Who is a Jew by Cohn-Sherbok

Who is a Jew?

In recent years a number of books have been published dealing with the concept of insiders and outsiders in Judaism. Such studies as Lawrence Wills, Not God's People: Insiders and Outsiders in the Biblical World, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2013; David Baile, Insider/Outsider: American Jews and Multiculturalism, University of California Press, 1998; Chaim Zimmerman, Torah and Reason: Insiders and Outsiders of Torah, He'd Press, 1979; and BenAmy Shilony, The Jews and the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders, Tuttle Publishing 1992 explore this issue from a wide range of perspectives. The aim of this chapter is to provide a panoramic overview of this issue and to sketch briefly a new constructive and inclusive approach to the insider/outsider question in modern Jewish life.

The Jewish faith has been in existence for nearly 4,000 years.Yet, paradoxically in modern times it has become increasingly unclear who belongs to the Jewish community, and who does not. Across the religious spectrum, there are conflicting interpretations of the criteria for determining Jewishness. In addition, there currently exist a wide variety of branches of Judaism as well as Jewish groups who hold radically divergent philosophies of the Jewish way of life. This has made it increasingly difficult to determine who is an insider and who is an outsider in the Jewish world and how the Jewish religion should be observed. Given such uncertainty, arguably there is now a need for a new vision of Judaism which would enable individuals to live Jewish lives according to their own personal preferences. Jewish identity, belief and practice would in this way become a matter of individual choice and thereby alleviate the current confusion which exists in the Jewish world.

Jewish Status

In the Hebrew Bible, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally--Jewishness was inherited from the father. Yet, in the Hellenistic period there was a fundamental change in perception. According to the Mishnah (the first compilation of rabbinic law), the offspring of a mixed marriage is

determined matrilineally; in such cases, the status of the child is determined by the mother. This change may have taken place because tannaitic scholars during the Hellenistic period were influenced by Roman law which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, the offspring would follow the mother.

Through the centuries, rabbinic law has followed Mishnaic precedent. Hence, according to halakha, to determine a person's Jewish status, one needs to consider the status of both parents. If both parents are Jewish, their child is regarded as Jewish, and the child takes the status of the father (for example, if he is a cohen (priest)). If either parent is subject to a genealogically disability (such as being a mamzer), then the child inherits that disability. If one of the parents is not Jewish, the child takes the status of the mother (1). Thus, if the mother is Jewish, her child is Jewish as well. However, if she is not Jewish, then neither she nor her child is regarded as Jewish. Only if the child is converted, is he or she regarded as a Jew. In such a case (where the child is not regarded as Jewish), a male child is not subject to any disabilities or special status (such as being cohen) to which the father is subject.

Today all branches of Orthodox Judaism (including the Hasidim) as well as Conservative Judaism subscribe to these halakhic rules concerning maternal descent. British Reform and Liberal Judaism, however, do not view the halakhic rules as binding. Instead, they accept a child of either Jewish parent, regardless whether it is the father or mother, as Jewish as long as the parents raise the child as a Jew and encourage the child to have a Jewish identity.

In the United States, Reform rabbis regard a person with one Jewish parent as a Jew if there have been 'appropriate and timely public formal acts of identification within the Jewish religion and people.' This includes such events as a Jewish naming ceremony, circumcision, and bar and bat mitzvah ceremonies. Individual Reform rabbis interpret these criteria in different ways; hence there is considerable variation in practice. The central principle is that a child should have a Jewish upbringing.

Such a shift away from the traditional understanding of matrilineal descent has created considerable controversy within the Jewish

world. Orthodox and Conservative communities do not recognise a person as Jewish if only the father is Jewish. Reform and Liberal Jews, however, regard that person as a born Jew. For such an individual to be accepted as Jewish by an Orthodox or Conservative synagogue requires formal conversion in accordance with Orthodox standards.

Turing to conversion, all mainstream forms of Judaism accept converts. According to rabbinic Judaism, the laws of conversion are based on law codified in the Shulkhan Arukh (Code of Jewish Law). For Orthodox and Conservative Jews, this legislation is authoritative. Traditionally the halakhic requirements for conversion include instruction in the commandments, circumcision for men, immersion in a mikveh (ritual bath) before witnesses, and acceptance of the mitzvot (commandments). Orthodox authorities demand that conversions take place in accordance with Jewish law and recognise only those conversions that have taken place in the prescribed manner. Converts must accept the binding nature of Jewish law and undertake to follow these prescriptions in their daily life. Orthodox authorities do not accept as valid conversions preformed outside the Orthodox fold. Similarly, Conservative authorities require that conversions are conducted according to the halakha. In general they recognise any conversion done in accordance with the requirements of Jewish law, even if it is done outside the Conservative movement. As a result, in some instances Conservative rabbis accept the validity of Reform conversions as long as Jewish law has been followed.

Reform Judaism, however, has significantly departed from tradition. The Union for Reform Judaism states that people considering conversion are expected to study about Judaism and incorporate Jewish practices into their lives. The length of preparation for conversion varies depending on the rabbi, but in general this takes about a year. The Central Conference of American Rabbis recommends that three rabbis are present at the conversion ceremony. In Israel the Rabbinic Court of the the Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism requires an average of a year of study. Following this, converts are required to immerse in a mikvah, be circumcised if male, and accept the commandments before a rabbinical court. In general Reform converts are not accepted by the Orthodox establishment.

According to rabbinic law, Jews of maternal descent who convert to another faith are regarded as apostates but remain Jews. Traditionally such individuals have a ban (cherem) placed on them, but such communal exclusion does not affect their Jewish status. Traditional Judaism also views as Jewish those who involuntarily converted from Judaism to another religion, and their matrilineal descendants are also considered to be Jewish. Reform Judaism, however, views Jews who convert to or are raised in another religion as non-Jews. Any Jew who leaves Judaism is free to return to the religion at any time, and no formal conversion ceremony is required. All movements welcome the return to Judaism of those who have left, or were raised in another faith. It is expected that such individuals will discard their previous practices and adopt Jewish customs. It should be noted that in addition to those officially affiliate with the major religious denominations, there are millions of ethnic Jews who are Jewish by virtue of descent, but do not actively practice the Jewish religion.

Since the creation of the State of Israel, in 1948, the Law of Return was enacted to grant any Jew the right to immigrate to Israel and become a citizen. However, due to an inability of the lawmakers to agree, this Law did not define who is a Jew. Besides the generally accepted rabbinic definition of who is a Jew based on maternal descent, the Law extended the categories of person who are entitled to immigration and citizenship to the children and grandchildren of Jews, regardless of their present religious affiliation as well as their spouses. Also, converts to Judaism whose conversion was preformed outside the State of Israel, regardless of under whose auspices it took place, are entitled to immigration under the Law. However, any person who has converted to another religion is not entitled to immigration regardless of their halakhic position.

In Israel, anyone who immigrated after 1990 and wishes to marry or divorce through the Jewish tradition must undergo a Judaism test at a rabbinical court. In this test, the person would need to prove their claim to be Jewish beyond a reasonable doubt.. This involves presenting original documentation of maternal descent up to their great-grandmother. In addition, they are obliged to provide government documents with nationality/religion shown as Jewish. In the case of those whose original documents have been lost or

never existed, it may prove difficult to demonstrate their Jewish status. Halakhic law also applies to burial which is under the jurisdiction of the Israeli Interior Ministry.

Jewish Denominations

Alongside the debate concerning the status of individuals within the Jewish community, Jewry is deeply divided about the legitimacy of the various forms of Judaism that have emerged in the modern world. Strictly Orthodox Judaism in its various forms regards itself as the only authentic Jewish way of life; all other branches are viewed as heretical. Other branches of Judaism, however, view themselves as legitimate interpretations of the faith more suited to modern circumstances. Hence, in the modern Jewish world there is profound disagreement about the fundamental beliefs and practices of the Jewish faith.

Orthodox Judaism

Traditionally Jewish life centred around the observance of the law. It was an article of faith that the Torah was given to Moses in its entirety by God. Therefore it must be true in every detail. In handing down the Torah, Moses acted like a scribe, writing from dictation. Thus the whole Torah is literally the word of God. This conviction has sustained the Jewish community through persecution and disaster, from the loss of the Temple in CE 70, through the experience of exile and during periods of persecution and massacre. Together with the oneness of God, it has been an essential element of the Jewish creed.

In modern society the findings of biblical criticism and general scepticism have undermined this view of the Torah. Nonetheless, the faithful adhere to doctrine of Torah MiSinai (the Torah is from Mt Sinai). The Orthodox define themselves as those who remain true to the doctrine that the Five Books of Moses is from Heaven. This has enormous practical consequence of their day-to-day life since they follow not only the provisions of the Pentateuch, but also all the manifold details of the Oral Law. This means that they must live in a particular area of a city because mechanical transport is forbidden on the Sabbath, and they must walk to synagogue. Many

of the men attend synagogue daily, and within the synagogue building, the women sit separately often behind a thick screen.

Birth control is frowned on except for strict medical reasons and a large family is viewed as a blessing. Men and women have clearly demarcated roles. A women must keep a kosher home, following all the complicated food laws. She should look after and sustain her family and dedicate herself to their nerds. She is excused from the positive time-bound commandments (such as saying prayers three times a day) to enable her to run her household smoothly. Totally faithful to her husband, she must dress modestly and ensure her daughters go the same. The children attend Jewish schools where boys and girls are taught separately and follow different curricula. The boys must study traditional Jewish law, and after they leave school they normally attend a yeshiva (talmudic academy) for several years before earning a living. Young people normally marry in their early twenties and the matches are supervised by their parents. It is common for parents to support the newly wed couple while the husband finishes his education.

Despite this pattern, there are within the Orthodox community a variety of approaches to the Jewish way of life. The Strictly Orthodox are mainly Jews of Eastern European origin who aim to reproduce the lifestyle of their ancestors who lived in Russia, Poland and Lithuania. Large numbers have settled in Israel where they exert considerable influence through their own political parties, but there are also groups in most large European and American cities. In addition there are Oriental Jews who trace their origins back to the ancient communities of the East. They have their own synagogues and liturgy. Like their Eastern European counterparts, they insist that the Torah was directly given by God to Moses on Mt Sinai, but they have their own specific traditions.

A significant new Orthodox group emerged in the nineteenth century under the leadership of Samson Raphael Hirsch. In his view, it is possible to remain an Orthodox Jew while being fully conversant with modern culture. This view, known as NeoOrthodoxy promotes strict observance of biblical and rabbinic law; nonetheless, adherents have no hesitation in dressing in modern Western fashion and attending secular universities. The majority of Orthodox synagogues in Britain and the United States are of this

type. In some men and women even sit together. Although the NeoOrthodox often send their children to Jewish schools, girls and boys are educated in the same classroom and follow the same curriculum. Many Neo-Orthodox girls would expect to have their own professional careers, and it is likely that the number of children in the family is planned.

Orthodox Judaism should not be regarded as an organised movement, and there is a certain degree of disagreement among the various groups. Nonetheless, the Orthodox are united in the conviction that the Torah was given directly by God to Moses, and in their unwavering disapproval of the more liberal forms of Judaism. In their view, the various branches of the Judaism (Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic Judaism) are aberrations of the true faith. Orthodox Judaism in its various forms has an influence far beyond its numerical strength, partly because Orthodox Jews are regarded with a degree of awe by their more secular co-religionists and also because they have control of the religious establishment in the State of Israel. (2)

Hasidism

The most visible group among the Orthodox are the Hasidim. The word hasidim means 'the pious', and the Hasidim are known for their spiritual devotion. They are immediately recognisable. The men are bearded and wear side-curls which are twisted and tucked behind their ears. They are invariable dressed in black--large black hats worn over small black skull-caps, black jacket, plain black grousers and black shoes and socks. Their shirts are white, buttoned up to the neck and worn without a tie. Issuing forth from the waistband of their trousers are the ritual fringes which are attached to their undergarments. They are generally tucked into trouser pockets. On the Sabbath, the men exchange their weekday jacket for a long black silk coat, and instead of the everyday hat, many wear large fur hats. As with all strictly Orthodox Jews the women follow rules of modesty. Their skirts cover their knees; their sleeves extend over their elbows, and their necklines are high. If women are married, they wear wigs. In general Hasidic families are large, often with five children or more.

The origins of Hasidism date from the 18th century. The founder, Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, emphasised personal piety and mystical worship. As the movement spread throughout Eastern Europe, it centred around the court of various spiritual leaders, known as the tsaddikim, who were viewed as possessing extraordinary powers. When a tsaddik died, he was succeeded by a prominent disciple, often his own son, son-in-law or grandson. The tsaddikim were believed to have a special relationship with God. His prayers protected him and his followers, and in some cases the tsaddikim performed miracles. Due to role as spiritual leader of his community, it was regarded as an honour to sit at his Sabbath meal and share in his leftovers. In the courts of the tsaddikim it was common for their to be dancing and singing on festivals.

European Hasidic dynasties were subsequently devastated by the Nazi Holocaust. Nonetheless, Hasidism has survived, particularly in the United States and Israel. Today the most prominent groups are the Belz, the Ger, the Satmar, and the Lubavitcher Hasidim. The latter is the best known of these groups since their mission is to bring secular Jews back to the tradition. The late tsaddik, Menahem Mendel Schneersohn, was viewed by a number of his followers as the long-anticipated Messiah. When he died in 1994, the movement was in disarray since he left no son as his successor. In the past there was considerable friction between the Orthodox establishment and the Hasidim. Traditionalists believed that the movement was excessive in its spiritual orientation. In their view, the Hasidim was disrespectful of their rabbinic establishment. In addition, the veneration of the tsaddik was viewed as a form of idolatry. Further, the emphasis of the movement on mystical joy rather than Talmudic study was regarded as heretical. Bills of excommunication were issued against Hasidic groups. Children who joined the movement were disowned, and families were divided. More recently, however, traditional Orthodox Jews have embraced the Hasidim. Even though they have different liturgies and customs, they are united in their adherence to Jewish law and religious belief. (3)

Conservative Judaism

Among religious Jews, the great divide is between the Orthodox and non-Orthodox. Non-Orthodox Judaism emerged in respond to Jewish participation in mainstream civilisation. Increasingly Western European Jews became uncomfortable with the traditional service. Many Jews were unable to read Hebrew and some of the traditional doctrines and practices were perceived as irrelevant to modern life. Hymns and prayers were offered in German; choirs were introduced into synagogues; and services were conducted with decorum. Later in the nineteenth century, an attempt was made to study the evolution of the Jewish faith. Adopting some of the advances made in biblical scholarship, reformers maintained that the Torah was a composite work originating during various periods of Jewish history.

Unlike Reform Judaism which adopted a radical approach to the tradition, Conservative Judaism arose in reaction to the policies of 19th century Reformers. Standing midway between Orthodoxy and Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism seeks to retain the central features of the faith while modifying Jewish belief and practice. The two founders of Conservative Judaism were Zechariah Frankel and Solomon Schechter. Both understood the Jewish tradition in dynamic terms. They believed that Judaism has evolved through the centuries and that the ultimate source of authority must be the Jewish people themselves. In this light, they argued that some aspects of the tradition are permanent, whereas others are only meaningful during certain periods.

Today Conservative Judaism covers a wide variety of beliefs and practices and there are considerable tensions within the movement. Nonetheless, Conservative leaders are agreed about a series of key principles. In various official statements the movement affirms that historical development of the traditions had constantly taken place., and that the tradition continues to develop. Furthermore, Conservative leaders affirm the indispensability of the Halakha [Jewish law] but insist that it needs to change according to contemporary needs. In recent years the Conservative movement has spread beyond the United States. In Israel and Great Britain there are now small Conservative organisations known as the Masorti (traditional). (4)

Reconstructionist Judaism

Alongside Conservative Judaism, a new more radical approach emerged from within the movement. Founded in the 1930s Reconstructionist Judaism is based on the writings of Mordecai Kaplan. According to Kaplan, Judaism should not be understood not as a divinely revealed religion. In his view, God is not a supernatural being, but the sum of all the animating, organising forces and relationships which are forever making a cosmos out of chaos.

In the 1940s and 1950s the leaders of Reconstructionist Judaism insisted they were not attempting to form a new branch of Judaism. Throughout this period, Reconstructionists hoped they would be able to infuse Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism with its ideas. However, by the end of the 1960s the Reconstructionist movement had become a separate denomination. It had founded a seminary to train rabbis and instituted a congregational structure. Regarding halakha or Jewish law, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association issued a statement at its 1980 convention that placed authority in the Jewish people (as opposed to the rabbis) and created a process whereby each congregation would be free to form its own minhag, or 'customs.' Three year later the Association produced guidelines on intermarriage, encouraging rabbis to welcome mixed coupes (a Jew and non-Jew), permit them to participate in Jewish synagogue life, and recognise their children as Jewish if raised as Jews. In addition, the Association decreed that rabbis could sanctify an intermarriage as long as it was accompanied by civil, rather than a religious, ceremony. (5)

Reform Judaism

At the end of the 18th century such advocates of Jewish enlightenment as Moses Mendelssohn encouraged Jews to integrate into the societies in which they lived. Later early reformers sought to modify Jewish education by widening the traditional curriculum of Jewish schools. During this period a number of Reform temples were opened in Germany with innovations to the liturgy, including prayers and sermons in German as well as choral singing and organ

music. The main aim of these reformers was to adapt Jewish worship to contemporary aesthetic standards.

In response to these developments, the Orthodox asserted that any change to the tradition is a violation of the Jewish heritage. For these traditionalists, the Written and Oral Torah constitute an infallible chain of divinely revealed truth. Despite this reaction, some German rabbis began to reevaluate the Jewish heritage. In this endeavour the achievements of Jewish scholars who engaged in the scientific study of Judaism had a profound impact. Eventually a series of Reform synods were held in Germany to formulate the guiding principles of the movement. In England and the United States similar developments took place. Eventually in 1885 at a gathering of Reform rabbis in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, a programme of reform was set forth in the Pittsburgh Platform.

Fifty years later, the Jewish world had undergone major changes: America had become the centre of the diaspora; Zionism had become a vital force in Jewish life; Hitler was in power. In 1937 The Columbus Platform reflected a new approach to liberal Judaism. In later years the Reform movement underwent further change. In the 1960s new liturgies were used, and in the 1970s a new Reform prayer book was published. Two years later the first woman rabbi was ordained, and by the early 1980s more than 75 women had entered the rabbinate. In 1976 the Reform movement produced the San Francisco Platform; more recently another platform was issued by the Central Conference of American Rabbis. At the onset of the 21st century, this rabbinic body set out a new statement that affirmed the central tenets of Judaism--God, Torah and Israel--while acknowledging the diversity of Reform Jewish belief and practice. (6)

Humanistic Judaism

Like Reconstructionist Judaism, Humanistic Judaism offers a nontheistic interpretation of the Jewish faith. Originating in the 1960s in Detroit under the leadership of Sherwin Wine, Humanistic Judaism now numbers about 40,000 members in the United States, Israel, Europe and elsewhere. The movement originated in 1965 when the Birmingham Temple in a suburb of Detroit began to publicise its philosophy of Judaism. Eventually a magazine, Humanistic Judaism,

was created. Later two new Humanistic congregations were established in Illinois and Connecticut. In 1969 the Society for Humanistic Judaism was founded to provide a basis for cooperation among Humanistic Jews. During the next ten years new congregations were established in Boston, Toronto, Los Angeles, Washington, Miami, Long Beach and Huntington, New York. In subsequent years Secular Humanistic Judaism became an international movement with supporters on five continents.

In 1986 The Federation of the movement issued a proclamation stating its ideology and aims. According to this document, Humanistic Jews value human reason and the reality of the world which reason discloses. In their view, the natural universe stands on its own, requiring no supernatural intervention. In this light, Humanists believe in the value of human existence and in the power of human beings to solve their problems individually and collectively. Life, the movement maintains, should be directed to the satisfaction of human needs. In their view, Judaism, is a human creation--it embraces all manifestations of Jewish existence.

The Jewish people, Humanists insist, is a world with a pluralistic culture and civilisation all its own. Judaism as the culture of the Jews, is thus more than theological content. It encompasses many languages, a vast body of literature, historical memories and ethical values. Yet, unlike other modern movements, Humanistic Judaism seeks to welcome all people who wish to identify with Jewish culture and destiny. Hence, Humanists have redefined the notion of Jewishness. A Jew, they state, is a person of Jewish descent or any person who declares himself or herself to be a Jew, and who identifies with the history, ethical values, culture, civilisation and community of the Jewish nation. (7)

Reformulating Jewishness

As we have noted, there is considerable debate in Jewish circles about the definition of Jewishness. Across the Jewish spectrum there are a wide range of views about Jewish heredity and conversion. As a consequence, in the modern world there are serious differences of opinion about what makes a person Jewish. In

addition, there is considerable confusion about how Judaism is to be practiced. Is there any solution to this profound dilemma? In the light of the wide variety of interpretations of the Jewish faith, it is clear that the absolutism of the past has been superseded by a new understanding of Judaism. Given the multiplicity of views about Jewish belief and practice, arguably Jews who belong to the various movements should no longer regard regard their interpretations of the tradition as absolute and binding. Rather they should accept that Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, Reconstructionist and Humanistic Jews make personal choices about how Judaism is to be observed based on subjective interpretations of the Jewish heritage.

Such openness offers a new orientation to the current perplexities regarding Jewish identity. A solution to this problem is to apply a non-dogmatic interpretation of religious doctrine to the issue of Jewishness. Given such a view, there is no reason to regard the traditional halakhic understanding of Jewishness as absolute and binding. Instead, Jewish identity could be redefined along the lines suggested by Humanistic Judaism. As we have seen, Humanistic Jews are anxious to avoid any form of racism in their definition of Jewishness. Nor do they seek to impose a religious test on converts. Rather, they desire to accept within the Jewish fold all those who wish to identify themselves with the Jewish people regardless of birth.

Similarly an open approach to Judaism--with its emphasis on personal autonomy--could offer a similar definition of Jewishness. Distancing itself from either biological descent or correct belief and practice, such a stance would welcome as Jews all those, regardless of ancestry, who desire to be identified in this fashion. On this basis, Jewish identity would be solely a matter of individual choice. In other words, Jewishness would be construed as as an optional identification rather than the result of matrilineal or patrilineal descent or religious conviction formally accepted by a rabbinic body. Being a Jew would then be an option open to all. Although such a reinterpretation of Jewish status would not be acceptable to the major branches of Judaism, it would eliminate the uncertainty surrounding the question: Who is a Jew? The simple answer would be: all those who wish to adopt such an identification.

Such openness also challenges dogmatism about Jewish belief. Within this framework the theological systems of the various branches of contemporary Judaism should be viewed as subjective religious assumptions. The implications of this shift from the absolutism of the past to a new understanding of Judaism are radical and far reaching. The various branches of modern Judaism including non-theisitic movements have advanced absolute, universal truth claims about the nature of God and the world. Yet, it should be accepted that there can be no way of attaining complete certainty about these beliefs. A cardinal aspect of this new way of viewing the various branches of Judaism is the appropriateness of modifying the tradition according to personal needs. This signifies that all theological concepts should be amenable to change. Hence the modifications to traditional Orthodox teaching proposed by Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist and Humanistic rabbis should be regarded as admissible. Moreover, there should be no compulsion for such altered notions to be accepted by all members of the community.

Such openness similarly offers a new foundation for dealing with Jewish practice. Advancing the principle of personal autonomy, it celebrates freedom of choice as a cardinal virtue. What is crucial is the freedom such a view gives to individuals to determine for themselves which Jewish practices they find spiritually significant. At its core is its advocacy of freedom of choice in selecting those mitzvot which the person wishes to include in his or her religious observance. Unlike the past where centralised religious coercion dominated Jewish life, it is the individual who is ultimately responsible for determining how to live as a modern Jew.

Conclusion

Today, as we have seen, the Jewish community is deeply divided over questions of Jewish identity as well as belief and practice. To meet the challenge of such diversity, it has been suggested that Jews adopt a liberal stance of toleration. It might be assumed that such openness is at odds with the nature of modern Jewish life: the various movements we have surveyed embrace varying systems of belief and practice and appear unwilling to tolerate variant interpretations of the tradition. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that Jews worldwide--other than the strictly Orthodox---choose which

aspects of the Jewish faith they wish to embrace. In all cases this is a personal decision determined by subjective criteria. There has thus been a fundamental shift in orientation from the past. Prior to the emancipation of Jewry in the 18th and 19th centuries, the rabbinic establishment dominated Jewish existence. Rabbinic authorities were thus able to impose their own religious demands on the community. In contemporary society, this is no longer the case. Instead there is a widespread recognition and acceptance of the subjective character of Jewish existence--such diversity of approach should be perceived as an non-authoritative answer to the question who is a Jew?.

(1) (Kiddushin 66b; Shulhan Arukh , EH 4:19

(2) See J Sacks, One People? Tradition, Modernity and Jewish Unity, Littman Library, 1993

(3) See H. Rabinowicz, Hasidism:The Movement and its Masters, Jason Aaronson, 1988

(4) Adler, Morris, 'The Philosophy of the Conservative Movement', Review )USA), 16, no. 4, (Winter)

(5) See Mordecai Kaplan, Judaism as a Civilisation, Schocken Books, 1967

(6) See M Meyer, Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism, Oxford Univers Press, 1988

(7) See S. Wine, Judaism Beyond God, Society for Humanistic Judaism, 1985