Exposure Magazine - Issue One

nature

photography

science

expOsure

COPYRIGHT ADAM ROYLANCE

Editor’s

Note

2 | EXPOSURE

As part of our MSc. in Biological Photography & Imaging at the University of Nottingham we are lucky enough to produce our own magazine. This is the ideal format with which to convey the important messages of science and art, with an emphasis on the natural world and wildlife conservation. Science and the arts together offer context and meaning to the natural world, and a deeper understanding of and appreciation for nature. My hope is that this magazine is informative and entertaining, and also helps to convey a sense of awe and respect for the natural world and the need to protect and preserve it.

In this issue we have included an article on captive animals, with a focus on captive breeding and its role in the conservation of endangered species. We were able to get close to some of the larger and more critically endangered animals being kept at both Twycross and Blackpool Zoos, as can be seen in the detailed photography included in the article. We hope that we have presented this often-emotive issue in a balanced and thought-provoking way. Also included is an article about Stanton Moor, a beautiful location in the Derbyshire Peak District which has multiple megalithic standing stones including a complete stone circle. We urge readers to visit the site themselves and experience the Peak District first-hand.

Featured is a spotlight on the hugely varied phylum of molluscs. There is a guest article by Oliver Smith about the maligned non-native grey squirrel, and a photographic descriptive guide to some of the wetland birds of Nottinghamshire and where you can find them. We get up close and personal discussing flowering plants and their pollens, and see how these land plants rapidly evolved and diversified as a result of a change in their reproductive mechanisms.

Lastly, we highlight the photography student exhibition and take a look at the process of producing images for this event. I hope that this magazine is an enjoyable and educational read, and that it may inspire readers to pick up a camera or a pair of walking boots and go out and enjoy nature.

Clare Lusher Editor

SPRING 2019 / EXPOSURE / PAGE 5

EXPOSURE | 3

6

18

Captive Dilemma

Small Worlds

An in-depth look at the pros and cons of captive breeding and we ponder what the future might hold for zoos and endangered species.

Close-up flower photography and SEM images of their pollens provide a fascinating insight into plant pollination.

IMAGING EDITORIAL

GALLERY

36

Stanton Moor in Derbyshire We take a peek at the Derbyshire Peaks on location and find out what makes it so special.

33

Photography Exhibition MSc. Biological Photography and Imaging exhibition

A featured article on the student biological photography exhibition.

CONTENTS 4 | EXPOSURE

45

Marvellous Molluscs

We find out more about the diverse phylum mollusca and look at some of their adaptations.

66

Nottingham's Wetland Birds A guide to some of the wetland bird species that can be found in and around Nottingham and where to find them.

DISCUSSION STORY

F E AT U R E S

56

The Problem with Grey Squirrels Grey squirrels and their impact on the environment

82

Nature's Spring Show Nature Picture Library submission gallery of beautiful spring flowers and their ladybird visitors.

A featured article by Oliver Smith detailing the environmental impact of grey squirrels in Britain.

EXPOSURE | 5

FIG. 1 AFRICAN LION (PANTHERA LEO). BLACKPOOL ZOO, LANCASHIRE UK

6 | EXPOSURE

Captiv e Dilemma

Z o o lo gica l par ks & ca pt ive bre e din g co n se r va t ion or e n t e r t a in m e n t?

EXPOSURE | 7

FIG. 2 AMUR LEOPARD (PANTHERA PARDUS ORIENTALIS). TWYCROSS ZOO, LEICESTERSHIRE UK

8 | EXPOSURE

T

raditionally, zoos were considered a form of entertainment for the paying public – people have been visiting zoos since Elizabethan times when the royal menagerie was opened to the British public by Queen Elizabeth I. Today the UK is home to approximately 48 zoological parks, plus safari parks and smaller wildlife centres and private animal collections open to the paying public. While wildlife populations plummet in what has been reported as the sixth mass extinction, what role if any do zoos play in both contributing to and mitigating the effects of wildlife decline and species extinction?

The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA) is an organisation which represent around 100 members in the UK and Ireland. They claim that they represent the “best zoos in the UK” which raises a question: which zoos they do not represent and who oversees zoo standards for non-BIAZA members? BIAZA estimates that almost 30 million people visit their associated zoos, which would account for approximately 1 in 3 people in the population; but this figure accounts for only some of all zoos visited each year. BIAZA are keen to stress that they support over 1,400 research projects carried out within UK zoos, clearly adopting the pro-conservation and pro-education approach to selling the business of zoological parks.

Twycross, Blackpool and Yorkshire Wildlife Park Twycross Zoo owns around 500 animals, including one of the largest collections of monkeys and apes. Twycross is a registered charity which states its primary aims as education, conservation and research. The zoo has recently expanded to include snow leopards in its collections, along with new black rhino and lion enclosures. The critically endangered all-female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) herd previously resident at the zoo were moved to Blackpool zoo to provide a more suitable enclosure and for potential breeding with Blackpool’s bull elephant.

Recent research has shown that captive Asian elephants’ have the highest welfare in multigenerational, related mixed herds where there are more positive social interactions.

EXPOSURE | 9

Despite Twycross’ humble beginnings as Molly Badham’s personal monkey collection including numerous juvenile chimpanzees housed in her home and kept as pets, and their use in commercial work such as the PG Tips adverts, the zoo has evolved since its opening in 1963. Twycross stress their involvement in conservation and welfare programmes which support wild animal populations, field projects and captive breeding programmes.

Blackpool Zoo in Lancashire houses over 1,350 animals including an all-male pride of African lions (Panthera leo), endangered mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei) and a lone endangered Amur tiger (Panthera tigris). The zoo is owned by an international entertainment operator based in Spain, Parques Reunidos, who own many amusement and theme parks along with entertainment centres and ten zoos including Blackpool Zoo. Parques Reunidos have a reported annual revenue of around $570 million USD. Multi-million-pound investments have been made at Blackpool Zoo towards building or improving the elephant, gorilla, giraffe and sealion exhibits, presumably to bring the zoo in line with latest research into captive animal behaviour and quality of life, and to increase its attraction in light of shifting public attitudes.

Yorkshire Wildlife Park (YWP) in South Yorkshire is a member of BIAZA and the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA). YWP works on a slightly different model of exhibiting some animals rescued in poor conditions from other zoos. These include 13 lions rescued from a Romanian zoo. They claim to have the largest enclosure for their Amur leopards in the world. Animals exhibited include critically endangered black rhinos (Diceros bicornis) and endangered Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), both of which are being kept with the stated aims of captive breeding and conservation of species. Five male polar bears, including one ‘retired’ from a theme park near Seoul, South Korea, and Ussuri brown bears are also owned and exhibited by the registered private limited company.

YWP’s role as a home for many animals rescued from less favourable conditions in captivity may be seen as an ironic one; but the general public have clearly responded well to YWP’s approach to exhibiting rescued captive animals and their pro-conservation message. WWFfunded conservation technology research utilising YWP’s only resident polar bear exhibit was recently publicised as providing valuable data for use in human-wildlife conflict research.

10 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 3 CHIMPANZEE (PAN TROGLODYTES). TWYCROSS ZOO, LEICESTERSHIRE UK

EXPOSURE | 11

FIG. 4 BORNEAN ORANGUTAN JUVENILE (PONGO BORNEO). TWYCROSS ZOO, LEICESTERSHIRE UK

12 | EXPOSURE

Breeding for conservation?

Copenhagen Zoo was in the spotlight in 2014 when it was shown to have euthanised a giraffe and four lions. The euthanasia of captive-bred animals has been standard practice for decades in zoos engaged in captive breeding programmes, while the realities of excessive and uncontrolled breeding by zoos have been kept from the paying public. Zoos generally breed more animals than they can house and exhibit, citing an inability to predict which females will become pregnant and how many offspring will be born, resulting in the need to euthanise some of their animals. EAZA state that “a quick death without suffering” is permitted where too many animals have been bred in captivity.

ZSL say that “good zoos work together” in reference to co-operative breeding programmes and a global network of zoos working together in line with the World Zoo Conservation Strategy.

Species are selected for breeding programmes and zoos coordinate efforts to breed registered captive individuals on endangered species lists. ZSL manages and participates in many of these.

However, research has demonstrated that the nature of captive breeding programmes is highly resource-demanding, and lack of resources means that only certain species (typically large mammals) gain the conservation focus required in captive breeding programmes, leaving the majority of species to potentially become endangered and extinct in the wild. Research recommends captive breeding as the last resort for preserving biodiversity and should not be used to detract from the issue of preserving wild habitats.

It should be noted that most animals born in captivity almost exclusively remain in captivity.

Captive-bred animals are very rarely released into the wild to join wild populations. Research shows captive-born predators do poorly in the wild when released, with a 33% survival rate due to lack of natural and social mating behaviours, lack of hunting skills, with less natural fear exhibited in captive-bred predators leading to human-wildlife conflict and death from hunting and poisoning.

There are also valid concerns about polluting the gene pools of isolated subspecies populations with captive-bred animals. Previous to standardised electronic animal record keeping systems (ARKS), Twycross Zoo’s animal database was found to be substandard when a hybrid Siberian-Bengal tigress was released into a pure Bengal wild tiger population in India and mated, resulting in polluted gene pool. The tiger was not the pure-bred Bengal the zoo had claimed, and no breeding records had been kept by Twycross Zoo. A number of breeding programmes for endangered species are now managed by the zoo.

EXPOSURE | 13

Changing Attitudes Based on feedback from those working within zoos, it appears that many visitors still consider zoological parks purely as a form of entertainment for the benefit of the customer, where complaints of animals not being out on display or of sluggish, non-interactive animals are frequently directed at rangers and other members of staff. However, attitudes amongst the general public towards animal collections appear to be changing. Latest research suggests the general public consistently demonstrate a less favourable view of animals in captivity, citing conservation as being the main role of the modern zoo.

The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) describe the work of captive breeding as a vital aspect of conservation work, and they say that they are primarily focused on breeding species which are at risk of extinction. They list the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) and the Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni) as three successful examples of species brought back from the brink of extinction as a result of co-operative captive breeding programmes.

ZSL admit that they continue to collect animals from the wild for captivity. There are organisations which aim to control and monitor collecting animals from the wild for captivity and sale, such as the Marine Aquarium Council which is a non-profit organisation promoting a voluntary education and certification service to fisheries obtaining fish, corals and invertebrates from the wild. They claim to facilitate an ecologically sustainable supply to marine parks and retailers. Many marine parks continue to buy cetaceans from traders dealing in wild-caught dolphins, while organisations such as the World Association for Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) apparently turn a blind eye to their members engaging in a lucrative and unsustainable trade which may inevitably contribute to declining cetacean populations.

Conservation programmes using improved reintroduction techniques and wild-caught animals, using large enclosure resembling the natural habitats of the species being re-introduced are now the recommended strategy for wild reintroductions of endangered species due to past failures of conservation programmes aiming to reintroduce mammal species into wild habitats and existing populations.

FIG. 5 BLACK-HEADED SPIDER MONKEY (ATELES FUSCICEPS ROBUSTUS). BLACKPOOL ZOO, LANCASHIRE UK

14 | EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE | 15

FIG. 6 ALYONA - AMUR TIGER (PANTHERA TIGRIS ALTAICA). BLACKPOOL ZOO, LANCASHIRE UK

16 | EXPOSURE

The future for zoos ZSL state that: “Good zoos do much more than simply display animals to visitors.� Ultimately, the question may instead be: are all zoos good zoos? Clearly, that is not the case as not all zoos engage in breeding for conservation purposes and many zoos are run poorly.

Additionally, most zoos do not engage in or fund conservation works in the wild, which would seem to be the most effective way of conserving endangered species. As zoos around the world shift their positions from one of entertainment for the masses to that of education and conservation of species held within their collections, many others continue to treat collections of animals purely as a business venture with the sole aim of increasing profits from the footfall of their many thousands of annual visitors.

It may be that these businesses experience a backlash as people demand a different approach to the exhibiting of animals, from concerns about animal welfare, to conservation concerns arising from increasing population decline amongst wild counterparts of many captive animal species. This already seems to be taking place; social media and films such as Blackfish (2013) have played a role in highlighting the need for improved welfare, education and conservation within zoological and marine parks. As many zoos re-brand as wildlife parks and reserves with the changing attitudes of their customers, it may be that holding collections of animals with no purpose other than to entertain becomes an unsavoury throwback to the past and captive breeding with the aim of conservation of species and reintroduction becomes the new norm.

EXPOSURE | 17

Small

Macro Photography & Scanning Electron Microscope Images: Revealing The Sex Life of Flowers

I

n angiosperms (flowering plants), flowers invariably serve a function to attract pollinators to assist in sexual reproduction of the plant. Flowers attract pollinators by using scent and colour, and sometimes the production of nectar as a food source. Flowers have developed complex morphology to allow for fertilisation. Male sexual cells in flowering plants are found in the stamen, usually within the central whorl. These cells are called microspores and become pollen grains after division. Female cells (megaspores) develop in the ovary, located in the gynoecium in flowering plants and usually also situated in the central whorl of the flower. The gynoecium may have single or fused carpels or female sexual parts, each of which contain an ovary, stigma and style. Female cells divide to become egg cells.

18 | EXPOSURE

Worlds

EXPOSURE | 19

A flower forms a protective structure around the male and female parts and is composed of petals and sepals. Flowers usually develop separately from the leaf, from the axil or growing from a single shoot. The flowers may be collectively separated from the leaf systems, branched along stems in an inflorescence. Most flowers are hermaphroditic – with both stamen and carpels. Morphological adaptations include heteromorphic physiology - male and female structures on separate flowers - which reduces the chance of self-fertilisation, encouraging cross-pollination.

Myosotis

sylvatica

Forget-me-not Forget-me-not belongs to the Borage family of plants (Boriginaceae) and are commonly called Scorpion Grass. They are familiar to many walkers and photographers due to the stunning bright blue carpets of flowers seen in spring, not to be confused with bluebells. The leaves are characteristically hirsute or hairy, which is a common identifier of this plant family. There are a number of species of Myosotis growing in the UK, including alpine and broadleaf species, and more specialised water and woodland species. There are also cultivated varieties grown and sold, which have naturalised over time. Myosotis arvensis (pictured) is the field forget-me-not and most common in the UK. Forget-menot generally reaches a height of around 0.1 - 0.5 metres.

Biology Flowering in spring M. arvensis is an annual to semi-perennial species which self-seeds, producing new plants each year. Forget-me-not flowers are one of the smallest flowers, measuring approximately 1cm in diameter, producing exceptionally tiny pollen grains which are some of the smallest pollens. Under the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (eSEM), it can be seen how small they are at approximately 3 micrometres in diameter.

Compared to lily pollen, at around 120 micrometres in diameter, the size difference is marked.

Pollination Pollinators of Myosotis include a range of UK invertebrate species including bees (Hymenoptera) and small flies including Dipterans, although M. arvensis can also self-pollinate. Seeds may be spread when the calyx detaches from the plant and attaches to animals and so move around to be dropped in another location for germination.

20 | EXPOSURE

MAIN: FIG. 7 FORGET-ME-NOT (MYOSOTIS ARVENSIS).

EXPOSURE | 21

MAIN: FIG. 8 CULTIVATED DAFFODIL (NARCISSUS SP).

22 | EXPOSURE

Narcissus

sp.

Daffodil The wild daffodil, Narcissus pseudonarcissus, is intermingled with numerous cultivated varieties in wild environments due to various escapees from cultivation and introduced cultivated varieties of bulb. As a result of various hybridised and introduced varieties, it is almost impossible to identify most wild growing narcissi down to species level. Usually found growing wild along road verges and streams in the UK, these cheerfully bright flowers are another sign of early spring.

Biology Belonging to the Amaryllis family of plants, these are fairly showy and large flowered plants. The flower has six tepals and a trumpet-like corona in the centre of the flower. Pollen is borne on long stamen and anthers which are visible to the naked eye, unlike Myosotis. Daffodil pollen measures approximately 50 micrometres across and are prolate or perprolate in shape, being fairly oblong with a central fold.

Pollination Daffodils are self-fertile (hermaphroditic) and perennial. Over-cultivation of the daffodil bulb has largely resulted in flowers which may look attractive to humans as colourful, showy and prolific flowers, but which have become less attractive to insect pollinators over time. Bees and other insects may visit daffodils as a food source, especially the wild N. pseudonarcissus, but they are no longer the primary pollinators of this genus of plants.

EXPOSURE | 23

Brassica

napus

Rapeseed Rapeseed belongs to the cabbage family of plants (Brassicaceae) which include cabbages and mustard plants. The flowers are approximately 18mm in diameter and bright yellow, with four petals and four sepals. There are six stamens in the centre, two short and four longer with heavily laden anthers when the flower is fully open.

Pollen is visible to the naked eye. Under the eSEM it measures approximately 40 micrometres in diameter and is of a perprolate shape (elongated and rounded) with obvious textural structures on the surface of each pollen grain, much like lily pollens.

Cultivation Rapeseed is primarily grown for cooking oils and high protein feed for agricultural animals. However, pesticides and fertilisers including nitrogen are used heavily in the production of rapeseed unless grown organically.

Rapeseed oil production is also a primary culprit of high CO2 emissions. With regard to environmental and ethical production of rapeseed, it is one of the more environmentally damaging crops. Rapeseed is thought to have been cultivated as early as 4000 B.C.

Pollination Rapeseed is an entomophilous crop meaning it is insect-pollinated, but cultivars of this crop are also commonly pollinated by wind (anemophily); pollination by hymenopterans is reported to double yields in agricultural cultivation so insectpollination is clearly more effective. It is believed that the tendency for this crop’s pollens to be carried on the wind is one of the reasons it is a likely trigger for allergies.

Wind-pollinated plants such as grasses are the usual cause of allergens.

24 | EXPOSURE

MAIN: FIG. 9 RAPESEED (BRASSICA NAPUS).

EXPOSURE | 25

MAIN: FIG. 10 ORIENTAL LILY (LILIUM ORIENTALIS).

26 | EXPOSURE

Lilium

orientalis

Lily Lilies belong to the Liliacaea family which encompasses around 700 species of plants, including around 100 species of lily. Many other plants may include lily in their common name but are not true lilies. As with daffodils, these flowering plants grow from bulbs which act as an underground food store and allow for perennation, the ability of a plant to go dormant and survive winters and droughts from one germination season to the next. As a result they are considered perennial and deciduous.

Biology Lilies have six tepals which develop within two whorls and six stamens, the tepals being free with a nectary towards the base. Flowers in the lily family are usually large and showy – lily plants can grow up to eight feet in height. The flowers are notable for their strong, exotic perfume, and cultivars are often grown to improve or increase the scent of the plant, along with breeding in different flower colours and increased flower size. The stigma and style usually extend far beyond the stamens, which are notably loaded with bright orange or yellow pollen.

Pollination Pollen grains of lilies are extremely large in comparison to most other flower pollens. The eSEM samples shown here show lily pollens measuring approximately 120 micrometres in length, which is around 40 times the size of Myosotis arvensis pollen grains. Lily pollen grains are perprolate in shape, being very long and extended with a distinctly textured surface.

Wild lilies are generally adapted to shady, slightly acidic substrate, including woodland habitats, and they are an important food plant for some Lepidoptera species including Cosmia trapezina, the Dun-bar moth.

EXPOSURE | 27

Tu l i p a

sp.

Tulip As with lilies, tulips are a member of the Liliaceae family, being bulbiferous springflowering perennials, adapted to mountainous terrains and temperate climates.

The tulipa genera contains around 75 species, but cultivation and naturalisation has meant many new hybridised forms now exist and their range has extended.

The flowers – as with most of the lily family of flowering plants – are large and showy, with large petals and distinct reproductive parts. Tulips utilise the same mechanism of perennation discussed, becoming dormant over winter and drought periods via an underground bulb store, and flowering in spring on long, rigid stems.

Cultivation Prized and cultivated in Europe since the 1600s, particularly in the Netherlands, excessive breeding and hybridisation of tulips likely resulted in virus strains affecting the bulbs and plants. Virus infection in plants can cause mottling, veining, curling of petals, stunted growth (dwarfism) and variegation. These physical characteristics, however, once noted were often encouraged and bred into tulip cultivars, resulting in some of the variegation, colouration and smaller cultivars of tulips now available.

Pollination Pollen of the tulip are around 50-60 micrometres in size, much smaller than its relative lily and around the same size as daffodil pollen grains. Pollination in cultivars is done by hand by plant breeders, traditionally using a paintbrush to brush pollen grains from one flower to another. Hymenopterans and small flies may visit tulip flowers to collect pollen; and some hybridisation and naturalisation may occur in cultivated tulips once planted out into gardens and parks as a result of cross-breeding.

28 | EXPOSURE

MAIN: FIG. 11 PINK CULTIVATED TULIP (TULIPA SP.).

EXPOSURE | 29

MAIN: FIG. 12 CELANDINE (FICARIA VERNA).

30 | EXPOSURE

Ficaria

verna

Ranunculus

syn.

ficaria

Lesser Celandine Lesser celandine (as pictured) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the buttercup (Ranunculus) family Ranunculaceae, although it is recently renamed. The plant has dark rounded leaves and bright, glossy yellow flowers which have a sheen and appear to reflect sunlight. Ficaria verna is actinomorphic meaning it has radially symmetrical flowers which may be double or single. This plant may form tubers on axils after the late winter/early spring flowering period, and is prone to a lowgrowing, spreading habit of growth. As a bright yellow early flowering plant, it is seen as another sign of spring and new growth.

Propagation Celandine (buttercup) has been cultivated as a garden plant for many years, and there are numerous subspecies and cultivated varieties as a result. It can be extremely invasive and will spread where allowed to. Celandine prefers shaded woodland and damp or even boggy soil to grow in. Germination from seed is from spring and into early summer, but the plant also spreads vegetatively. Diploid and tetraploid subspecies exist with some preferring moist soils and propagating via bulbils, which allows for more rapid propagation.

Pollination Pollen grains of Ficaria verna are visible to the naked eye, as bright yellow and attached to the anthers which are wider towards the end and loaded with pollen.

Grains measure approximately 40 micrometres in length and are an unusual shape of subprolate or spheroidal and appear slightly twisted. Celandine offers emerging bee species and queens an early source of food and as such are an important food source for insects.

EXPOSURE | 31

Nanoscale & Microscale Research Centre (nmRC)

Precision in nanoscience Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Electron Micro Probe Analysis (EMPA) X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Raman Spectroscopy Electron Beam Lithography (EBL) Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectromtery with OrbiTrapTM mass spectrometer

www.nottingham.ac.uk/nmrc

32 | EXPOSURE

Biological Photography and Imaging Photography Exhibition

I have tried to capture images of wildlife during the spring months. While it might seem a fairly easy task to capture some of Nottinghamshire’s plentiful wildlife, capturing it in a moment in time and in the right light so that people will be captivated and moved by the image is another task all together. That is generally the aim of a wildlife photographer - to capture behaviours and moments which others want to see and enjoy. While that is the aim, we rarely succeed. It requires time, patience, perseverance and (apparently) really early mornings.

The kit rabbit picture (above) was one of a few of this year’s new rabbits born on the Nottingham University Park campus. I had seen them out nibbling the grass and had decided I would try to capture some while the spring sunshine was out. An hour or more of sitting quietly with these incredibly small

rabbits rewarded me with just a handful of usable images. I chose this one as the light behind the rabbit lights up the daisies in the foreground and picks out some of the outline of its body against a backdrop of shrubs, giving it a more natural composition.

The mute swan pictured (below) was spotted sitting on a newly built nest at Wollaton Park in Nottingham. The nest had been built by the pair of mute swans for some days beforehand, and one of the pair-bonded couple had taken up its place on the nest to incubate the eggs.

While I remained very still and quiet to take some images, this swan was clearly fully aware of my presence and can be seen keeping a watchful eye on me in its otherwise serene and poised nesting position.

M

y chosen theme for the annual masters in biological photography and imaging exhibition was a tough decision, but I eventually settled on Nottinghamshire Wildlife. These are the resulting images that were chosen to exhibit.

EXPOSURE | 33

Lilyturf (Liriope muscari) (above) is a small, blue bulb-forming wildflower which grows in patches in woodland and other shady areas in the early spring. An external flash was used to light up darker areas of the flower; due to its location in a dark shady spot the light available was otherwise poor.

Another liriope in the background does a good job of mimicking a shadow effect and the image was edited to increase warmth and saturation.

This Hawthorn Shieldbug (Acanthosoma haeomorrhoidale) (below) was captured at Attenborough Nature Reserve in Beeston, Nottingham. While out on a walk as a group with Tim Sexton, the bug was spotted on a blade of grass. The image was captured on a bright, sunny

34 | EXPOSURE

morning and was taken handheld, using a 100mm macro lens, and I was later surprised to find that the head and part of the thorax was nicely in focus.

I had never previously exhibited any of my images in a public environment, other than on social media.

Preparing images for other people to view is always incredibly nerve-wracking. It requires a level of confidence to show people your photography work in a capacity which suggests you feel the work is exhibition-worthy. I hope that these images are interesting and captivating for the viewer, and that they encourage people to seek out and explore Nottinghamshire wildlife for themselves.

Delivering precisely the quality you need.

We are the UK’s largest independent supplier of laboratory equipment, chemicals and consumables. From pipettes and petri dishes to the latest in laboratory instrumentation, we pride ourselves on the quality of products and the service we provide.

Science shouldn’t cost the earth.

We care for our environment and take sustainability seriously.

We firmly believe today’s scientific industry should play a lead role in protecting the environment to help ensure a sustainable future.

Our Waste 2 Energy programme and our environmental policy demonstrate that we take a responsible and proactive approach to meeting environment goals.

Order your supplies today. www.scientificlabs.co.uk

Pe a k Light ABOVE: FIG. 13 ABANDONED MILL STONES. STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

36 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 14 SILVER BIRCH TREES (BETULA PENDULA). STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

S

tanton Moor is an upland moorland area within the Derbyshire Peak District. The majority of the land is privatelyowned by English Heritage, but there are public footpaths across the moor, some linking the land to the nearby village of Birchover. Stanton Moor is well-known for its standing stones of mill-stone grit - or megaliths - which include the Nine Ladies Stone Circle and the Cork stone which many visitors attempt to climb for a view from the top.

EXPOSURE | 37

FIG. 15 STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

As a hill-walker and photographer (and occasional Solstice attendee), I have visited Stanton Moor on many occasions. The light has a particular quality at this site. There seem to be more extreme fluctuations in weather on the moor, perhaps exacerbated by its more remote and exposed location. I have encountered hail and sun at the same moment, along with snow, fierce winds, bright sunshine and heat, and everything in between over the seasons. The dark, brooding skies often reflect this contrast in weather, and it is often a good spot to find a rainbow or unusual cloud formations.

The landscape reflects the exposed nature of the site, with heathland dominating the moor, interspersed with patchy areas of birch woodland and rocky outcrops of its renowned millstone grit. Tree species growing on the site include Silver Birch (Betula pendula) and scrubby Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea). Due to heathlands’ characteristic low soil fertility, relatively few plant species grow on the moor but those that do are typically low-growing heather species, gorse (Ulex gallii), bell heather (Erica cinerea), bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), sorrel (Rumex acetosa) and sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina) which is a wild clump-forming grass.

38 | EXPOSURE

However, Stanton Moor is unusual in that the heath developed on a sandstone layer where alkaline-loving plants may grow next to the more ericaceous heathers. Natural succession, whereby woodland regrows where it was once cleared to produce heathland habitats, may in time reclaim the moor.

The moor is a Scheduled Ancient Monument – it has four stone circles including the Nine Ladies, North Circle, Central Circle and South Circle. Only the Nine Ladies remains well preserved and grazed by Swaledale sheep which reside on the moor, while the other circles are incomplete and overgrown. Over 70 bronze-age barrows have been located on the site. The moor incorporates a designated Regionally Important Geological Site (RIGS) due to its unusual sandstone. English Heritage have initiated a conservation plan for the moor, and it is a Biological Diversity Action Plan (BAP) Habitat because of its importance as an upland heathland site.

It is a beautiful and special site, not least for its value to wildlife and its historical significance as a bronze-age settlement and site of pagan worship. A full day can be spent wandering on the moor, exploring the woodland edge habitats, moorland habitats, and even finding the occasional stone cottage ruin.

FIG. 16 CORK STONE. STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

EXPOSURE | 39

40 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 17 NINE LADIES STONE CIRCLE. STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

EXPOSURE | 41

FIG. 18 SWALEDALE SHEEP BREED (DOMESTIC SHEEP). STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

The diversity of animal species on upland heathland tends to be low among vertebrate species but high for invertebrates such as arachnids (spiders), coleoptera (beetles) and many butterfly species. Bird species recorded on upland heathland in Derbyshire include Linnet (Carduelis cannabina), Stonechat (Saxicola rubicola) and Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor). Many of the invertebrate and bird species present on heathland have a dependence on the growth-phase of heathland plants and their conservation is linked to the conservation of heathland habitats.

It is a great place to find fungi specimens in autumn, which grow throughout the woodland, on rotting birches and on the moorland itself. In spring and summer birds of prey can be seen circling high above the moor on updraughts of warm air, looking for prey amongst the grass and trees. In winter, the moor can be very cold due to its exposed nature, yet the open blue skies and skeletal trees will reward visitors. The moor manages to remain photogenic even whilst covered in blankets of snow. A visit to this unique and magical site is highly recommended at any time of the year.

42 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 19 SILVER BIRCH (BETULA PENDULA). STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE UK

EXPOSURE | 43

Take photography further.

Marvellous Molluscs

Mollusca is the second largest phylum of animals on earth.

Specialised adaptations are the secret to their success.

FIG. 20 COMMON LIMPET (PATELLA VULGATA) WITH ATTACHED IMMATURE BARNACLES. NORTHUMBERLAND, UK

EXPOSURE | 45

FIG. 21 COMMON COCKLE (CERASTODERMA EDULE). FORMBY, UK

FIG. 22 TOWER SHELL (TURITELLA COMMUNIS). FORMBY, UK

FIG. 23 WHELK (UNKNOWN SPECIES)

46 | EXPOSURE

M

olluscs have adapted to marine environments, as well as freshwater and terrestrial habitats.

They live at all latitudes, in tropical or temperate climates. Adaptations to such varied habitats mean they are extremely diverse both in morphology and behaviours. Molluscs have been fossil-dated to around 500 million years ago within the mid-Cambrian period, including cephalopods and gastropods, although some orders may well have existed earlier.

Molluscs are more varied than all other phylum. Classes within the mollusca phylum include Gastropoda (sails and slugs), Bivalvia (clams, oysters, mussels etc.) and Cephalopoda (squid and octopodes). Defining characteristics of almost all molluscs include the presence of a mantle, radula and nervous system. The mantle in many species is fundamental to the production of a shell, as it secretes calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and conchiolin, a protein which forms the matrix of the shell while CaCO3 forms the shell itself. Shell material continues to be excreted by the epithelial cells of the mantle tissue for the majority of the life of a shelled mollusc.

Characteristics The mantle cavity is a defining feature in molluscs; the cavity functions as a water space and respiratory chamber filled with gills, anus, olfactory organs, excretory organs and the genital pore. It can also aid in locomotion, feeding and, in some molluscs, larvae develop within the mantle cavity. In order to assist in locomotion in either marine or terrestrial environments, in some genus the mantle has become extremely muscular and is able to contract and propel the animal. Bivalve mantles are adapted to digging rather than movement.

The radula is a toothed length of chitin, effectively functional as a tongue; its function is for cutting and scraping as the animal grazes and forages for food. It is a unique organ in molluscs and present in all but the bivalves such as scallops and limpets who instead have hair-like cilia filaments which sweep nutrients into the oesophagus. Cephalopods such as squid and octopus use the radula for cutting up prey once caught. The teeth, or denticles, on the radula can bend sideways where needed for effective cutting and scraping. Some molluscs may secrete acids in conjunction with the radula to consume prey, and other marine molluscs such as those in the Conidae family (coned snails) use the radula as a harpoon to target prey.

EXPOSURE | 47

The nervous system in some mollusc orders are incredibly advanced and sophisticated. Cephalic molluscs have a pair of nerve cords and connected ganglia, focused on the internal organs and foot or radula. The cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia make up the nerve ring. Acephalic molluscs lack the more developed nervous system of the cephalic molluscs, with fewer ganglia. Some molluscs such as scallops and chitons have eyes on or around the shell which connect to nerves, allowing them the ability to see shades of light and dark.

Cephalopod intelligence is fairly well researched, and it has been shown that cuttlefish, octopods, squid and nautilus have well developed nervous systems and advanced cognitive abilities. The cephalopod brain has lobes which have higher order functions including memory. Cephalopods have large brains in relation to body size. Researchers have demonstrated marked learning and memory abilities, and advanced predation techniques within the Coleoidea subclass. Despite being solitary animals, cephalopods are considered highly social and playful animals with distinct personalities.

Bilateral Symmetry Molluscs have bilateral symmetry as opposed to radial symmetry, meaning they have a body plan which can be divided into two identical halves (left and right sides) along the midline. One plane – the sagittal plane – divides the organism into two sections. Cephalisation, or development of a head and/ or central nervous system is common in animals with bilateral symmetry, as opposed to spherical and radial symmetry as seen in viruses and plants respectively. Bilaterally symmetrical animals tend to move in one direction, with a front and back end. This type of symmetry reduces drag and allows for smooth, streamlined movement facilitating effective locomotion as seen in molluscs.

Feeding As discussed, molluscs use their specialised radula or ‘tongues’ to scrape and cut food. Most molluscs use it to scrape plant material such as algae and some bacteria off substrates including rocks and plants. Glands within the mouth parts of some molluscs secrete mucous which works to form a food string which moves towards the stomach, sometimes via cilia or beating hairs. Mucous and particles are eventually excreted after a sorting process which sends digestible food particles to the stomach and excreta to the hind gut and anus within the mantle cavity.

Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on plant material or filtering nutrients, while others are carnivorous. Grazing molluscs feed on either microscopic filamentous algae or macroscopic plants.

Filter feeders, including bivalves, feed by sieving nutrients across their gills. Cephalopods use their tentacles and jaws to capture prey and the radula is secondary to these. Members of the mollusca phyla commonly feed on other molluscs.

48 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 24 QUEEN CONCH SHELL (LOBATUS GIGAS)

"The mantle in many species is fundamental to the production of a shell, as it secretes calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and conchiolin, a protein which forms the matrix of the shell while CaCO3 forms the shell itself. Shell material continues to be excreted by the epithelial cells of the mantle tissue for the majority of the life of a shelled mollusc."

FIG. 25 COMMON LIMPET (PATELLA VULGATA) WITH IMMATURE BARNACLES (CHTHAMALUS MONTAGUI)

EXPOSURE | 49

Dichotomous Key UK Marine Seaweed Species 1.

Red fronds - stipe and

g

Order: Ceramiales

blade

(see Heterosiphonia

Green fronds - stipe and

plumosa)

g

blade

i 2.

Air bladder (flotation

Crimson Featherweed (Heterosiphonia plumosa)

g

Order: Fucales

g

(see Fucus spiralis)

device) Present No air bladder

i 3.

Discoid holdfast

Spiral Wrack (Fucus spiralis)

g

Order: Bryopsidales

g

(see Codium fragile) No visible discoid holdfast

i 4.

Flat thallus with wide blades

Sponge Seaweed (Codium fragile)

g

Order: Laminariales

g

(see Laminaria digitata)

Unbranched thin fronds

i

Oarweed (Laminaria digitata)

Order: Ulvales Gut Weed (Ulva intestinalis)

50 | EXPOSURE

UK Coastal Species Factfile Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus) There are two species of seal in the UK - the Grey Seal (Haliochoerus grypus) is the larger of the two. 40% of the world’s population of grey seals is estimated to live in coastal regions around the UK, with a population of approximately 120,000.

Numbers had dropped to as low as 500 individuals due to hunting. Seals are now a protected species in the UK under the Conservation of Seals Act 1970.

Factfile - UK Coastal Species

Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus)

Seals haul out on beaches and rocky outcrops in order to rest and digest their food. Nursing mothers and pups are especially susceptible to disturbance; it is vital that seals are free to haul out in safety otherwise nutrition and health may be compromised.

Diet consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods.

Adult males may weigh up to 300kg, females up to 200kg.

Lifespan is around 30-40 years.

Entanglement in marine litter and ghost fishing gear is a major threat to seals in the UK and globally, increasingly causing injuries and death.

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Clade: Pinnipedia Family: Phocidae Genus: Halichoerus H. grypus Species:

EXPOSURE | 51

UK Coastal Species Factfile Common Hermit Crab (Pagarus bernhardus) Common Hermit Crabs (Pagurus bernhardus) range extends from Iceland and Russia as far as Spain. Hermit crabs can be found in rock pools, and rocky and sandy habitats all along the UK coastline.

They may be found at upper levels, at tide levels and down to sea depths of approximately 130 metres. Smaller hermit crabs are more likely to be found in rock pools and on shore, while larger individuals can be found at depth in the ocean.

Factfile - UK Coastal Species

Common Hermit Crab (Pagurus bernhardus)

The carapace is around 4 cm long at maturity. Most hermit crabs have asymmetry, with curbed abdomens. They generally scavenge shells from various mollusc species and inhabit these to replace their lack of a hard carapace.

The hermit crab then carries the shell with it as it moves around, until such time as it is in need of a replacement shell.

Hermit crabs are omnivorous scavengers, picking up any detritus and carrion food they find. They may also filter feed.

Kingdom: Phylum: Subphylum: Class: Order: Family: Genus: Species:

52 | EXPOSURE

Animalia Arthropoda Crustacea Malacostraca Decapoda Paguridae Pagurus P. bernhardus

UK Coastal Species Factfile Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica) The Atlantic or Common Puffin (Fratercula arctica) range extends from Iceland and Greenland down to western USA across to the UK. Breeding occurs in late spring in coastal regions after a winter spent at sea. Nesting in colonies on cliff tops, these birds dig burrows in the sandy soil on cliffs and amongst grassy tufts which act as cover for the hidden nests and pufflings when they hatch.

Factfile (Wildcard) - UK Coastal Species

Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica)

The Atlantic Puffin has distinctive black, white and grey colouring on its feathers and a colourful beak, with bright orange webbed feet. Colouring is most pronounced in spring during the breeding season. Juveniles have paler colouring and a narrower bill.

Chicks are fed on fish and fledge in around 6 weeks. Adults stand at around 20 cm high with a wingspan of between 47-63 cm. Adults may weight between 400-650 grams. Diet is 90% fish species.

Puffin populations are in serious decline and are listed as vulnerable by IUCN. Threats include hunting, pollution and oil spills, predation and human overfishing.

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Charadriiformes Family: Alcidae Genus: Fratercula Species: F. arctica

EXPOSURE | 53

Flourescence Hydra vulgaris at x40 magnification using a light microscope. Wet mount of a biological specimen. Dark field illumination was used to view and photograph the image.

Hydra are freshwater organisms in the phylum Cnidaria and class Hydrozoa.

The tentacles (cnidae) can be seen extending from the mouth opening on the head.

Cnidocytes containing the nematocysts can be seen around the cnidae the small round structures - which are specialised stinging cells used to immobilise their prey.

0

10

20

30

40

60

60

Bellis perennis (Common Daisy) x40 magnification.

Squash preparation. Daisy petals were separated from the sepal and laid flat on a glass slide.

The squash preparation involved using Numount mounting media which holds the sample in place with a coverslip on the slide and dries on a heating tray to form a clear, refractive sample for magnification. Phase contrast was used to view and photograph the sample. Detail within the petal can be seen, with small folds of the tissue showing in the darker areas on the image, and individual cells evident.

Magnification 54 | EXPOSURE

Objective

Kohler Illumination

Microscopy Notes 0

Eyepiece

10

20

30

0

10

20

30

40

40 60

70

80

90

100

Microscopic

Imaging

Viburnum tinus (Viburnum) x 40 magnification.

Wet mount. Dark field illumination was used to viewand photograph the image.

Parts of the anther were removed on this flower and smeared onto a slide, covered in a drop of water and a coverslip.

Pollen can be seen within the tissues. The overall colour reflects the colour of collective pollen grains.

Analysis

EXPOSURE | 55

FIG. 26 GREY SQUIRREL (SCIURUS CAROLINENSIS). WOLLATON PARK, NOTTINGHAM UK

56 | EXPOSURE

Grey Squirrels and their impact on the environment in the Nottinghamshire area OLIVER SMITH

T

he grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is a common rodent found throughout Nottinghamshire and Great Britain.

Despite their prevalence throughout the country, they are actually not a native species.

Grey squirrels were in fact introduced during the 19th century from North America.

Since their introduction, they have adapted tremendously and are now more common than the native red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) (Nottinghamshirewildlife.org, 2017). Grey squirrels typically have a silver/grey coat, white underside and bushy tail (Species Fact Sheet: Grey Squirrel 2017). Occasionally black (melanistic) grey squirrels are born. Cambridgeshire has a relatively large population of melanistic squirrels (McRobie, Thomas and Kelly, 2009). Due to their non-native status in Great Britain, grey squirrels have had a big impact on their environment, some positive and some negative.

EXPOSURE | 57

Negative Impact Probably the most documented impact associated with grey squirrels is the negative effect they have had on their relative, the red squirrel. Red squirrels used to be found throughout Britain, where they had little competition for food during the winter periods (Wildlifetrusts.org, 2017). Since the introduction of greys, there has been a vast decline in red squirrel numbers across the UK. One of the reasons the grey squirrel has done so well is that it consumes a larger array of food compared to red squirrels (Two different squirrels: the facts, 2017). During the winter periods, grey squirrels can put on up to 20% of their body weight during autumn, whereas red squirrels generally put on only 10% due to the limited food they can digest (Two different squirrels: the facts, 2017). This ability to digest more food than the red squirrels has allowed greys to withstand harsher winters and outcompete their smaller cousins.

Unfortunately for red squirrels, it’s not only competition for food, they need to worry about, as greys also carry a virus called squirrel pox. Squirrel pox is usually fatal to reds once caught. The virus causes liaisons and skin ulcers, as well as discharge from the eyes, mouth, nose and genitals (Northernredsquirrels.org.uk, 2017). Once infected, they become very lethargic and suffer a long painful death (DAERA, 2017).

Along with environmental pressures the greys have brought leaving Nottinghamshire’s red squirrel population exhausted with the last sighting of a red squirrel at Wollaton Park as late as 1971 (Nottsmammals.org.uk, 2017).

It’s not only red squirrels that have been impacted from the introduction of greys.

Many broadleaved trees have also been affected such as Beech, Oak and Sweet Chestnut. Grey squirrels are believed to be stripping back the bark on these trees and eating their buds and seeds in large numbers (Kenward and Parish, 2009). The trees that are most susceptible to damage though are the more thinly barked species such as beech and sycamore (Kenward and Parish, 2009). Greys rip the bark off trees with their claws and/or teeth (Uksafari.com, 2017), although this behaviour is not fully understood and believed to start once the first litter of young have become independent (Species Fact Sheet: Grey Squirrel 2017). Beech, sycamore and oak are found throughout Nottinghamshire and the UK. In fact, if one were to flick through Nottingham University’s, University Park Garden Guide and Tree Walk booklet you’ll find that all of these trees can be found in abundance within Nottingham (University Park Gardens Guide and Tree Walk, 2017).

58 | EXPOSURE

FIG. 27 RED SQUIRREL (SCIURUS VULGARIS). FORMBY, LANCASHIRE UK

EXPOSURE | 59

[UNMARKED] GREY SQUIRREL (SCIURUS CAROLINENSIS). CALKE ABBEY, DERBYSHIRE UK

60 | EXPOSURE

Positive Impact With their numbers soaring, it’s quite hard to find anything positive to say about the grey squirrel introduction to the UK. Although there may not be many direct positives, there have been some cases of indirect advantages within the UK. Pine Martens (Martes martes) are a good example of this, as they have been documented predating on grey squirrels in Ireland and areas of Scotland (Carter, 2017). In fact, in Ireland, red squirrels have been able to re-establish themselves again, and this is believed to be due to pine martens predating on greys in high numbers (Carter, 2017). As greys are much bigger and slower than reds, they are an easier target for pine martens (HeraldScotland, 2017).

Pine martens were once predating on grey squirrels so much that it is believed they suffered a population crash (HeraldScotland, 2017). One might wonder how is this a positive for grey squirrels, well it isn’t but it’s an advantage to our British ecosystem.

Firstly, Pine Martens were once on the verge of extinction in the UK. Considered pests, they were hunted by game keepers and, if it wasn’t for their now protected status they may have become extinct, with Scotland remaining a stronghold (Mammalsin-ireland.ie, 2017). Pine martens have recently been reintroduced into Wales and there are plans to expand reintroduction into England. They have not been seen in the Midlands and Nottinghamshire area for around 50 years (BBC News, 2017), so the news that the high numbers of grey squirrels could actually be beneficial to pine martens is interesting.

Furthermore, if pine martens were ever reintroduced into Nottinghamshire and were able to sustainably manage the grey squirrel populations, this would have a knock-on positive impact on red squirrels, if they were to also be introduced back. Sherwood Forest could be potentially hold a small population of pine martens as it consists of mainly of woodland and scrub habitat where they can thrive (FutureScapes, 2017).

Sherwood Forest would also be a great area to publicize their reintroduction as it would generate national interest, tourism and educate people on wildlife.

EXPOSURE | 61

FIG. 28 RED SQUIRREL (SCIURUS VULGARIS). FORMBY, LANCASHIRE UK

Grey Squirrels also help the dispersal of trees as they collect nuts and seeds in the autumn, which are then buried to be stored for the winter as a food supply. They can only find their buried seeds through smell rather than memory, and it is thought that around 30% of their buried seeds will not be recovered (ICSRS, 2017). So, any seeds that are not found will potentially germinate into new trees. Grey Squirrels are also known to bury and store the healthiest seeds and eat the damaged or rotting seeds first, and these seeds have a higher survival rate, which helps the regeneration of Britain’s native woodland (ICSRS, 2017). Although grey squirrels impact negatively on the environment, they are actually a very popular wildlife critter among most people.

Their confident nature and appealing look can help be a starter animal for young children, helping children to feel connected with nature and gaining a greater interest, which, for some, might lead one day to careers in environmental conservation.

To conclude, grey squirrels are non-native and considered a huge pest in the UK having a detrimental effect on our native species the red squirrel. They also damage broadleaved trees by stripping back the bark, inhibiting their growth. However, they could be an important food source for Pine Martens, if ever they are reintroduced into England. They also help disperse seeds contributing to woodland regeneration.

Overall, grey squirrels look like they are here to stay due to their ability to withstand attempts to eradicate them from the UK. I personally think that their numbers should be reduced greatly but through restoring natural sustainable ecosystems, rather than just culling. I think this strategy could be a win-win success story: bringing pine martens back to England, naturally reducing the grey squirrel population, and improving the habitat for red squirrels to re-establish themselves back into their former areas in Nottinghamshire.

62 | EXPOSURE

in association with Get Closer to Nature

Opticron DBA VHD+

Opticron offer a complete range of high-quality binoculars, compact binoculars and scopes, including our starter binoculars at entry-level prices.

Waterproof High Performance Ergonomic Binoculars for serious birders & naturalists

At Nottinghamshire Wildlife Trust’s Attenborough Nature Reserve we hold in-house Opticron demo days and Digiscoping workshops throughout the year.

Try our binoculars at the Binocular Bar, and find the perfect binoculars for you, a child or other family member.

Opticron Discovery Packs and Birdwatching Starter Sets are ideal for young birders and new enthusiasts.

Opticron Savanna R

Waterproof Slimline Roof Prism Binoculars for families, newcomers & nature enthusiasts

Opticron Traveler BGA ED

Compact Lightweight Waterproof Binoculars - for outdoor sports and wildlife enthusiasts

Opticron Oregon 4 LE WP

Award-winning Compact Waterproof Binoculars - firsttime or occasional nature observation

• • • • •

Wildlife Trust Member’s discount Black Friday promotion Special offer binoculars Birdwatching Starter set Discovery packs

Visit: www.attenboroughnaturecentre.co.uk Check our Facebook & Twitter pages for info & events.

EXPOSURE | 63

FIG. 29 RED SQUIRREL (SCIURUS VULGARIS). FORMBY, LANCASHIRE UK

Nottingh Wetland birds of

Exploring water bird species and their wetland habitats in Nottingham and the surrounding location.

N

ottingham and its surrounding county of Nottinghamshire has many country parks, reserves and open water habitats. While we are familiar with the ubiquitous gulls which have opportunistically moved further inland into towns and cities over the last decade or more, Nottingham is home to a variety of other water birds, from large herons and cormorants, to the smaller and more unusual duck species.

66 | EXPOSURE

ham

FIG. 30 RED-CRESTED POCHARD (NETTA RUFINA). ATTENBOROUGH NATURE RESERVE, NOTTINGHAM UK

EXPOSURE | 67

Nottinghamshire contains many wild and natural spaces, including the spectacular Attenborough Nature Reserve. The reserve lies in approximately 205 hectares of grassland and wetland habitat, previously gravel pits, making it the perfect setting for a nature reserve and attractive to the many wetland birds which either overwinter or remain resident at the site. The reserve is home to numerous species of water birds, including the Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula); Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus); and the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor), as well as more unusual species including Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Red-crested Pochard (Netta rufina), cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) and sea ducks.

Wollaton Hall is located in central Nottingham near to the university and has a large lake with several species of wetland birds as well as visiting migrating birds. Each year a large grouping of herons pair bond and court on the lake at Wollaton and nest in a fallen willow tree over the water. Colwick Park in north-east Nottingham has two lakes and grassland habitats with various wetland birds, mostly duck and swan species. Bestwood Country Park is in the north of Nottingham and has grassland and wetland habitats, with resident and visiting water bird species. We have highlighted some of the wetland bird species which can be found in and around Nottingham and discuss their ecology and characteristics. All of the species illustrated here were photographed at these locations.

Grey Heron Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Ardeidae Genus: Ardea Species: A. cinerea Herons belong to the Ardeidae family of birds, some of which are instead referred to as egrets and bitterns. In fact egrets, bitterns and herons all form the same biological group. The morphology of herons is characteristically long-legged and tall, with a long neck and large eyes. They have grey, black and white feathering, and a powerful, piercing yellow beak designed for spearing fish in the shallows where heron stalk their prey. They are medium to large birds. Herons characteristically fly with the neck outstretched in front of them.

Within the UK, grey herons remain fairly sedentary, remaining in one area to hunt, reproduce and overwinter. In other countries, grey herons are fairly migratory and will move around from one country to another according to season. In Nottingham they can be found at Wollaton Park on the lake fairly regularly, especially during the breeding season where they form a large heronry.

There is little sexual dimorphism within the heron family and none with grey herons – both male and female look alike. Herons are colonial during the breeding season and will gather together to form a heronry. This constitutes a chosen breeding site in which all nearby breeding herons gather and build their nests in close proximity to each other. The male builds a nest and courtship takes place on the nest. 3-5 eggs are usually laid, with an incubation period of 25 days. Chicks fledge when they reach 7-8 weeks of age and are fed by both parents. Herons within the heronry will then disperse and become solitary after breeding.

RIGHT: FIG. 31 GREY HERON (ARDEA CINEREA). WOLLATON PARK, NOTTINGHAM UK

68 68 || EXPOSURE EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE | 69

70 | EXPOSURE

The grey heron is carnivorous and hunts in wetland areas in either marine or freshwater habitats.

Herons primarily adopt a hunting position of either standing still and tall with the neck outstretched, close to the water’s edge and watching for signs of movement, or hunched over the water creating a shadow within which small fish tend to seek refuge and become prey for the stalking bird. The heron will use its eyesight to compensate for refraction on the water and accurately locate prey. Grey herons eat most fish species available to them, but will also eat amphibians, ducklings and small rodents such as shrews and voles.

Mute Swan Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Genus: Cygnus Species: C. olor

The mute swan shares the same family as smaller species of wetland birds including tufted and mandarin ducks, and pochards. One of the largest wetland bird species, the mute swan is slightly smaller than the trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) which may be seen rarely in the UK. Adults are sexually dimorphic, the males (cobs) averaging 9.2 - 14.3 kg in weight. Adult feather colouring is pure white. Juveniles (cygnets) have light to dark grey feathering until they are at least a year old, although they reach adult size from around three months old. The bill on an adult mute swan is characteristically bright orange with a black marking on the face which sweeps up to the eye, while juveniles have a grey-black bill.

Mute swans as with many bird species including wetland birds are monogamous and will build a nest at the waterside or in shallow water using reeds and other plant material. They may re-use a previous year’s nest or build a new one. Both male and female build and care for the nest and chicks.

The species lays 4-10 eggs which incubate for around 35 days. Cygnets will fledge at around three months old but will usually remain with the parents until much older, foraging and socialising as a cohesive group for many months. The cob or male of the group will often display highly aggressive behaviour towards any assumed intruder or potential threat to the cygnets or nest.

Mute swans are omnivorous, feeding on many crop plant species, aquatic plants and other terrestrial plants, as well as very small invertebrates. In the UK this species has amber status due to loss of habitat and previous use of lead weights for fishing which resulted in numerous cases of swans suffering lead poisoning, although populations are now rising after a ban on their use came into effect.

The mute swan population in the UK is estimated at around 74,000 overwintering birds and 6,000 breeding pairs.

LEFT: FIG. 32 MUTE SWAN (CYGNUS OLOR). WOLLATON PARK, NOTTINGHAM UK

EXPOSURE | 71

Tufted Duck Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Genus: Aythya Species: A. fuligula

The Tufted Duck is a medium-sized diving duck species, slightly smaller than the native Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos). The species is sexually dimorphic; the male is primarily black with white flanks and a purple iridescent sheen on the feathers, while the female has brown colouring on the body. Males have a much larger tuft of feathers on the head and both male and female have a distinctive yellow eye. Their diet consists of molluscs, notably Zebra Mussels (Dreissena polymorpha), freshwater crustaceans such as the waterlouse (Asellus aquaticus) and plant matter which may include seeds. The steady increase in tufted duck populations in the UK is believed to be correlated with the colonisation of the zebra mussel, a non-native, invasive species.

Resident in most parts of the UK, the tufted duck is most common in lowland areas, primarily marine and intertidal and wetland habitats. In Nottingham they can be found at Attenborough Nature Reserve, Wollaton Park, Colwick Park and may also be found on urban lakes and ponds elsewhere in Nottinghamshire. At Attenborough Nature Reserve they are visible year-round on the main lake and often near to the nature reserve building, and there are often one or two breeding pairs in the main lake habitat at Wollaton Park.

Populations of tufted ducks increase over winter in the UK as migrants come into lowland areas from Iceland and parts of northern Europe and flock together. As with many other water bird species, tufted ducks are monogamous. Breeding occurs from May to July. The female will lay between 8-11 eggs which have a 45-day incubation period. Tufted duck chicks fledge within 50 days of hatching.

Great Cormorant Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Suliformes Family: Phalacrocoracidae Genus: Phalacrocorax Species: P. carbo

This is a large water bird, in the same family as the Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), and only one species is found in the UK (Phalacrocorax carbo). They can be spotted perching by the waterside with wings outstretched to dry their feathers. Great cormorant colouring is primarily black, with brown and some white on the feathers, and they have a long, hooked and powerful beak of black with some yellow. Juveniles have pale brown and grey feather colouring with a pale beak and the distinctive yellow patch on the beak and face.

RIGHT: FIG. 33 TUFTED DUCK (AYTHYA FULIGULA). ATTENBOROUGH NATURE RESERVE, NOTTINGHAM UK

72 | EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE | 73

74 | EXPOSURE

Cormorants live in marine, intertidal and wetland habitats throughout the UK, and in Nottingham can be found at Attenborough Nature Reserve which is large enough to accommodate a number of this species all year round. A significant population of this species overwinters in the UK, making this an important location for overall species survival. Their diet consists entirely of fish, both marine and freshwater. In Nottingham, they are likely to subsist on common freshwater fish species. Cormorants can often be spotted at Attenborough either in small groups or as lone individuals. They may be seen flying from one location to another - a spectacular sight as these are large birds and look extremely raptor-like in the air – or swimming in the waters near to the main reserve building and bridge areas, looking for fish.

Great Crested Grebe Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Podicipediformes Family: Podicipedidae Genus: Podiceps Species: P. cristatus

The Great Crested Grebe is an ornate-looking bird with an upright and distinctive crest on its head of dark feathers. Rusty orange feathering acts as a ruff around the face, which is especially colourful during the breeding season and through summer, while their winter plumage is a dull grey and white.

It has a long neck and white throat, and darker colouring on its body. The genus name Podiceps describes the crested grebe morphology whereby the feet are located relatively far back on the body. After coming close to extinction in the late 19th century due to hunting for their ornate feathers, populations are now recovering at around 19,000 birds overwintering in the UK. Breeding occurs from April to June. The great crested grebe courtship is well known to many bird watchers as it is a flamboyant display between breeding pairs involving rising and dipping in the water and shaking the head. Grebes nest at the water’s edge or on the water itself. Females lay 1-2 eggs which are incubated for 27-29 days. Young grebe chicks may be seen being carried on a parent’s back through the water which is a sight well worth witnessing. Male and female grebe will each identify a select chick to care for, particularly in a larger clutch, and will individually teach their chosen young how to swim and dive for food.

Grebes dive to locate and catch prey. At Attenborough Nature Reserve they can often be seen diving and reappearing on the surface with a fish to eat. Diet is almost exclusively fish species and smaller invertebrates including frogs and newts. Grebes will also dive to escape predation from large mammals and other unwanted attention.

LEFT: FIG. 34 GREAT CRESTED GREBE (PODICEPS CRISTATUS). ATTENBOROUGH NATURE RESERVE, NOTTINGHAM UK

EXPOSURE | 75

Mandarin Duck Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Genus: Aix Species: A. galericulata

The mandarin duck is a medium-sized duck. Males and female are sexually dimorphic. Adult males have large obvious orange/rust feathers towards the back of their body which point up and out of the water. The body is a combination of orange, purple white and green feathers, with a white chest and green and orange head. The bill is red. Females have a distinct pale line beneath the eye and otherwise brown-grey colouring. Male eclipse (moult) plumage is similar to the female colouring.

Habitat choice is generally wetland areas with overhanging vegetation which acts as cover.

Mandarins will move around in their environment to avoid predation and disturbance. They can be seen at both Wollaton and Attenborough Nature Reserve during spring and summer. Nesting occurs near to water in tree cavities or similar covered areas. The female will lay 9-12 eggs in late spring which are encouraged to leave the nest soon after hatching and are looked after solely by the female.

Mandarin ducks are omnivorous, feeding on a diet of plant material, insects, fish and seeds. Native to E. Asia, loss of habitat and imports have meant populations of this species of duck are gradually spreading and there is now an established feral population in the UK of around 7,000 overwintering birds.

Red-crested Pochard Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Genus: Netta Species: N. rufina

The Red-crested Pochard is a non-native species which was introduced to the UK, either escaping from private wildfowl collections or deliberate release into the wild. Migratory in nature, large groups which may join up with other pochard species tend to move to southerly locations for the winter.

The species is sexually dimorphic; the male is highly distinguished with an orange/red head, red bill and black breast. The female is mottled brown with a white face and dark bill. Eclipse (moulting) males tend to look similar to females aside from having the red bill.

The red-crested pochard inhabits lowland marshes and lakes for breeding. Their diet consists mostly of aquatic plants including stems and roots, as well as seeds, which they dive or upend for. Nests are built by the waterside, and a clutch may contain up to 12 eggs of a greenish colour. The RSPB lists this species presence as only 10-21 breeding pairs in the UK. The red-crested pochard is generally only seen in the south of the UK so the presence of this species in Nottinghamshire is a fairly unusual sighting.

RIGHT: FIG. 35 MANDARIN DUCK (AIX GALERICULATA). WOLLATON PARK, NOTTINGHAM UK

76 | EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE | 77

L a n d s c a pe s o f t h e D a rk Pe a k

I

t is a beautiful morning, mist drifting in layers across the valley of the Dark Peak in Derbyshire and the sky promising a clear day of sun and perfect light.

We gather ourselves and our equipment, braced for a morning of walking and photographic tutorial with Chris Upton and the Fujifilm crew. We head first to Owler Tor to capture the mist, rocky outcrops, the changing colours and contrasts of the heathland and sparse birch trees, and the blue layers of hills and sky ahead with our Fujifilm cameras for the day.

The Fujifilm XT-2 camera is exceptionally light. This is my first use of a mirrorless camera, and I am surprised at the lack of weight of the camera body and attached 18-55mm lens. Weighing in at 507g with battery and card and body dimensions of 132.5mm (W) x 91.8mm (H) x 49.2mm (D), it's a (small) revelation. As a full-frame DSLR user, I am used to carrying a fair amount of gear in my backpack and in my hands, especially when also equipped with an array of lenses and tripod. As I discover today, less weight definitely equals more maneuverability, and more speed climbing up hills.

I experience mild panic on first use of the Fujifilm XT-2. I have become familiar with a set of menus and buttons. This will apply to any camera user – we become familiar with our own cameras. With any new system there is a learning curve. However, this was a surprisingly speedy process and I quickly settled into using the camera over the course of the day thanks to the intuitive menu design and the help available.

The Fujifilm XT-2 has a 24.3MP X-Trans CMOS III APS-C sensor. Whilst it is not the full-frame I'm used to, the image quality is amazing and I'm pleased with the results I'm

78 | EXPOSURE | FUJIFILM ADVERTORIAL

seeing. Fast, accurate phase detection autofocus has been optimised in the XT-2 and apparently covers a larger part of the frame. The focus lever is a great idea, meaning I can switch focus rapidly and accurately after composing an image. The Real Time Viewfinder with EVF is another revelation for me and I'm soon switching between the viewfinder and back screen continuously.

Our group find areas and scenes we want to capture with our cameras and we settle in for a solid two hours of photography amongst the wintry bracken and dewy heathland, finding points of interest and asking for advice and help of Chris, Nathan and Shan where needed.

Chris guides us to look at specific interest areas – a lone silver birch tree with rocks leading into the image, or a particular view across the valley with long-worn paths leading into and out of the picture – and offers help in attempting to achieve the best compositions, along with sharpness, contrast and depth of field. Chris shows me how to turn on focus peaking in the camera’s menu, and I discover the joy of both this and being able to switch between the electronic viewfinder and LCD display instantly. Both are new to me and I find myself fully utilising both features for the rest of the day.

“Think about what you want in the picture and what you don’t.

Choose your lens, focal point and aperture to suit the subject.

Zoom in on the subject to eliminate background. Use the camera’s backscreen; the camera also has focus tracking to allow you to see exactly what is in focus.”

FUJIFILM ADVERTORIAL | EXPOSURE | 79

Chris clearly enjoys teaching others. He tells me that he offers guided tours in Europe and the Far East, as well as in his native UK, and provides both group and one-to-one photographic tutorials. Throughout the day, Chris continues to offer tips as to how to use the camera menus to achieve the best results. He clearly enjoys using the cameras and understands the menus and functions well through repeated use of the Fujifilm XT-2 and his current XT-3 camera.

Chris explains that he became a professional photographer after many years of working in an ordinary job and as a semi-pro in his spare time. He tells me that he switched from a full Canon system to the Fujifilm system a few years ago and is now a Fuji ambassador: “I’ve used Fuji cameras for six years. I love the intuitive nature of the camera. The image quality is stunning. I just had one camera body and one lens - and it’s so light – then I started buying more lenses. The Fuji glass is very, very good.”

After a short while of use, it is clear that the XT-2 menus are intuitive and logical in practical terms. Once I understand a function and where to find it in the menu, I find I can quickly go back in and find it again, which is vital in terms of menu design. No photographer wants to stand in front of the perfect scene fiddling with buttons trying to find the right setting to enable them to capture that scene, only to miss it.

Nathan Wake of Fujifilm, who uses the XT-2 and other Fuji models praises the XT-2 in its lightness and adaptability, perhaps tapping into my own thoughts about the camera: “What I love about the Fujifilm X-T2 is the size and weight. As it is so compact, I am inclined to carry the camera more often and as such take more pictures often in locations I wouldn't normally have taken a camera to."

Later in the day I ponder the costs of replacing my beloved full-frame DSLR and lenses with the XT-2 body, and the performance of available replacement Fuji lenses.

Others in our group are apparently having the same thought-process. After going through the images later at home I am very impressed with the results.

I am truly impressed with the image quality, sharpness and range of tones captured in the results from our day in the Peaks. I would like to spend more time with the Fujifilm XT-2, concentrating on capturing depth of field, close up images of subjects and specific points of interest, and becoming more familiar with the camera’s menu functions and possibilities. www.fujifilm.com

80 | EXPOSURE | FUJIFILM ADVERTORIAL

FUJIFILM ADVERTORIAL | EXPOSURE | 81

Nature's Spring Show Spring brings new life and - for the photographer and nature-lover at least - new light. Dark evenings subside, clocks go forward and the sun sets later in the day. Flowers bud and bloom and animals of all sizes, from tiny insects to large mammals, begin to stir and look to procreate. New life appears and with it new colour bursts forth. Flowers and insects are some of the first to push themselves centre-stage in the spring show. We love the colourful spring spectacle as seen in these photographic images.

82 | EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE | 83

Thumbnail Images & EXIF Data

FIG 1.

FIG 2.

FIG 3.

FIG 4.

FIG 5.

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 300MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/320 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 500 FOCAL LENGTH: 285MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F8

ISO: 500 FOCAL LENGTH: 100 SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1000 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 300MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 6.

FIG 7.

FIG 8.

FIG 9.

FIG 10.

ISO: 640 FOCAL LENGTH: 300MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/25 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/800 APERTURE: F2.8

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/500 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/100 APERTURE: F2.8

FIG 11.

FIG 12.

FIG 13.

FIG 14.

FIG 15.

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/50 APERTURE: F2.8

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/500 APERTURE: F4.5

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 47MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/4 APERTURE: F4

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 16MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/13 APERTURE: F22

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 16MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/40 APERTURE: F22

84 | EXPOSURE

FIG 17.

FIG 18.

FIG 19.

FIG 20.

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 16MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/30 APERTURE: F22

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 31MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/25 APERTURE: F22

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 105MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/160 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 35MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/25 APERTURE: F16

ISO: 640 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/320 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 21.

FIG 22.

FIG 23.

FIG 24.

FIG 25.

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/100 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/40 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/60 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/60 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 26.

FIG 27.

FIG 28.

FIG 29.

FIG 30.

ISO: 1000 FOCAL LENGTH: 330MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/640 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 330MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/400 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 1600 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/60 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/400 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 200 FOCAL LENGTH: 300MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/500 APERTURE: F5.6

Thumbnail Images & EXIF Data

FIG 16.

EXPOSURE | 85

Thumbnail Images & EXIF Data Front & Back Page Images & EXIF Data Adverts (Composite)

FIG 31.

FIG 32.

FIG 33.

FIG 34.

FIG 35.

ISO: 320 FOCAL LENGTH: 350MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/50 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 285MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1000 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/4000 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/2000 APERTURE: F6.3

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1250 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 36.

FRONT COVER

BACK COVER 1

BACK COVER 2

BACK COVER 3

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 16MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/40 APERTURE: F22

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 250MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/250 APERTURE: F5

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 330MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1000 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 330MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/400 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 16MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/4 APERTURE: F22

NMRC

SLS

AFFINITY

OPTICRON (ATTENBOROUGH NR)

86 | EXPOSURE

FIG 2.

FIG 3.

FIG 4.

FIG 5.

FIG 7.

FIG 8.

FIG 9.

FIG 10.

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 40MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/8 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 6.

Unmarked Images & EXIF Data

FIG 1.

ISO: 640 FOCAL LENGTH: 365MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/200 APERTURE: F5.6

FIG 11.

FIG 12.

FIG 13.

FIG 14.

FIG 15.

ISO: 800 FOCAL LENGTH: 330MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1250 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 400 FOCAL LENGTH: 100MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/1250 APERTURE: F4.5

ISO: 640 FOCAL LENGTH: 340MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/3200 APERTURE: F5.6

ISO: 125 FOCAL LENGTH: 24MM SHUTTER SPEED: 20SEC APERTURE: F22

ISO: 100 FOCAL LENGTH: 190MM SHUTTER SPEED: 1/200 APERTURE: F5

EXPOSURE | 87

Bibliography Animals in Captivity: Captive Dilemma Badham, M., Evans, N. and Lawless, M. (2000). Molly’s Zoo. UK: Simon and Schuster British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA). (2019). BIAZA: British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums. [Online]. Available at: https://biaza. org.uk (Accessed on: 26/03/2019) Dell’amore, C. (2014). Controversial Copenhagen Zoo Official: Zoos Are Selling Disney "Fairy Tales". [Online]. Available at: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/ news/2014/06/140626-copenhagen-zoo-euthanasia-marius-giraffe-conservation-science/ (Accessed 4/5/2019) Finlay, T., James, L. R., & Maple, T. L. (1988). People’s Perceptions of Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment. Environment and Behavior, 20(4), 508–528. doi. org/10.1177/0013916588204008 Harvey, N. D., Daly, C., Clark, N., Ransford, E., Wallace, S and Yon, L. (2018). Social Interactions in Two Groups of Zoo-Housed Adult Female Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) that Differ in Relatedness. Animals, 8(8); Pp. 132. doi.org/10.3390/ani8080132 Jule, K. R., Leaver, L. A., and Lea, S. E. G. (2008). The effects of captive experience in reintroduction survival in carnivores: a review and analysis. Biological Conservation, 141(2); Pp. 355-363.

Kagan, R., Allard, S. and Carter, R. (2018) What Is the Future for Zoos and Aquariums? Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 21(1); Pp. 59-70 doi: 10.1080/10888705.2018.1514302 Meehan, C. L., Hogan, J. N., Bonaparte-Saller, M. K., & Mench, J. A. (2016). Housing and Social Environments of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) Elephants in North American Zoos. PloS one, 11(7), e0146703. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146703 Rahbek, C. (1993). Captive breeding—a useful tool in the preservation of biodiversity? Biodiversity & Conservation, 2(4); Pp. 426-437. doi.org/10.1007/BF00114044 Reade, L. S. and Waran, N. K. (1996). The modern zoo: How do people perceive zoo animals? Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 47(1-2); pp. 109-118. doi. org/10.1016/0168-1591(95)01014-9

Small Worlds: Flowering Plants Bond, W., Davies, G. and Turner, R. (2007). The biology and non-chemical control of Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus ficaria L.). Henry Doubleday Research Association: Ryton Organic Gardens.

Brickell, C. (2010) RHS Encyclopedia of Plants and Flowers. 5th Edition. London: Dorling Kindersely (DK).

Knox R.B. (1984) The Pollen Grain. In: Johri B.M. (eds) Embryology of Angiosperms. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-69302-1_5 Sohrabi K. S., Rashed M. M. H., Nasiri M. M. and Gherekhloo, J. (2013). Some biologi-cal aspects of the weed Lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria). Planta Daninha, 31(3); Pp. 577–585.

Valverde, R. A., Sabanadzovic, S. and Hammond, J. (2012). Viruses that Enhance the Aesthetics of Some Ornamental Plants: Beauty or Beast? Plant Disease, 96(5); Pp. 600-611. doi.org/10.1094 / PDIS-11-11-0928-FE

Your Choice: Stanton Moor Gardner, S. (1991). Ground Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Communities on Upland Heath and Their Association with Heathland Flora. Journal of Biogeography, 18(3), Pp. 281-289. doi:10.2307/2845398 Thompson, D. B. A., MacDonald, A. J., Marsden, J. H. and Galbraith, C. A. (1995). Upland heather moorland in Great Britain: A review of international importance, vegetation change and some objectives for nature conservation. Biological Conservation, 71(2); Pp 163-178. doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(94)00043-P Usher, M.B. (1992). Management and diversity of arthropods in Calluna heathland. Biodiversity and Conservation, 1(2); Pp. 63-79. doi.org/10.1007/BF00731035 Usher, M. B. (1993). Variation in the upland heathlands of Great Britain: Conservation importance. Biological Conservation, 66(1); Pp. 69-81. doi.org/10.1016/00063207(93)90136-O

Phylum: Marvellous Molluscs Hochner, B., and Glanzman, D. L. (2016). Evolution of highly diverse forms of behavior in molluscs. Current Biology, 26(20); Pp. 965–971. doi:10.1016/j. cub.2016.08.047 Ikeda, Y. (2009), A perspective on the study of cognition and sociality of cephalopod mollusks, a group of intelligent marine invertebrates. Japanese Psychological Research, 51; Pp. 146-153. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5884.2009.00401.x Malaquias, M., Condinho, S., Cervera, J., and Sprung, M. (2004). Diet and feeding biology of Haminoea orbygniana (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Cephalaspidea).

Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 84(4); Pp. 767-772. doi:10.1017/S0025315404009890h Mather, J. A. and Kuba, M. J. (2013). The cephalopod specialties: complex nervous system, learning, and cognition. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 91(6); Pp. 431449. doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2013-0009 Wanninger, A. and Wollesen, T. (2019). The evolution of molluscs. Biological Reviews, 94(1); Pp. 102-115. doi.org/10.1111/brv.12439

88 | EXPOSURE

Bibliography Grey Squirrels and their impact on the environment in the Nottinghamshire area BBC News. (2017). Hunting the Midlands' rarest mammal. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-27638786 [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Carter, H. (2017). Nature notes: pine martens could help to save our red squirrels. [online] The Telegraph. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/05/20/ nature-notes-pine- martens-could-help-to-save-our-red-squirrels/ [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

DAERA. (2017). Squirrel pox and other squirrel diseases | Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs. [online] Available at: https://www.daera-ni. gov.uk/articles/squirrel-pox-and- other-squirrel-diseases [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

FutureScapes. (2017). [ebook] The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Available at: https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/sherwood-forest_tcm9-281889. pdf [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

HeraldScotland. (2017). How the pine marten can save our red squirrels .... [online] Available at: http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/13146020.How_the_pine_ marten_can_save_our_red_s quirrels____/ [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

ICSRS. (2017). Squirrels and forest regeneration. [online] Available at: http://i-csrs.com/squirrels- and-forest-regeneration [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Kenward, R. and Parish, T. (2009). Bark-stripping by Grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). Journal of Zoology, 210(3), pp.473-481.

Mammals-in-ireland.ie. (2017). Pine marten | The Vincent Wildlife Trust. [online] Available at: http://www.mammals-in-ireland.ie/species/pine-marten [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

McRobie, H., Thomas, A. and Kelly, J. (2009). The Genetic Basis of Melanism in the Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Journal of Heredity, 100(6), pp.709-714.

Northernredsquirrels.org.uk. (2017). Squirrel Pox Virus – Northern Red Squirrels. [online] Available at: http://www.northernredsquirrels.org.uk/squirrels/squirrelpox-virus/ [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Nottinghamshirewildlife.org. (2017). Grey Squirrel | Animal Facts | Nottinghamshire Wildlife Trust. [online] Available at: http://www.nottinghamshirewildlife.org/ animal-facts/grey-squirrel [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Nottsmammals.org.uk. (2017). Nottinghamshire Mammals. [online] Available at: http://nottsmammals.org.uk/redsquirrel.html [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Species Fact Sheet: Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). (2017). [ebook] The Mammal Society, p.Page 1. Available at: http://www.mammal.org.uk/sites/default/files/factsheets/grey_squirrel_complete.pdf [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Two different squirrels: the facts. (2017). [ebook] Scottish Wildlife Trust, pp.Page 1 - 2. Available at: https://scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk/docs/002__057__other_ leaflets__Two_different_squirrels_ __the_facts__1317717918.pdf [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Uksafari.com. (2017). Grey Squirrels - Sciurus carolinensis - UK Safari. [online] Available at: http://www.uksafari.com/greysquirrels.htm [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

University Park Gardens Guide and Tree Walk. (2017). [ebook] Nottingham: University of Nottingham. Available at: http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/common/ phototour/NU_GardensGuide.pdf [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Wildlifetrusts.org. (2017). Red squirrel conservation | The Wildlife Trusts. [online] Available at: http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/rsu [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Birds: Wetland Birds of Nottingham British Trust for Ornithology. (2018). British Bird Facts | Tufted Duck. [Online]. Available at: https://app.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob2030.htm (Accessed on 23/3/2019) Davies, A. K. and Baggott, G. K. (1989). Clutch size and nesting sites of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata. Bird Study, 36(1); Pp. 32-36. doi: 10.1080/00063658909476999 Davies, A. K. (1988). The distribution and status of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata in Britain. Bird Study, 35(3); Pp. 203-207. doi: 10.1080/00063658809476990 Hughes, S. W. M. , Bacon, P. and Flegg, J. J. M. (1979). The 1975 census of the Great Crested Grebe in Britain. Bird Study, 26(4); Pp. 213-226. doi: 10.1080/00063657909476642 Olney, P. J. S. (1963). The food and feeding habits of tufted duck aythya fuligula. International Journal of Avian Science, 105(1). Pp. 55-62. doi.org/10.1111/j.1474919X.1963.tb02474.x Prestt, I. and Jefferies, D.J. (1969). Winter numbers, breeding success, and organochlorine residues in the Great Crested Grebe in Britain. Bird Study, 16:3: Pp. 168-185. doi: 10.1080/00063656909476239 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. (2018). Red Crested Pochard Duck Facts. [Online]. https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/ red-crested-pochard/ (Accessed on 23/3/2019) Sterry, P. and Stancliffe, P. (2015). Collins BTO Guide to British Birds. London: Harper-Collins Publishers Ulfvens, J. (1988). Nest characteristics and nest survival in the horned grebe Podiceps auritus and great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus in a Finnish archipelago.

Annales Zoologici Fennici, 25(4); Pp. 293-298.

EXPOSURE | 89

FIG. 36 STANTON MOOR, STANTON IN THE PEAKS, DERBYSHIRE

The University of Nottingham University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD http://www.nottingham.ac.uk

MSC BIOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHY & IMAGING - PROFESSIONAL TECHNIQUES IN THE FIELD (C14204) - CLARE LUSHER - STUDENT NO. 4338651