do you have any further comments or questions? (See comments as appended against specific questions above)

Appendix C

Draft “core” NVQ Level 3 module on nanotechnologies

Note. As developed within LSIS Nanotechnology Feasibility Study (July 2012) Title:

Level:

Credit Value:

Learning outcomes

Assessment Criteria

The learner will [‘know, understand or be able to do’ as a result of completing the unit]

The learner can [The means by which the achievement of the learning outcomes are measured and through which the unit grade is derived

1. Understand the concept of Nano‐science

 Describe the concept and history of nanoscience  Describe the terms; nanoscience, nanoscale, and nanotechnologies  Explain the importance of nanotechnology for the future 2.1 Describe Rules & Regulations related to the manufacture of nano‐based products 2.2 Describe how to safely handle nano‐based products 2.3 Describe safe storage of nano‐based products 2.4 Describe safe disposal of nano‐based products 3.1 Describe five benefits of nano‐based products 3.2 Describe how nano‐based products can enhance five different types of existing materials 3.3 Explain the difference between the generations of nano‐ based products 3.4 Describe any environmental benefits of nano‐based technologies

2. Understand the Health & Safety Aspects of Nanotechnologies

3. Understand the benefits of nano‐based technologies

4.1 Give three examples of different nano‐based products

Know commercially available nano‐based products available in the consumer market

5. Know nano‐based technologies and applications of these technologies in your industry sector

available to the average consumer 4.2 Explain how nano‐science has enhanced these products 4.3 Explain the benefits and/ or dangers of these products to the consumer 5.1 Give three examples of nano‐based products available in your industry sector 5.2 Explain how nano‐science has enhanced these products 5.3 Explain the benefits of the three examples given within your industry sector

Additional information about the unit Unit purpose and aim(s)

This unit gives learners the opportunity to extend their knowledge of an area of science that is enabling new technologies in their industry sector, their properties and applications.

Unit expiry date

Details of the relationship between the unit and relevant national occupational standards or other professional standards or curricula (if appropriate)

Assessment requirements or guidance specified by a sector or regulatory body (if appropriate) Support for the unit from a sector skills council or other appropriate body (if required)

Location of the unit within the subject/sector classification system

Name of the organisation submitting the unit

Pearson

Availability for use

Unit available from

Unit guided learning hours

Delivery and assessment guidance This is a brief summary of any specific requirements necessary for the unit Delivery

Ideally, this unit would be delivered using a combination of theory, video content, practical demonstrations, hands‐ on lab experiments, and investigative assignments. To enable learners to understand the concept of nano‐science and nanotechnologies through theory and video content. To enable learners to understand through practical demonstrations and hand‐on lab experiments; Through investigative assignments, enable learners to understand and identify nano‐based products available for their industry sector, the benefits of these products and their application within their industry sector. Tutors should ensure that learners are aware of any hazards and safe working practices associated with the use of nano‐based products during laboratory or practical sessions. The learning outcomes are designed to be integrated acres a range of assignments. For employed learners, assignments could be designed to reflect aspects of their work. The use of industrial visits can also be used to enhance learners’ knowledge of processes and implementation carried out by companies in their industry sector. Centres should have access to an appropriate range of specialist equipment and products for lab experiments. Learners will require instruction in the safe handling and storage of products and equipment. Additional notes on possible content: 1.1 History and concepts of nanotechnology –

early theoretical predictions of the possibility of working at the nanoscale, e.g. Richard Feynmann “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom” (1959)

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first use of the term “nanotechnology” (Norio Taniguchi, Tokyo, 1974)

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Eric Drexler “Machines of Creation” (1986)(Note. Some of the predictions therein also contributed to some later fears of potential uses/misuses of nanotechnology).

1.2 Terms and definitions –

BSI PAS 71 and PAS 131 to136 provide definitions of all three terms plus other useful nanotechnology definitions for different sectors

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another useful definition describes nanotechnology as “intentionally altering or manipulating materials or structures at the nanoscale (1nm to +/‐ 100nm) to give new properties. These novel properties at the nanoscale can frequently be harnessed to provide increased functionality and performance to materials and products”. This definition has the advantage of conveying nanotechnology as a purposeful activity that seeks to achieve a useful result.

1.3 Importance of nanotechnology –

nanotechnology is an example of an “enabling technology” that can complement existing technologies by providing a huge range of new materials and products with enhanced and societally useful properties

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can contribute to innovation in an incremental, ground‐breaking and sometimes “disruptive” way (description of a “disruptive technology” would also be useful here)

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can contribute to greater efficiency of processes because of high reactivity of materials at the nanoscale

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can contribute to a reduction in the use of some raw materials, e.g. cement

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can contribute strongly towards greater sustainability and reduced environmental impact

2.1 Applicable Regulations –

sector‐specific product legislation and Directives, e.g. Medicinal Products, Medical Devices, Construction Products, Food Safety, Packaging, REACH (chemicals), etc.

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Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations

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Chemical Safety Data Sheets

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guidance in support of legislation

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industry guidelines for good practice and responsible care

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EU and UK initiatives on responsible innovation

2.2 Safe handling –

manufacturers' instructions for use

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Safety Data Sheets

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applicable risk management procedures

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HSE guidance

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where appropriate personal protective equipment and specific work guidelines

2.3 Safe storage –

specific guidelines for hazardous materials (e.g. COSHH)

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manufacturers' instructions for use

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Safety Data Sheets

2.4 Safe disposal –

specific risks at end‐of‐life or disposal (e.g. from lifecycle analysis or from product‐specific regulations)

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recommendations for safe disposal, e.g. from manufacturers or Safety Data Sheets

3.1 Benefits of nano‐based products –

specific examples should be chosen that are relevant to the sector the trainee is studying in

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examples could include the following themes:

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improvement in the efficiency of chemical processes due to small particle size, increased surface area available and greater reactivity

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reduction in the amounts of material needed due to greater reactivity

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more efficient products using less energy and resources

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highly‐functionalised materials and surfaces, e.g. for use in membranes, as highly‐specific detecting elements in sensors or biosensors, to impart additional functionality, e.g. self‐cleaning or hard‐wearing surfaces, etc.

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improvements to existing products, e.g. concrete, sunscreens, paints, cleaning agents, sports goods, packaging, medicines, etc.

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the development of novel classes of products, e.g. high‐performance nanocomposites, nanofoams and aerogels, phase‐change materials, nanoscale drug carriers, etc.

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contributions towards environmental improvement and combating climate change, e.g. novel low‐energy materials, energy capture (e.g. third generation flexible solar panels), printed electronics, low‐power OLED lighting, etc.

3.2 Enhancements due to nanotechnology –

specific examples should be chosen that are relevant to the sector the trainee is studying in

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examples could include the following themes:

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improving performance/efficiency, e.g. insulating materials, coatings, etc.

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improving carbon footprint/environmental performance/use of energy

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decreasing the amount of the material required, e.g. cement and concrete, highly targeted drugs, etc.

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avoiding the use of hazardous or expensive materials, e.g. catalysts

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improving durability and life, e.g. diamond‐like coatings, nano‐treated textiles

3.3 Generations of nanotechnology products –

broadly, nanotechnologies can be categorised into several “generations” with increasing complexity such as:

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“passive” nanomaterials: including simple nanoparticles and materials containing them such as coatings and nanocomposites, imaging agents, paints, etc.

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“active” nanomaterials: e.g. those that can respond to an energy input or which are designed to interface with biological systems, e.g. some drug delivery systems that release a drug under certain physical or chemical conditions, scaffolds for regenerative medicine, nanoscale electronic systems, etc.

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“self‐assembled” or “programmed” nanosystems, e.g. nanomaterials that can form templates for the assembly of other nanomaterials, self‐assembling bio‐nanosystems, biomimetic nanosystems. There are relatively few commercial examples of these at present but there is research interest, e.g. in materials that could potentially be used in the regeneration of tissues or organ function (bone is an example of a natural self‐assembled bio‐nanosystem) and biomaterials assembled with the help of DNA templates.

3.4 Environmental benefits due to nanotechnology Could include the following direct and indirect contributions: –

reduced use of materials, e.g. cement production accounts for some 5% of global CO 2 emissions. For example nanosilica‐containing concrete can substantially reduce the use of such materials

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reduction in energy usage, e.g. nano‐based insulation materials, low‐heat transfer paints

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enhancement of sustainable energy‐capturing systems, e.g. third generation photovoltaic cells, micro‐scale wind and kinetic energy capture

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improvement to fuel cells, batteries and other energy storage systems

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remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater, e.g. through use of nano zero valent iron

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nanomembranes for water filtration and desalination systems

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nanomaterials and filters for CO 2 capture

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reduction in maintenance, e.g. self‐cleaning glass and other surfaces

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nanomaterial additives to aid fuel efficiency

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reduction in the use of current hazardous materials

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treatments to improve the life of materials, e.g. nanoscale wood treatments and anti‐corrosion coatings for metals

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pollution‐reducing materials, e.g. building products that can photocatalyse nitrogen oxides in the urban environment

4.1 Nano‐based consumer products –

a wide range of possible and easily‐obtainable examples available in areas such as

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cosmetics (sunscreens, liposomal carriers)

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sports goods (carbon nanotubes in tennis and squash racquets and golf club shafts, quantum‐tunnelling composites as switches for personal entertainment and communications in skiwear), water‐resistant coatings for sports shoes)

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textiles (enhanced‐wear, stain‐ and water‐resistant fabrics, nanosilver‐treated antibacterial materials)

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household paints

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products for automotive paint and screen treatment

4.2 Nano‐enhancement of consumer products –

a variety of possible modes of action depending on material or product. Trainee should investigate these.

4.3 Benefits and/or risks for the consumer –

the trainee should investigate the benefits and possible risks in the context of the examples chosen. The following are themes that could be explored and which could be useful in explaining risk and benefit:

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are there free nanomaterials in the product or are they bound into the product and therefore unlikely to come into contact with the body or environment?

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at what stage(s) in the lifecycle of the product are there like to be risks of exposure?

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is there a hazard present (possibility of harm to people or to the environment)?

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what is the likelihood of harm occurring and, if so, how serious are the likely consequences (risk)?

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have efforts been made to reduce the risk?

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how can the benefit be assessed?

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has a balance between risks and benefits been made and, if so, what are the criteria for the acceptability of any risks?

5. Sector‐based, nanotechnology‐enhanced products –

to be chosen in the context of the sector in which the trainee will be working. The lists in 1.1 to 4.3 above can form a starting point.