Build-Design: Redefining Dialectics Through Making and Play by Chris Simmons

Build-Design: Redefining Dialectics Through Making and Play

Jordan A Doyle Christopher M Simmons

COPYRIGHT © 2013 Department of Architecture Ball State University ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the authors or Ball State University Department of Architecture. The information that is contained is that of individuals and does not represent the views of Ball State University Department of Architecture. Cover Image: “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Natural Landscape” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons

Acknowledgements Students Christopher M Simmons Jordan A Doyle Major Advisor Pamela Harwood Minor Advisor Josh Coggeshall Special Thanks Mahesh Daas - Department Chair Josh Coggeshall - Graduate Director Building Better Communities: Pamela Harwood Nature Play Fellows Head Start of Delaware County: Laurie Habich Tyanne Vazquez Debbie Arrington Jennifer Masters Cheryl Steflik and staff, parents, and children

Table of Contents Introduction

Abstract

Project Proposal

Methodologies

Literature Reviews

Comparative Case Studies

Simulations

Site Research and Documentation

Build

103

Design

131

Credits and References

159

Introduction “One might argue that a computer, with its near-infinite coding possibilities, is history’s deepest box of loose parts. But binary code, made of two parts - 1 and 0 - has its limits. Nature, which excites all the senses, remains the richest source of loose parts.”

-Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 87

[FIG. 1.1] Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool’s Playscape in Milwaukee, Wisconsin 7

“A play area constructed using natural materials such as boulders, earth mounds, and water features, while avoiding plastics, metals, concrete, lumber, and signs explaining how to play.” This definition of natural playscapes, as described by the designers of the Jester Park Natural Playscape in Granger, Iowa, provides an insight to the naturalistic qualities of this new model of unstructured outdoor play. However, it fails to fully describe a natural play area’s impact on children’s physical, social, and cognitive development. How does a natural playscape differ from a traditional outdoor play environment? What does the term “natural” mean and what elements would a natural playscape include that fits the definition of the term? These are just a few of the questions we asked in order to understand this new paradigm of nature-based play. There has been a growing concern in today’s society with our children losing touch with some of the most basic elements of the natural environment. With the exponential use of technology as a means of entertainment, children today are finding their bedrooms more stimulating than their backyard. As Richard Louv (2008) describes in his book Last Child in the Woods, we need to “save our children from nature-deficit disorder,” a term coined by Louv to describe the negative effects of a child’s loss of connection to the natural world. Research shows a strong correlation between the importance of nature interaction and a reduced debilitating impact of the learning disability attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to Louv (2008), one of the leading causes of this nature deficiency is television. A study in 2004 by the Children’s Hospital and Regional Medical Center in Seattle states that each hour of television

watched per day by preschoolers increases the likelihood by 10 percent that they will develop concentration problems and other symptoms of attention-deficit disorders by the age of seven (Louv, 2008). This alone can be justification for the importance of natural play. However, the significance of nature-based play is also vital in educating children about nature and its processes and teaching them to respect our natural environment as adults. Taking risks, finding limits, and exploring creativity in these unstructured natural settings is an essential component to improving a child’s physical, social, and cognitive development. Direct exposure to nature allows children to learn from their own experiences, build self esteem, and challenge social hierarchy based on physical dominance (Louv, 2008). It’s unfortunate that we, as a society, have recently lost touch with what it means to be a part of nature. Our technological advancements have persuaded us to stay tethered to electrical outlets in order to satisfy our need for entertainment and stimulation. In Last Child in the Woods, Louv (2008) comments on our past agricultural connections and the rich connection to a natural world: Many of these children, girls as well as boys, would have been directing their energy and physicality in constructive ways: doing farm chores, baling hay, splashing in the swimming hole, climbing trees, racing to the sandlot for a game of baseball. Their unregimented play would have been steeped in nature. Natural environments have a way of sparking imagination and creativity. This is witnessed in children especially, as it forces them to put forth all of their attention on a specific task and use all their senses, integrating informed play with formal learning. Robin Moore (1997), a designer of learning environments, discusses the importance of multisensory experiences in nature to build “the cognitive constructs for sustained intellectual development” (Moore, 1997). Undoubtedly, this naturalistic desire to explore our world is instinctually within us.

Introduction As architects and designers, we have to think more critically about how we develop outdoor play environments that stimulate children’s inventiveness and creativity. Moore (1997) further acknowledges nature’s role in nurturing creativity and shows how nature-based play environments stimulate imagination by providing children with unstructured space and materials that he calls “children’s architecture and artifacts.” With this new concept of natural playscapes emerging, we want to set the standard for designing such areas and understand how to create free space with loose parts and materials. Timbers and other natural materials will be explored using both processes of traditional and digital fabrication and behave as nature does: organically growing, evolving, adapting, weathering, and decaying.The nature play process of creative construction parallels the creative play of the children within these natural settings. This fundamental idea of unrestricted free play with loose parts is a common aspect shared between the designer and the users of playscapes. Ultimately, this creative design process will spawn creative design strategies that have the potential to engage the children with nature and blur the lines between formal learning and imaginative play.

[FIG. 1.2] Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape in Cincinnati, Ohio 9

Abstract: Nature of the Project “I think often of a wonderfully honest comment made by Paul, a fourth-grader in San Diego: ‘I like to play indoors better, ‘cause that’s where all the electrical outlets are.’ ” -Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 10

[FIG. 2.1] Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool’s Log Cabin for Dramatic Play in Milwaukee, Wisconsin 11

There is a growing concern in today’s society that children are losing touch with nature. Our natural environment, however, provides us with the essential building blocks to develop cognitive, social, and physical well-being, especially in early childhood years. Richard Louv (2008) coined the term “nature deficit disorder” as a way to explain the problematic lack of exposure to the natural environment, especially as children are lured away from outdoors with the development of new technology and the need to be wired in. As architects, we must ask ourselves what can we do to reverse this decline and develop significant opportunities for children to be outdoors and learn in natural, unstructured play. Similarly, architects need to redefine their relationship with materials by also working in an unstructured playful process.

frame design, we will utilize both traditional methods of construction in addition to digital fabrication to create complex connections as seen traditionally with mortise and tenon joints.This blending of digital and physical modeling provides an essential visual aid to engage the client throughout the build-design process and allows for difficult design decisions to be made, streamlining the build portion of the project. Through a series of design exercises, prototyping, simulation, and testing of these investigations in a reiterative process, the objective is to establish guidelines and rules for the design of natural playscapes in order to address the growing concern of “nature deficiency” among children. These design principles will then be utilized to create constructs that will be placed in a natural playscape that is currently in development for Head Start in Muncie, Indiana.

The architect’s role has transformed over the course of history from the medieval craftsman with an affinity for materials, tools, and making to the modern designer of cities, buildings, and components. The pedagogy of design-build and the analog/digital fabrication dialectic are impacting the role of the architect today, narrowing the gap between the design and manufacture of architecture. This synergy between build and design will be tested in our project by pushing our understanding of the design:build and analog:digital processes through the creation of an outdoor learning and gathering structure for our local Head Start preschool. We will explore natural products and materials that are recycled, reclaimed, or locally sourced such as timber, stone, and earth. The use of these natural materials reinforces the idea of nature as a source of knowledge that can teach us all about nature’s endless potential and the meaning of “sustainable design.” Timber frame construction will be utilized in the design along with rammed earth and gabion wall construction. For the timber

[FIG. 2.2] Nature’s Patterns

Abstract

Project Proposal “An environment-based education movement—at all levels of education—will help students realize that school isn’t supposed to be a polite form of incarceration, but a portal to the wider world.” -Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 226

[FIG. 3.1] Natural Juxtaposition 15

Project Description This project looks at the history of design-build and the potential to reverse this traditional system to build-design, where you build something, react to it, learn from it, and then design based on what was learned (Foote, 2012). This allows us to understand the built product during the design phase, which can lead to future development and transformation of the final design. Jonathan Foote (2012), writer of “Design-Build::Build-Design”, reinforces the importance of viewing the final product as a step of refinement stating,“The completed work is understood as the continuous punctuation of the work in progress, and it does not necessarily signify the end or finality of a given project.” An understanding of this process and the benefits it has over other project delivery systems will allow us to make informed decisions during the design and construction phases of our own project. Foote (2012) also noted the importance of allowing the project to change stating, “Adequate space for the student to simultaneously advance the work while keeping it open for future discovery.” Similar to “loose parts” and free unstructured play in nature, we are engaging free unstructured play with materials and connections to make this build-design project possible. During our investigation, we will look at the constraints we have to work with and develop design principles using these basic parameters. For example, the size and length of the materials we use will be limited by the equipment we have to haul and mill them. After developing these parameters, an exploration of these natural materials and their intrinsic qualities will be utilized to expand our knowledge in material capabilities and attributes. Discovering the potential of digital fabrication and how that differs from analog processes will be a large part of this material research in order to make informed decisions during the design stage. The second inquisition will look at nature playscapes and the benefits they have for children’s cognitive, social, and physical

development.A look at history and other aspects of play will be crucial to understanding this new idea of natural playscapes as a means to get children engaged in the natural world. The lessons learned from these investigations will then engage differing types and scale of constructed interventions within a natural playscape. Using natural materials, we plan to design an intertransitional space that will be integrated into the natural playscape at Head Start Preschool in Muncie, Indiana. This will have the potential to act as an outdoor learning space, a hub for the entire playscape, an entrance piece, and a storage area. In addition to this, smaller accessories such as the furniture, play structures, and tool sheds will be designed and fabricated, which can be used for this playscape project or other applications. The third design exploration will be a larger timber frame structure that utilizes the material knowledge to showcase the potential of timber frame construction in a practical application. Purpose of the Study With this project, we would like to accomplish a series goals in order to further develop this new concept of natural playscapes. The first objective is to set a benchmark, or a standard, in the design of natural playscapes. Defining what a natural playscape is would be an important part of this step in order to fully understand this model of outdoor play. We also want to address the benefits, issues, and risks of designing a playscape, both short and long term, and gain an understanding of the importance of these natural play settings for the development of young preschool aged children. With Head Start Preschool in Muncie, Indiana as the site, we can understand how children learn and develop their gross motor physical skills, social well-being, and cognitive growth. Our integration of a learning structure designed to serve the user’s needs allows for a greater understanding of the design-build/build-design process. We want to

Project Proposal keep the structure honest by exposing its joinery and craft as a way to promote the architecture as a learning tool. In addition, this builddesign project will allow opportunities to learn about the process of finding locally sourced materials to redefine “sustainability” as a landscape strategy.This involves long-term considerations and renewal of materials that were used for the construction of the project. Replanting and replenishing wood sources is one method to achieve this. In conjunction with the construction of this learning structure, a deeper level of understanding of analog and digital processes will be researched and developed in a reiterative process to stretch the boundaries of digital modeling and fabrication techniques. With the use of hand tooling methods from traditional timber construction and the aid of digital fabrication, we want to uncover the complexity and capabilities of just how far we can push not only fabrication, but also the process of design-build-design as a project delivery system. The methods and discoveries learned from this exploration of fabrication and material joinery will then be implemented into a small design project that will showcase the lessons learned in a useful and innovative application. This would then serve as an exemplar study for future nature-conscious projects. Ultimately, this exploration of design-build and build-design and the integration of environmental aspects will be beneficial to our understanding of the potentials of natural materials and the analog and digital processes utilized. Questions Addressed There are three primary topics in question for this project. The first requires a definition for nature playscape and the elements that are related to its success as an outdoor learning environment in nature. Along with this, we want to investigate the design-build practice and the potential to reverse this system to a build-design project. This requires an exploration and fabrication of details and

connections before designing the final constructs. This investigation expands as digital technologies, material testing, and fabrication are introduced into this new model of practice. Digital modeling and fabrication continues to lead the interests of designers around the world because of its potential. We want to expand our knowledge of this technology, in combination with traditional methods, for use on natural materials and explore its impact on design-build projects of larger scale. »»

What is a nature-based playscape and why is it significant?

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What are some of the elements, or features, that are essential to the success of a natural play environment?

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How do we define “natural” and the potential of this over the unnatural?

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What does “local” mean and its relationship to sustainability?

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What is a design-build practice and how does it benefit over other project delivery systems?

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How has the role of the architect changed over its professional history and why has there been a shift in responsibilities?

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How can digital modeling and fabrication be utilized for design-build projects?

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How have new materials and technologies affected professional practices?

Significance of the Problem There is a growing concern for the lack of natural play we are witnessing because of recent technological advancements.The Internet and television provide more stimuli to our youth than the structured, metal playgrounds we see all over. The current trend in playgrounds, 17

made of metal or plastic, offer little unstructured, free exploration for children. Play in these traditional outdoor environments does little to engage creativity or constructive problem solving. Our children have lost touch with the essential life lessons that nature can provide. Risk management, walking and balance, self-awareness, and hand-eye coordination are just some of the lessons one can learn from outdoor play.The implementation of natural playscapes as a replacement to the prescribed playgrounds can spark that explorative play we experienced during our childhood. The integration of our built structures with the development of the Head Start Nature Playscape will work to fight this nature deficiency and create a strong partnership that will benefit both the preschool and the community members who use it.

[FIG. 3.2] The children at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool spend as much time as they can outdoors in the natural environment.

Project Proposal

Methodologies â&#x20AC;&#x153;In any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity, and the possibility of discovery, are directly proportional to the number and kind of variables in it.â&#x20AC;? -Simon Nicholson, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 87

[FIG. 4.1] Photosynthetic Conglomeration 21

Literature Reviews In preparation for this creative project, a broad range of literature was reviewed in order to understand three topics relevant to our inquiry. The first topic examines the history of design-build and the advantages and disadvantages it has over other project delivery systems. An understanding of the role of architects within this system was necessary to interpret our responsibilities as designers and the expanded role we have during the construction phase. In order to take on this role as builders, we also had to understand the material capabilities of natural materials that we plan to implement.The second topic involves timber framing and the extensive joinery capabilities available in order to see what the market is currently capable of producing.Along with this, analog and digital fabrication methods were studied in order to make educated decisions during the design and build aspects of the project. The last topic we reviewed was natural playscapes and the importance of this to children. Four sections of this review were necessary to fully understand the complexities of this program: (1) history of play, (2) benefits of play, (3) design for play, and (4) risks of play. These essential themes will be beneficial for the development of this project and set the foundation from which we begin our investigations. Comparative Case Studies Exploring existing playscapes around the Midwest was essential to our understanding of the current market and what it offers for natural play. A look at the successes and struggles of these designs offers us a valuable insight on what works and what can be improved on. Materiality and programmatic spaces were also incredibly valuable to witness as we visited these playscapes in order to see what areas were the most popular and why. In comparing each case study, we looked at their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

Identifying these comparable aspects of design allows us to evaluate each natural playscape and develop common themes and design principles that can be implemented in our own design. Client, User, and Community Collaboration Community involvement is an important aspect of this project because of the collaboration we have with the client, which is Head Start of Delaware County, Indiana. In order for a community project like this to be a success, the clients and community must be actively engaged in the beginning of programming and schematic design. If their ideas are heard and implemented, they will be more supportive towards the project and more willing to maintain the site. Reviews and presentations will be held with the leaders of the Head Start Preschool as well as conducting community projects, such as garden boxes, to get the users (students and teachers) actively involved. Simulations will also be conducted at the Head Start Preschool to get the children excited for what is to come and provide feedback for our playscape design. Observations and documentation of the children at play in these simulations is important to analyze and reflect on what you learned about their relationship to nature and creative construction. Participatory design methods and interviews with parents, students, and teachers is another method of investigation that will be utilized for this project to learn more about the users and clients we are designing for. At Ball State University, we are collaborating with (and members of) a Building Better Communities group that is working on the master plan and programming of Head Startâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s playscape. The involvement of these students from different majors at Ball State (interior design, education, landscape architecture to name a few) allows for a more thoughtful design that transcends the typical architecture design project. The diversity of these students has allowed for a broader vision of the project that encompasses all

Methodologies of our knowledge gained in our respective majors.This culmination of ideas can then be applied to the design of this playscape to create a more thoughtful, holistic project for the community and Head Start.

design opens the floor for a more informed discussion of the project and increases involvement and interest in the project.

Simulation, Prototyping, and Digital Modeling The use of full-scale mock-ups are important for a project like this because you can never predict what a child will do with what you give them. Simulation is used to get an understanding of this unpredictability in order to make better design decisions for the final installation. This process allows for design refinement and a better project upon completion. Hand tooling will be used in combination with digital fabrication (CNC router) in order to learn the potentials and weaknesses of each method. Some design solutions will require precise cuts for the complex joinery to work while others can be rough sawn for that handcrafted look. This prototype process helps to understand analog and digital fabrication methods and evaluate the appropriate time to use them based on the desired technique required to fabricate the pieces. The use of digital modeling is essential to understand the complex joinery in a three-dimensional space and to make sensible design decisions. This will prevent object collisions that are often big issues in the construction industry. These digital models can then be utilized in the digital fabrication of prototyped pieces and small-scale models. The use of laser cutters allows for rapid prototyping as a design tool and presentation medium. For the client, digital/physical models and renderings provide a visual understanding of the project and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s components. The ability for them to visualize themselves within the [FIG. 4.2] Mud Mash Simulation at Head Start in Muncie, Indiana 23

Literature Reviews “I can remember how furious my dad used to get when he never had a shovel in the garage. That was because I had taken it to dig foxholes deep enough to crouch inside and put plywood over the top. We even took the time to disguise the cover with plants and dirt. A lot of the time the roof caved in on us, but we learned. There were other adventures, too: swings from trees, kites on two thousand feet of string. My dad helped when he could, but most of the time he left us to try things: to experiment, test, fail, or succeed.We learned so much more than we ever would have with someone showing us the right way to do things every time. Our failures gave us a deep, intrinsic understanding of how things worked. We understood the laws of physics long before we took the class.” -John Rick, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 79-80

[FIG. 5.0.1] Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape’s Tunnel in Cincinnati, Ohio 25

Design and Build: Rediscovering the Design-Build Practice The Beginning of the Profession In order to understand the current role architects have in the profession, it is important to discern the deep roots of the architects’ transformative role throughout their history.The role of the architect dates back to the days of the ziggurat and the pyramid.The creation of such refined forms required highly specialized technical skills. During this period, buildings were designed with a strong spiritual connection to a higher being; therefore, architects were seen as possessors of god-given gifts, enabling them to create these monumental structures that had never previously been conceived. The prototypical architect of the time period, Imhotep, was revered for his wisdom as a scribe, astronomer, magician, and healer, allowing him to create the stepped pyramid for the tomb of his patron, King Zoser, by piling up several mastaba burial forms. With the progression of technical skills in the building trade, the ancient Greeks were able to develop architecture that balanced theories of proportion, order, and ornament with the development of technical construction techniques. The elaborate temples were often viewed as physical embodiments of the gods in landscapes. The interaction between man-made, sculptural forces, and the natural landscape created an understanding between the connections of architecture, engineering, and city planning (Harwood, 2012). The Shift from Scholar to Craftsman In Ancient Rome, a fully trained architect was expected be an expert in construction, hydraulic engineering, surveying, and planning with a passion for functional and symbolic art. These developments led to forms such as the dome and the vault, which were previously unattainable with post and lintel constructions. Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and engineer, described an architect as someone who is “educated, skillful with the pencil, instructed in geometry,

Literature Reviews

know much history, have followed the philosophers with attention, understand music, have some knowledge of medicine, know the opinions of the jurists, and be acquainted with astronomy and the theory of the heavens.” These ideas continued on for centuries until the fall of the Roman Empire, upon which came a shift in thinking for the profession. The next iteration, the Medieval Architect, focused more on the idea of being a “master builder” as well as thinker, where skills could be learned and practiced through an apprenticeship. During the medieval period, architects took part in the actual construction alongside the building crew. They used this as an opportunity to learn about the skills involved in building craft, carpentry, and stone work, which was socially unheard of before this time (Harwood, 2012). The rise of Christianity brought the desire for complex symbolism and modularity in design. The medieval architect focused more on programmatic layouts rather than project drawings. For example, the monastery floor plan for St. Gall was primarily conceived in the architect’s head and brought to life on site with full-scale mockups of the design.This shift from scholar to maker was carried on throughout the course of history and spread around the world (Harwood, 2012). In the initial settlement of the New World in North America, the trading companies and religious groups desired those who were skilled in the building trade. These skilled laborers, commonly referred to as mechanics, artificers, artisans, tradesmen, and craftsmen, were often times promised passage, land, and exemption from tax and military service. Carpenters thrived in the new colonies where dense woods were available to be harvested for new construction. At one point, the number of carpenters outnumbered artisans four to one. With the growing number and demand for these craftsmen, price gouging was a common occurrence, which lead to the establishment of price ceilings. In 1663, Massachusetts Bay set the ceiling at two shillings a day on carpenters’ wages. Despite this, these skilled men still earned 27

Design and Build: Rediscovering the Design-Build Practice double what they would have brought home in England (Woods, 1999). In the 1720’s, the first building trade organization, known as the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, was formed by a vast number of these carpenters (Woods, 1999). Other trades followed suite. As the architectural profession continued to become more graphic and rigid, the division between design and construction became more apparent by social and economic differences. With the economic market as the driving factor, architects wanted to bring more revenue into the profession. As a result, the architecture profession reverted back to the medieval concept of a “master builder” by taking over the roles of the contractor as a means to earn more profits (Woods, 1999). The Changing Role of Architects The origins of the architect’s role as a master carpenter have been transformed over time to exclusively design work, causing many architects to overlook the bond between design and final project execution. Today, design-build is on the rise for popularity among architects and is rapidly becoming one of the most preferred methods of alternative project delivery systems. According to Martin Sell (2003) of the AIA, 2002 estimates suggested nearly forty percent of projects were produced used the design-build method for their constructed projects. “Engineering News Record” reported a six percent overall growth rate for construction in 2001 and a previous report suggested that design-build as a project delivery method grew by sixteen percent (AIA, 2003). With today’s economic hardships, the design-build methodology gives light to the construction industry and is a trend that is sure to stay. Industry analysts predict that the designbuild method will continue to lead the construction market well into the future. This trend is reverting the role of the modern architect from traditional designer who acts as an overseer on construction to a parallel role as designer and craftsman.

[FIG. 5.1.1] Popularity of Design-Build, Design-Bid-Build, and CM at Risk Between 1995 and 2015 (projected) in the U.S.

Benefits of Design-Build There are many benefits to the implementation of the design-build project delivery method. This system puts all of the responsibilities and risks into the hands of a single, unified group. This allows the architects to maintain better control of the budget and schedule as well as assure the quality of both the design and final product. With these additional responsibilities, architects can increase revenue sources for the firm through construction fees and general conditions (AIA, 2003). John Parnell, a Project Manager for Ryan Companies U.S., Inc., discusses the efficiency that comes with design-build projects and the time saved that would ultimately be wasted with traditional bid-

Literature Reviews build methods: I’m on the phone with my architects, engineers, and subs constantly--just moving along, working things out and fitting things together and just getting it done. It’s a whole lot better than wasting time waiting for someone to respond to your RFI (request for information). It’s a lot easier to document a decision than wasting time shuffling paper through a dozen people’s hands before you can get to work solving the problem. Some days it’s like drinking from a fire hose, but I love what I’m doing. Design-build is for anyone who doesn’t want to be stuck in a box (Jackson, 2011). Risks of Design-Build All responsibilities come with risks, and for an architect acting as contractor in a design-build ideology, the need for proper insurance coverage and legal advice becomes a necessary commodity. Despite this, the common consensus of architects who have made the switch to design-build agree that the risks often come with rewards through job satisfaction and financial benefits (AIA, 2003). Currently, many firms look at design-build projects as a high-risk field of work. However, they fail to realize that risk is also involved in accustomed methods of design-bid-build contracts where agreements between architect, contractor, and owner are played like a game, which can be risky for everyone. Although design-build presents ethical questions for the architect, we must remember that owners can put high pressure on the design team in all methods of project delivery. This usually can be seen when it comes to the finances of the project. Many firms provide an “open book” method of project accounting and competitive bidding for the construction of the project, which protects both the architect and the owner (AIA, 2003).

[FIG. 5.1.2] Benefits of Design-Build over Design-Bid-Build

The Importance of Design-Build for the Profession Due to recent economic struggles, it has never been more important for architects to reevaluate their role in the construction industry.The shift to design-build practices has the potential to restore the responsibilities architects once had, enabling them a greater level of control in the process. However, this ideological shift to designbuild may not be easy. Architects will have to determine whether they 29

Design and Build: Rediscovering the Design-Build Practice can support all of the technicalities that come with the development of a design-build practice (Jackson, 2011). Dave Crawford, President and COO of Sundt Construction, Inc., discussed the transition for his firm to a design-build entity and the commitment required for it to be successful: I decided some time ago that if we are going to do designbuild, we were going to do it right or not at all. We’re going to put both feet in the water and swim. We are not going to put one toe in at a time--timidly trying a little bit of this or a little bit of that to see if it works. Design-build doesn’t allow it. You’re either in or you’re out. Not only do you have to trust people on your team, but you have to trust the process as well (Jackson, 2011). Trust comes into play as the future of project delivery methods begin to shift from the traditional methods of delivery into the designbuild ideology. The profession must change with the times in order to regain leadership in the construction of projects and the quality control that we as architects demand in the products of our labor. We need to reevaluate our methods of project delivery and begin to reverse the linear process of designing to build. Instead, architects should build first as a way to understand the material properties, potentials, and constraints and use this knowledge to influence the design.

notion of design allows the build phase to inform the final design result. Just like the architects in the medieval period who used fullscale mockups at the site, we want to bring back this same notion of prototyping and design theology.As designers, thinkers, and innovators, we want our designs to fit the exact needs of our client.The best way to achieve this is through the process of build-design. In an article posted in the “Journal of Architectural Education”, the Washington-Alexandria Architecture Center at Virginia Tech discusses its alternative to the professional model of design-build by contemplating what it means to “practice” practice. They present work biannually with the notice that the work is not necessarily finished and that the design should be open for revision and reconsideration. Simply stated, they understand that, during these design-build exhibitions, the material is shown as a continuous punctuation of the work in progress and should not signify the end or finality of a given project (Foote, 2012).Architecture should be able to change and adapt to represent the user. It should be viewed as a projection, rather than as prescription, that allows the architect to advance work while keeping it open for future discovery (Foote, 2012). As our projects stand for years to come, we should encourage shifts in direction and invite interpretation and modifications that can better serve the needs of the users for future generations.

Modification of the Design-Build Process It is important to understand the history and background of the traditional design-build ideology in order to reverse its process to better integrate material and prototype investigations. We want to convert this linear thought process of design-build into a more comprehensive, reiterative design process. Reversing this conventional

[FIG. 5.1.3] Similar to the Medieval Architect, these children from Head Start are using the build-design process as a means to create a “house” from the materials they have available.

Literature Reviews

Analog and Digital: A Look at Nature’s Materials Natural Materials Transformed Through Analog and Digital Processes The word “natural” implies something that exists without human creation. The physical environment provides an abundance of natural materials, from hard stone to strong timbers, for us to shape or transform using analog and digital processes. The use of natural materials in craft is a history that has been lost or forgotten in search of faster, cheaper, and more durable material alternatives. Dimensional lumber and modular masonry systems dominate the residential construction industry while plastic, metal, and rubber control the playground scene. The production of these synthetic materials requires time, energy, and extensive machinery to massproduce and distribute across the country. This system we use today is not a sustainable solution for the construction industry. A look at the history of natural materials in the construction of our dwellings shows us that our environment provides all the materials we need. The ability to construct something from the earth it rests on is an incredibly enduring thought that should be considered once again as a viable design solution. Brief History of Natural Materials The use of natural materials and the process of sculpting these resources was, historically, related to the ecological location of mankind’s dwellings and the resources this physical context provided. Regional climatic conditions and the availability of resources resulted in construction strategies that took full advantage of the given site conditions. In effect, cultures living in opposite ends of the world, but geographically similar regions, came up with similar design solutions and techniques. For arid climates, adobe construction was utilized while in grasslands, sod and strawbale were used because of the abundance of natural materials. Tropical regions provided thatch for

Literature Reviews

construction while ice igloos were developed in arctic regions.The use of soil, clay, and ground cover as construction materials was essential to human survival in these regions where logs and timbers were not available. Mountain regions and forest dwellers, however, had timbers and logs in abundance, which provided for more flexibility in design due to the versatility wood has as a building material (Mitchell, 1997). Natural Materials: Use and Purpose Over the past decade, there has been a growing concern for the materials we use and the effect they have on our environment. School systems, in particular, have begun to question the material choices used in the construction of playgrounds.Asphalt, stainless steel, rubber, plastic, and concrete dominate the outdoor play environment because of their durability, low maintenance, and low cost.These characteristics are appealing to most school systems, which is why they have become the most used materials for playground construction. Despite this consumer appeal, we know they really are not the best options to use. They require extensive energy investments to produce and install, contain harmful by-products, and come from non-renewable resources. With today’s consumer trend for more environmentally sensitive products, the synthetic and highly processed materials of metal, plastic, and rubber do not meet the standards we expect. It has become increasingly important for school systems to include natural and reclaimed materials to show students, staff, parents, and community members a sustainable model for the future. These institutions have the ability to directly influence the mindset of our children from an early age, so displaying and utilizing natural and recycled materials is a great way to positively impact their view and care of the environment. These materials act as teaching tools for lessons on environmental stewardship and the importance of minimizing our ecological footprint to preserve the natural landscape (Danks, 2010). 33

Analog and Digital: A Look at Nature’s Materials

Natural Materials in Natural Playscapes There is an assortment of natural materials that are ideal for the construction of playscapes and the components within them.The first, and most popular, is wood because of its versatility and strength. It can be easily manipulated into different forms, such as timber frame structures, or simply left in it’s natural state, such as logs, branches, or stumps. Sustainably harvested lumber from a local source is ideal for this application because it makes a connection to place. According to Sharon Danks (2010), naturally rot-resistant woods such as redwood or cedar are ideal choices for playscapes as long as they come from local, sustainable sources. If these are not available or are too costly, hardwoods or softwoods of shorter life-spans can be used and protected by natural or non-toxic stain or paint (Danks, 2010). The second natural material used frequently in playscapes is bamboo. It’s another versatile, strong material that can be grown and harvested in tropical locations as well as cold climates. This fastgrowing plant is great for any application, including flooring, furniture, or as a structural material. Specifically, the versatility of this product can be used in playscapes for the construction of walls, fences, trellises, or rain gutters (Danks, 2010). The third natural material is rammed earth. In hot-arid and temperate climates, this building material has been the most prevalent form of construction because of its availability and simplicity. Even today, this construction method is used in one third of the world’s population because of its cost-effective and energy-efficient capabilities. This idea of using mud and earth has been around for over 9,000 years. Mud brick (adobe) houses have been constructed all around the world because of the abundance of clay, silt, sand, and stones found in the earth, which makes up the ingredients for loam (the scientific term for earth as a building material). The advantages of loam are extensive. It balances

[FIG. 5.2.1] Wood was used in many different forms in the playscapes at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool. air humidity, stores heat, saves energy, and reduces environmental pollution. It is also reusable, inexpensive, and absorbs pollutants, which can prevent indoor air from contaminating the environment (Minke, 2006). The technique to form a rammed earth structure is similar to pouring concrete because they both require formwork to receive the moist material. The main difference between the two is that the earth material requires pressure to compact the earth tightly, which is how this process got its name. Manual rams and electrical/pneumatic rams are used to compact the earth into the forms, depending on what tools are available and the skill of the builders (Minke, 2000). The fourth natural material is stone. Its durability and strength makes it one of the most popular construction materials in playscapes.

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[FIG. 5.2.2] These rocks were used as a climbing structure as well as a bench and gathering place for the children and parents.

[FIG. 5.2.3] Straw was used in the roof system of this small, wooden structure to provide shade for children.

Stones are used as benches, climbing structures, or walkways in most applications. Its abundance and direct relationship to the geological characteristics of the site also make it appealing to designers who integrate it into wall assemblies or use it to create hard edges around paths or activity areas such as gardens (Danks, 2010).

of the seasonal changes that occur.

Some other less used natural materials and building methods include straw bale, light clay, wattle and daub, cob, and earthbags. These methods use straw, mud, sticks, and clay to form everything from dwellings and wall systems to benches and pathways. In colder climates, snow is used in playscapes to allow children to safely build their own dens or forts (Danks, 2010). This seasonal activity is a great way to keep the playscape new and exciting while taking full advantage

Recycled Materials in Natural Playscapes Another great ecological initiative is the use of recycled materials. The ability to show students the importance of reusing materials and the potential there is with recycled products is incredibly valuable to the conservation efforts of our environment. Children are the future, so having this knowledge of material reuse shown to them at a young age can positively affect their opinions of the environment and the continuity of these conservation efforts in the future. Concrete may not be thought of as a natural material, but there are vast quantities of it already created that could be crushed into â&#x20AC;&#x153;urbaniteâ&#x20AC;?, which 35

Analog and Digital: A Look at Natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Materials

is what green builders call these concrete chunks. Their function is comparable to that of stone and applied to form walls, benches, and boundary edges in outdoor environments (Danks, 2010). Salvaged wood is another great resource that can be cleaned and sanded for reuse. The advantage of most salvaged lumber is that it is usually from old growth trees that have tighter grains and greater strength than the trees we harvest today. Other recycled materials include metals, mosaic tile (from glass, ceramic tile, and dishware), and composting of organic materials such as food waste from the school lunches or landscape clippings (Danks, 2010). Just as there are materials recommended for the construction of playscapes, there are also materials that must be avoided. Treated woods of all types cannot be used because they contain highly poisonous substances such as creosote, arsenic, and other carcinogens. In addition to this, plastic lumber with pressure treated wood fibers should be avoided because it is harmful to children and non-recyclable. When selecting recycled products, be sure to avoid items that were painted with lead paint as well as recycled tires. These items not only harm people, but also can leach toxins into the soil and poison edible

gardens and wildlife (Danks, 2010). History of Timber Frame Construction Throughout history, wood has been one of the most widely used materials from nature because of its versatility and strength. During the Middle Ages, the Northern Hemisphere provided for vast forest regions that resulted in three wooden building methods: log blockwork, log and timber post and beam, and timber braced framework. Each construction method was used as a direct result of the tools available in each region as well as the type and quantity of lumber accessible. For example, in Eastern Europe and Russia, forests were plentiful but the tools were rudimentary (Mitchell, 1997). This resulted in the creation of the blockwork method because trees could be cut down and stacked in horizontal tiers with the ends notched together using only an axe. In regions of diminishing forests, such as Western Europe, wood supplies were conserved. This conservation effort, in addition to the advanced woodworking tools, led to the braced frame timber framework we see in modern day English Tudor homes. By the sixteenth century, these forests were nearly depleted, forcing the

[FIG. 5.2.4] Examples of Three Wood Building Methods: 1. Blockwork 2. Braced Framework 3. Log and Timber Post and Beam

Literature Reviews English and French to utilize stone, another natural material, for the construction of their buildings (Mitchell, 1997). The selection of these stones depended on their capabilities and characteristics. Strength, durability, uniformity, and dimensional aspects were all considered when selecting stones for construction. Dry-stone walls were used to take advantage of the natural properties of stone. The strength of this type of wall system relied on each stone physically touching adjacent stones to spread the loads to the ground (McMillan & Hyslop, 2005). An alternative construction method for stone used clay or lime mortar to hold the modular stones together (Maxwell, 2005). During the sixteenth century, Europeans were colonizing North America and bringing their construction techniques with them. Due to the conflicts between the French, English, Dutch, and native Indians, security became the most desirable aspect of construction. Initially, post and beam with rock and masonry infill became the most preferred choice for building forts. However, the unexpected cold eastern and maritime winters forced the settlers to use wood instead of rock for insulation purposes. Many immigrants used axes to clear spot in the forest and build their home using the trees they cut down.These crudely erected log cabins used axe-notched corners to hold the structure together and moss as additional insulation. As forests began to deplete due to agricultural use, builders were forced to use blockwork, post and beam, and braced timber frames as a way conserve material, just as the Western Europeans did centuries before (Mitchell, 1997). The potential of timbers and logs were continuously explored throughout history as fabrication technologies evolved and material availability changed. The extensive use of natural materials through history, in all its evolutionary forms, shows the great versatility natural resources can provide for construction.

Traditional Timber Frame Construction Timber framing done with traditional methods of joinery is often viewed as beautiful and an enduring work of art.Time-tested methods of fabrication represent a quality of construction that is slowly being forgotten and left behind for more rapid forms of production. However, timber frames are not about the speed of assembly. They are about the craft and aesthetic appeal of the intricate joinery created. This joinery, including scarf, mortise and tenon, and rabbet joints, developed during a time before metal fasteners were available. Wood-on-wood joinery is still used to this day because of our innate love for fine craft and detailed assemblages. However, the skill required to perform such complex joinery is being forgotten in the construction world. Relatively inexpensive fasteners, such as bolts and brackets, nails, and truss plates, have become the standard because they are engineered to be easier and faster to construct. Most construction manuals in use today describe in great detail how to build with dimensional lumber, but ignore timber frame construction all together (Roy, 2004). The process of designing a timber frame structure requires the same understanding of physics as any other structural system. Compression, tension, bending, shear, and deflection all play a role in timber frame structures that must be accounted for in the design of these systems (Roy, 2004). The design of the wood-to-wood joinery and the creative potential this allows is what makes timber frame structures stand out from other structural systems. Historically, the Japanese have been known for their mastery in the art of wood joinery. They drew inspiration from the Japanese cypress, zelkova, and the Japanese culture to produce extraordinary Buddhist temples and pagodas. What makes their work stand out is their attention to detail and their creative solutions to complex assemblages. The wood joints have to be strong enough to transfer forces while still look aesthetically appealing. Shrinkage or slipping was always taken into 37

Analog and Digital: A Look at Natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Materials

consideration due to the dynamic loading on the members. Years of experience and patience are needed to create these works of art (Sumiyoshi & Matsui, 1991). Timber Frame: Traditional Tools and Techniques At first glance, the tools used for traditional timber frame construction appear to be very standard in form, despite their geographic location. However, the differences in the Europeans and Japanese processes have caused their tools to take on unique forms that take full advantage of their methods. The Japanese carpenters, with their small, light toolboxes, carry nothing but the absolute essentials. They have very few types of tools, but carry many different gradations of the same tools. This contrasts the European carpentersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; toolboxes that were large and filled with a wide variety of tools to do a wide assortment of cuts. On average, Japanese carpenters carry about 179 tools, including: chisels, planes, gimlets, measuring tools, saws, pincers, hammers, mallets, and axes. Europeans favored methods that were quicker and more accurate, which paved the way for the development of mechanical equipment. In addition to chisels, axes, saws, and hatchets, they used drills, plumb-line, and try-squares to ensure accuracy during production (Zwerger, 1997). The main difference between the tools from each region can be attributed to three main factors. First, the Europeans dealt with hardwoods while the Japanese used softwoods. This resulted in the Westernerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tools to appear thick and blunt in order to cut through the higher density woods.This difference in wood density also affected the process required for carving into the wood. The European method involves a thrusting action away from the body. In contrast, the Japanese method was characterized by a drawing action towards the body (Zwerger, 1997).The difference between these two methods is strength versus precision.The second difference is that the Japanese

carpenters did not use drills. They had to work with the properties of softwoods, which did not need holes in order to secure the joints. The third difference is the attitude of the carpenters towards their tools. European carpenters developed their tools to make the ease of fabrication as simple as possible. The Japanese carpenters, on the other hand, had an amazing respect for the instruments that were taught to them at a young age and passed down from generation to generation (Zwerger, 1997). The techniques and tools for timber frame fabrication in the United States were passed on by the European pilgrims and immigrants.The availability of timbers in the new world was promising for new settlers looking to build their own home in the colonies. Today, hand fabrication is still very popular. The use of traditional tools, in combination with power tools, is often requested because of the aesthetic quality and artistic freedom they allow to create these beautiful structures (Zwerger, 1997). However, technological advancements are catching up in this digital age. There is a growing desire to explore new methods in the fabrication process to remove the human error and improve tolerances in timber frame construction. Timber Frame: Digital Tools and Techniques Historically, architectural design was based on craft knowledge.All members of the project team, whether it was the designers or builders, understood the framework of the construction industry and knew the correct practices required to get the project successfully built. Since the Renaissance, this close relationship between the designer and builder has slowly disappeared.To fill the voids, new roles in the system have developed to pick up the responsibilities. Construction managers and client representatives now act as mediators between the client, architect, and contractor. Building commissioning was developed as well to manage the complex systems within the construction process,

Literature Reviews further diminishing the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibilities (Beesley, Cheng, & Williamson, 2004).To challenge this, firms are now looking for ways to stand out and cover more bases in the construction industry. The use of 3D modeling has played an increasing role in the architecture and construction industry. More specifically, building information modeling (BIM) provides the potential for constructing a building digitally to solve issues of design, fabrication, and erection before the construction has even begun (Beesley et al., 2004). This mitigates change orders and issues on the construction site that could save money for the client and time for the architects. In general, the use of digital models through digital construction provides a higher level of responsibility and allows the architects to take lead in this technological trend in the construction industry. The use of digital models also allows for new methods of fabrication. Steel, precast concrete, and timber frame construction are widely used now with the help of digital modeling and structural analysis. In timber construction, the advantage of this is to allow the designers coordinate complex joinery within a digital space to accommodate all of the armatures that would come together in order to minimize mistakes before they occur. This is important to reduce construction waste and fabrication errors, which would improve material usage for the project. Once the connection joints are designed, the ability to transform them from the digital world to reality is made very simple with the use of a CNC (computer numerical control) wood router. Essentially, there are two types of CNC wood routers: 3-axis and 5-axis. For timber frame fabrication, 3-axis routers that uses the Cartesian coordinate system (X,Y,Z) are often ignored for the [FIG. 5.2.5] Log Frame Structure at Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape 39

Analog and Digital: A Look at Nature’s Materials

more capable 5-axis design. Most timber frame companies that use CNC fabrication processes need an assortment of machinery that requires a large space to hold it. This can be a costly endeavor for smaller design-build firms that may not have access to or funding for these very specific, complex machine systems. The ability to design and fabricate timber frame joinery using 3-axis machines has the unexplored potential to turn this challenge into a learning opportunity and provide insight to designers about the potentials of the constrained. The Analog/Digital Conundrum With the progression of construction technologies and digital modeling, we are seeing a disconnection with reality and the natural context from which we live in. As James Steele (2001) said, “This detachment, or disembodiment, coincides with a critical turning point in the history of human interaction with nature and the accelerating environmental degradation and resource depletion that has been the result, a point at which architects have an unprecedented opportunity to reassert leadership as ecological advocates and responsible stewards.” An understanding of the physical characteristics of natural building materials is incredibly important in order to understand the economic and ecological impact it has on our environment (Steele, 2001). As architects, we must understand the processes used in the construction of our designs and the impact it has on the local scale. The use of analog processes is important to establish the connection with nature and create forms that display the human craft. The imperfections in this process can be beautiful on imperfect materials. The idea of using hand fabrication on natural materials is timeless and should not be forgotten for new methods of crafting (Benson, 1997). The innovations in fabrication have helped shape the timber frame industry just as digital technologies are beginning to shape ours in

this modern world. Embracing new technologies based on the current societal conditions is a part of the timber frame evolution that we have seen for centuries. The ability to use computers as a tool for design opens up new possibilities for designers and fabricators (Steele, 2001). Being able to develop complex joint conditions in digital space prevents on-site modifications that could result in errors, material waste, and extended construction timelines. This workmanship of certainty allows the fabricators a precision you can only achieve using a CNC router (Pye, 1968). This allows for even tighter joinery that is able to take full advantage of the physical properties of the wood as a structural system. Tolerances of 1/32” are easily produced and milled out in rapid production. These two beneficial aspects of digital fabrication play a large role in its success as a viable fabrication method today. The downside of digital fabrication is that it does not allow for alterations, modifications, or rethinking once the fabrication process has begun. This can have a negative effect on the final design solution and create a split in the congruent design-build system (Foote, 2012). The combination of hand and digital fabrication appears to be the most harmonious blend for the processing of natural materials. Designing in 3D software allows precautious design decisions and a smooth transition to computer-guided milling. Once the timber or stone pieces have been produced, the analog process begins. Sanding, routering, chiseling, and staining are all tasks that can be done by the human touch. This makes the product personalized and gives each piece a unique character that is not like any other. This connection to the hand resonates with all humankind and renews the connection with nature while reflecting the historic characteristics of timber and stone fabrication (Steele, 2001). The installation of the timber members is also done by traditional methods where the builders erect bents and lift them into place. The use of tie beams and bracing members are then placed to hold the structure together (Benson, 1997). Drills are

Literature Reviews used on-site to finish the joinery process to ensure the members are fastened tightly and pegged. The finishing details, such as roofing, are usually done to the traditional construction standards. As you can see, the digital fabrication process is usually frontloaded in the schedule in order to get the design correct and accuracy established. Once construction begins, the hand fabrication process that we have seen for over 2,000 years resumes its role in the creation of timber frames to complete the project (Benson, 1997).

[FIG. 5.2.6] Log Joinery at Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape 41

Nature and Play: From Asphalt Playground to Natural Playscape

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Playing with Nature In today’s society, high-tech gadgetry provides children more stimuli than the banal metal and plastic playgrounds we see all over. This has caused children to spend half as much time outdoors than they did twenty years ago (Campen, 2012). This lack of natural play, coined “nature deficiency” by Richard Louv (2008), has created a disconnect between the natural world and outdoor play for childhood development. Their intimacy with nature has been lost, along with the life lessons and teachings natural environments can provide to develop social, cognitive, and physical growth (Louv, 2008). Reacting to this “nature deficit disorder,” a new movement is centered on the creation of natural playscapes as a means to break free from the technological fixations our youth have developed, reconnecting learning and play with the natural environment. Play Through History The concept of play is a universally shared idea that has been around for centuries. Since the Neolithic Period (4800-4300 B.C.E.), play activities have been recorded through artifacts found in the natural environment, such as rocks. It wasn’t until Plato’s time (427-348 B.C.E.) that play was discussed in terms of education and development. Plato, a Greek philosopher, said that if children were to become builders, they should partake in play that involved building houses. He also strongly believed that unregulated play would result in violence and corrupt politics. Throughout the Dark Ages and Middle Ages, philosophers continued to believe that unstructured play provided no educational value. In the Enlightenment, these views of play changed. John Locke [FIG. 5.3.1] Log Play at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool 43

Nature and Play: From Asphalt Playground to Natural Playscape (1632-1704) argued that play was essential to childhood development and that children learned best when they were not forced to learn. This notion spurred a new belief in unstructured play that was not challenged until the 19th century by the growing toy and electronic entertainment industry (Brehony, 2004). In the United States, play was directly connected to the cultural events of the time.At first, organized play was modeled to show Puritan values of hard work and self-reliance to immigrants. Later on, play was used as a means to prepare the youth for military involvement. The benefits of play as a means for motor skill development was highly desirable by the military, so playgrounds were constructed to take advantage of this. Unfortunately, these skills required little more than stark, metal structures designed for climbing, hanging, swinging, and other physical development activities (Johnson, 2004). In war-torn Europe, with little money and lots of vacant sites in ruins, adventure playgrounds sprung up as a means to provide children with a place to let their imagination run wild. These unstructured playgrounds allowed children to create their own play without adult guidance. In response to this, a new movement occurred in the United States in the 1960s and 70s that focused on interactive learning through play. This resulted in environmental manipulation innovations that included the use of natural materials such as wood and soil. The success of these natural playgrounds eventually led to the development of more natural playgrounds with features such as water, flora, and foliage.These natural playgrounds allowed children to create their own imaginative play. This potential for unrestricted creative play was noted to have a great impact on a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social, cognitive, and physical development (Johnson, 2004). More recently, we have seen a tendency to move away from these naturally constructed playscapes because of safety regulations and liability concerns. This barrier has stagnated the playground industry

and forced manufacturers to design risk free, non-threatening, and easily maintained equipment in order to avoid lawsuits. The 21st century shift towards natural playscapes is a direct reaction to these boring, prescriptive single dimensional playgrounds. The intent of natural playscapes is to provide outdoor play that adheres to the safety regulations while still evoking an imaginative, stimulating environment where children can create their own adventures (Johnson, 2004). For playgrounds to be a true success, they have to be in a constant state of change where kids can get their hands dirty in unpredictable and spontaneous ways. Young children have a way of creating their own realities and challenging their own limits, so providing a natural setting to facilitate this is desired (Shell, 1994). Types of Natural Play The types of play and interactions children have with each other is critical to the development of their cognitive, social, and physical development. Climbing, crawling, and running are activities that occur on any playground. In addition to these, natural play allows for exploration, construction, and imagination where kids can choose how to play.The types of natural play are broken into three categories: physical, social, and cognitive.Within social play, there are also different levels of participation, including solitary, parallel, associated, and cooperative play (Malone & Tranter, 2003). Children have an attraction to and an affinity for natural environments. In nature, with its unstructured, unscripted play with loose parts and messy materials, there are unlimited opportunities to develop physical, social, and cognitive well-being during these natural environmental experiences (Malone et al., 2003). Physical play allows for motor skill development through running, crawling, balancing, climbing, and swinging. This is important for improvements in coordination, muscle development, agility, and endurance. The

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[FIG. 5.3.2] Mud Art Simulation at Head Start

[FIG. 5.3.3] Mud Mash Simulation at Head Start

types of play and activities related to this that we are most familiar with include fixed structures, structured games, and equipment play with bats and balls (Malone et al., 2003). In a natural playscape, these gross motor activities are engaged by the use of natural materials like fallen logs, large rocks, and tree stumps. Children can use the materials provided by the environment to develop their balance and coordination as they play through the natural landscape.

observing, reading, and daydreaming (Malone et al., 2003). In natural playscapes, constructive play, such as log building, can require teamwork to achieve certain tasks. This develops positive social interaction to solve problems and reach common goals with their peers.

Social play enables emotional development through activities that encourage interactions with other children and parents/educators. Learning to share and respecting others are important skills that can develop from social play. In addition to this, establishing identities is a valuable lesson that can develop from interactions with peers. The activities used for social development include talking, role-playing,

Problem solving in this way also improves cognitive development, the third type of development desired through play in natural environments. Children are able to discover, explore, and experiment with the materials and environment around them. They can observe and understand patterns in nature and the systems of life that occur around them, such as the rotations of the earth, the movement of the sun through the sky, and the changing of the seasons. Activities that improve cognitive development include constructing with loose parts, creating with natural elements, exploring the unexplored landscapes, 45

Nature and Play: From Asphalt Playground to Natural Playscape and partaking in imaginative play using the natural environment around them (Malone et al., 2003). One important aspect of natural play is the environment’s ability to blend learning with play. Outdoor learning spaces provide opportunities for children and educators to integrate nature into the curriculum and provide a space to reflect and extend this transfer of knowledge from the environment. Research shows that children’s ability to learn through play is strongly influenced by nature (Malone et al., 2003). Breaking out of the traditional model of passive learning allows for an informal, unregulated curriculum engendered by the natural environment of the time and place. For example, children can learn about the changing colors of leaves in the fall and integrate that into lessons on colors, science, and life processes. This idea of learning by doing is an important aspect of outdoor learning spaces to encourage environmental awareness (Campen, 2012). These informal spaces provide a direct engagement to nature where children can observe, feel, and experience what they are taught rather than just read about it. Benefits of Natural Play Traditional playgrounds and natural playscapes both offer opportunities to develop motor skills and improve physical capabilities. There are many beneficial neurological reactions to this type of play and physical movement. It stimulates brain cells, increases blood and oxygen to the brain, releases endorphins, and stimulates dopamine through gross motor repetitive movements. The benefits of this activity to learning are the production of new cells, improved speed of recall, increased alertness, and increased cognition. Research links physical movement and activity to positive development and improvement of memory, health, language, emotions, posture, balance, and muscle coordination (Blakemore, 2003). These developments

[FIG. 5.3.4] “Loose Parts” at Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape are all incredibly valuable to the growth and maturity of children, but traditional playgrounds offer little to develop a child’s ability to judge risk, be creative, and interact with the natural environment (Frost, 2006). Unstructured play allows for unlimited creativity and exploration in addition to physical activity.This is crucial to developing problem solving skills and social interaction where role-playing in unscripted natural settings can offer endless possibilities. Along with this, research shows that interactions in nature can offset the effects of ADHD in children (Louv, 2008). In the 1970’s, the architect Simon Nicholson coined the term “loose parts” as a way to express our creativity through the use of natural materials, landscapes, and the environment. In a natural play environment, these loose parts include sticks, water, dirt, seeds, rocks, feathers, and pine cones. Although

Literature Reviews these all have a clear identity, children have a way of giving them a new meaning during constructive and dramatic play. For example, a leaf can be used in many different ways depending on the story the child is creating.This “loose parts” play allows for curiosity, desire, and imagination to develop and encourages open-ended learning through natural play (Belinda, 2009). Another benefit of natural play extends beyond the playground. Richard Campen (2012), director of operations at the Peak District National Park, said “If future generations are to engage with science and the environment, they must be able to enjoy nature as children.” He stresses the importance of allowing children positive opportunities to engage in the outdoors and experience nature first hand. This allows children to have the “confidence they need, as citizens, to participate actively in addressing environmental problems” in the future (Campen, 2012). To develop a loving and caring relationship with the natural world, children must be exposed to natural environments at a young age. This positive connection with nature can be significant in creating interest in the improvement of ecological efforts. Natural play also allows for children to develop a sense of ownership and care for the land they have. The ability to create stewards of the land and instill this ecological interest within our youth has the potential to positively change the environment for future generations to come (Campen, 2012). Play at Your Own Risk When someone mentions the word “risk”, there are often negative connotations associated with the word. The idea of risk in play is a concern for parents and educators who are providing for the safety [FIG. 5.3.5] Sand Pit at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool 47

Nature and Play: From Asphalt Playground to Natural Playscape and health of their children and students. When natural playscapes are discussed, this notion of risk appears more ominous based on the fundamental ideas of natural play. However, nature playscapes are no different than play in a natural environment. The only difference is that in nature playscapes, safety has been considered, evaluated, and designed to allow children to evaluate risk and understand the consequences based on the decisions they choose. There are five different types of risky play: great heights, high speeds, dangerous tools, dangerous elements, “rough-n-tumble”, and disappearance (Sandseter, 2007). All of these risks could occur within a natural playscape, but the difference is that these settings provide “a less risky situation than real life, thus minimizing the consequences of one’s actions” (Bruner, 1976). Children are able to learn risk management in these situations and assess their options when they face uncertainty in the real world (Malaby, 2002). Adventure playgrounds, a type of natural playscape, were first developed in Scandinavian countries as a way to provide natural risk to children by means of tree climbing, water play, and log construction (Malone et al., 2003). However, the benefits of these adventure playgrounds extend beyond the ideas of risk. These playgrounds usually have very little pre-design work, so they appear more “natural” than other playscapes. For this reason, the lines are blurred between what is natural and what is not. Bath City in the UK tested this idea and implemented an adventure playground that was converted from a wasteland. Not only did this challenge the notion of safe, confined playgrounds, but it also allowed families and children a way to explore the world around them and involve themselves within their community.Vandalism and crime rates dropped due to this new sense of community, which made it even safer for children to experience their natural environment and take healthy risks (Peterson, 2011).

A Call for Change The current state of playground design provides little means of unstructured freedom for imaginative play. A look at the history of play is like looking at a history of bad ideas. In the past, architects and designers have looked at playgrounds as an afterthought (Shell, 1994). More recently, there has been an effort to change this mindset we have about playgrounds and the current state of play. Creating these cheap, plastic and metal playgrounds is not enough to provide the important benefits that natural materials can offer. This focus on the needs of playground structures rather than the needs of children has to change (Shell, 1994). Designers and manufacturers need to start thinking about utilizing natural elements and landscapes as a way to blur the lines between learning and play in order to create playscapes rather than playgrounds.

[FIG. 5.3.6] During the mud simulation at Head Start, children were able to paint their own landscape using mud and loose parts as their media.

Literature Reviews

Comparative Case Studies: Natural Playscapes “Natural spaces and materials stimulate children’s limitless imaginations and serve as the medium of inventiveness and creativity observable in almost any group of children playing in a natural setting.” -Robin Moore, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 87

[FIG. 6.0.1] Wildlife at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool in Milwaukee, Wisconsin 51

Jester Park Natural Playscape: Granger, Iowa

Comparative Case Studies

Jester Park Natural Playscape defines a natural playscape as â&#x20AC;&#x153;a play area constructed using natural materials such as boulders, earth mounds, and water features, while avoiding plastics, metals, concrete, lumber, and signs explaining how to play.â&#x20AC;? Located in Granger just northwest of Des Moines, Jester Park Natural Playscape lies inside the expansive and breathtaking Polk County Conservation Park. The park itself makes up more than 12,000 acres, consisting of twenty natural landscape and wildlife areas managed by the Polk County Conservation Board. The park continues to be a popular travel destination with more than 1.4 million people visiting annually. The environmental education staff presents programs to more than 25,000 school children each year and provides the public with over one hundred outdoor recreational programs (Polk County Conservation, 2012). The natural playscape was built in 2008 at a cost of $200,343 and is about 40,000 square feet (ARCADY, 2009). The playscape serves as place for children to interact and explore nature through a variety of natural elements and wildlife. The Jester Park Natural Playscape is designed primarily for children ages five and older and requires the presence of adult supervision. It is constructed with a variety of natural materials including boulders, earth mounds, and logs and contains an abundance of plant and wildlife. Their overall goal was to avoid the use of plastics, metal, concrete, and other common building materials in exchange for natural materials. The site offers the foundation to support creativity and curiosity, which can inspire learning through the cognitive, physical, and social development found in natural play. Aside from the entrance to the playscape, signage and other written instruction was not provided, forcing the children to instruct themselves on how to [FIG. 6.1.1] Learning Pavilion and Wetland 53

Jester Park Natural Playsape play and interact with the natural elements in the environment that surrounds them. There are a total of thirteen different activity areas at Jester Park Natural Playscape. Each activity is defined by a catchy name including: Tall Grass Tangle, Wetland, Waterfall, Bubbling Rock, Stonehenge, Petroglyph Carvings, Forest of the Dead, Grassy Slide, Log Stairs, Boulder Scramble,Archaeological Dig, Pine Grove, and the Lost Bridge. With this large variety of activities on the site, children have no trouble finding something to do that sparks their creative mind. Children can choose to weave through the maze of the Tall Grass Tangle, explore the boardwalk across the wetland area with the Bubbling Rock, or test their speed and agility as they climb the Boulder Bramble or the Log Stairs. The programmatic focus of the playscape focuses heavily on physical motor skills and social development through interactive play with other children. The Stonehenge activity sparks interest and curiosity as children peer through the holes in the stone pillars to frame a view of the distant scenery. In the Wetland, the children can jump right in to experience the water on their feet, see the plant life, and maybe catch a glimpse of a frog sitting on the rocks. Strengths There are many strengths of the Jester Park Natural Playscape. First and foremost, there are several different activity areas on the site that are unique and provide a variety of visual, tactile, and auditory differences. Each of these areas express important aspects of learning, which can inspire the children to explore their physical and intellectual capabilities. The site teaches children not only how to play in nature, but also provokes engagement with life lessons through words of encouragement and inspiration hidden throughout the activity areas. The children can turn this into a game by finding the different words and, with the help of an adult, learn its meaning and importance. The

[FIG. 6.1.2] Map of Jester Park Natural Playscape (Polk County Conservation, 2012) landscape does a great job incorporating a variety of planting material that is well suited for its fluctuating climate. The drought resistant grasses and shrubs within this larger conservation and wildlife park system create a playscape where the wildlife is well integrated into the experience. Weaknesses Every project, including Jester, has weaknesses that could be better resolved with time, money, or attention to detail. There are several rules in this playscape that are put in place to minimize the risks of injury. However, in a nature playscape such as this, â&#x20AC;&#x153;riskâ&#x20AC;? is very important to childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development and should not be overlooked. They need to understand their limits and at the same time be challenged to push their own boundaries. Feeding the animals and picking flowers are just some of the activities not allowed at this

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.1.3] Log Stairs

[FIG. 6.1.4] Stonehenge

playscape. Although they are perfectly logical rules, they go against the idea of interacting with the habitats and the risks associated with nature play. Another weakness of this playscape is the lack of shading or overhead protection in the clearing of the site, which makes the playscape less desirable on days of inclement, unexpected, or hot weather. The design is also fairly structured and organized, which begins to counter some of the more natural landscape settings that one might expect from a playscape.

Midwest habitats. The second opportunity would be to incorporate the neighboring wooded area into the designed playscape. While this area is currently underutilized, it can provide for a variety of activities, such as log stacking and building exercises, as well as learning opportunities related to the woodland wildlife. Lastly, the need for shade is very apparent. This could be solved with the incorporation of a series of learning shelters that function as a teaching tool for the children while providing the necessary cover from the sun and rain.

Opportunities

Threats

For this natural playscape, there were three potential opportunities that we recognized during our time there. The first is that we would suggest the playscape expand to be more integrated with the wildlife habitat adjacent to the site. This would be an excellent learning opportunity for the children to experience the wildlife found in the

Although the Jester Park Natural Playscape was well developed around the idea of safety, there were a few immediate threats that may still need addressing. The first and hardest issue to address is the proximity of the children to vehicular traffic. With no defined barrier, the children could easily find their way onto the road where visitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 55

Jester Park Natural Playsape eyes are on the scenery instead of the road. Consequently, we also noticed an issue with boundaries. The site is very open, which is great for the look of a natural setting like this one. However, this requires a great deal of supervision from parents and guardians. By providing a discrete physical barrier, this risk can be eliminated, providing peace of mind to those looking after the children while allowing the children to enjoy the space with no concern. Lessons Learned A visit to this site in Granger,Iowa provided us with beneficial insight to help us define what a nature playscape means in terms of program and materiality. It is important for the success of the playscape to allow nature to guide the design by avoiding manufactured products in exchange for natural materials.The visit also gave us an understanding of which plant material works best for the climate region as well as the durability required because of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interactions. Grasses seemed to be one of the biggest contributions to the plant material and helped to form dynamic barriers for the maze. We also got the opportunity to see what can be safely accomplished with water as well as the ingenuity of using natural materials in new ways, as seen in the log climbing stairs. Along with this, the inclusion of hidden messages and petroglyph art throughout the site was very intriguing and could be fun and meaningful for the children to explore. We also learned that a physical barrier, such as fence, around the playscape is necessary to keep children in and to give parents a sense of security. The most important lesson learned is that it is absolutely essential to keep the playscape as natural as possible and let the children develop their own rules through play. This unscripted play allows them to create their own adventures and utilize the environmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural materials to shape the world around them.

[FIG. 6.1.5] Wood Carvings

[FIG. 6.1.6] Loose Parts and Storage

Comparative Case Studies

Dodge Nature Preschool: West St. Paul, Minnesota

Comparative Case Studies

The Dodge Nature Preschool, established in 1967 by Olivia Irvine Dodge in West St. Paul, Minnesota, provides a successful curriculum that merges nature play with structured learning. After 40 years of operation and thousands of graduates later, the school’s mission to “inspire commitment to the thoughtful care of the environment” continues to hold true (Dodge Nature Center, 2012). The preschool teaches its students, staff, parents, and caregivers the importance of caring for the environment in order to preserve what we have for generations to come. To reinforce this mission in Dodge’s students, each classroom has direct access to the outside where children can learn and explore in the natural environment that surrounds them. The preschool is situated on a 110-acre site of the Environmental Educational Preserve. The site has six miles of trails through a natural environment, including an ADA approved floating boardwalk (Dodge Nature Center, 2012). The preschool grounds hold a model farm, a traditional playground, an amphibian and reptile classroom, an apiary, and an apple orchard. The preschool has many programs that they offer to the community to utilize these features. They offer programs on beekeeping and the process of making honey along with classes on making maple syrup. The kids can even taste apples picked straight off the apple tree.Through these programs and others, children can learn about their involvement and importance within the world around them. There are also miles of hiking trails that lead through prairies, lakes, wetlands, and forests.These habitats are all found on this dynamic site, which provides visitors of all ages the opportunity to experience a different part of the ecosystem with each visit. This extensive and varied landscape allows for outdoor classrooms covering fifty different curriculum topics for enrolled students and visiting school groups. In [FIG. 6.2.1] Farm Education Building and Wetlands at Dodge Nature Center 59

Dodge Nature Preschool addition to the farm and its programs, community education sessions occur on evenings and weekends along with day camps for schoolaged children (Dodge Nature Center, 2012). Strengths The Dodge Nature Preschool has many strengths that make it a premier nature school in the United States. One strong aspect of this preschool is its connection to the Dodge Nature Center. The petting farm with cows, chickens, donkeys, and sheep provides an exciting opportunity for the children to learn about the agrarian lifestyle and possibly their own heritage. Along with this, there are many natural processes that take place on a farm that are displayed here for children to observe and learn about.The farm itself sits on the beautiful landscape of the Dodge Nature Center, fostering inspiration and encouraging exploration and learning within the natural environment. This type of observational learning is strengthened by the opportunities found in the curriculum that engage natural processes. This exposure to the outdoor play environment provides the stimulants needed for the cognitive and physical growth of the children. These experiences in nature also allow for interactions with teachers, community members, and other students, which can help to develop social skills. Everyone at Dodge Nature Preschool and the Dodge Nature Center learns and develops with each other through similar experiences in nature. There is no better way to learn about the natural environment than through the interaction with the plants, animals, and insects found outside their back door. Weaknesses There are a few areas of Dodge Nature Preschool that could use some strengthening when it comes to the implementation of natural materials. On our visit, we noticed that many outdoor activity areas

[FIG. 6.2.2] (5) Dodge Nature Preschool, (2) Apiary , (3) Aviary, and (7) Farm Education Building (Dodge Nature Center, 2012) utilize plastic or metal components, which hinders interaction with natural materials for the children.This is a huge concern because these metal and plastic objects often limit imaginative play because of their structured function. For example, the plastic slides and metal swings in the playground serve a singular function, limiting exploratory play in children. This was a big issue with the existing preschool playground. The amount of structured play equipment in this nature preschool was problematic, especially considering its rich, natural setting. Instead of this, they should make constructs from natural materials that have no designated function in order to force the children to create their own play. The implementation of a natural playscape instead of the existing playground would allow for a greater connection with the surrounding scenic landscape.

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.2.3] Floating Boardwalk at the Wetlands

[FIG. 6.2.4] Woodland Trail

Opportunities There are many opportunities that a large, expansive property like this can provide for a nature preschool.The farm and its animals allow the opportunity to engage the children with lessons from the agrarian lifestyle that reflects the care and awareness one should have with the environment. The strong connection with the Dodge Nature Center allows for students and community members to utilize the property even when the preschool is closed. This allows children and their parents to experience the natural world together on the weekends and create lasting memories from their adventures in nature.

the wildlife was covered in green algae.With the wetlands being one of the prime attractions for the property, the drought conditions could turn visitors away. At the very least, this occurrence could be turned into a learning opportunity so that children can see the importance of rain on an environment such as this one. Another threat was the level of water in the wetlands. Under normal conditions, this pond appears to be very deep, which could be considered unsafe by parents and educators. The boardwalk over this pond did have railing, but it seemed insufficient in order to protect young children from falling into the water.

Threats

Lessons Learned

Currently, the biggest threat to the property is the drought-like conditions that we witnessed in the wetland habitat. On our visit, the floating boardwalk was dry-docked and the little water remaining for

After visiting the Dodge Nature Preschool and other natural playscapes, it is clear that fences are needed for boundary definition. Fences provide protection for the children by keeping animals and 61

Dodge Nature Preschool visitors out of the play area while also keeping the children in, giving peace of mind to the parents and staff who are responsible for the children during outdoor play. Along with this, there is a preference for the use of natural materials in playscapes. Unlike the Dodge Nature Preschool playground, most natural playscapes try to stay away from plastic and other man-made materials. In exchange for this, they utilize wood and other natural materials to create unstructured play environments. We also learned about the importance of providing a variety of natural environments within a playscape in order to accommodate many different environmental conditions. Dodge Nature Preschool does a fantastic job of providing four different habitats that all have extensive pathways to explore. This allows children to understand the environment and its various forms based on the wildlife present.

[FIG. 6.2.5] Tunnel and Hill at Dodge Nature Preschoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Playground

[FIG. 6.2.6] Farm Education Building and Barn

Comparative Case Studies

M.C.M.’s Rooftop Ramble: Madison, Wisconsin

Comparative Case Studies

The Madison Children’s Museum (MCM), located in downtown Madison, Wisconsin, redefines the typical children’s museum by offering an assortment of play activities for a variety of age groups in differing indoor and outdoor settings, including the unique “Rooftop Ramble”. Their mission is to “connect children with their families, their communities, and the world beyond through discovery learning and creative play.” The original museum was founded in 1980 and had 284,000 visitors in its first year. The museum’s new location, formerly the Montgomery Ward Department store, was purchased in 2005. The building went through an extensive adaptive reuse to make it the premier children’s museum that it is today. The 56,290 sq. ft. museum opened to the public on August 14, 2010 at a cost of $16.5 million (Madison Children’s Museum, 2012). Madison Children’s Museum is not only dedicated to its young users, but also to the environment. They are committed to the children’s future and relate this to their mission by being a sustainable organization in balancing economic, social, and environmental factors to help ensure that the current needs are met while preparing for future generations of users. MCM empowers and equips children with the knowledge to actively shape the world they will inherit. The museum ensures that the principles of sustainability are integrated into every business related decision and seek ways to collaborate and reduce their overall impact on the environment. With recycled materials and new sustainable practices and technologies around every corner, MCM displays many of its sustainable features as a source of learning for children and adults. This information can be found throughout the museum and identifies the specific recycled [FIG. 6.3.1] Gardens and Climbing Structure on the Rooftop of the Children’s Museum 65

M.C.M.’s Rooftop Ramble products or processes used. With a great amount of effort put into every design decision made during the creation of this museum, the Madison Children’s Museum hopes to become the first LEED certified museum in Wisconsin (Madison Children’s Museum, 2012). Some of the most creative opportunities to learn through play can be experienced outdoors in a popular exhibit found on the museum’s rooftop called the “Rooftop Ramble”. For the purpose of this project, this exhibit became particularly important for us to analyze and learn about children’s interactions with natural elements. The beautiful rooftop garden and learning shelter overlook the heart of the city and is fully accessible year-round. The exhibit highlights children’s connection to nature and explores urban ecology, weather, atmosphere, and numerous interconnections between ecological systems that support life. This rooftop oasis, settled in the heart of downtown Madison, includes a clubhouse that serves as a classroom and greenhouse that features a rotating urban ecology exhibit, animal terrariums, and kids’ nature collections. Outside the clubhouse, a solar oven can be found along with climbing sculptures and musical instruments that use nature’s wind to play music. The children’s gardens, located throughout the rooftop, include an edible garden, herb garden, and salad garden. Along with these, there are a variety of native flower plantings that are labeled as a means to educate the children about the local wildlife (Madison Children’s Museum, 2012). The Rooftop Ramble also includes farm animals by implementing a chicken coop that provides shelter to both chickens and homing pigeons. Demonstrations on solar energy production can be found behind the clubhouse with an egg-laying hen that lays an egg as energy is produced by the solar panels. This clever mechanism allows the children to watch and learn about sustainable technology in a way that they can easily understand. Also found on the rooftop is a hidden sandbox where children can dig and play in the sand. In addition to

[FIG. 6.3.2] Map of Rooftop Ramble (R.A. Smith National, 2012) this, there is a lookout point, a climbing tower, a small grassy knoll, a water collector, and a small stream that flows into a pond where the children can get their hands and feet wet. Strengths The Madison Children’s Museum has many strengths that can be found as you explore the building and rooftop. Through the purchase of an existing building in the heart of Madison, the museum has utilized all available space very successfully. They have a strong commitment to the education of children and adults about the importance of sustainability. They not only have taken and implemented sustainable practices, but they have also woven ecological literacy into the entire program of the museum, making it highly recognized and successful. Teaching these principles to children is amazing and will have a positive impact on our world. The Rooftop Ramble offers a wide variety of

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.3.3] Pond

[FIG. 6.3.4] Edible Garden

plant life, from wildflowers to edible vegetables complete with tasting stations.The Clubhouse serves as host to various activities and houses an electronic microscope along with a variety of local wildlife from various habitats. Outside on the rooftop, the animals serve as a great source of learning through observation. This allows the children to interact with animals and understand their importance in our natural world.

accessible from the street, it could provide for a sanctuary away from the hustle and bustle of the city. However, it is understandable that the museum would want to keep it private in order to restrict access to paying customers only. Another weakness is the fact that the confined space of this city-based site can be limiting when compared to children being in a more expansive natural environment. Inside the museum itself, a few exhibits were outdated while a few technical exhibits dealing with electronics did not function correctly. Despite this, there were many other exhibits that functioned correctly to provide the educational opportunities one would expect in a childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s museum.

Weaknesses Although there were few defined weaknesses at the museum, a few things stood out to us as we toured the spaces. With the rooftop gardens only accessible during museum hours, there is a disconnection from the community when the museum is closed. Along with this, the cost to enter the museum is very high, so less privileged children may not get the opportunity to experience it. If this playscape was

Opportunities The museum should take the fantastic opportunities that it provides and think of ways to expand these ideas into the community so that they can become more actively involved during any time of the 67

M.C.M.’s Rooftop Ramble day and to those economically disadvantaged. It is understandable that the museum cannot allow for the rooftop gardens to be made fully accessible at all hours.Therefore, through the use of satellite locations in nearby parks and empty lots, community gardens could be set up so that the local children could come to the museum to learn about the environment and take this knowledge and apply it to their own community garden. Also on the rooftop, one activity that could be very popular is the idea of a bird blind, where feeders are placed behind a wall so the children can peer through holes to watch the local bird species as they feed. This would help bring more animals and insects to the rooftop playscape, which could be beneficial to the overall experience of the space. Threats There were no real threats that could be found in our experience at the Madison Children’s Museum. The only problem that could possibly be foreseen is the lack of funding for the museum to support expansion of its operations and/or the rotation of new material for the exhibits. Some of the exhibits were outdated or did not appear to be functioning correctly. In a museum designed for children, it is essential that exhibits be well maintained and constantly improved in order to keep the museum fun and exciting for future visits. Lessons Learned One important lesson taken from our visit to the Madison Children’s Museum is that child’s play through nature can be found in any environment, even in an urban capital city! This natural playscape was found on top of a building in the middle of downtown Madison, Wisconsin. Natural playscapes have the ability to be located in a variety of places, take many forms, and teach different lessons based on their context and climatic conditions.We also gained a better understanding

[FIG. 6.3.5] Nature Activities and Supplies in the Clubhouse of the importance of having a variety of activities, both structured and unstructured, to help strengthen the child’s social, cognitive, and physical well-being. We learned that it is important to set clear goals and objectives when developing the program for a child’s space. What made the museum a success is its overall commitment to the teaching of a variety of subjects, including sustainability, while keeping a clear focus on the mission of the museum and its collaboration efforts with the community.

[FIG. 6.3.6] Nature Clubhouse

Comparative Case Studies

Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Comparative Case Studies

Schlitz Audubon Nature Center, located on the former Nine Mile Farm, was formed as a consolidation of land parcels between the Uihlein family and Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company in the 1800’s. The name “Nine Mile Farm” is a result of the distance to and from the brewery. With the growth of the automobile industry, horsedrawn carriages became obsolete and the land, which was used to keep the horses, became a “natural” recreational space. The farm was then donated to the Schlitz Foundation in 1952 and was used to fund the foundation’s initiatives. In 1960, an initiative to develop a nature center was started, and with great effort from the National Audubon Society (NAS), nature enthusiast Dorothy Kopmeier Vallier and fellow bayside residents made the dream become a reality. In 1971, Joseph Uihlein offered his support for the project and the Schlitz Foundation directors. Vallier donated one million dollars as an endowment gift and Uihlein, along with a friend, pledged $450,000 for capital improvements. The NAS accepted this offer and agreed to operate the Schlitz Audubon Nature Center for twenty years (Schlitz Audubon Nature Center, 2012). Between 1971 and 1974, more funding was sought to keep up with the center’s ambitious program needs.As a result, the Friends of Schlitz Audubon Center, a volunteer fundraising organization, was formed and incorporated in 1975. Membership grew to over 1000 in the first six years of operation. Today, the center serves over 145,000 people a year and provides science programs in the naturalistic environment to over 27,000 children. In 2003, the nationally recognized nature preschool was started and to this day, enrolls 142 students annually.

[FIG. 6.4.1] Logs were used for seating and play in one of the three playscapes at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool. 71

Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool This LEED Gold certified building for the nature center and preschool is settled within a beautiful 185-acre natural habitat, allowing children, community members, and visitors to connect with nature and inspire them to become responsible stewards of the natural world (Schlitz Audubon Nature Center, 2012). The preschool and its curriculum have a strong focus on the natural world. The nature themed outdoor play areas are more challenging than the typical playground.This unstructured play environment fosters creativity and learning for the children that would not otherwise be found in traditional outdoor play environments. This is primarily due to the additional risk involved in natural play. The basis of their belief at Schlitz is that risk is essential to the social, cognitive, and physical development of a child. Unscripted play activities allow the children make choices as to what to do in the natural environment. This encourages them to explore their creativity and challenge themselves through physical play.The children are exposed to all sorts of weather conditions during their daily interaction with plants and animals. As long as there is no lightning and the wind-chill is above zero degrees, the children are expected to be outside with teachers and naturalists for creative play and interactive learning sessions. The preschool has a variety of activities to offer its students that can spur creativity and interest within their surroundings. Obviously, the traditional sand pit is a very popular activity within the playscape. This recessed pit is lined with large logs and connected to a concrete crawl through tunnel three feet in diameter. The hill that this tunnel cut through became the perfect setup for a leap into the sand pit, potentially harming other children. In response to this, a wood fence was set up to prevent this from happening again.This area is extremely active with children working with real implements such shovels, buckets, and rakes. Two slides and a rock climb area also utilize the hillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geometries as an advantageous design tool.

[FIG. 6.4.2] Stump Tables There are three natural playscapes located around the preschool grounds. Each of these playscapes has a dramatic play shelter for role-playing and other creative play. Some are more natural in their material palette while others are more traditional wood constructs. Each area also has a group gathering space that consists of logs set upright in the ground to create circular seating arrangements. During free play, children would use these log stumps for balancing acts, which transforms these very basic pieces into multifunctional installations. One of the three playscape areas has fallen trees and logs, which provide children with natural climbing elements to test their limits. This supervised risk taking is an essential aspect to nature play. One of the most popular activities at Schlitz is mud play. Although itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s messy, the children absolutely love this activity as a way to create their own stories and adventures. Along with these, there are many other activities that provide personal experiences with nature. For example,

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.4.3] Hill Climb

[FIG. 6.4.4] Rock Pit

beekeeping is observed as a way to educate children on the creation of honey as well as the importance of bees in our ecosystem. The educators at Schlitz understand the value of natural play and make it their goal to keep the outdoor activities fresh, new, and exciting all year long.

are in bags and inventoried to ensure that all items are accounted for. The preschool staff plans these activities and the subjects and themes are rotated weekly to ensure a new experience with each visit.

At Schlitz Audubon Nature Center, community involvement is an essential aspect of their preschool curriculum and nature-based learning environment. One way Schlitz develops this community engagement is a program called â&#x20AC;&#x153;teaching trunks,â&#x20AC;? which is a mobile suitcase that holds a variety of elements for a particular activity.These mobile cases are carried outside or to other schools where local teachers can begin to incorporate nature based subjects and themes into their own class activities. Each trunk contains a notebook of information needed to complete the task as well as an instructional guide for the teachers as they plan their lesson. All the required items

The Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool has many strengths that have led to its many years of success. Inside the beautiful facility, natural materials are celebrated with tall, rough timber columns in the entrance hall. Educational pamphlets and posters, along with a series of classrooms, showcase the function and program that this facility was designed for. The majority of the classrooms contain furniture and toys made from natural materials. Being a LEED Gold school, the majority of the materials used throughout the school are recycled or locally sourced, re-instilling the importance of environmental awareness. This ecological literacy also extends into the curriculum,

Strengths

Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool where childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lessons are constantly linked with the outdoors. The children spend over half of the day outside learning and creating with their hands. This is important in expanding their imagination while instilling a love for nature and the lessons it can provide. Another unique aspect about the Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool is the breathtaking site it rests on. This site provides opportunities for learning in a variety of natural environments, such as woodlands, prairie, wetlands, and even the beachfront of Lake Michigan, all of which are within walking distance to the preschool. This large, natural environment allows for extensive exploration and interaction with the local wildlife. For designating play and learning, there are three outdoor playscapes that provide different elements and activities for the children to partake in. These outdoor play environments include sand, mud, gravel pits, hills, slides, log play, and wildlife observation. At the end of each play session, the children help clean up their playscapes, which is an important responsibility in caretaking the children learn early on. This responsibility is also taught and understood in the classrooms. At Schlitz, the kids are not only learning how to play in nature, but also learning the importance of responsibility, teamwork, and care for the natural environment. Weaknesses There are few negative aspects that we could find through our visit to Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool. One problem that was brought up is the lack of direct connections from the classrooms to the outdoor environments. It would be ideal for the classrooms to have a door to these outside spaces in order to further strengthen the connection between outside and in. Another missed opportunity is the underutilization of Lake Michigan.The waterfront is such a great

[FIG. 6.4.5] Sand Pit and Tunnel source of learning for children. This habitat provides a completely different experience than most playscapes can provide. Opportunities There are unlimited opportunities available at this preschool with its expansive, natural setting. The potential to establish a connection with nearby Lake Michigan could be a great opportunity for the students to engage with the plants and animals only found in waterfront habitats. Another fantastic opportunity would come with more involvement with the community. They allow visitors to walk the beautiful trails and paths, but there is more that could be done. The implementation of community gardens and events would be a great way to develop stronger community connections and inform the public of the efforts taking place at the Schlitz Audubon Nature Center. Another opportunity to reach out to the community would

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.4.6] Loose Parts

[FIG. 6.4.7] Cleanup

be to expand the â&#x20AC;&#x153;teaching trunksâ&#x20AC;? to more classrooms and have volunteers aid in the implementation of these activities at the various locations. This, in combination with organized school field trips and visits to the nature center, could gain more local support and recognition with the naturalist population and form joint efforts to improve environmental awareness.

she informed us that they had never had any problems with people causing disturbances on the property.

Threats For child safety, there is a potential threat when looking at the physical danger from vehicular traffic due to the native trails crossing the road.This occurs multiple times throughout the site.The land itself is constantly monitored and all play areas are closed to the public when the preschool is in session. However, the trails are open to the public on the weekends and after hours. When a staff member was asked about potential issues of allowing the public to wander the site,

Lessons Learned After visiting and talking with the amazing staff at Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool, we learned several things about nature-based playscapes, both in materiality and the potential of play in natural environments. One of the most important lessons learned when designing a playscape is to keep it as natural as possible. According to the educators at Schlitz, the more natural the playscape is, the more successful it will be. Along with this, it is important to give kids the opportunity to take risks, make their own choices in unstructured settings, and learn from the challenges they undertake. Playscapes are no safer than nature, so the children develop a respect for the environment that a traditional playground cannot teach. 75

Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool Obviously, safety is a key issue when developing a playscape. It is important to understand that playscapes and risky play are not meant to endanger children, but should instead teach children how to assess risk and understand the consequences of the choices they make. Schlitz also stressed the importance of fencing around the playscapes. This is necessary to keep animals out, children in, and give parents a sense of security. The preschool also found it important for children to play outdoors in almost any weather condition. They believe that the changing seasons can offer opportunities for learning and visually seeing the responsive adaptations to these varying conditions in the environment. The most important advice we learned after visiting and analyzing this playscape was to keep the design simple. It is not necessary to build elaborate constructs for a nature playscape to be a success. It is more important to involve the community and focus on natural materials, engaging activities, and community needs and requests.

[FIG. 6.4.8] Interior of the Schlitz Audubon Nature Center

[FIG. 6.4.9] Classrooms Overlooking the Playscape

Comparative Case Studies

Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape: Cincinnati, Ohio

Comparative Case Studies

The Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape, located just east of Cincinnati, Ohio, is part of the larger Cincinnati Nature Center. It serves as a model for the Nature Playscape Initiative (NPI) and aims to “create a regional model for healthy child development and demonstrate how to effectively use the outdoors to strengthen a child’s mind, body, and spirit.” This unstructured environment, which opened in the fall of 2011, makes use of the natural features on the site, such as fallen logs, rocks, water, dirt, and vegetation. This allows children to develop their creativity, critical thinking, and motor skills while playing in nature and exploring their surroundings. The main goal of this playscape is to “inspire passion for nature,” which is sure to happen based on the natural materials selected and activity areas provided (Cincinnati Nature Center, 2011). The Schott Nature Playscape is about 1.6 acres in size and designed primarily for children aged eleven and under with adult supervision. The project took over three years to design and plan before construction was started.The reason for this extended timeline was because of resistance from the community who thought it would be a typical playground, and were unaware as to what a nature-based play environment would encompass. However, this playscape was intended to be much more than that. In order to get acceptance from the community and donors, they had to justify this concept of natural play by doing extensive research on natural settings and existing playscapes and show the benefits of natural play. Eventually, the benefits were apparent, so the playscape was constructed for a total cost of 480,000 dollars, which included design, construction, and vegetation. Some habitats were destroyed during the construction, but new ones were created as well. The entire site was sculpted and [FIG. 6.5.1] A bridge allows for passage across the river. 79

Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape manipulated in order to create the rolling hills and scenic setting one would expect from a natural, picturesque landscape. There are many components that went into this playscape in order to fill the large site with activities and create destination points throughout. These components include an early childhood area, wetland meadow, woods, prairie, and stream. Within these habitat zones, there are numerous activities that relate directly to the conditions of the ecological environment they are a part of and express the natural materials one would find within. For example, the wetlands provide a boardwalk that weaves through the tall grasses and provides secondary pathways through the marshy soil by means of stepping-stones and logs. The woods provides for log play where children can manipulate structures with real logs in order to create forts. This area also provides shaded space for children to play in the dirt and express their creativity in more messy ways.The prairie habitat at this playscape is large and expansive. Within itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tall, wild grasses lie activities waiting to be discovered, including a rock structure, a large tunnel, and even a fire pit. These activities provide for a variety of play that allow children to create their own fantasies and adventures. The last habitat area is the stream, which allows children to explore the properties of water and learn about hydrology and the ecosystems surrounding it. Small, private caves are carved into the rocks adjacent to the stream to provide children with a place where they can reflect on their surroundings and focus their mind on a single task. Strengths There are many great aspects of the Schott Nature Playscape that should be acknowledged. In terms of design and ambiance, this playscape is laid out very well and uses the native plants to create welldefined zones.The winding trails and tall grasses allows for exploration and discovery to take place. Community events are also incorporated

[FIG. 6.5.2] Constructive Play with Logs well into the playscape.The grassy hill and fire pit allow for communal events to take place as a means to not only educate children, but also to create a stronger sense of community among the visitors. The only traditional wood structures in the playscape are located in the early childhood development area.These covered shelters also double as entry pieces. Made of rough-sawn lumber, these covered areas provide shelter for families as well as act as meeting destinations for large groups. In contrast to this, some areas in the playscape are left untouched. This allows the playscape to appear more natural as well as provide space for future additions to be built each year to keep the playscape new and exciting for revisiting patrons. Along with design, this playscape and its â&#x20AC;&#x153;play facilitatorsâ&#x20AC;? exhibit a great attitude towards nature and the concept of natural play. They believe that a playscape should be as safe and challenging as the natural world, so children can develop risk awareness and learn to

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.5.3] Boardwalk over the Wetlands

[FIG. 6.5.4] Mud Play

respect nature while they are within this fenced playscape. All of the activity spaces are modifiable by the children and their configurations are left for the next child to discover and change. Because of this, maintenance is very low, which positively reflects the idea of a natural environment. The play facilitators also encourage children to jump off the trail and explore the unexplored areas.This freedom to explore is a huge part of the success of this unstructured, natural playscape and sets it apart from traditional playgrounds and even other nature-based environments.

childhood development area in order to prevent very young children from touching it. In the other areas where older children are playing, the poison ivy becomes an opportunity to learn about the risks of natural play. The ability to teach children about hazardous plants and identify them allows them to be more aware of their surroundings and play with caution. Another weakness is the recirculating streamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s end point. This less than pleasing area is fenced in order to keep children clear of the recirculating pumps and tanks, which are required for this streamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design. This fence ruins the natural ambiance of the space, but does provide for a safer environment. Fortunately, the staff recognized this weakness and turned it into a learning opportunity by providing signs and diagrams to teach children and adults about water circulation and the process used to keep this stream running for all to enjoy.

Weaknesses There are very few weaknesses we noticed while exploring this playscape. The largest safety concern they have to deal with was poison ivy. Obviously, it is impossible to rid the entire site of this plant, so they focus their energies on removal of the plant from the early

Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape Opportunities There are many opportunities this natural playscape provides that set it apart from other playscapes. The use of native plants in combination with the cut and fill topography allows for dynamic spaces that blend each zone into one another to create a holistic design that reflects the natural environment. The eight-foot tall black deer fence that surrounds this environment allows for children to explore every inch of the playscape without interrupting the view to the environments beyond. This freedom also allows for loose parts to be taken throughout the playscape and utilized in any activity area. This unstructured, free play provides the opportunity for the children to play in any area they want with what they can find in their natural environment. Threats The threats at this playscape are no different than that of a natural environment.The overgrown plants on this playscape reflect what you would find beyond the fence. For this reason, poison ivy and other hazardous plantings that you would find in Cincinnati are also found in this environment. This could cause issues with childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s allergies or create rashes from interactions with poisonous plants. Another issue is the lack of shade in most of the areas. The stream, wetlands, and prairie do not provide any sun protection, so children and parents may be inclined to play in the woods on hot days. The last threat that many parents would identify is water. The stream was designed as a water feature, not a play activity, in order to avoid stringent safety regulations. In effect, the level of the water may be higher in places than safety regulations would require. Along with this, the rocks lining the edges of the stream can be slippery, so running up and down the stream could cause harm. These issues could be a concern for some

parents. Despite this, the water levels are still much lower than what you would find in any natural environment. Lessons Learned There were many lessons to be learned from this playscape and its design principles. The manipulation of the land is an important aspect to consider early in the design phase. This allows for rolling hills and exploration that a flat terrain cannot provide. Children are easily able to immerse themselves within the natural environment and explore their surroundings by these hidden pathways. Along with this, we learned the importance of providing children with manipulative objects and loose parts to use in their adventures as a means to foster unlimited creativity. This is important to allow children to develop their cognitive and social skills through curiosity and creativity. Another important aspect of this playscape is the inclusion of water elements. This was one of the most popular spaces in the whole playscape because of the dynamic qualities water has and the potential it can provide to educate children on hydrology. The last concept to take away from the Schott Nature Playscape is their perspective on nature and their profound care for the education of children through natural settings. Their enthusiasm and commitment to this idea of unstructured, natural play allowed for the creation of this playscape and its success within the community. They were able to turn every aspect of their site into a learning opportunity, which stresses the idea of learning through play. Overall, this playscape is an exemplary model to follow for anyone looking to design with nature as a means to reconnect children with the natural world around them.

[FIG. 6.5.5] Prairie Trail

Comparative Case Studies

Arlitt Playscape: University of Cincinnati - Cincinnati, Ohio

Comparative Case Studies

The Arlitt Center Playscape is located on the University of Cincinnati’s beautiful campus. Upon completion, the playscape was opened to the public in August of 2012 as a supplement to their existing playground. The publicly accessible playscape is part of the larger Arlitt Child and Family Research & Education Center within the University of Cincinnati’s College of Education. It was founded in 1925, making it one of the oldest demonstration preschools in the United States. In order to make the playscape a public entity, the space is opened up to the public when it’s not being utilized by the Arlitt Center classes (Arlitt Child & Family Research and Education Center, 2012). The playscape is fairly small in size (10,000 sq. ft.) because of the limited lot sizes available on the urban campus. Since it was recently completed in 2012, most of the vegetation has yet to mature and fill out. Within the site, there are a variety of components that add to the success of this preschool playscape. These include a water feature, a loose parts play area, an open lawn, a tree house, gathering decks, an entry circle, and a perimeter fence for safety and security. Each of these areas serves a different purpose in the development of the children. All of the activity areas were designed specifically to reach out to preschool age children in hopes of providing them with an enriching experience in nature. Being a part of the research and education center, the playscape provides a place of learning for the children and educators as well as university students who are interested in childhood development.

[FIG. 6.6.1] Storage Unit and Landscape at the Arlitt Playscape 85

Arlitt Playscape Several components make up the Arlitt Nature Playscape that deal with material and sensory elements. Walking paths use a hierarchy of materials to distinguish major and minor pathways. The larger paths use compacted gravel while the smaller paths use stepping-stones or mulch. With a variety of pathway materials, children gain skills walking on these varying uneven surfaces. For water play, Arlitt uses rocks to form a streambed. Water can flow through when a teacher turns on the spigot located at the â&#x20AC;&#x153;topâ&#x20AC;? of the stream. Nearby the elevated Log Fort provides a sense of enclosure for children and promotes a sense of imagination and role-play. From here the children can overlook the different activities going on around the site. This playscape, like many others, has a sand and gravel pit where the children can dig with their hands and feel the different material textures between their fingers. Logs, sticks, and tree cookies are found in these areas and utilized for digging and constructing. Another feature on the site is a Bird Blind, which has small peek holes at various heights for the children to look through and see birds feeding in the backdrop. The last activity worth noting is a Sensory Garden, which can be found among the multitude of landscape plantings throughout the site to allow children to utilize their senses through play. Strengths One of the biggest strengths with the Arlitt Nature Playscape is the variety of activities available. Having this variety keeps the children interested and occupied for a longer period of time. Another well thought out aspect of the playscape is its emphasis on safety and security. The children are clearly visible at all times by the teachers, parents, or guardians no matter where they are on the site. These unobstructed sightlines provide a great sense of security for caregivers, parents, and educators without restricting the creative play of the children. A fence runs along the perimeter of the site to ensure

[FIG. 6.6.2] Map of Arlitt Playscape (Arlitt Child & Family Research and Education Center, 2012) protection for students from traffic as well as provide a peace of mind for the teachers to know that they cannot get out of their visible range. Weaknesses Being a relatively new playscape, the plants are very young and sparse. This goes against the idea of looking natural as a playscape is intended. The site overall seems be more relevant to a suburban

Comparative Case Studies

[FIG. 6.6.3] Log Fort

[FIG. 6.6.4] Streambed

park in comparison to other natural playscapes that we have seen and visited. The size of the site is also a concern. Children canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t explore the site because they can see all of it at once, which can ruin the experience and wonder. Granted, the children do not seem to be affected by the size because of the abundance of activities available to participate in.

than simply providing storage for the educators. The Bird Blind and storage shed could have been designed together to make it blend into its environment better while providing more functionality to its constructs.

Opportunities Being in an urban setting, one of the hardest things to achieve is keeping the site looking natural. One idea that could be implemented to make the site more natural is to create a stronger vegetative barrier from the surrounding campus. This could be done using mature trees and tall shrubs with higher densities. The storage unit, although functional, could also be better integrated into the play activities of the children. It could also be more multifunctional rather

Threats The biggest threat facing the Arlitt Center Playscape is its proximity to the campus and a major campus roadway. The fence, while necessary, acts as a harsh barrier and causes visual distractions between the playscape and the campus beyond. Lessons Learned After a visit to Arlitt Center Playscape, we were able to take away many ideas that could be useful in the design of a playscape. Arlitt was able to create a safe tree house that allowed children to explore at 87

Arlitt Playscape elevated, yet secure heights and oversee their entire surroundings. Along with this, we learned that having on-site storage is very beneficial for educators because it gives a space to store materials for activities and maintenance tools.These structures should be done using natural materials as a way to blend in with its surroundings and provide another learning opportunity for children who interact with it. Lastly, Arlitt showed us that the use of natural materials is very important to the success of the playscape and its users. Arlitt used pathways of different materials and textures to develop childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s balance and motor skills. The ability to integrate these natural materials into a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s play curriculum allows them to not only develop their physical skills, but also develop an understanding of their surroundings and the natural world around them. [FIG. 6.6.5] Loose Parts Play

[FIG. 6.6.6] Main Entrance and Entry Circle

Comparative Case Studies

Simulations “Children live through their senses. Sensory experiences link the child’s exterior world with their interior, hidden, affective world. Since the natural environment is the principal source of sensory stimulation, freedom to explore and play with the outdoor environment through the senses in their own space and time is essential for healthy development of an interior life…This type of self-activated, autonomous interaction is what we call free play. Individual children test themselves by interacting with their environment, activating their potential and reconstructing human culture. The content of the environment is a critical factor in this process. A rich, open environment will continuously present alternative choices for creative engagement. A rigid, bland environment will limit healthy growth and development of the individual or the group.” -Robin Moore, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 66

[FIG. 7.1] The students learned about composting as one of the five activities to celebrate Earth Day at Head Start Preschool. 91

A series of simulations spanning two semesters was developed as a method of researching and testing activities and materials that were planned as components of the nature playscape design at Head Start Preschool. All of the activities were performed at the preschool in a similar or actual location where the activity will eventually be installed. By performing these simulations, university students gained the knowledge of how a five-year-old child plays, thinks, and interacts with materials, the environment, and with others, helping to guide further development of the playscapeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design and components. The activities were also useful for the teachers because they allowed them to learn how to teach this re-emerging idea of playing in nature. This concept is important to fill the void in childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives that has been created by technologies and other distractions of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifestyle. Through these various activities, children learn the importance of giving back to their environment by getting their hands dirty by planting various flowers, herbs, and vegetables, and realizing that these items do not originate in a grocery store. Other simulations taught the children about water to show how it flows, how it can be collected, and how it provides life to all living things. Some activities dealt with sound, such as the music wall with common, noise-producing items, and others dealt with nature art using mud to draw pictures and decorating wind wands with strings, leaves, and pine cones. Loose parts play aids in the development of fine motor skills and allows the children to be creative through imaginary play. All of these simulations produce hard evidence of the importance of creative, unstructured play in nature for the development of children, and can be found in the design of the Head Start Nature Playscape.

[FIG. 7.2] Mud Mash Simulation at Head Start

Simulations

[FIG. 7.3] Music Wall Simulation at Head Start

[FIG. 7.4] Nature Art Simulation at Head Start

Site Research and Documentation “I had a place. There was a big waterfall and a creek on one side of it. I’d dug a big hole there, and sometimes I’d take a tent back there, or a blanket, and just lie down in the hole, and look up at the trees and sky. Sometimes I’d fall asleep back in there. I just felt free; it was like my place, and I could do what I wanted, with nobody to stop me. I used to go down there almost every day. And then they just cut the woods down. It was like they cut down part of me.” -Fifth-Grader, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 14

[FIG. 8.1] Blank Canvas in Muncie, Indiana 95

Historical Beginnings Our site, located on the east side of Muncie, Indiana, is home to Head Start of Delaware Countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s preschool and grounds. The school, originally Claypool Elementary School, was built in 1958. The single story 35,600 sq. ft. elementary school enrolled over 240 students from kindergarten to fifth grade. In the 2000â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, student enrollment numbers continued to decline as manufacturing jobs in Muncie were disappearing. Along with this, the school continued to be outranked by the other Muncie schools in terms of site maintenance, education, and environment until its closure in 2003 (Fanning/Howey Associates, Inc., 2003). In 2006, Head Start of Delaware County purchased the building, allowing them to have all their classes in one location. The Head Start preschool program was founded in 1967. Funded by Health and Human Services, it is designed to serve low-income families as well as children with disabilities (Head Start of Delaware County, 2009). As a preschool, its main goal is to educate children and prepare them for kindergarten and beyond. The schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interior environment is well suited to the Head Start program, with ample space and well-lit classrooms. The current traditional playground provides the necessary equipment for motor development but fails to stimulate cognitive and social growth.The implementation of a natural playscape will allow these children to interact with nature in ways they have never been able to in their urban environment. This will allow teachers to integrate learning with play and provide children the ability to experience the natural world and develop the life skills it can provide. Climatic Data A look at the yearly climate conditions of the site is important for a design project such as this one. As a natural playscape located outside, it is necessary to understand the typical weather conditions

in order to intelligently design elements that make use of the seasonal changes and sun patterns.The city of Muncie, Indiana has four seasons with a wide range of climate conditions because of its Midwest location at 40 degrees latitude. The average temperature ranges between 25 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit depending on the season, with extremes ranging between 15 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit.The amount of sunshine in Muncie is about 70 percent during the summer and drops to less than 40 percent in the winter. This affects the amount of shading that should be on the site in order to accommodate the hot, sunny days. Precipitation levels are slightly higher than the national average: low of 2 inches in January and high of 5 inches in May and June (The Weather Channel, 2012). This is an important condition to consider because it can affect the amount of time spent outside and the ability to participate in different activities. For example, sand and digging activities would not work on rainy days but mud and water play would be ideal. Muncie also has harsh winters that must be taken into account because the amount of snowfall is considerably higher [FIG. 8.2] Average Temperatures in Muncie, Indiana

Site Research and Documentation than the national average. This snowfall typically occurs between October and April with up to 8 inches a month. This can severely limit the amount of time in the year spent out in the playscape, so activities must be seasonally adaptive to get the kids motivated to play outside, even if itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cold and snowy. In addition to the extreme temperatures, Muncie also experiences higher wind speeds than the national average because of its location and flat terrain. In the colder months, the wind can reach speeds of up to 12 mph, making for an uncomfortable experience to be outside. The dynamic qualities of an outdoor, natural environment make for a euphoric place to learn and play that is always adapting and changing to express the current conditions of the place. This characteristic is what sets playscapes apart from a traditional playground. The sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pattern as it moves from east to west across the sky can have a direct affect on the conditions of the site depending on the time of day. The morning and afternoon sessions at the preschool will experience the [FIG. 8.3] Sunshine

playscape differently because of the varying positions of the sun from morning to afternoon. Shade and solar access must be accounted for when designing for summer and winter months. In addition to this daily change, there is a monthly change that can drastically change the look and feel of a natural environment. During the summer, heat plays a large factor in the experiential qualities of the playscape. Plants start to wither and turn brown while animals seek shade during the hottest times of the day. In the fall, the leaves cover the grounds in shades of red, orange, and yellow. Dew, frost, and rain are typical during this time because of the temperature changes. During the winter, snow and ice are common as the ground becomes hard and frozen. Plants become dormant and animals hibernate or migrate to warmer climates. This creates a completely different scene than any other season. The spring months bring a restoration to natural environments. Dew and frost form as the temperatures gradually warm up. Animals begin to reemerge as plants form new buds. These four distinct seasons offer opportunities to understand the changing of time and the life [FIG. 8.4] Precipitation

processes that occur in nature. The potential of this as a learning opportunity is incredibly valuable for natural playscapes and should be integrated into the design and planning of these outdoor spaces. Site and Topographical Data The site is approximately 19 acres (827,000 sq. ft.) with the preschool, storage shelters, garage, parking, and traditional playground located within (Beacon, 2012). There are about 8.8 acres (383,328 sq. ft.) of free, unobstructed land to the north side of the site that we have identified as an appropriate location to place the playscape. The topography of the site is relatively flat. The elevations of the site range from 968 feet to 978 feet, so there is a total change of 10 feet across the 600-foot site, which puts the slope at 1.67 percent.The northwest and south ends of site are the low points while the west and northeast ends are the highest. This forms a gradually sloping â&#x20AC;&#x153;ravineâ&#x20AC;? where water collection could occur. In general, this site is considered flat, so manipulation of the terrain may be desired to create a more dynamic playscape with rolling hills.The soil found on the site has both BmlA (Blount-Del Rey silt loams) and UdmA (Urban land-BlountPewamo complex). The silt loam is ideal for water drainage and is very fertile for plant growth while the Blout-Pewamo retains a little more water, but can still support most plant life (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2004). This is the ideal condition for creating a playscape with an assortment of shrubs, wildflowers, and trees. Edges, Zones, and Boundaries Within the site context, there are many edges with varying levels of visible understanding. The structures and the fence systems on the [FIG. 8.5] Topography and Property Line at Head Start

Site Research and Documentation site form hard edges that are easily recognizable but do not allow for transition across without the use of thresholds.The asphalt parking lot, concrete sidewalks, and perimeter tree line form the primary edges that allow permeation. Grasses and ground cover form secondary soft edges that are implied boundaries but do nothing to restrict access across it. Zones on the site are most easily identified by the ground cover that is used. For example, the pea gravel that is currently in the traditional playground is used as a way to distinguish play zones as well as act as a fall material. Students understand these material boundaries as a visual perimeter that they are not allowed to cross. This clear materialistic identification makes it easier for educators to set boundaries without having to use physical barriers. Views The views to and from the site are particularly important for schoolyards because of privacy and security concerns.Within the site, there are limited views to the playground because of the design of the preschool. All of the classrooms used currently have views towards the western perimeter of the site. This overlooks a scattered tree line as well as the residential properties beyond. Some classrooms look eastward into the entry courtyard. This view is more restricted but receives the morning sunlight that the other classrooms lack. The views to the north and south are nonexistent because of the orientation of the classrooms. This unfortunate circumstance is a condition that cannot be changed due to the pre-existing conditions of the site. The views into the site include street views and residential views. The road to the south has views towards the front facade of the building, but is restricted beyond that. The nearby residential homes

[FIG. 8.6] The traditional playground (orange) is defined by a chain-link fence while the hardscape (blue) is defined by material changes and physical barriers (red). on the west and east perimeters of the site have views into the site, with only partial tree lines to break up and limit the visual access into the playscape. The extensive visual access from the public could be considered a security concern; however, this community driven project should have some visual access to the playscape in order to spark interest in the project and its goals. Use and Claim There are many features on the site that have different users and claims based on their programmatic function.The preschool, used by students, educators, and staff, allows for the traditional learning environment to take place. This building also serves the community by providing spaces for communal events and activities to take 99

place. The storage facilities (barns and garage) on the north side of the property are used to store playground equipment and vehicles for site maintenance. On-site storage like this will be an important feature to keep in mind when designing the playscape to hold tools and activity items for the students. The parking lots are utilized by the community and educators as well as provide bus access to the site. All vehicular circulation to the school uses the south entrance to access the parking lots and bus drop-off.This publicly accessible space allows community members and school staff to use it as a means to reach the site. The playground on the north side of the school is used by the students and educators. This traditional playground provides a physical play environment for the students to develop motor skills in the traditional manner of outdoor play. Their claim on this area and its activities will be used to guide the design and location of primary activities in the new playscape and provide a starting framework for the design itself. Scale and Materiality Figuring out the appropriate scale for the new playscape is one of the most challenging issues related to the schematic design of this project. In order to get an appropriate sense of scale, it is best to look at the existing conditions in order to understand the project as a whole. The existing playground is 21,400 sq. ft. with a fence around its perimeter. This space has three activity zones that can accommodate up to three classes at a single time. Unlike these structured playgrounds, natural environments want to be large and [FIG. 8.7] This diagram shows the scale of the traditional playground in relation to the courtyard, the preschool, and the available space for the playscape.

Site Research and Documentation expansive. Rolling hills, winding rivers, and boundless woods need to be large in order to resemble their natural condition. The materials and textures on the site are very traditional of what you would expect from a primary school. Pea gravel, chain link fence, and plastic dominate the playground scene amidst the brick and asphalt backdrop.The primary hues one would expect from the plastic and metal play structures are visibly noticeable on the man-made interventions located on the site. Natural materials, and subsequently the warming characteristics associated with them, are lacking in this cold, harsh outdoor environment. Grasses and thinned tree lines are all that remain of the natural environment that once was dominant in this Midwest setting. Looking Forward This site holds so many opportunities for a natural playscape. The large lot provides ample soil, sun access, and the necessary infrastructure for the implementation of a vast, natural playscape. In addition to this, the enthusiastic community, eager educators, and excited students make for the perfect combination for a natural play environment like this to be a success.

[FIG. 8.8] Existing Traditional Playground 101

Build: Material Exploration and Prototyping “On the superficies, horizontally, we’ve been everywhere and done everything, we know all about it. Yet the more we know, superficially, the less we penetrate, vertically. It’s all very well skimming across the surface of the ocean and saying you know all about the sea… As a matter of fact, our greatgrandfathers, who never went anywhere, in actuality had more experience of the world than we have, who have seen everything. When they listened to a lecture with lanternslides, they really held their breath before the unknown, as they sat in the village school-room. We, bowling along in a rickshaw in Ceylon, say to ourselves: “It’s very much what you’d expect.” We really know it all. We are mistaken. The know-it-all state of mind is just the result of being outside the mucous-paper wrapping of civilization. Underneath is everything we don’t know and are afraid of knowing.” -D.H. Lawrence , Last Child in the Woods, pg. 58-59

[FIG. 9.0.1] Small Scale Prototype of Timber Frame Joint 103

Through the entirety of this project, the importance of building, testing, and making before designing has been continuously stressed. Like the children at Head Start Preschool who are learning and developing through play in nature, this project has focused on learning through the making, exploring, and testing of material limitations, grasping the idea of the profound dialectic of analog and digital processes.

have arisen through the building of prototypes and the design will continue to be retooled as the construction of the Habitat Hub progresses. Rigorously researching the various methodologies and processes through the craft of making will define a complete and welldetailed piece of architecture.

There are a variety of benefits to a reverse process of builddesign that has been proven to give a more holistic project to allow for creative thinking that would be overlooked in the traditional design-build methodology. Developing an understanding of materials has shaped the design from the very beginning of the project from investigating and pushing the envelope of joinery inspired from Japanese timber frames, to creating earthen walls and understanding their process of creation and shear mass. Accepting construction tolerances such as varying dimensions of rough sawn timber, shrinking, and warping, and learning how to account for these typical processes created opportunities to develop new ways of thinking in both analog and digital fabrication processes. Realizing that fabrication involves multiple steps and that neither analog nor digital processes work best as a stand-alone method, it forced the integration of a variety of methods during the fabrication of a final piece. Every element that forms this project has been part of a thorough investigation of this dialectic and the process of making has guided the project to finality. It is important to realize that architecture is never finished and that there is always room for improvement. Changes have been made constantly as various issues

[FIG. 9.0.2] Analog Fabrication

Build

105

Rammed Earth

Build

History Rammed earth construction is an ancient construction technique that dates back as far as 8,000 B.C. These earthen walls are created using a layering process of a soil mixture that is compacted to nearly half of its initial thickness. Traditional rammed earth construction is still heavily used in developing countries where supplies and funds are limited. In the United States, rammed earth is commonly found in the southwest, known for its red desert soils. The traditional process of making a rammed earth construction is extremely laborious. The mechanical systems used for ramming, mixing, and moving the mixture greatly reduce labor intensity and are necessary for larger scale projects where labor is minimal (Minke, 2006). Formwork Typical formwork for the making of a rammed earth wall consists of two parallel walls that are connected with spacers that hold the form at a specified width. These spacers are typically thin tensile rods less than a quarter of an inch thick that are covered during the ramming process and removed after forming is complete. Spacer free systems have also been developed. Parallel walls of the formwork can be made with three-quarter inch plywood and should be relatively smooth on the face to divert clay deposits from sticking to the walls. Vertical supports lining the outside of the form should be spaced roughly thirty inches apart to prevent bulging. Thicker side walls will allow vertical supports to be spaced anywhere from forty to

[FIG. 9.1.1] The first step is to procure sand and clay from a local supplier. 107

Rammed Earth sixty inches apart. Concrete forms, although effective, are heavy and expensive therefore it is best to create forms that are easy for two people to carry and adjust (Minke, 2006). Tools Traditional rams used in former times had conical, wedge, and flat bases. They are still used today in developing nations and on small-scale projects. More economical electric and pneumatic rams replaced manual, labor-intensive methods for larger applications. Pneumatic tamping devices should have a frequency between 1000 and 1200 cycles per minute in order to compact loose soil into layers three inches thick (Minke, 2006). Construction Earthen walls require a stable foundation to support their weight. Once produced, the formwork can be placed on the foundation and

filling can begin. Each layer compacts to about half the thickness of the loose mixture placed in the form and can range from five to thirty inches, depending on the equipmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to compact. Once the earth has been compacted to the formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity, the form can be immediately removed and placed on top of the previous layer. At this time openings and penetrations can be created and the wall can be shaped as desired with little effort by cutting, scraping, scratching, or scooping the wet mixture (Minke, 2006). The drying process can take three weeks for the wall to be dry to touch but inside can take much longer. Despite this, the wall is strong enough after construction to support weight, unlike concrete and masonry wall systems. Once dry, the exterior surface can be treated with a permeable weather barrier sealant, although this is not necessary. Rammed Earth walls require no surface treatment and can usually be left exposed to their natural beauty, but they can also be painted, wallpapered, or plastered as desired (Minke, 2006).

Build [FIG. 9.1.2] Compacting the Earth Mixture Using an Analog Process

[FIG. 9.1.3] Layering Process: I. Formwork is placed on foundation. 2. Earth mixture is stamped in layers until the formwork is completely filled. 3. Spacing rods are undone to release the formwork from the compacted rammed earth. 4. Formwork is raised. 5. Spacing rods are placed back into the formwork. 6. Earth mixture is tamped in layers above the previous layers.

109

Rammed Earth

Build [FIG. 9.1.4] The formwork for this prototype uses 2”x4” lumber and 3/4” plywood. The earth mixture is 30% clay and 70% sand with portland cement and water mixed in. For aesthetic purposes, concrete dye can be used to change the appearance of the rammed earth layers.

[FIG. 9.1.5] Prototype Assembly

111

Rammed Earth [FIG. 9.1.6] A rammed earth wall can take on many different shapes and sizes depending on the formwork and the post-processing procedures.

[FIG. 9.1.7] Rammed earth can be used in many different ways including seating and table surfaces. It can also be carved into while it is still wet to create apertures and other elements.

Build

[FIG. 9.1.8] The various design functions can be strung together to create dynamic walls that children can interact with based on the activities they are doing.

113

Gabion Wall

Build

History â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gabionâ&#x20AC;? is based on the Italian word grabbia, which means cage or basket, referring to the wire mesh filled with stones used to create wall-like structures, waterside slopes, or freestanding walls. Originally, gabion systems were used in road construction to secure slopes. Architects utilize its design potential by implementing the system into garden and landscape construction. These meshes are generally prefabricated into galvanized or stainless steel cages ranging from 3 to 6 feet in length, 2 to 2.5 feet deep, and 1.5 to 2 feet tall. Manufacturers can typically customize cages to meet any size requirement. (Mader & Zimmerman, 2011). Filling Material The size of the fill material depends primarily on the size of the mesh. Most cages are filled on-site or prefilled with various rough stone, irregular setts, gravel, or rough gravel. For design purposes, exposed surfaces of the fill material can be strategically stacked and backfilled with a less presentable material such as urbanite or other recycled materials. Pre-filled cages are brought in by truck and moved into place by a truck-mounted crane. Otherwise, material is trucked in and cages are filled on site (Mader et al., 2011).

[FIG. 9.2.1] The first step is to procure the gabion cage and the filling materials. 115

Gabbion Wall System Advantages Aside from structural integrity, gabion walls create regional connections through their fill material and offer a high ecological value by giving wildlife a place to live. The system favors economy with simple, cost effective construction that needs little equipment. Their elasticity and permeability eliminates the need for extensive foundations or drainage systems. Gabion systems also provide an impressionable appearance and can be modified to accommodate seating and planting surfaces for Ivy, Virginia Creeper, and Clematis (Mader et al., 2011). Limitations Gabion systems require a large amount of space due to their weight and size. Construction of this type of wall system is only advisable when the site is reachable by truck or if material is found on site. The life expectancy of the wall depends on the durability of the cage itself, not necessarily its contents. When the cage wire fails, the wall fails. However, most cages have a life expectancy of fifty years or more while PVC coated baskets last sixty years or more (Mader et al., 2011).

Build

[FIG. 9.2.3] Cage Assembly and Final Prototype

[FIG. 9.2.4] This prototype’s synthetic cage is 2’x2’x2’ and filled with Indiana limestone riprap from a local quarry.

[FIG. 9.2.2] Assembly Process: 1. Cage is laid out. 2. Sides are folded up and bound together by wires 3. Cage is filled with riprap, urbanite, or recycled materials. 4. Cage is closed and wired shut.

117

Gabbion Wall [FIG. 9.2.5] A gabion wall is a modular system made up of volumes. Despite the simplicity of the system, complex forms can be created by staggering and adding varying sizes of cages.

Build [FIG. 9.2.6] Gabion wall systems can be used in a multiude of ways. The synthetic cage can support the growth of vegetation and can also provides a grided structure to hang implements. The caged materials offer structural stabilitity to the system, allowing it to retain the earth and support seating or table surfaces.

119

Timber Frame

Build

Timber Frame Fabrication With an appreciation and understanding of the traditional methods of analog processes in timber frame joinery and construction as well as the benefits that come from rapid prototyping, the need for a balance between analog and digital fabrication arises. Both techniques were tested and both informed the final design of each joint to be used in the construction of the Habitat Hub. The analog and digital dialectic is made apparent in the construction starting with the procurement of ash logs donated by the city of Muncie for use on the project. The trees were cut down and transported to a local sawmill to be cut to the specified sizes that are needed for the project. From this stage, the timbers were then cut to the necessary lengths and moved to the CNC table for the routering of various joints needed for each piece. All the joinery used in this project has been thoroughly researched and tested at a variety of scales before moving into full-scale prototyping to insure its appropriateness for its function within the structure. The smaller scale models helped to grasp an understanding of the strength of the joint as well as how the pieces connect, holding true to the mortise and tenon system as found in Japanese joinery. In full-scale prototyping, the challenges created by the constraints of the three-axis router added another layer of understanding to the limits of the digital fabrication process. Large milling bits were purchased in order to cut the depth required to successfully mill the connection, and jigs were created to insure that the rough sawn timber remained stationary and was aligned properly on the table. After testing several

[FIG. 9.3.1] After gathering the logs, the next step is to have them cut into the sizes needed at a sawmill. 121

Timber Frame connections and gaining a realization of the limitations, decisions were made as to which joints were to be hand-cut and which were to be crafted by the CNC router. After gaining a knowledge base of the material, joinery, and the fabrication process through testing, design modifications could be made to reduce the sizing of the timbers. Designs were reworked to create a different structural system uncommon to the traditional timber frame. A series of V-shaped columns provided the opportunity to distribute loads more effectively while reducing spans and overall lengths of the various members. This allowed for ease of maneuverability and the reduction of waste by gaining more timber out of each tree. This also improved the project from an economical cost perspective as well as provided a stronger design aesthetic. Timber Frame Assembly Assembly of the timber frame is influenced heavily through the development of joinery and the design of the various structural elements. The large frame is erected in a series of steps. First, the bracing members and columns are laid out, assembled together, and pegged to create a rigid bent. Each bent is prefabricated on the ground and then erected by being placed onto its foundation plate. The bents are erected one after another and each is joined to the previous one. These linkage joints are then pegged and the whole assembly is braced for support while the other side is assembled and erected.When both sides are complete, the timber frame is made rigid through a series of connecting beams and lateral bracing members that allow for the temporary supports to be removed. Purlins and roofing materials are then added to the structure to create a complete and covered timber frame assembly.

[FIG. 9.3.2] Fabrication Process: I. Log Constraints: 16â&#x20AC;&#x2122; maximum length and 12â&#x20AC;? maximum diameter 2. Analog Process: A sawmill is used to shape the log 3. Digital Process: 3-axis CNC router is used to create the mortise and tenon joints 4. Analog Process: Pegs put in at the construction site during assembly

Build [FIG. 9.3.3] The analog process at the sawmill uses a large, circular blade to cut the heavy timber into any size you need. Because of this, saw marks are left on the wood, which can be left on in the final design or sanded off.

Milling Options:

123

Timber Frame

Build [FIG. 9.3.4] The digital process takes place on a CNC table. The router used for this project was a 3-axis, so the joint design had to account for those limitations. Once all the joints are cut by both digital and analog processes, they are assembled and pegged by hand. [FIG. 9.3.5] This prototype uses 6”x6”, 4”x4”, and 4”x6” timber members cut from Ash trees from Delaware County, Indiana.

125

Timber Frame

Build [FIG. 9.3.6] Numerous small scale prototypes were used to understand material tolerances, assemblages, and structural performance.

[FIG. 9.3.7] Multiple joints in different configurations and functions were designed and tested to meet aesthetic and structural requirements.

127

Timber Frame

Build

[FIG. 9.3.8] Timber frame assembly: I. Timber frame parts are laid out and dry fit together. 2. Bents are assembled on the ground using wood pegs. 3. Bents are raised and placed on the foundation plates and temporary supports are used to hold the bents in place. 4. Beams and lateral bracing are placed and pegged 5. Purlins are installed and pegged or screwed to the beams. 6. Roofing is screwed down onto the purlins. 129

Design: Head Start Nature Playscape “I really believe that there is something about nature—that when you are in it, it makes you realize that there are far larger things at work than yourself. This helps to put problems in perspective. And it is the only place where the issues facing me do not need immediate attention or resolution. Being in nature can be a way to escape without fully leaving the world.” -Lauren Haring, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 52

[FIG. 10.0.1] Rainy Spring Day in the Head Start Nature Playscape 131

Design is merely a phase in the series of processes that occurs only after proper research, analysis, testing, and prototyping have been performed. Extensive research was performed and literature reviews were developed to gain an understanding of what elements create a natural playscape and how to define â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nature Playâ&#x20AC;?. Our visits to existing playscapes as case studies and learning from the interaction with the teachers and children had a direct influence on the design and the program development of the nature playscape to be built at Head Start Preschool. Along with this, site analysis work was performed to get a well-rounded understanding of the environment where the design will be formulated. Prototyping and material exploration became the next phase of research as the plan for the new Nature Playscape developed, especially in later phases of design development.

As the project continues to move forward, the development of these habitat zones comes in the form of a phased construction plan. This takes into consideration the accumulation of funds through donors, grants, and corporate money. It also allows for further development and detailing of each habitat as they are progressively added to the site.

An essential component that provided a foundation to the project was the community collaboration effort among the teachers, parents, university students and, of course, the children of Head Start. A series of simulations were performed at Head Start, which gave a wonderful opportunity to interact with the children and allowed them to teach us how they learn and play. It also provided an opportunity for teachers to learn how to teach through play in nature and understand its importance and relevance to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; physical, cognitive, and social development. Our research, prototyping, and simulation led to the creation of a variety of elements and features that were included in the design of the playscape. The use of natural materials and the creation of four distinct habitat zones reinforces the idea that nature can be found in many constantly changing forms. The habitats include a wetland, woodland, prairie, and river meadow. These habitats can all be found in Indiana and throughout the Midwest, which instills a sense of place in the children and teaches them about the environment in which they live.

[FIG. 10.0.2] Entrance into the Playscape

Design

133

Phase 1: Habitat Hub, Water Shed, and Simulation Area

Design

The playscape is divided into five phases of development in order to maximize the monetary use as funding becomes available. Phase 1 of development consists of two elements: building the Habitat Hub, which acts as a central gathering and learning space for the playscape, and having a variety of simulation activities within a 100 square foot enclosed area. The Habitat Hub acts as an iconic piece of architecture that utilizes natural materials and houses a variety of free flowing activities such as sand and water play, nature art, and loose parts play. The design originated from nature and was shaped by the abstraction of a tree canopy. V-shaped columns truncate into the ground, supporting the secondary bracing members that act as branches to support the sheltering canopy. The canopy displays moments of transparency that allow light to permeate into the space in various locations while still being filtered by the purlins that hold up the roof structure. The structural design allows the size of the timbers to be kept minimal, keeping loads and spanning distances at a minimum while keeping with the theme of the airy nature of a tree canopy. This simulation area allows university students to learn and interact with children through the testing of design ideas while also allowing the children to immediately have a place to play, learn, and watch the development of the remaining areas in a safe and secure environment.

[FIG. 10.1.1] Head Start Preschool with the 100â&#x20AC;&#x2122;x100â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Simulation Area 135

Phase 1

Infant Playground

Traditional Playground

[FIG. 10.1.2] The schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s circulation is very simple and allows for a clear axial connection to the available 9 acres to the north of the site.

Head Start Preschool

8.83 Acres 388,224 SF

Pla ysc

ape Hub

Pla ygr

Cla

ssr

Woodland + Prairie Wetland

Meadow

The entry to the playscape occurs on this axis that connects all three major functions together: the classrooms, the existing traditional playground, and the new playscape.

The Habitat Hub acts as the distribution point to all four habitats in the playscape: meadow, wetland, woodland, and prairie.

Design [FIG. 10.1.3] The simulation area is a 100â&#x20AC;&#x2122; by 100â&#x20AC;&#x2122; fenced in space designed to provide a sample of the final, completed design. The purpose of this is to allow the children to use the playscape sooner while the rest is being built. There are numerous activities that take place here, including:

Tiny Sprouts Wildlife Watch Tall Grass Tangle Trickle Stream Messy Materials Mud Mash Rock Ramble Water Wall Music & Movement Willow Walk Boulder Mountain Crafty Creations Crazy Climbers Silly Swings Theater Boardwalk Build

In addition to these activity areas, the Habitat Hub and Water Shed are included to provide a place for shelter, storage, and loose parts play.

137

Phase 1 [FIG. 10.1.4] Conceptual Diagram for the Habitat Hub

Abstracted Forest

Undulating roof formed from the tree canopy

Roof folds down to create a screen and splits to designate passage

Columns designed to resemble the branches of a tree

Design

[FIG. 10.1.5] Habitat Hub: South Elevation and Section The gabion wall and rammed earth forms vary in height, function, and purpose in order to create forms that inspire creativity for the children. The exact use and purpose of these forms are undefined; instead, children can use them however they want. 139

Phase 1

Garden

Wildlife Watch

Sand

Loose Parts Tables

Art Tables

Water Play

Music and Movement Human Sundial Hand Washing Station

[FIG. 10.1.6] Habitat Hub Activities

Design

[FIG. 10.1.7] Habitat Hub: North Elevation and Section The timber frame structure was inspired by natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s principles. Primary, secondary, and tertiary members all work together to support the overhead canopy, which shades the spaces below. 141

Phase 1

Design

[FIG. 10.1.9] Habitat Hub: West and East Elevations

[FIG. 10.1.8] Summer in the Habitat Hub 143

Phase 1

Design

[FIG. 10.1.11] Water Shed: West, North, East, and South Elevations [FIG. 10.1.10] Winter at the Head Start Nature Playscape 145

Phase 2-4: Wetland, Meadow, Prairie, and Woodlands

Design

The intermediate phases of the project deal with the primary construction of the various habitats including the wetland, river meadow, woodlands and prairie. Phase 2 of the project deals primarily with the shaping of the site topography through a cut and fill method, creating a more dramatic landscape.With this comes the construction of the trickle stream that runs from the meadow to the wetlands. Paths are also clearly identified in this phase and materials, such as crushed stone, are placed to form them throughout the entire site. Trees of varying sizes and types will be planted to provide immediate shade and to better serve the needs of the playscape. In addition to this, smaller trees will be planted to add a variety and texture to the barren landscape.The third phase adds the wetlands components such as the boardwalk, plants, water sluice, and bird blind as well as the meadow components consisting of the butterfly pavillion, science stations, and calming caves. Phase 4 provides the playscape with the woodlands as well as the prairie. The prairie includes a variety of grasses as well as the skeleton tree, slides, stump and boulder climb, and a fire pit gathering space.The woodland components that will be added include a tree house, planter boxes, climbing logs, and loose parts play for fort building. At the end of this series of phases, the playscape is nearly complete as it moves into its final phase of development.

[FIG. 10.2.1] Fall at the Head Start Nature Playscape 147

Phase 2-4 [FIG. 10.2.2] The construction of the playscape is phased in order to work with a budgeting strategy: Phase 2: Topography, River, Paths, Trees Phase 3: Meadow Components, Wetland Components Phase 4 (left): Woodland Components, Prairie Components Phase 5 (right): Nature Clubhouse Activities within these four habitats: Tree House Wildlife Garden Peek-A-Boo You Take-Out Science Sensory Garden Meadow Nature Art Tables Storage Stumps Music & Movement Meadow Garden Boxes Crazy Climbers Calming Caves Tree Clearing Wetland Walk Skeleton Tree Cattail Corner Prints on the Prairie Maze Wildlife Watch â&#x20AC;&#x153;Campfireâ&#x20AC;? Area Rain Garden Lookout Point Wetland Garden Boxes Rainbow Garden Rock Ramble Hill and Tunnel Mud Mash Dino Dig Sluice Water Channel Butterfly Garden Rammed Earth Storage

Design [FIG. 10.2.3] Plan of the Head Start Nature Playscape Whimsical Woods

Peaceful Prairie

Wetland Wonder River Run

149

Phase 5: Nature Clubhouse

Design

The final phase of construction is the Nature Clubhouse, which utilizes all of the material knowledge and experience gained during the first four phases. This outdoor classroom is designed to take full advantage of the natural materials and their intrinsic qualities. Rammed earth, being a heavy insulator, is used to create the wet core and shield the building from the cold northwest winds. A gabion wall is used to filter views and provides support for a vertical garden on the exterior and shelving on the interior. Timber framing is used to separate the roof from the walls, which allows daylighting to penetrate the interior spaces with a soft glow. The purpose of this outdoor classroom is to extend the amount of time children can spend in the playscape. The activities that take place within all deal with nature and learning from the environment. Along with this, a bathroom, first aid, and storage are provided, which are essential for teachers in order to extend their time outside.

[FIG. 10.3.1] The Nature Clubhouse is able to open up and create a direct access to the surrounding habitats. 151

Phase 5

Transparency Rammed Earth

[FIG. 10.3.2] Conceptual Diagram for the Nature Clubhouse East-West orientation of transparency, rammed earth, and gabion wall

Gabion Wall

Entry Solar Access

Directed View

Wet Core

Gabion wall is slid over to create solar access and direct views into the wetland Rammed earth is folded to create a wet core Transparency is folded to create an entry into the space

Penetrations are put in the gabion wall to allow filtered views to the preschool Penetrations

Rammed earth is split to connect the interior spaces together Transparency opens to allow direct access to nature

Timber frame grid is placed to support roof

Design

[FIG. 10.3.3] Nature Clubhouse: South and North Elevations The gabion wall on the south side plays with shadows by pushing and pulling its fragmented cages to create a dynamic surface that shelters the activities within while providing a climbable surface to sustain a vertical garden. 153

Phase 5

Bathroom Flex Space Mech.

Nature Trail

Reading

Science/Tasting Station

Block Play

Dramatic Play Greenhouse

Greenwall Gardens

[FIG. 10.3.4] Nature Clubhouse Activities

Design

[FIG. 10.3.5] Nature Clubhouse: East and West Sections and Elevations The north, east, and west sides of the clubhouse use operable glass doors to blur the lines between inside and outside. On warm days, classes can open the clubhouse doors and expand their activity space into the outdoors. On cold days, the clubhouse can close its glass doors in order to shelter the children from the harsh winds while still providing visual access to the surrounding landscape. 155

Phase 5

Design

[FIG. 10.3.7] South Elevation Perspective of the Nature Clubhouse

[FIG. 10.3.6] Children Enjoying the Nature Clubhouse 157

Credits and References “We have a small hill, a mound—and for one kid at a certain point in therapy it was a grave; for another, it was the belly of a pregnant woman. The point is obvious: children interpret and give meaning to a piece of landscape, and the same piece can be interpreted differently. Usually, if you [use] traditional puppets and games, there are limits. A policeman puppet is usually a policeman; a kid rarely makes it something else. But with landscape, it’s much more engaging, and you’re giving the child ways of expressing what’s within.” -Sebastiano Santostefano, director of the Institute for Child and Adolescent Development’s Therapeutic Garden, Last Child in the Woods, pg. 53

[FIG. 11.1] Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool’s environment features a variety of wild plants for children to experience. 159

Credits Final Project Book assembled by Christopher M Simmons

Arlitt Playscape written by Jordan A Doyle

Introduction written by Jordan A Doyle and Christopher M Simmons

Simulations written by Jordan A Doyle

Abstract written by Jordan A Doyle and Christopher M Simmons

Site Research and Documentation written by Christopher M Simmons

Project Proposal written by Jordan A Doyle and Christopher M Simmons

Build written by Jordan A Doyle

Methodologies written by Christopher M Simmons

Rammed Earth written by Jordan A Doyle

Design and Build: Rediscovering the Design-Build Practice written by Jordan A Doyle

Gabion Wall written by Jordan A Doyle

Analog and Digital: A Look at Nature’s Materials written by Christopher M Simmons Nature and Play: From Asphalt Playground to Natural Playscape written by Christopher M Simmons Jester Park Natural Playscape written by Jordan A Doyle Dodge Nature Preschool written by Jordan A Doyle M.C.M.’s Rooftop Ramble written by Jordan A Doyle

Timber Frame written by Jordan A Doyle Design written by Jordan A Doyle Phase 1 written by Jordan A Doyle Phase 2-4 written by Jordan A Doyle Phase 5 written by Christopher M Simmons

Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool written by Jordan A Doyle

Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape written by Christopher M Simmons

[5.2.4] “Three Wood Building Methods”

[5.1.1] “Popularity of Design-Build, Design-Bid-Build, and CM at Risk”

[5.1.2] “Benefits of Design-Build over Design-Bid-Build” [5.1.3] “Head Start: Nature Art Simulation” Copyright 2013 by Christopher M Simmons [5.2.1] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Wood” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons

[5.3.4] “Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape: Loose Parts” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [5.3.5] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Sand Pit” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [5.3.6] “Head Start: Painted Landscape” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons 161

[6.6.2] “Arlitt Playscape: Map” from University of Cincinnati, College of Education, Criminal Justice, & Human Services website: http://cech. uc.edu/centers/arlitt.html. Copyright 2012 by University of Cincinnati.

[6.4.7] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Cleanup” Copyright 2012 by Melissa E Klemeyer [6.4.8] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Interior” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [6.4.9] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Exterior” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [6.5.1] “Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape: Bridge” Copyright 2012 by Jordan A Doyle [6.5.2] “Marge and Charles Schott Nature Playscape: Constructive Play with Logs” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons

[6.6.3] “Arlitt Playscape: Log Fort” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [6.6.4] “Arlitt Playscape: Streambed” Copyright 2012 by Jordan A Doyle [6.6.5] “Arlitt Playscape: Loose Parts Play” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [6.6.6] “Arlitt Playscape: Main Entrance and Entry Circle” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons [7.1] “Head Start: Composting” Copyright 2013 by Christopher M Simmons

163

[9.1.3] “Rammed Earth: Process”

[8.2] “Average Temperatures”

[8.3] “Sunshine”

[9.1.5] “Rammed Earth: Prototype”

[8.4] “Precipitation”

[9.1.6] “Rammed Earth: Form”

[8.5] “Topography and Property Line at Head Start”

[9.1.7] “Rammed Earth: Function”

[8.6] “Zones and Dimensions”

[9.1.8] “Rammed Earth: Integration”

[8.7] “Scale of Site Features”

Credits and References [9.2.5] “Gabion Wall: Form”

[10.1.2] “Site Diagram”

[9.2.6] “Gabion Wall: Function”

[10.1.3] “Simulation Area Plan”

[10.1.4] “Habitat Hub: Conceptual Diagram”

[10.1.5] “Habitat Hub: South Elevation and Section” [10.1.6] “Habitat Hub: Plan” [10.1.7] “Habitat Hub: North Elevation and Section”

[9.3.5] “Timber Frame: Prototype”

[10.1.9] “Habitat Hub: West and East Elevations”

[9.3.7] “Timber Frame: Joinery Designs”

[10.1.11] “Water Shed: Elevations”

[9.3.8] “Timber Frame: Assembly”

Credits [10.3.2] “Clubhouse: Conceptual Diagram” [10.3.3] “Clubhouse: South and North Elevations” [10.3.4] “Clubhouse: Floor Plan” [10.3.5] “Clubhouse: East and West Sections and Elevations” [10.3.6] “Clubhouse: Interior 2” Copyright 2013 by Christopher M Simmons [10.3.7] “Clubhouse: South Perspective” Copyright 2013 by Christopher M Simmons [11.1] “Schlitz Audubon Nature Preschool: Purple Flowers” Copyright 2012 by Christopher M Simmons

Credits and References

167

References The American Institute of Architects, AIA (2003). The Architects Guide to Design-Build Services. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Blakemore, C. L. (2003, Nov/Dec). Movement is Essential to Learning. In Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(9).

ARCADY. (2009, August 5). Jester Park Natural Playscape, Granger, Iowa, RDG Planning and Design, 2008. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from http://playgrounddesigns.blogspot.com/2009/08/jester-parknatural-playscape-granger.html.

Brehony, K. J. (2004). Theories of Play. In Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood In History and Society. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from http://www.faqs.org/childhood/Th-W/Theories-of-Play.html.

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