Ceramic Sector: Embracing Manufacturing Processes, Materials & New Technology by CISNET Creative Industries Support Network for Atlantic SMEs

Ceramic Sector: Embracing Manufacturing Processes, Materials and New Technology by Bryan Thomas MA FRSA FHEA University of Wales Trinity Saint David

Investing in our common future

Creative Industries Support Network

CISNET is led by Mayo County Council, Ireland, in partnership with WestBIC, Ireland; University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Wales; Eurocei, Spain; Technopole Quimper-Cornouaille, France and Adist, Portugal.

CISNET is supported by the European Regional Development Fund through the Atlantic Area Transnational Programme.

Investing in our common future

Creative Industries Support Network

About This Report This report is a research output from the CISNET project. This report examines the manufacturing processes, materials and new technologies emerging in the European ceramic sector.

This report draws on the authors extensive knowledge of this field

combined with research carried out at Ceramitec 2012 trade fair held in Munich Germany in May 2012. The Ceramitec trade fair is a renowned international exhibition showcasing ceramic technology and solutions; 2012’s event brought together 613 exhibitors from 42 countries and 16,733 trade visitors.1 The intention of this report is to make the authors expertise and the innovations uncovered at the Ceramitec exhibition available to a wider audience through the CISNET network.

About CISNET The CISNET project is a support service to the creative and cultural industries that involves five regions across the Atlantic Area. In each region the work of CISNET is conducted by regional partners, of whom there are six in total: Mayo County Council and WestBIC in Ireland, Eurocei-Centro Europeo de Empresas e Innovación in Spain, Technopole Quimper-Cornouaille in France, University of Wales Trinity Saint David in Wales and Adist in Portugal. The lead partner in the project is Mayo County Council and the work is coordinated by The European Consulting Company, TECC.

The Project is supported by the European Regional Development Fund, ERDF, with further support from each of the regional partners. CISNET is an INTERREG IVB project that sits within the Atlantic Area Transnational Programme; in particular it is founded within this programme’s priority one Innovation Networks.

Further information on the CISNET project can be obtained at www.cisnetwork.eu.

Ceramitec 2012 Final Report, http://www.ceramitec.de/en/press/finalreport

INTRODUCTION This investigation seeks to highlight the potential for SME(s), Craft Makers, Designer and Artists to engage with Industrial Ceramic Manufacturing processes / materials and the impact potential of NDT (New Digital Technology) can offer. To pursue greater interaction and illustrate the creative potential between Industry - Science - Engineering - Technology - Manufacturing - Craft - Design - Art, embracing and encouraging industrial processes, manufacturing, greater scope for material diversification and usage, automation and the hand made, with new digital technologies. Substantial advancements and change have taken place in the Ceramic Industry with regard to manufacturing processes and materials; additionally to these new digital technologies have created further new opportunities for design, product development and potential for diversification in manufacturing, especially water jet cutting, laser cutting, computer controlled milling machines, CNC routing, 3D Printing, 3D Scanning and Digital Ceramic Printing. Due to the breadth of the ceramic sector, new opportunities are possible, there are specialist ceramic areas, with in some cases, unique and specific technical manufacturing processes and materials, such as Technical Ceramics; Refractories; Tableware; Sanitary ware; Abrasives; Bricks and Tiles which have to an extent been beyond the reach of many SME(s), Craft Makers, Designers and Artists. Greater awareness, knowledge and understanding of such areas will substantially increase and assist the potential for research and development, for the creation of new product(s) / artifact(s), material(s) manipulation, new manufacturing processes and technology. This spirit of !risk", ambition, investigation in conjunction with manufacturing technology, material diversification and new digital technology, such as 3D Digital Production will indeed be a substantial and creative force. Additionally this will also be of benefit for manufacturers, as the changing world order, with regard to production will require producers to be more fluid, adaptable and responsive to world markets and demands. This I believe must be developed collectively and not separately, taking lessons from our own history by embracing the !creative energy" and !risk taking" spirit of the creative ceramic innovators of the industrial revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, to re-kindling this spirit in a modern and contemporary context.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND There was a tradition in Britain, primarily in Staffordshire, the Midlands for farmers to additionally make pottery to improve their standard of living, due to rich deposits of clay materials quite close to the surface, this resulted for some as their primary source of business, initially for the trade of making butterpots. Before 1700, potters were criticised for digging holes to get clay from the roads, this practice created the term !potholes", thankfully this fact seems to have been forgotten over time. The industrial revolution owes a great deal to the craft industries of Britain and the developing skill, confidence and enterprise of that age. Their ability to share skills across different craft industries, for example silversmithing - fine metalworking techniques and skills were adapted and utilised by the emerging embryonic ceramic industry. Led by craftsmen / businessmen such as John Dwight and the Elers brothers at the end of the 17th century. This creative interaction underpinned the developing ceramic industry leading to industrial innovators such as Thomas Whieldon, John Sadler and Guy Green (1755) transfer prints to decorate pottery, Josiah Wedgwood, Josiah Spode 1st & 2nd, William Copeland, Thomas Minton, William Billingsley (Nantgarw & Swansea), John Rose (Colport), Dr John Wells & William Davis (Worcester), Duesbury & John Heath (Derby) and later individuals such as Henry Doulton and Thomas Twyford. Yet the !Craft" ethos of working with materials, skill, creativity, experimentation, manufacturing processes and techniques was at the heart of their success, placing Britain at the forefront during the Industrial Revolution. Their drive and appetite for success fueled their increasing demand for improved infrastructure, innovation and engineering to be able to not only compete but to dominate the global market. The industrialist Josiah Wedgwood for example actively encouraged the construction of roads and canals, which he considered essential to the expansion of British Industry. He cut the first sod of the Trent and Mersey canal in 1766, on completion this provided the main route for the transport of raw materials and finished products in and out of the !Potteries" (Stoke-on-Trent) and placing it at the centre of an International Trade. In 1782 following James Watts" patent rotary motion steam engine, Wedgwood ordered one for his Etruria works and this was installed in 1783. By 1795 Staffordshire had installed more Watt steam engines than any other county in Britain.

The Eler brothers contribution to ceramic development was indeed substantial, but not widely known; their significance was recognised by Josiah Wedgwood in a letter to his partner, Thomas Bentley in 1777, highlighting their importance; !The improvements Mr.Elers made in our manufactory were precisely these - glazing our common clays with salt which produc"d Pot"d Grey or stoneware and after this they (the Elers) had left the country was improved into White Stone Ware by using the white Pipe Clay instead of the common clay of this Neighbourhood, and mixing with it Flint Stones calcin"d and reduced by pounding into a fine powder. The next improvement introduce"d by the Mr.E. was the refining of our common red clay by sifting, and making it into Tea and Coffee ware in imitation of the Chinese Red Porcelain, by casting it in plaster moulds, and turning it on the outside upon Lathes, and ornamenting it with the tea branch in relief, the imitation of the Chinese manner of ornamenting this ware - for these improvements, and very great ones they were for the time, we are indebted to the very ingenious Messrs. Elers, and I shall gladly contribute all my power to honour their memories, and transmit to posterity the knowledge of the obligations we owe them, but the some total certainly does not amount to inventing the Art of Pottery in Britain". By 1833, Enoch Wood"s factory was recorded as having over 1,000 employees. In the early 1840"s, Copeland and Garrett employed 1,000 in a factory covering nearly 11 acres. By 1871 there were seven potbanks (ceramic manufacturing factories) employing each between 500 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1,000 workers. The national average factory size at the time was 84. Other regions of the United Kingdom were additionally fully embracing the Industrial Revolution, such as the industrially concentrated region of South Wales. During the period of the Industrial Revolution there were several industries of international significance, particularly copper and iron, ceramics, tinplate manufacture and coal mining. The 1851 Census reveals that Wales was the first country internationally to have more workers in industry than agricultural employment, making the case for Wales to be identified as the world"s first industrial nation.

EUROPEAN CERAMICS SECTOR Today the European Union (EU) ceramic industry is an integral part of the Community"s economics structure, and is perhaps one of the area"s oldest industries. It covers a wide range of sub-sectors ranging from the more traditional (tableware, wall and floor tiles) to the more high-tech (technical and refractory ceramics). The EU ceramic industry is a world leader in producing value added, uniquely designed high quality ceramic products manufactured by flexible and innovative companies, mainly SMEs. The ceramics industry represents an annual turnover of around # 30 billion, accounting for approximately 25% of the global production (#120 billion), and around 350,000 jobs throughout the EU.$ The major producing$ countries in the EU are Italy, Spain, Germany, the UK and France. Production in the new Member States$of the EU appears to be strongest in the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary, which all have strong ceramics sectors and have traditionally exported to other EU countries. The EU ceramic industry is export oriented with 30% of its productions sold outside the EU market. It is generally competitive both domestically and on international markets. However, since the last decade the market situation has changed considerably with the rise of low-cost products from new competitors in emerging and developing countries (China, Brazil, India, United Arab Emirates) while persisting trade barriers prevent effective access to important new markets.

The European Ceramic Industry Association

European Ceramic Sector Production Value 2005 - 2010

The European Ceramic Industry Association

UK CONTEMPORARY CRAFT MARKET There is an estimated 23,500 number of contemporary craft making businesses in the UK. Multiplying the number of businesses by the average craft-related income gives an estimated total annual income (value) for all contemporary craft making businesses of £475 million within the UK. This estimate of total income can be broken down by nations, based on the estimated number of businesses: England: Northern Ireland: Scotland: Wales:

£339 million from 17,500 businesses; £20 million from 1,050 businesses; £70 million from 3,350 businesses; £28 million from 1,500 businesses.

As points of comparison from other creative industries, total revenues for London West End Theaters were £512 million in 2010, while spending on music downloads in the UK was £316 million in the same year.

Crafts Council

INDUSTRIAL CERAMICS PRODUCTION PROCESSES, TECHNOLOGY, MATERIALS

I am not advocating that these areas replace existing making processes, materials and skills, but to be considered as a means to extend creative and production practices. To enable SME’s / Practitioners to develop and create work that otherwise would be either very difficult, impractical or impossible to make. To engage with new materials, processes and technology will indeed change the way Practitioners / SME’s perceive their practice and product, in addition to a different and possible better way of creating something. It is common practice to consider manufacturing technologies as very functional processes, yet if you take a different viewpoint of technologies and materials, this will be very beneficial in the creative process. Through greater interaction with new materials, manufacturing processes and technologies, these can be developed, modified and adapted for the creation of other outcomes. I embrace the fact that manufacturing processes, industrial materials, new technologies in marriage with what can be regarded as the historical - traditional processes, materials and tools can be utilised to the full by Practitioners / SME’s; to broaden the creative potential and to enable different ways of creating which will inevitably and positively lead to new original expansive work. The examples highlighted are indeed just examples of some production processes, materials and technologies, that have the potential to be adopted and adapted by Practitioners / SME’s.

JIGGER AND JOLLEYING Jigger and Jolleying have been used in the production of pottery since at least the 18th century, in large scale factory production, jigger and jolleying is fully automated. Jiggering is the process of bringing a shaped tool head profile into contact with the plastic clay which is housed within a rotating plaster mould on the machine. The jigger tool shapes one face, while the mould shapes the other, jiggering is used only in the production of flat wares, such as plates, but a similar process - jolleying is used to produce hollow-wares such as cups.

ROLLER-HEAD MACHINE This manufacturing process is similar to jigger and jolleying, except with a rotary shaping tool replacing the fixed tool head profile. The rotary shaping tool is a shallow cone, with the same diameter as the object being made, forming the back of the ware being made, with the plaster mould forming the inside shape. It was developed in the UK just after World War II by the company Service Engineers, roller-heads were quickly adapted by manufacturers around the world and they are a popular method for producing flatware.

SLIP CASTING (LOW PRESSURE CASTING) SLIP CASTING is used for mass production of ceramics and is ideally suited to the making of wares that cannot be formed by other methods of shaping. A liquid clay (SLIP) is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to cast for a casting period of time to achieve the desired thickness. Water from the slip is absorbed by the moulds leaving a layer of clay covering the internal face of the mould, the excess slip is poured out of the mould at the desired casting time. After a short period of time when the clay wall has stiffened sufficiently, the mould is split open and the cast object is then removed. Slip casting is widely used in Tableware production, but especially so in Sanitary ware manufacture, where objects were traditionally produced by the manual Bench Casting process and by automated Beam Casting and Pressure Casting methods.

Bench Casting

SLIP CASTING (LOW PRESSURE CASTING)

Beam Casting

Tableware Bench Casting

Above: “Shadow Of The Things You Know” sculpture, exhibited in Anya Gallaccio’s solo exhibition, at the Blum & Poe Gallery, Los Angeles, 2005 - 2006. Right: “Who Can I Turn To If You Turn Away” sculpture, exhibited in the Anya Gallaccio “Comfort and Conversation” exhibition at the Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, 2008.

Since 2004 I have produced over 4,000 porcelain apples for several tree sculptures for the international & YBA Fine Artist, Anya Gallaccio. Produced by the slip casting process, new glaze development and Industrial Ceramics firing techniques.

HIGH PRESSURE CASTING

Pressure casting was developed in the 1970!s for the production of Sanitary ware, although more recently, it has been applied to tableware. Pressure casting reduces the water content in the green part and increases its density and its cohesion. The mould sections are made of polymer with a mechanical strength and porosity greater than plaster, as well as an elasticity allowing water tightness of the mould under low clamping force. They do not require drying between the various castings. This computerised process provides high productivity. It is now quite widely used in the industry for production of sanitary ware and steadily increasing within tableware. There are two other casting methods that require mentioning as they also significantly reduce the setting time compared to traditional casting: vacuum casting and centrifugation casting. The first method is similar to pressure casting, but here the suspension is sucked through the porous mould. In the second method, the particles are driven by centrifugation resulting in a high density deposit. Centrifugation casting is used in the field of technical ceramics.

RAM PRESSING

Ram Pressing was developed in the mid 1940"s by two ceramic engineering graduates from Ohio State University, USA. This is a manufacturing process for shaping ceramics, by pressing a bat of a prepared clay body into a required shape between two porous mould sections. After pressing, compressed air is blown through the porous mould sections (halves) to release the shaped ware. Firstly air is pumped into the lower mould, pushing the clay onto the top mould, the top mould die section then moves up, a board is then placed under the top mould die and compressed air is introduced into the top die to release the plastic clay object onto a board. As illustrated.

Dust Pressing In 1840, Richard Prosser of Great Britain took out a patent for a technology which could press buttons from clay dust. Herbert Minton took a share in the patent and used the technology, a hand operated flywheel press which compacted clay dust between metal dies to press tiles was produced. The dust pressing process is suitable for many ceramic and non-ceramic products. Almost any ceramic powder can be pressed and, if needed, binders can be added to achieve added dry hardness. A high percentage of ceramic tile is made by dust pressing, the tile industry is one of the biggest user of ceramic materials, and the process is increasingly being used for plate and flatware production. It is possible to layer dusts of different formulations into a mould and press them as a layered matrix. Many high-technology parts are made by this method. Some of the advantages of this process are: • • • • • •

Parts of tighter tolerance can be made; Less drying equipment (and therefore less energy consumption) and floor space are needed, ware can be fired soon after forming; Cleaner shapes with smoother surfaces can be made; Changes in body plasticity is not nearly as big an issue; Clay mixes with coarse particles can be still be employed to create objects with smooth surfaces; Pressed items have much better dimensional stability and produce flat true shapes that can be fired with less warping.

EXTRUSION

In the ceramic extrusion process, material is forced through a die, and the designs, shapes, spaces (holes) run in the direction of the extrusion. The technique is widely used in Brick and Roof Tile production and is also used in Technical Ceramics. Within Technical Ceramics the forming process consists of forcing a plastic mix of ceramic powder through a constricting die to produce elongated shapes that have a constant cross-section. The powder mix consists of a fine ceramic powder with the appropriate addition of binder(s) and plasticiser(s) to give the desired flow properties (rheology), either cold or when heated prior to being forced through the die.

CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012

EXTRUSION

CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012

TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS Technical / Precision Ceramics uses a range of ceramic forming processes, such as die pressing, slip casting, extrusion, cold isostatic pressing and new emerging processes such as injection moulding and tape casting. Some traditional methods have additionally been refined to meet particular property requirements, such as hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing and pressure casting. Isostatic Pressing Granular powder or die pressed compacts are loaded into a flexible air-tight container, typically polyurethane, then placed in a closed pressure vessel filled with liquid and compacted by increasing the pressure within the vessel. The pressure change takes place throughout the liquid, thus exerting a uniform applied pressure over the entire surface area of the air-tight container. In this way, the material is uniformly compacted and will retain the general shape of the flexible container, and any internal tooling profile. Tape Casting This process involves the casting of a slurry onto a flat moving carrier surface. The slurry usually consists of a ceramic powder with the appropriate additions of solvents plasticisers and binders. The slurry passes beneath the knife edge as the carrier surface advances along a supporting table. The solvents evaporate to leave a relatively dense flexible sheet that may be stored on rolls or stripped from the carrier in a continuous process. Hot Pressing This forming technique is the simultaneous application of external pressure and temperature to enhance densification. It is conducted by placing either powder or a compacted preform into a suitable die, typically graphite, and applying uniaxial pressure while the entire system is held at an elevated temperature, e.g. 2000째C for SiC. Hot Pressing is only suited to relatively simple shapes, with the components usually requiring diamond grinding to achieve the finished surfaces and tolerances. Die Pressing This is by far the most widely used shaping technique for advanced ceramics and consists of the uniaxial compaction of a granular powder during confined compression in a die.

INJECTION MOULDING

This is a forming process adopted for the ceramic sector from the established method used for the forming of thermoplastic. It has been called Porcelain Injection Moulding - PIM or Ceramic Injection Moulding - CIM, a plastic mix is prepared and heated in the barrel of the moulding machine until it is at the correct temperature at which the mix has a sufficiently low viscosity to allow flow if pressure is applied. Suitable for the mass production of complex-shaped forms, the feed to the mould die is a mix of unfired body in powder form, together with organic binders, a plunger is pressed against the heated mixture forcing it through an orifice and on into the tool cavity. The moulded part is removed from the die and the organic binder slowly burnt out in a controlled atmosphere by means of a carefully controlled heating schedule, prior to sintering.

CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012

INJECTION MOULDING

CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012

TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS Low Pressure Injection Moulding Technology has moved forward greatly in recent years, were high volume ceramic components can be made using injection moulding techniques. Injection moulding of ceramic components has several major benefits over more traditional manufacturing techniques such as die pressing and green machining. Excluding the obvious; that it is a good technique for very high volume parts, injection moulding has also proved to be an excellent technique for making components such as turbo charger rotors and thrust bearings which would be too expensive if the parts were machined. Low pressure injection moulding (LPIM) provides an excellent option for producing ceramic components using low cost tools in comparison to high pressure moulding techniques. The LPIM process enables fabrication of very complex shapes as well as simpler components. The essence of the process is that parts can be produced with a higher level of integrated function to meet the customers needs then other process are able to achieve. Hot Isostatic Pressing This technique involves sintering a compact at high temperature in a pressurised gas atmosphere. The compact must either be impermeable to the pressurising gas or be encapsulated in a gas-tight container. In the former case, powder compacts are first sintered to remove surface connected porosity. The use of hot isostatic pressing leads to additional densification and increased strength in Technox Zirconias. Green Machining This technique is commonly applied to as-pressed parts which are still in a "chalky" condition. Common metalworking machines are used to machine the part in this "soft" condition as greater material removal rates are possible than by post sintering operations such as diamond grinding. As fired green machined components are subject to maximum tolerances of +/- 1%. To achieve tighter tolerances diamond grinding must be employed.