The Meaning Of Symbols

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SYMBOLS

THE MEANING OF

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CONTENTS 5

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Preface

Shape

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90

Introduction

Culture

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106

Colour

Bibliography

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108

Universe

Imprint

54 Human

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PREFACE The meaning of symbols is an instrument and inspiration to help designers or future designers with their projects. It is important to know the significance of elements that you use in design. This counts for designing a logo, a website, a poster, illustrations, autonomous art, and more. ‘The meaning of symbols’ functions as a guidance, an inspiration and a solution for designers, artists and people who are interested in the subject.

plete. There are various subjects, that have many sources that can be useful to this. Symbols and signs change, and our perspective on design changes as well. Presented here is an overview of what we could consider most important for designers.

It should be kept in mind that how certain symbols are received, depends a lot on the culture a person was born into. This is especially the case with colours. For example, while the colour red in western culture represents ideas such as passion, aggression and danger, it signifies good luck and celebration in China. There are many perspectives to take in consideration. More importantly, because this is an overview, not all information known on the subjects is added.

Our goal was to show an introduction of a diverse set of subjects.

All the essays in this volume are accompanied by illustrations that represents elements of art, history and colour around the world. The intention was not to describe these visuals, but rather to leave them open to interpretation. The subtitle of the subject will show the Spanish, French and German translation of the word.

Symbolism is complex subject, so what is presented in this publication is never com-

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INTRODUCTION Symbols have been part of human culture since the beginning of artistic expression.

We have found many example in the form of cave paintings dating back to 18,000 BC. The paintings illustrate how symbolism became important not only for artistic expression, but also for human communication.

Today, we have many more ways to communicate but a big part of our communication does depend on signs and symbols.

Symbolism is the practice of representing things by means of symbolic meanings to objects, events, or relationships. Symbols exist everywhere and often we ‘read’ them without realizing it, because a symbol is more powerful than words. This is used for many different things. An example is traffic signs; the purpose is to warn people of what to expect, and provide helpful information.

For example, the stop sign that is based on a red octagon. We would still stop, even if the word ‘stop’ is not there.

The previous example is a form of communication. This production and interpretation of signs in the context of communication

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INTRODUCTION

‘Art does not reproduce the visible. It renders visible.’

— Paul Klee

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Whether something is interpreted as a symbol or a sign depends on the attitude of the observer. Psychic development needs the attraction of the symbol. But the formation of a symbol cannot take place if you don´t acknowledge the elementary facts.

Aside from Sigmund Freud, Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Gustav Jung has had a major impact on the field of psychology. He is considered the founder of modern analytical psychology. He is the father of concepts such as the collective unconscious, ‘synchronicity’, ‘introversion and extroversion’, archetypes and the process of individuation. Jung has had a big influence on modern spirituality and new age thinking and his dream analysis and understanding of symbols have changed how we look at the subject. Although it was his wish to be considered a scientist, today he is mostly thought of as one of the leading mystical minds of the late modern world.

In contrast to a physical sign, symbols represent something else by association, resemblance or convention. A sign is a physical thing, that has to be learned, like traffic signs for example. An example of a symbol is the image of a dove; which symbolizes peace, rather than just depicting the bird itself.

However, sometimes the words sign and symbol are used as synonyms. For instance, a handshake could be referred to either as a sign of peace or a symbol of peace; the word does not refer to the action literally, but abstractly. A sign normally refers to a physical object and a symbol refers to an abstract representation.

In Jungian psychology, archetypes are developed elements of the collective uncon-

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INTRODUCTION

is called semiotics. Semiotics is the overall term for the study of these signs and symbols. It is human made, and all depends on how we perceive objects and colours. It is because of this that semiotics is closely related to psychology, which comes from the Greek ‘psychología’, meaning literally ‘study of the soul’. Psychology is an engagement with the anatomy of emotion itself.

‘…symbolism did not fall out of heaven or rise out of subterranean depths: it was elaborated like language, by the human reality… ’ — Simone de Beauvoir 10

Philosopher and semiotician Umberto Eco suggests that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. Human beings are evolving in a ‘system of systems of signs’. Because this field covers a diversi-

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INTRODUCTION

scious. The collective unconscious refers to structures of the unconscious mind which are shared among beings of the same species. According to Jung, the human collective unconscious contains instincts and archetypes; universal symbols such as the Great Mother, the Shadow, Water, the Tree of Life, et cetera. They are potentials which are realized when they interact with the outside world; they are given their specific content by history, culture and personal context.

These images and motifs are called archetypal images. The term archetype however can refer to both archetypes-as-such and archetypal images. There are many different archetypes, but Jung defined twelve primary types that symbolize basic human motivations(the common archetypes). Each type has its own set of values, meanings and personality traits, much like any other archetypal image has.

ty of signs, Eco has developed a classification in which he distinguishes artificial from natural signs. In ‘A Theory of Semiotics’ Eco argues that the meaning of signs is not necessarily determined by whether they refer to actual objects. He argues that the iconicity of sign-production is a matter of cultural convention; signs aren’t always in their significance related to their objects. This division between intentional and unintentional meaning is what this classification is based on.

Natural signs are divided in two classes; signs identified with natural events or things and signs unintentionally produced by humans. The first originates from a natural source; they do not have a human sender.

Nature is also ‘a universe of signs’ according to Eco. For example, the position of the sun indicates what time it is; an accumulation of grey clouds signifies a storm. A sign that is unintentionally produced by humans can for example be spots on a patient’s skin, that the doctor can decode.

In artificial signs there is a similar division.

First, signs intentionally produced in order

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to signify, which always originate from a sender. They are consciously produced by someone, with the aim of communicating something to someone(for example, a barking dog). Secondly, there are artificial signs that are intentionally produced as a primary function(a chair for sitting) secondary function(a diamond necklace for wealth) or a combined function(a police uniform, to cover and to indicate a social function). This class is explained by Eco as follows; ‘once society exists, every function is automatically transformed into a sign of that function.’

In the case where the sign has a secondary function, the semiotic characteristics of the object are more important. Marble, gold and diamonds are strongly associated with wealth for example. Eco; ‘In certain cases, the secondary function is so dominant that the primary function is minimized or completely eliminated.’

In graphic design, symbols are used in order to communicate to the viewer a message or even a story. The designer works with a variety of communication tools, including symbols, in order to convey a message to the audience. According to the way our natural

13 INTRODUCTION

senses function, colour is the most influential, followed by shapes, signs and finally words.

Brands are easily recognised by their colour, shape and signs. Brand recognition like this will make a good company succeed faster and make bad companies fail faster. Choosing the right language for a brand is essential to how people perceive its products and services. This is precisely why symbols are so important to graphic design. They give depth and meaning to your design. Whether you are designing a logo, emblem or icon, the use of symbols will communicate more effectively than words.

It is because of this that symbolism is such a big part of daily human life. Symbolism transcends cultural boundaries, encourages communication and cooperation, and will continue to evolve along with us.

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15 INTRODUCTION

COLOUR

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COLOR COLEUR FARBE

We can classify colours by their intensity.

First, there are the warm advancing colours(red, orange, yellow, and white), and the second are the cold, retreating colours(blue, indigo, violet, and black). Green here is intermediate, spanning the two groups.

This way, we can relate colour to emotion as well. German poets Wolfgang von Goethe and Schiller created a version of Goethe’s colour circle, where the four categories of the human temperament correspond with a specific colour. 1 Colour symbolism comes from how we perceive colour. Jolan de Jacobi, in her study of Jungian psychology, states: ‘The corre-

1. The Rose of Temperaments, a study by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller around 1799, Germany.

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C O LO U R

Colour symbolism is one of the most universal of all types of symbolism. They can suggest hierarchy, differentiate and blend. Since Maxwell’s discovery in the 19th century much more has been discovered about colour. It suggests light is a vibrating electromagnetic field, with frequencies increasing from the infrared to ultraviolet. In conclusion, colours are generated by light.

spondence of the colours to the respective functions varies with different cultures and groups and even among individuals; as a general rule, however, . . . blue, the colour of the rarefied atmosphere, of the clear sky, stands for thinking; yellow, the colour of the far-seeing sun, which appears bringing light out of an inscrutable darkness only to disappear again into the darkness, for intuition, the function which grasps as in a flash of illumination the origins and tendencies of happenings; red, the colour of the pulsing blood and of fire, for the surging and tearing emotions; while green, the colour of earthly, tangible, immediately perceptible growing things, represents the function of sensation’.

Colour has a different significance in every culture. In Chinese symbolism, yellow is associated with the sun, therefore, considered the sacred privilege of the royal family. For the Egyptians, blue was used to represent truth. In Christian art, green is important, because it is a bridge between the two colour-groups. The mother goddess of India is represented as red in colour, because she is associated with creation.

The conception of black and white as positive and negative is very common. This is related to a lot of mythology, folklore, (such as the great myth of the Gemini). Black usually represents the initial stage of processes(also in alchemy). Black crows, black doves and

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C O LO U R

‘I found I could say things with colour and shapes that I couldn’t say any other way— things I had no words for.’

—Georgia O’Keeffe

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black flames are known in a great many legends. They are all symbols related to the primal (black, occult or unconscious). White is associated with the sun: from mystic illumination(symbolically of the East; where white is purified yellow (like black is related to the blue of the deep sea). It is related to paradise and the beyond in many cultures. Conversely, white is also symbolic of death. The dynamic dualism of black and white is recognizable in the binary symbol of the Chinese Yin-Yang and many other graphic symbols. They are based on opposites we recognize such as life/death, light/darkness and appearance /disappearance.

Colour affects us, in memory, instinct, and all of our senses. There are many ways to classify, contrast, and specify colour. These may vary, because it has to do with complexities of culture and language. Artists can create and compose these colours so, that they give us the impression of invisible dimensions.

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We can distinguish and characterize colours by hue, saturation and value. Hue describes the colour in terms of shade (saturation or amount of grey) and their brightness value. Hue is the primary value of a colour and how the colour is perceived through the eye.

The saturation of a colour is the intensity or brightness of the colour, any colour that appears dull is referred to as desaturated. And lastly, value is the lightness or darkness of overall colour schemes.

When it comes to design, you can separate the cool colours from the warm colours because of their attributes. Cool colours can be used to give a sense of calm or professionalism. Use warm colours in your designs to reflect passion, happiness, enthusiasm, and energy. This is our first impression of the colour we see. How we combine and compose these, can change its meaning completely.

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RED ROJO ROUGE ROT

It is also a warning signal. For example the red flow of blood, the glow of fire. So apart from it being warmth and passion, it is also a sign of danger or call for attention. It stands for life energy and aggression. It has often been associated with war, murder and anarchy. In many cultures red means intensity, bravery, and cruelty. In African symbolism for example, red is expressed in both colour and the potential force in all things and the bodies of all beings, especially in blood. This

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energy fills people with both wonder and fear.

This makes red a colour of life and death at the same time. It depends purely on the context. The energy of red is associated with a hot temper, but also harmony and balance (For example Mark Rothko’s Red no. 5, which achieves complete harmony with a full red canvas).

In design, red can be a powerful colour. It can give an overwhelming effect and can be used as an accent colour. As mentioned before, especially to portray power or passion.

Red is versatile, because brighter versions can be energetic, but darker shades can look powerful and elegant.

C O LO U R

Red increases muscle tone, blood pressure and breath rate. This colour is not only an experience we see, since blind humans and animals are affected by red as well. Red is the colour of life, because this relates to blood and fire.

ORANGE NARANJA ORANGE ORANGE

Orange is a mix of red and yellow and stands between the two. Orange can extend to almost gold, the everlasting, and into red, the active. In Buddha’s time, prisoners wore orange. The Buddha was said to have adopted a robe of saffron as a sign of compassion for the condemned. It still signifies detention and protection(suits of American prisoners).

Various tints of orange associate with the rising of the setting sun, processes of emergence, heat growth and perfection. In Roman times, the bride often wore a flamelike veil of Aurora, the goddess of the dawn.

Apart from the positive image of warmth, harvest and completion orange is also emblematic of nature’s transformations such as forest fire, explosion and nuclear blast.

Orange can command your attention(for example a call for action) without it being as overpowering as red. It’s considered a more friendly, inviting and fun colour in design. If put together with another colour, a darker orange can be grounding and act more neutral.

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YELLOW AMARILLO JAUNE GELB

Yellow often stands for light, the sun’s rays, intellect, faith and goodness. Van Gogh made a series of yellow sunflower paintings, where yellow is powerful and radiant with the energy of the sun. ‘Kan’, yellow in the Maya culture of ancient Mexico, was used for the god who held up the sky. In a similar way, traditional Chinese belief links yellow with the highest of things, with the sun as the centre of the heavens, with the emperor as the centre of the universe. Huang, the Chinese word for yellow, also means radiant.

Yellow is visible. So it has become a colour of warning, on for example machinery, sign of quarantine, a cautionary traffic light. It is also a sign of process. The paper of old books and leaves of autumn trees are a sign of aging. To medieval alchemists, yellowing was a phase in the process of making gold, or, arriving at psychological wholeness.

It is a transitional stage, that comes after the chaos(black) and despair of the beginning(white). Yellow was re-energizing, and a way to a full involvement in life(red).

The colour yellow is closely linked to gold.

In China, and in western symbolism as well.

Islamic culture saw yellow two ways: Golden yellow for good advice and pale yellow for betrayal(this second yellow is the colour of sulphur, the devil’s realm). Yellow has, in this way, often in history been a symbol of negativity. In the 1200’s and more recently, Jews have been forced to wear yellow insignia of clothing(as a form of persecution).

In design, bright yellow can be used to signify happiness and cheerfulness. A softer yellow is often used as a gender-neutral colour for babies and children. In this sense, yellow is associated with innocence and home. Light yellows also give a calm feeling, more so than a brighter yellow. Bright yellow graphics give a sense of energy and catch your eye. This is useful when you want to give accents to a design.

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GREEN VERDE VERT GRÜN

In ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of growth and of life itself. ‘To do green things’ was an expression for life-producing actions.

Now, green is associated with being ecologically aware, and caring for life on the planet.

Green can imply freshness, but also immaturity, inexperience and unripeness. It is complementary to red in colour theory, but fresh greenness is also associated with a fiery red.

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C O LO U R

Green is related to the Old English word ‘growan’, which means to grow or cover with green. This links ‘green’ to plant growth. It stands for hope and growth, but is also commonly known in images of death and decay(mold, poison, witches, monsters). In the psyche, there is the green-eyed monster of jealousy, and something called being ‘green with envy’.

BLUE AZUL BLEU BLAU

The highest value is often the green vessel containing the red substance(the emerald chalice of the grail with the holy blood of Christ).

Green has a calming attribute that blue has as well, but it has the energy of yellow. It can be balancing and harmonizing in a design.

It is used in relation to wealth, stability, renewal and nature. A brighter green is more energizing, while dark greens are stable and representative of wealth.

Blue pulls you in, into the deep blue sea.

Apart from the sea and sky, it is the rarest colour in nature. And because of this, gods are often blue (Kneph, Jupiter, Krishna, Vishu, Odin, Mary’s celestial cloak).

Blue signifies eternity, the beyond, the spiritual as contrasted with the emotional and physical. In our everyday language, that symbolism becomes less clear, but it does still point to the ‘special’ or highest; a blue ribbon for a prize or ‘blue blood’ (aristocracy).

Blue was almost never used in prehistoric art, as it was a difficult pigment to produce.

The original ultramarine blue pigment was produced from a fin ground stone, lazulite, which was so expensive that it was reserved for more important paintings.

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‘A blue surface seems to recede from us... it draws us after it.’

—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

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At the same time, it is cold, like the colour of moonlight. And the colour of bruises, melancholy, ‘the blues’ and isolation. Pablo Picasso’s paintings from his ‘blue period’ are painted in blue tones to show hunger, cold and sadness. It can also be seen as the midway between black and white (despair and hope or clarity), like a state of reflection.

Light blues can be refreshing and friendly.

They are also often associated with the medical world. Darker blues are more strong and reliable. This meaning depends heavily on the exact shade and hue. In design, this will have a huge impact on how it is perceived.

It’s better to use lighter blues to support a calming design, and bright blues for something more energizing. Dark blues work, for example, for the website of a firm that wants to show strength and reliability. The dark blue can give something a professional feeling, especially when combined with a lighter shade.

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C O LO U R

Blue is calming and draws us into a meditative mood. The painter Yves Klein patented his own colour, named ‘IKB’ (International Klein Blue). By using only this colour on a big surface, he creates a calming environment.

PURPLE PÚRPURA VIOLET VIOLETT

Purple consists of a whole spectrum of colours. The history of this colour goes far back, and it is not certain what the exact hue of ancient purple was. Possibly Biblical purple, used in clothing of Hebrew priests and in tabernacle furnishings (today we call this ‘crimson’). Ancient Greek purple was a dark reddish colour to honour the dead and gods of the underworld. In Roman times, ‘Tyrian purple’ represented wealth, worldly position and honour. This Tyrian dye was precious and costly, since it was made from a Mediterranean sea snail. This purple was described by ancient authors as the colour of congealed blood. In other cultures, such as in China, the Aztecs and Incas, purple was associated with royalty and divinity.

Because the colour is a mix of red and blue, its symbolic meaning comes from bringing together opposites. For example, purple can

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stand for the red of passion balanced by the blue of reason, or love by wisdom, or earth by heaven. In Taoism, it is the transition between yang and yin, active and passive.

Purple, or violet, where blue predominates over red, is the last colour of the rainbow, and can be seen as ‘the end of the known and the beginning of the unknown’, which brings it into connection with dying. Jung translated this to the idea of a spectrum. At the infrared end is the power, energy of instinct. At the ultraviolet, or mystical, end is the instinct and fascinating.

It can be associated with creativity and imagination, too. In design, dark purples can give a sense wealth and luxury, probably because of its relation to royalty. Light purples (like lavender) are softer and are associated with spring and romance.

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WHITE BLANCO BLANC WEISS

White signifies monotonic landscapes, sand of the desert, glaciers and frozen ground. It is also newness and beginning. Or goodness, how angels are depicted, often wearing white. White blossoms in springtime, wedding vows, blooms of the Easter lily signify resurrection. On the other hand, white can be pale death, the dove or sea bird, as the soul, departing.

White can signify all or nothing. Psychologist Rudolf Arnheim states that white is ‘a symbol of integration without presenting to the eye the variety of vital forces that it in-

tegrates, and thus is as complete and empty as a circle’.1 In opposition to black, white becomes purity, virtue and innocence versus black as lustful and evil.

White can work well with almost every colour. It is associated with the health care industry, especially with doctors, nurses and dentists. It is often considered a neutral backdrop, that lets other colours to shine on top, or in a minimalistic style. It conveys cleanliness, simplicity and illumination.

1. Colour Codes: Modern Theories of Color in Philosophy, Painting and Architecture, Literature, Music, and Psychology, Riley, Charles A. 1995, p302.

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BLACK NEGRO NOIR SCHWARZ

Black is not only a colour, it is absence of colour. It is primary to many forms of transformation, such as the luminous darkness of self-understanding. In the alchemical opus black means the eclipse of patterns of identity and meaning. The ‘nigredo’ is state of disorientation, exhaustion, self-doubt and depression. In analytical psychology, the term became a metaphor ‘for the dark night of the soul, when an individual confronts the shadow within’.1 Black is the strongest of all neutral colours.

It is used in more edgy designs, but also in elegant designs. It can be conservative or modern, traditional or unconventional, depending on how it is combined. Because of its neutrality, black is mostly used for typography and other functional parts. Black accents mixed with brighter colours add and edgier look. Small touches in black on a lighter background can look sophisticated.

1. In Alchemy, ‘nigredo’, or blackness, means putrefaction or decomposition. Many alchemists believed that as a first step in the pathway to the philosopher’s stone all alchemical ingredients had to be cleansed and cooked extensively to a uniform black matter.

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C O LO U R

Black is the night, melancholy and death.

Authority, elegance and loss can be black.

In Ancient Egypt black evoked death but also life. The Navajo see black as sinister, but also see blacks capacity to protect. Black and white are in tension with each other, especially when they are opposed. White as coldness and black as warmth, or black as benighted and white as enlightened.

GREY GRIS GRIS GRAU

Grey is not only a mix of black and white, it results from mixing any of the colour opposites; green and red, yellow and violet, blue and orange. Because of this, it has a position at the centre of the colour world. Painter Redon wrote: ‘.... that fundamental grey which distinguishes the masters and is the soul of all colour.’ Grey can stand for old age wisdom and serenity, because we associate it with greying hair. In Christian symbolism it is the colour of mourning, of the ascetic time of Lent, of humility and of resurrection of the dead. It is also linked with the symbolism of ashes.

Grey is neutral. Opposites balance here or are undifferentiated. In mythology, dead persons and spirits that move between the realms are grey(a ‘grey area’ is not certain, grey clouds and fog). Because of this, it has several meanings, but is usually considered to be a cool colour.

Light greys can be similar to white, and dark greys can be used instead of black. Lighter grey can give a quiet feeling to a design. Or a modern and sophisticated feel. Gray can be conservative and formal, depending on the hue of grey you use.

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UNIVERSE

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UNIVERSO UNIVERS UNIVERSUM

This balance or harmony has been part of many myths and ancient cultures. The 12th-century writer Alan of Lille, in his ‘De planctu naturae’, describes Nature as an allegorical figure wearing a diadem set with jewels in imitation of the stars: twelve stones symbolize the signs of the Zodiac and seven stand for the Sun, the Moon and the five planets.

Designers use elements based on nature because they are reliable. Biologically inspired graphics hold communicative power because it is related to a pattern all human beings know. When it comes to for example logo design, whether a business is tied to the environment or not, references to nature can work very well. Using elements of terms such as ‘tree,’ ‘water,’ ‘earth,’ and ‘nature’ give impact.

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UNIVERSE

Our life experience is based in nature, something we often forget as we develop and grow through our own man made systems.

Nature is part of our creative process. We have tried to grow it, discover it and control it for centuries. All duality, no matter how dark or light, masculine or feminine, provides needed balance. It’s said that balance between these two opposing forces brings the most harmony to an individual’s life.

‘Man invented things by imposing a shape on nature.

Man discovered things by revealing the pattern of nature.’

— Alan Fletcher 40

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SUN SOL SOLEIL SONNE

The Sun represents the moment when the heroic principle shines at its brightest. He inherits one of the most notable and moral of the attributes of this deity; he sees all and knows all. In India, as Sûrya, it is the eye of Varuna; in Persia, it is the eye of Ahuramazda; in Greece, as Helios, the eye of Zeus (or of Uranus); in Egypt it is the eye of Ra, and in Islam, of Allah.

But the ferocity of the sun also exhausts.

Greek myths such as ‘Icarus’ and ‘Phaethon’ suggest if you fly too near to the sun is to lose one’s ground(groundedness); to become identified with the inflamma-

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ble energies that exceed mortal limitation is to become destruction and death.

Primitive astrobiology found an essential connection between the Sun and Moon. A similar connection to that of heaven and earth. For many, the sky is symbolic of the ‘active’; the masculine and the spirit, while earth symbolizes the passive; the feminine and the matter. And the same thing happens with the Sun and Moon; solar ‘passion’, so to speak, with its heroic and fierce character, can be associated with the masculine principle, and the delicate nature of lunar light and its connection with the waters of the ocean (and the rhythm of woman), obviously had to be classified as feminine.

If you think of the Sun as only a shape, a circle, it represents the eternal whole, well-roundedness and completeness. Combined with its colour, you can add warmth, light and energy. It is used in a number of market sectors, from a water related business to fashion to entertainment to companies providing solar energy.

UNIVERSE

The sun has the power of fertility, nurturing light and warmth. Over millennia, sun worshippers thought the sun had magical properties of fertility, creativity, prophecy, healing and even a living potentiality for wholeness in every individual. It is no surprise that because of this, royalty and authority of rulers have worn a sun-like crown, to show their ‘enlightenment’. The sun is the eye of the Mother of All, the guardian of the universal order.

STAR ESTRELLA ÉTOILE STERN

The stars we see on a clear night are so ancient and far away, that their light takes millions or billions of years to travel to earth.

They have also been the subject of myths for centuries. The ‘great goddess’(Inanna, Ishtar, Aphrodite) was the evening and morning star, arc of the mysteries of sleep, dream, death and regeneration and many places.

A star is a symbol of the spirit, as a light shining in the darkness. They have orientated the traveller, sailor and pilgrim, to help find the way. In a symbolic way, we also give meaning to ‘maps’ of stars. The ancients discovered a spiritual map, or zodiac, based on the orbits of the sun, moon and planets in relation to the fixed star constellations.

Stars continue to stir us. The black hole has been compared to alchemy’s ‘black blacker than black’, of absolute despair. Because stars appear at night, their symbolism is associated with that of the night; and with that

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of multiplicity(or disintegration) because they appear in clusters.

As individuals, stars are seen in graphic symbolism. Their meaning then depends on the shape, number of points, manner of arrangement and colour. The five-pointed star is the most common. In the days of Egyptian hieroglyphics it signified ‘rising upwards towards the point of origin’, and ‘to bring up’, ‘to educate’, ‘the teacher’.

In design, a star represents excellence, quality, success and popularity. This is famous globally. Sometimes, the badges of law enforcement officials contain a star symbol as a mark pertaining to law and order. At present, we can see pharmaceutical and medical companies incorporating a star in their logo design. Because the star is recognizable it works well in diverse ways and in many different fields.

URE NSR IEVSE E SEE TA R U NUIN V IEV | RO|SC AN

‘It does not prevent me from having a terrible need of, shall I say the word - of religion - then I go outside in the night to paint the stars and I dream ever of a picture like this with a group of lively figures of our pals.’

— Letter from Vincent van Gogh to Theo van Gogh

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OCEAN OCEANO OCÉAN OZEAN

According to occultist Pierre Piobb, the Graeco-Roman idea of the ocean encircling the earth was a representation of the current of energy created by the globe. The ocean is constantly moving and its water is formless.

Therefore, its symbolizes dynamic forces of the stable(solids) and the formless(air or gas). The ocean is a symbol of universal life.

Traditionally it is the source of all life(which science has confirmed, life did begin in the sea).

The ocean’s characteristics can be both positive(dominant) or negative(destructive).

It contains monsters, chaos and destruction.

It has the power to destroy higher forms of land-life which means it is also a symbol of sterility.

There are no two waves that are equal, no two tones of blue and green that are the same. Thus says the poet Paul Valéry: “La mer, la mer toujours recommence…” 1 The sea, the sea that always begins again, so different that no wave is exactly like the other, so harmonic that the grand impression is one of a unity. A harmonic diversity in unity.

A river, just as the ocean, can signify fertility.

It holds life, freedom, movement, dangerous currents, drowning, running its course, flooding, direction, channelling. Rivers carry things and transport both literally and figuratively. Mythology speaks of how great waters came to earth as a river. The Ganges, the holiest of three holy rivers in India, flows from Vishnu’s toe through heaven, earth and the world below. Over a million Hindus travel to Varanasi, where the three holiest rivers meet, each year to bathe in the waters, cleansing themselves of the karma of previous lives. It promises rebirth, as the river Jordan did with baptism.

The ocean in design is most commonly used to show harmony, freedom and fertility. It reminds us of vacation, watching the sunset and amusement, which is why it is often used in advertisements for holidays, resorts, aquariums, water sports, airlines and more.

A drop or wave as a logo or element in design is often used in businesses dealing with water supply, plumbing services, cleaning companies, spas, outdoor sports and water sport schools.

1. Le cimetière marin, Valéry, Paul. 1920.

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SKY CIELO CIEL HIMMEL

Sky stood for highest authority and power, he embodied cosmic order. The predictable movements of stars and planets, the alternation between day and night, showed that there was basic order in the universe.

Now, we know the ‘sky’ is the upper part of an envelope of gasses (nitrogen and oxygen

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mostly) that enclose the earth. The source of lightning, thunder and rain are the clouds.

They are part of shifting weather patterns, reflectors of solar energy, and more.

Clouds generally stand for dreams, imagination and creativity. In many cultures, clouds were regarded as sources of cosmic fertility. They hold fertility, because of life-giving rain. Because clouds hover between heaven and earth, they symbolize hiddenness as well as the divine. They can symbolize big web communities or a group of like minded people, because of its relation to creativity and imagination.

This is why hosting companies, web security companies, communication businesses and social media networks like using it in their logos. Clouds, or a sky full of clouds can be powerful because they show imagery of dream, creativity and playfulness.

UNIVERSE

Biblically, the sky is a great metallic plate arched over the earth. The sky was so vast and high, that only birds and mountains could reach it. Light from the sun, moon and stars streams down. Lightning and thunder crashes from it, rain pours onto earth. There are many reasons why the sky came to stand for God’s immensity and divine power. In mythology there have been many sky gods, and often they are the ones that created everything(Nut, the sky goddess of the ancient Egyptians, who arches protectively over the world).

FIRE FUEGO FEU FEUER

All living things are in some way fertilized, tempered, ripened or destroyed by fire. It provides warmth and light, but it is also dangerous. When people discovered fire-making and fire-tending, it was imagined as something almost divine, part animal, part spirit, living and breathing.

In both reality and myth, fire destroys. But from the ashes, a new world may come to being. Because fire-making is a discovery that defines us as humans. In many creation myths fire is like a gift from the gods. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, fire is related to the solar-symbolism of the flame, associated with life and health(the idea of body-heat).

It was also related to the concept of superiority and control, where the symbol developed into an expression of spiritual energy.

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‘It is through fire that nature is changed.’ It is because of this symbolism that fire is our terrors and hopes of alternation/transmutation. Fire is, like water, a symbol of transformation and regeneration. The alchemists’ concept of fire is similar to this, as ‘an Element which operates in the centre of all things’, as a unifying and stabilizing factor.

It embraces both good (vital heat) and bad (destruction).

In design, a symbol of a fire can stand for warmth, passion, enthusiasm, faith, energy, impulse. More often it shows the positive characteristics than the negative ones, depending on the context. A flame indicates heat or action, which, in a design gives an attitude that captures people’s attention.

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TREE ÁRBOL ARBRE BAUM

A tree can grow, balance between high and low, hold its ground and bloom. In myths humans are sometimes transformed into trees. Because we have a soul, this is often depicted by an animating spirit such as a snake, a bird, or a genie in a bottle buried at the roots. Trees show us how, from one seed, the self can come into existence, grow, multiply and self-renew. A tree even knows how to find nourishment in the earth’s animal and vegetable decay.

Often the symbolic tree doesn’t have a particular meaning; this depends on the species.

The oak was sacred to the Celts; the ash to the Scandinavian peoples; the lime-tree in Germany; the fig-tree in India. Also, the mythological association between gods and trees is frequent(for example Osiris and the cedar).

In a general sense, the tree symbolizes the life of the cosmos; its consistence, growth, reproduction and generative processes. It is a symbol immortality, because it stands for inexhaustible life(trees can often outgrow a human life).

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Because a tree has a long, vertical shape and reaches high, it is associated with the centre of the world. The tree has roots underground and branches that rise high, which relate to other symbols such as the ladder and the mountain.

The tree has a relationship with the ‘three worlds’: The lower world, hell; the middle world, earth; the upper world, heaven). This can be seen in Christian symbolism, since it was aware of the significance of the tree as an axis linking different worlds. According to the Bible, in Paradise there were the Tree of Life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, both in the Garden of Eden.

The element of the tree as part of a design is always universally recognizable. Of course, different trees have different meanings, just like flowers. In general, a tree can represent life, prosperity, strength, and all the other characteristics a tree has by itself. Furthermore, a tree symbolizes stable growth, which is a useful characteristic for a company or organization to show in their design.

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HUMAN

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HUMANO HUMAIN MENSCH

The author Helena Blavatsky states the concept of man as follows: ‘Man is a little world, a microcosm inside the great universe. Like a fetus, he is suspended, by all his three spirits, in the matrix of the macro-cosmos; and while his terrestrial body is in constant sympathy with its parent earth, his astral soul lives in unison with the sidereal ‘anima mundi’. He is in it, as it is in him, for the world-pervading element fills all space, and is space itself, only shoreless and infinite. As to his third spirit, the divine, what is it but an infinitesimal ray, one of the countless radiations proceeding directly from the Highest Cause-the Spiritual Light of the World?

This is the trinity of organic and inorganic nature-the spiritual and the physical, which are three in one, and of which Proclus says that ‘The first monad is the Eternal God; the second, eternity; the third, the paradigm, or

pattern of the universe;’ the three constituting the Intelligible Triad.’ 1 In symbolism, portraying the body, the most elementary association is the one between the organ or member and its function. According to ancient wisdom, all bodies, spiritual or material, have three centres, called the upper centre, the middle centre, and the lower centre. The middle centre is considered superior to the other two centres, possibly because of the heart, in which case, its function matters.

The body can symbolically also be divided vertically into halves, where the right half is considered as light and the left as darkness. Or in other words, the spiritual and the material. In ancient times men fought with their right arms and defended the vital centres with their left arms, on which they carried their shield. The right half of the body was considered offensive, and the left half defensive. Consequently, the right side was considered masculine and the left feminine.

Some authorities are of opinion that the reason why so many are right-handed is be-

1. A quote from Blavatsky´s book Isis Unveiled: A Master-Key to the Mysteries of Ancient and Modern Science and Theology, published in 1877. It is a book of esoteric philosophy and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky’s first major work and a key text in her Theosophical movement. This specifically is about the threefold conception of man as body, soul and spirit.

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HUMAN

The oldest and most universal of all symbols is the human body. Every nation taught that laws, elements and powers of the universe embodied the human constitution; that everything which existed outside of man has an analogue/similarity within man.

cause of the custom of holding the left hand in restraint for defensive purposes. Furthermore, the spiritual nature of man is in the dark part of his being, because of his heart, which is on the left side.

Emotional expressions, movement and body language can be employed as an image in design. When developing a brand that illustrates reliability and emotional aspect of business, a face is can be used, since you can play with the facial expression. Integrating the appropriate expression will show the nature of the design.

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AN U N I VHEU RM SE | SUN

‘There is more wisdom in your body than in your deepest philosophy.’

—Friedrich Nietzsche from Thus Spoke Zarathustra

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EYE OJO ŒIL AUGE

Lost or missing eyes are symbolic of potential transformation of one form of consciousness into another. Loss of sight can lead to something healing or creative(the ‘third eye’ of ‘inner sight’). ‘Second sight’ is considered to be more accurate than bodily eyes.

They can be deceived, but the ‘blind eyes’ of Justice see the truth. So the eye is associated with light, insight, intelligence, reason and more, the inner eyes see with a darker awareness into the wisdom of dreams and the unconscious and emotional elements.

This same duality of vision and consciousness is seen in the motif of ‘one eye’ versus

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two. One eye, like that of the Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, can represent destructive and paranoid consciousness(the ‘evil eye’).

But the gaze of ‘one-eye’ can also represent unity of vision of the inner and outer sight.

This ‘light of mind’ has been imagined as the third eye, the eye of Dharma in Buddhism, the eye of Wisdom in Islam, the eye of Shiva in Hinduism and the eye of God in Christianity.

Tears have been depicted as precious jewels, golden amber, rain and the rays of the sun in dreams and myths. In fairy tails, tears often have a healing power; they wash away the effects of a curse. In alchemy it is believed that tears belong to ‘solutio’; they represent a softening of the aspects of personality that have hardened and become inflexible.

As a form of the salt, tears are emblems of bitterness that transform into wisdom.

In symbolist theory, usually multiplicity is a sign of inferiority. So in this case, having many eyes has a negative association. In the first place, the eye can refer to the night with stars, but the possessor of so many eyes is left in darkness. For example in the

HUMAN

According to a legend, humanity descended from the tears of God. This is why the eye retains its magic aura, shining and sparkling. The eye receives and emits light, is a window to the soul. It illuminates, expresses and protects. The philosopher Plotinus states that if the eye would not be able to see the sun if it were not itself a sun. Because the sun is a source of light, which is symbolic of intelligence and spirit, then the process of seeing is in itself a spiritual act and symbolizes understanding.

‘Who would believe that so small a space could contain the images of all the universe? What tongue will it be that can unfold so great a wonder?’

—Leonardo da Vinci about the human eye

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story of Argus, who with all his eyes could not escape death. Many tarot cards depict the devil as Argus with many eyes all over his body.

HUMAN

Various designs use an eye as the primary image. The eye as a logo or element of a design is commonly used in association with opticians. It is also used in any kind of security business and in photography business.

In these fields, the eye as a symbol is easy to recognise because of its function.

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MOUTH BOCA BOUCHE MUND

The concepts of mouth and fire are often combined in the Old Testament(associated to ‘devouring’ or ‘consuming’), which explains the fire-breathing animals of legends.

It shares two main characteristics that set man apart from other beings; the power of speech and use of fire. So, the mouth-symbolism, like fire-symbolism, has two aspects: creative (speech) and destructive (devouring).

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The teeth are the fundamental weapons of attack and an expression of activity, according to psychoanalyst René Allend llendy.

Consequently, the loss of teeth, signifies fear of failure in life. Some interpretations state teeth as a sexual aspect of energy. But more importantly, is the Gnostic concept: teeth constitute the battlements and the wall of the inner man, just like the eyes are the defence of the spirit. This again explains why the loss of teeth has a negative association.

Lips express the promise of love and serve as portals between the outer world and one’s psychic and physical inner life. They symbolize linguistic expressiveness, yet they silently communicate through a smile or grimace.

The mouth has been used in logo design for things related to language, alimentation and more. Specifically the lips, have been used for make-up artists, restaurants, lingerie brands and erotica. Teeth is almost always used for dental clinics.

HUMAN

Every part of the mouth contributes to the elemental function of digestion, but the mouth also participates in language, carries breath, spirit, soul, word and creation. In Egyptian hieroglyphs, the mouth stands for the power of speech and the creative word.

Closely connected with this hieroglyph is another showing a mouth with a solar disk inside, which stands for the sun. This could represent the integral consciousness. Furthermore, the mouth is a symbol of desire and kisses, the feminine mouth in particular.

A mouth can also describe a persons character or mood.

HAND MANO MAIN HAND

At the dawn of human consciousness, hands were an object of fascination, as they are to a child. Together with the mouth and lips, hands have more neural activity than all the rest of the body. The Hand of God signifies the supreme, in various religions. They are the primary instruments of creativity and the world creating reach of consciousness, effectiveness, industry, invention, self-expression and a will for the creative and destructive.

In Egyptian hieroglyphs, the hand signifies manifestation, action, donating and agriculture. The eye in association with the hand symbolizes the visionary or the spiritual. An open hand can signify any human task as well as magnetic force. A very similar belief is found in Islamic cultures; the hand as an amulet(the Hamsa) which signifies protection, authority, power and strength, according to Berber thought. This had the same meaning for the Romans, where the ‘manus’ was sometimes seen on a Roman Standard (a pennant, flag or banner on a staff identifying a Roman legion). In the Islamic amulets, the figure of the hand can take many forms, and is sometimes seen in combination with

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other symbols, such as the star, the dove, the bird, the circle, forming emblems.

Hands can hold lovingly, comfort and be raised. Linked hands symbolize fraternity or solidarity. Specifically in language the hands are essential; hand signals, sign-language, the open hand as a sign of intent, a finger across the lips. Musicologist Marius Schneider gives a major role to the hand ‘because it is the corporeal manifestation of the inner state of the human being’ and because ‘it expresses an attitude of mind in terms other than the acoustic’, in other words, a gesture. The raised hand is the symbol of voice and song; placed on the neck means sacrifice; two hand joined signifies mystic marriage. In Hindu and Buddhist traditions, hand positions, mudras, compose a complete guide of symbols.

Important to mention is that the hand has five fingers, which is in analogy with the human figure (arms, legs and head) and secondly, because of the number five in symbolism(denoting love, health and humanity).

Hands used in design have several meanings.

This fully depends on the way the hands are shown(closed, open, two together, thumbs up, holding each other). It can imply nurturing, touching, optimism, in unity and other types of heart warming emotions. The hand as a logo is often used in charitable organizations, humanitarian institutions or any business related to community.

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HUMAN

There is no real difference in symbolism regarding the right and left hand, but when the distinction is made, it uses the characteristics of right and left; the right side represents the rational and logical, the left side represents the contrary.

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HEART CORAZÓN CŒUR HERZ

The heart is central in the source of life and has power and strength. In many ancient cultures the heart was so valued, it was ritually sacrificed and fed to the sun god, weakened by his journey through the underworld, in order to reinforce the energy and vitality of the people.

In Ancient Egypt the hieroglyphic heart shaped vase, was to keep memory and truth, the centre of personality, understanding, will, thought and creative imagination. The heart was in fact the only part they left in the mummy, since the heart as the centre was indispensable to the body in eternity.

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HUMAN

The heart is a living symbol, because when we use it, we mean the heart as feeling, as the heart of the cosmos. Physically, it is responsible for keeping the blood flowing around the body. The heart is essential to life as the sun is to our solar system. It has a central part in our life, physically and metaphorically. A heart represents our emotions, affection, desire, but also rage, fear and vulnerability(it can be pierced and melted by the darts of Eros, and broken by love’s refusal).

Egyptian physicians were the first to discover and recognize the importance of the pulse, which was called the ‘voice of the heart’.

The heart represented true intelligence, the brain in this case is merely an instrument.

A sort of divine justice occurs in our own hearts, acting as our guidance, our ‘true voice’. It is hidden, something beneath the outer surface of things, locked away, but the centre of all emotions, positive or negative; hatred or love, envy or compassion, fear or courage, sorrow or joy. In emblems, the heart is usually surrounded by flames, a cross, a fleur-de-lis (symbol of the lotus flower) or a crown.

The heart pictogram is common in design, especially in logo design. It has lost much of its relationship to the object it represents, but still has the same characteristics. Companies involved with people, children, communities, charities, love to use it. It is a versatile shape that can be stylized easily.

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HUMAN

‘Your vision will become clear only when you can look into your own heart. Who looks outside, dreams; who looks inside, awakens.’

— Carl Jung

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SHAPE

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FORMA FORME GESTALT

Basically, there are three basic types of shapes. There are geometric shapes; circles, squares, triangles and diamonds. Their regularity suggests organization and structure. Organic shapes are irregular, have more curves and are uneven. They are usually representative of shapes found in nature and are often spontaneous. Abstract shapes are recognizable, but not real; they are stylized or simplified versions of organic shapes. For example icons; they are abstract shapes to represent ideas.

The strong attraction of certain shapes, emblems, flags, marks and more, are actually not based upon convention, as usually suggested, but upon inner bonds of symbolic ‘common rhythm’.1 Many fields are influenced by this power of symbolism; mythological

figures, signs in astronomy and astrology, alchemy, magic and primitive mysticism, religions, marks on porcelain, watermarks, et cetera. We also use this significance in alphabets, pictographs, graphic compositions, as well as abstract painting, architecture, and more; compositions use a flow of significant forms.

Ornamentation, series of spirals, sigma, diamonds, circles, ovals, arrows, triangles, are all graphic shapes which are grouped under the heading ‘cosmic background’ in symbolism, because they are actually symbols of the activity of natural forces and the four Elements. These elementary approaches were first used in the Neolithic up to the Bronze Age (5000 to 3000 B.C.). This was the period when cultural factors first started appearing. Man started creating ideograms2 of realities of life, especially of entities, for example the wind, which has no concrete shape. Fire was seen as a flame, water as waves, rain like tears, lightning as a zigzag, etc.

Jung had a great interest in graphic symbolism, geometric diagrams and the signif-

1. The ‘common rythm’ of Schneider: The coherent, determinate and dynamic factor which a character of figure possesses and which is transmitted to the object from which it arises(a symbol). It is a characteristic expression of the figure; a tone, accent or expression.

2. Ideogram: A character symbolizing the idea of a thing without indicating the sounds used to say it. Examples include numerals and Chinese characters.

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SHAPE

Shapes have perhaps a greater symbolic meaning than any other aspect of symbolism, because of their clear intention. The different characteristics of a shape associate with different moods and meanings. Changing the characteristics of a shape alter how we perceive that shape.

icance of numbers. He observes that the relationship between a number and shape not only depends on the quantity of elements, but also on their individual shape and direction. In general, flat shapes have a more spiritual character than shapes with bulk, but are linked more closely with the macro-cosmos. The ground plan, even when three-dimensional is always of the essence.

fies communication. But these three figures together also symbolize the relationship (the triangle) between earth (the square) and heaven (the circle). They can also be analysed in a morphological way; for example in the phenomenon of growth, where the circle is the centre, the ‘Origin.’

The circle and square are often used together in religious and symbolic art.3 This could mean the combination for the symbol of earth (the square) and that for heaven (the circle). Psychoanalysts have concluded that the joining of the square and circle (the star, the rose, the lotus, concentric circles, the circle with a central point) is symbolic of the final stage in the process of individuation (the phase of spiritual development where imperfections and earthly desires are eliminated).

Art dealer Paul Guillaume once stated; ‘the terms of shape, structure and organization pertain not only to the language of biology (forms) but also to psychology . . .’ and that ‘isomorphism, propounding a theory of form which revives the ancient tradition of parallelism (or magic analogy), refuses to draw a dividing line between spirit and tune.’ What this means, is that for example, a circle signifies both to the circle and to the cyclic, and the square is identical with things quaternary but also with the number four. Form takes a place at the ‘intermediary between spirit and matter.’

Shapes can be analysed in different ways, depending on the field. For example, from a psychological point of view, the triangle, placed between the square and circle, signi-

If we follow this concept, regular shapes are ‘regulated’ sentiments and irregular shapes suggest ‘unregulated’ sentiments. Oval shapes are associated with things organic,

3. The combination of the circle and square, in religious symbolism, is noticeable in these two instances: first, the ‘pentacle of Laos’, a squared figure with a small square at its centre and four circles inside the angles, each divided into four internally; and secondly, the retable in the Cartuja de Miraflores (the Carthusian monastery near Burgos), which is arranged in a similar pattern, but incorporates figures of the Pantokrator and of tetramorphs.

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‘The universe cannot be read until we learn the language in which it is written. It is written in mathematics, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word.’ — Galileo Galilei

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Designers use shapes to organize information, create movement, texture, depth, convey a mood, emphasize areas of interest and lead the eye from one element to the next.

Shapes of a different visual weight can be used to create focal points and give a flow to your design. Shapes organize elements by separating some and connecting others. They can also convey depth by varying size and position; larger shapes will appear closer and smaller shapes further away.

Our subconscious mind responds in different ways to different shapes, which makes it easy to use them in (logo) design. We subconsciously associate vertical lines with masculinity, strength and aggression, while horizontal lines suggests community tranquillity and calm. This applies to, for example, the Nike logo; the combination of curves ending in a sharp point suggests movement very clearly.

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SHAPE

cubes with the artificial, simple shapes with straightforward and complex shapes with what is complicated. The same applies to symmetry (balance, static) and asymmetry (dynamic).

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religion and law. These tend to be viewed as masculine attributes, so it’s no coincidence that triangles feature more prominently in the logos of companies whose products have a masculine bias. Our subconscious minds associate vertical lines with masculinity, strength and aggression, while horizontal lines suggest community, tranquillity and calm.

The significances of shape also apply to typefaces. Angular typefaces may appear aggressive or dynamic. Soft, rounded letters give a youthful appeal. Curved typefaces often have a feminine character, while strong and bold lettering has a more masculine edge.

Even though it is fairly easy to explain what the characteristics of a shape mean to us subconsciously, they don’t always have a specific conventional meaning in design. In this chapter only the most basic forms are mentioned, even though there are many more. The following are most commonly used. If you understand these, you will be able to interpret more complex shapes.

It has been suggested that triangles have a good association with power, science,

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SHAPE

Circles, ovals and ellipses are often associated with positivity and emotion. Curves tend to be viewed as more feminine. Straight edged shapes such as squares and triangles suggest stability and balance. Straight lines and precise shapes can imply professionalism and efficiency. Less regular shapes such as the trapezium or the trapezoid, are abnormal forms, and express inner irregularity.

SQUARE CUADRADO CARRÉ QUADRAT

The square is the symbol of the combination of four different elements. Therefore, it corresponds with the number four and quaternity; all four-part divisions of any process.

The form gives the impression of firmness and stability, which is why it is used in symbols of organization and construction.

There is a certain stability and firmness to even numbers and their forms(for example; four, six, eight correspond with the square, the hexagon, the octagon). Four is a number associated with the four Elements, the four seasons, four points of the compass, which are all sources of stability of the world.

Chinese, Hindu and other traditions associate the square with the feminine character, since this corresponds to the earth(in contrast to the masculine character of the circle and triangle). In Egyptian hieroglyphs the square signifies achievement and the

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square-shaped spiral constructive, materialized energy.

Rectangles, of all geometric forms, are the most rational, secure and regular, even more so than squares. This is explained by the fact that it is a shape that is used in our everyday life; a house, room, table, bed.

Squares and rectangles are both stable, they suggest honesty, clarity, order, security, equality and stability. They are the most common geometric shape we use and is often seen in companies that define themselves as stable institutions or makers of reliable structures. The majority of text we read is set in rectangles and squares. The way we construct a page (on paper, and web) is by using these shapes. Because they are so common, they can seem boring. They usually don´t get your attention, unless for example tilted, which makes a frame stand out.

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CIRCLE CÍRCULO CERCLE KREIS

It is also associated with the number ten (which symbolizes the return to unity from multiplicity), related to heaven, perfection and eternity. Jung observes that the circle corresponds to an ultimate state of ‘Oneness’, in contrary to the square, which signifies the state of man who has not achieved inner unity.

The relationship between the circle and the square are very common in the universal and spiritual world of morphology.1 Especially in the mandalas of India and Tibet and in Chinese emblems. This similar dualism is notable in the symbol of the Chinese Yin-Yang; a circle divided into two equal sections by a line. The black spot(Yin, the feminine) with a white spot within it, and the white section(Yang, the masculine) with a black spot.

The two spots signify that there is always something of the feminine in the masculine and the other way around as well.

1. Morphology: The study of the forms of things.

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SHAPE

The circle is an emblem of the eternal whole, the sun, the earth, the moon, the universe, and other celestial objects. It is known as the mother of all shapes because it is the archetypal shape from which all other geometry is drawn. This happens in nature as well; life begins as an absolute in the form of an egg or seed. The primary principle of the circle, a container that protects and supports, is seen in organisms like cells to our planet. They represent the eternal whole and completeness in many cultures.

Circles have free movement. The curves are often seen as feminine, comforting and they give a sense of energy and power. Their completeness suggests unity and harmony. Because a circle has no corners and is equal from every angle, it suggests perfection, community and the infinite. A circle can suggest familiar objects as well, such as wheels, balls, kinds of fruit.

The advantage of working with circles in design is that they attract attention and set things apart, because they are less common to be used. In logos, a circle implies a community, made up of many individuals or parts. It often represents groups, collectives, non-profits, global organizations and governmental agencies. A circular template in a logo can encompass a diverse demographic, brought together by their singular purpose.

Circles have a more trendy usage and are used more commonly in website and digital design than in print projects. Circles are most frequently used to represent things of the same shape that we know and create a sense of completeness.

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TRIANGLE TRIÁNGULO TRIANGLE DREIECK

Triangles have a stable/unstable dynamic that can suggest either conflict or strength, which are two quite opposite meanings. The shape can imply stability, power and purpose when the triangle rests on a solid base.

They are in balance and can be a symbol for law, science and religion. However, when the base is upside down, when it appears unstable, it implies conflict, tension and nervousness.

Because of its shape, a triangle implies motion, and suggests masculinity. It can direct movement based on which way they point, because it leads the eye away from one thing and toward something else. It suggests ‘looking beyond’, inspiration or transformation.

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SHAPE

The triangle is equivalent to the number three and is associated with the Trinity. Triangles can be stable when sitting on their base, which, in this position(point up), symbolizes fire and the aspiration of the higher unity and self-discovery. In many cultures the triangle has a meaning with religious undertones (Body-Mind-Spirit or Father-Son-Holy ghost or Past-Present-Future).

Triangles can also suggest familiar themes like arrows, pennants and pyramids. In the dollar bill, the triangle at the top of an unfinished pyramid, it symbolizes the inspired hope of a new country, security and transforming the past into a better future.

In design projects triangles are often used as directional or navigation tools. They can be used in a block-style grouping to create a dynamic image or background. Their dynamic nature makes them also suited for a growing high tech company for example. Because of its masculine attributes, it is often used in logos of companies whose products have a masculine bias.

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SPIRAL The spiral is the most widespread shape found in the natural world. It is a schematic image of the evolution of the universe. It has the form of embryos, horns, whirlpools, hurricanes and galaxies, the path that energy takes and the path of growth. Spirals are a fundamental characteristic of the universe.

Spiral motifs are also seen in symbolism of religion, art, dreams, folk-tales and mythology.

Mathematically, a spiral is a line that grows continuously toward or away from its own centre. Its path suggest growth, transformation and psychological or spiritual journeys.

It is also a cosmic symbol that represents several dualities; growth or decay, ascent or descent, evolution or involution, increasing or decreasing, revealing or hiding.

Archimedian spirals, such as ropes and labyrinthine paths, have a constant distance between coils. The way vines wrap around a branch, or the double strands of DNA are helix configurations. Logarithmic spirals show a clash of opposites that has been resolved. It allows a balanced movement and natural unfolding.

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The logarithmic spiral is also known as the golden spiral. The mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci came up with a sequence when calculating the ideal expansion of pairs of rabbits over the course of one year. Its emergent patterns and ratios can be seen from the micro-scale to the macro-scale.

This Golden Ratio is found in many structures and patterns in the universe. Examples of this type of spiral are whirling galaxies, shells and the growth of plants. It is a ratio that is so in balance, that is has captivated mathematicians, artists, designers, and scientists for centuries.

In many ancient traditions there is a distinction between the creative spiral(rising in clockwise direction) and the destructive spiral(counter-clockwise). Clockwise spirals represent intention and counter-clockwise spirals the fulfilment of an intention.

The spiral has always been an essential motif in art all over the world. The Egyptian god Thoth is represented with a large spiral on his head, to symbolize the breath and the spirit. Because of the spirals connection to

SHAPE

ESPIRAL SPIRALE SPIRALE

creation and movement it is an attribute of power, found in the sceptre of the Egytian Pharaoh, the lituus1 of Roman augurs and in the present day walking stick. The spiral is also seen in the shape of scrolls, sigmas and more.

The double spiral represents the intercommunication between two opposing principles, or between two opposites. It is closely linked with water, given that water is the element of transition, transformation and regeneration. From a cosmic point of view, the double spiral may suggest the two halves of the egg of the world.

The form of the spiral is creative, and free-flowing. They have a visual dynamic that makes a design look more creative and lively. The principles expressed by the spiral shape are good to use in futuristic visioning and thinking organizations. The spiral can also relate to infinity and regeneration, for example in a logo design.

1. The lituus was a crooked wand used as a cult instrument in ancient Roman religion by augurs(religious officials) to mark out a ritual space in the sky (a templum). The passage of birds through this templum indicated divine favor or disfavor for a given undertaking.

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SHAPE

‘In all chaos there is a cosmos, in all disorder a secret order.’

— Carl Jung

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CULTURE

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CULTURA CULTURE KULTUR

Culture comes from the Latin ‘cultura’, deriving from the word ‘colere’, both meaning to ‘cultivate’ and to ‘worship’. The origin of the word suggests we understood culture as the worshipful cultivation of something, particularly the land. Every nation, civilisation and individual attains knowledge of the world, and makes a contribution to the development of culture. In this sense, man himself is a phenomenon of culture, and so are the things that we make.

We usually think of culture and its symbolism as something relatively independent.

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But in reality, culture exists as a historically evolved system with its objects, its symbolism, traditions, ideals, precepts, orientations, et cetera. Culture is created by us, by the nation, and the individual, thus, symbols are lifeless without man himself and his creative activity.

Objects and ideas are often used to symbolize something deeper in our culture. Its symbolic meaning however, is often thought to mirror the actual object they relate to. The function of something is usually related to its symbolic meaning.

If we talk about objects figuratively translated into a logo design, we call them pictorial marks. Also referred to as iconic marks, they are an illustration of a brand metaphor or its product. The advantage for a company to choose pictorial marks is that it has an illustrative quality to it. It is something easy to recognise, with often very straightforward characteristics.

C U LT U R E

Symbolism is part of culture and culture is part of symbolism. It is always tied together, and includes nearly every subject discussed in symbolism. This chapter includes everything that is part of our human world; movement and expression, work and society, tools and objects, buildings and monuments, rituals and history. They are things created by us, and things that are part of us.

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CHAIN CADENA CHAÎNE KETTE

The Egyptian hieroglyphic sign in the shape of a vertical chain of three links formed by two lines intertwining holds a dual symbolism; the staff of Mercury, standing for the dual streams of the universe (involution and evolution) and the other, that bonds and communicates.

Chains can signify fixation, imprisonment and suppression of the powerful, feared or disorderly elements. Linking is associated with relatedness, support, mirroring, intimacy and transformation, dependence and enslavement. Being chained means defeat and punishment, a chained animal is in opposition to nature and instinct, and the ‘ball and chain’ is associated with the convict and slave. The Devil is portrayed as being thrown in chains into an abyss after the Day of Judgment. The breaking of chains means being liberated, from tyranny.

On the other hand, a chain ‘links’ also in a less negative way. Psychic process is in itself a series of meaningful links; memory, dream, fantasy, affect, desire, imaginary play and acquired experience. A chain is also the symbol of the connection between heaven and earth, and the symbol of matrimony.

Apart from the chain being clearly symbolic of bonds and connection, it is a symbol of integration, socially or psychically, in which case the tough material of the chain is an important characteristic. When the ‘golden chain’ was once given to captain Raoul de Lannoi as a sign of bravery by king Louis XI of France, he exclaimed: ‘Par le Pâque-Dieu, my friend, thou art so ferocious in battle that thou must be chained up, for I do not wish to lose thee lest I need thy help once more’.

Nowadays, the concept of chain (or interlocking structures) is common in logo design and seen as a symbol of unity, teamwork and strength. Linking elements like a chain works well in designs for networking and communication sectors.

1. Fetter: A chain or manacle used to restrain a prisoner, typically placed around the ankles.

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Chain (or fetter 1) derived from the Latin ‘catena’ and is associated with the tensions and affinities that characterize ‘linking’. Many traditions use a lineage of teachings passed down through a chain of initiations.

MASK MÁSCARA MASQUE MASKE

The origin of the word ‘mask’ comes from Arabic, meaning ‘buffoon,’ and also from the European ‘masquerade,’ and the modern meaning ‘to hide or protect face.’ It is a classic genre of human psychological expression. Masks portray the human ‘life drama’ in all its aspects, especially the compelling, ambiguous, the search for the ‘real self’. The person who wears the mask is transformed into the archetypal patterns the mask has.

Masks have been used to worship gods, for healing, for initiating, to maintain authority and to escape it, in drama and storytelling.

Emotions such as love, fear, rage, disappointment, joy are given impersonal artistic form in a mask. It not only conceals, but actually provides a bridge to an open psychological experience, toward the archetypal, natural factors of the personality. This is seen in both the Greek theatrical mask and the religious masks of Africa and Oceania.

A mask paradoxically supports catharsis and disidentification. It has a dual nature; it can disguise, cover, veil, lie, capture, but also release, reveal, embody and transform. There

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is a similar aspect to being identified with one’s persona; the masks through which we enter and live in the world, such as ‘spouse,’ ‘doctor,’ ‘mother.’ Being aware of one’s masks and identifications, what is hidden and revealed, what is pressured by conformity and what is true, is part of individuation.

A mask as an element in design, especially logo design, can be difficult to use because of its ambiguous significance. It is often used in visual identities for theatres, drama companies, masquerade balls, costume stores, casinos. Places and organizations where its characteristics (secrecy, ambiguity, emotion) are appreciated.

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‘Man is least himself when he talks in his own person. Give him a mask, and he will tell you the truth.’

— Oscar Wilde

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CITY CIUDAD VILLE STADT

Older cities were often build around a central focus point, an emblem of the cosmic centre; a temple, ziggurat1, mountain or pyramid, a garden, the palace of the monarch or a statue of a goddess. Cities were often planned strictly depending on the particular doctrine, which means the city and society became a symbol of that doctrine. Nowadays, they are often built over the remains of other cities, while still showing landmarks of another time, like layers of history.

A city relates to landscape-symbolism, which embraces important symbols of level and space, in this case, height and situation.

They infiltrate our dreams and nightmares; skyscrapers for instance, are the emblems of our aspirations and overreach.

Jung sees the city as a mother and as a symbol of the feminine principle in general. He interprets the City as a woman who shelters her children. The Old Testament also speaks of the city as a woman.

The city, or skyscrapers in design are used for the obvious city logo designs. Other than that, it relates to construction, architecture, real estate and governmental organizations because of its relevance to trust, strength, stability and ambition.

1. A ziggurat is a massive structure built in ancient Mesopotamia and the western Iranian plateau. It has the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels.

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A city keeps civilization away from wilderness and from nomadic wandering. Cities are the goals of pilgrimage, and give us hope of possibility, reorientation and rebirth.

Just like a mandala, where the centre is the focus, cities can represent sanctuary, integrity, symmetry, balance. Actual cities however, are often quadratically oriented in the angled, twisted forms of geometry.

‘Dig and dream, dream and hammer, till your city comes.’

— Carl Sandburg

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PATH CAMINO CHEMIN PFAD

The road is a guide, companion and assurance that it will take us where we want to. A road can refer to a physical, or a symbolic road, the path of wisdom. A symbolic road can be a religious idea such as the Eightfold Path of Buddhism of the Tao of Laotzu. In essence, ‘path’ means direction. In chaos it offers something linear, a suggestion of meaning.

The road can stand for the natural course of life, with its beauty, change of direction, and its destination, death. In many Native American cultures the road has been an image for the correct way of life. In other religions the road is brought to attention by two contrasting paths, where the easy way is opposed by the narrow and difficult path. The last path is the right one to choose. In the bible the word ´way´ means both road and method, to ´follow Christ´; following his footsteps and accepting his message.

Streets are the moving system of entire cities and towns, but their meaning is often ambiguous. They regulate traffic, give access and organize the flow of life. Surrounded by

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sidewalks and building where people live and meet, streets represent where the domestic and communal meet. But it also conveys an opposing meaning; the street is where the outcasts interact with the society that neglected them, you´re ´out on the streets’. The ‘voice of the street’ as shared belief can be a revolutionary change. It brings people together, or separates them.

A journey, like a path, is an expression of the desire for discovery and change. Heroes are travellers, in a sense that they are restless.

Jung observes that travelling is an image of aspiration, of an unsatisfied longing that never finds its goal. The archetype of the journey is the pilgrimage to the ´Centre´ or holy land, or the way out of the maze. Primarily, to travel is to explore.

In design a road can symbolize a labyrinth, a choice of path, solutions. It is often used for consulting, financial companies, construction, road companies and quests because of its practical meaning.

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‘It all depends on how we look at things, and not how they are in themselves.’

— Carl Jung

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Cirlot, J.E. A Dictionary of Symbols. 1962.

Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism. The Book Of Symbols: Reflections On Archetypal Images. 2010.

Jung, C.G. The collected Works. Volumes 1-20, 1957-1979.

Bayley, Harold. The Lost Language of Symbolism. London, 1912(repr. 1951).

Benoist, Luc. Art du monde. Paris, 1941.

Biedermann, Hans. Dictionary of Symbolism. New York, 1994.

Blavatsky, Helena. Isis Unveiled. 1999.

Blavatsky, H. P. The Secret Doctrine. London, 1888.

Davy, M.-M. Essai sur la Symbolique Romane. Paris, 1955.

Eliade, Mircea. Encyclopedia of Religion. New York, 1987.

Eliade, Mircea. The Forge and the Crucible. Chicago, 1978.

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Jacobi, Jolan de. The Psychology of C. G. Jung. London, 1951.

Jung, C. G. Symbols of Transformation (Collected Works, 5). London, 1956.

Milton, Joyce. Sunrise of Power: Ancient Egypt, Alexander and the World of Hellenism. New York, 1980.

Oritz, Fernando. El Huracán. Mexico, 1947.

Riley, Charles A. Colour Codes. 1995.

Schneider, Marius. El origen musical de los animales-símbolos en la mitología y la escultura antiguas. Barcelona, 1946.

Teillard, Ania. Il Simbolismo dei Sogni. Milan, 1951.

Testi, Gino. Dizionario di Alchimia e di Chimica antiquaria. Rome, 1950.

Wirth, Oswald. Le Tarot des imagiers du Moyen Age. Paris, 1927.

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Berger, John. ‘Ways of Seeing , Episode 1’ <www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pDE4VX_9Kk&t=686s> Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism <https://aras.org/> Allan, Dixie. ‘Symbology - The Study of Signs and Symbol’ <www.thoughtco.com/study-ofsigns-and-symbols-3454065> Bradley, Steven. ‘The Meaning Of Shapes: Developing Visual Grammar’ <www.vanseodesign. com/web-design/visual-grammar-shapes> Chapman, Cameron. ‘Color Theory for Designers, Part 1: The Meaning of Color’ <www.smashingmagazine.com/2010/01/colour-theory-for-designers-part-1-the-meaningof-colour> Christie, Martin. ‘The psychology of logo shapes: A designer’s guide’ <www.creativebloq. com/logo-design/psychology-logo-shapes-8133918> Cousins, Carrie. ‘The (Sometimes Hidden) Meaning of Shapes’ <www.designshack.net/articles/layouts/the-sometimes-hidden-meaning-of-shapes> Guillemette, Lucie, Cossette, Josiane. ‘The Semiotic Process and the Classification of Signs’ <www.signosemio.com/eco/semiotic-process-and-classification-of-signs.asp> Macnab, Maggie. ‘Logo Design Theory, Part 1: Symbols, Metaphors And The Power Of Intuition’ <www.smashingmagazine.com/2015/06/effective-logo-design-symbols-metaphors-intuition> Macnab, Maggie. ‘How Geometry Influences Logo Design’ <www.smashingmagazine.com/2015/06/effective-logo-design-geometry> ‘Symbolism in Design’ <www.designintense.com/symbolism-in-design> ‘Umberto Eco’s A Theory of Semiotics’ <www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/eco.html> ‘30+ Mesmerizing Spiral Logo Designs’ <www.naldzgraphics.net/freebies/30-mesmerizing-spiral-logo-designs>

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