Chapter 2: Anglo-Saxon rule

Unit 10: The Mongols Chinggis Khan

In the 13th century, a people called the Mongols carried out the most rapid and far-reaching series of conquests the world has ever known.

The Mongols conquered China, Russia, central Asia, and parts of India, the Middle East and Europe. Their fi rst leader was Chinggis Khan, arguably the greatest warlord in the history of the world.

Who was Chinggis?

The Mongols lived to the north of China on the steppe, a fl at and grassy region that stretches across much of Eurasia. Their nomadic lifestyle was based on horses. They learned to ride and shoot arrows from the age of three, lived in tents, ate meat but few vegetables, and drank mare’s milk. Mongol women had much greater independence than most women in neighbouring China, and could hunt and fi ght alongside men. When Chinggis was born, around 1160, the Mongols were divided into many warring tribes. Chinggis was originally named Temüjin, meaning blacksmith. His father was killed by a rival tribe when Temüjin was eight or nine, and he was left to fend for himself on the steppe. Soon he became a follower of Toghril, the most powerful khan (chieftan) in Mongolia. But Temüjin’s intelligence and strong personality won him followers of his own, and eventually he defeated Toghril in battle and went on to unite the Mongol tribes under his leadership. The Mongols believed in giving loyalty to rulers who were successful in war, so Temüjin’s military skill won him widespread support. By 1206 he was khagan (supreme ruler) of all the Mongols. Temüjin was given the title Chinggis Khan, meaning ‘Fierce Lord’. Chinggis valued loyalty above all else, but he was ruthless to his enemies. After becoming khagan, Chinggis began a series of conquests that would last for the rest of his life. These conquests were at fi rst driven by many factors, including Chinggis’ need to keep his men’s loyalty by success in war and his desire to win control of the trade routes along the Silk Road. However, the conquests soon went beyond these original motives, growing into a seemingly endless expansion of Mongol power.

Chinggis at war

The fi rst place that Chinggis attacked beyond the steppe was the Jin empire that ruled northern China. Chinggis invaded in 1211 and had conquered most of their territories by 1215. Next, he turned towards the west. Most of central Asia at this time was ruled by an Islamic state called the Khwarazmian Empire. Originally, Chinggis seems to have had no intention of attacking them; instead, he sent a caravan of Mongol envoys to a Khwarazmian border town named Otrar, to request peace and the right to trade. However, the governor of Otrar massacred these Mongol

Fact

Chinggis Khan is sometimes called Genghis Khan, which is a Persian version of his name.

Chinggis Khan

envoys. Chinggis then sent an envoy directly to the Khwarazmian Shah (ruler), demanding that the governor be handed over to the Mongols for punishment. The Shah had the envoy killed. Determined to punish them, Chinggis invaded the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219. Two of central Asia’s greatest cities, Bukhara and Samarkand, were dramatically sacked in order to set an example of what the Mongol horde could do. After capturing Bukhara, Chinggis is said to have gathered the leading men of the city in their mosque and declared before them: “I am the scourge of God.” Neighbouring cities submitted immediately rather than risk the same fate, and the Khwarazmian Shah fl ed to an island in the Caspian Sea. Meanwhile, the Shah’s son fl ed south into Persia, where Chinggis pursued him and conquered yet more cities. Chinggis then split his forces in two. He led an army east through Afghanistan into northern India before heading back northward into Mongolia. Meanwhile, his generals Sübetei and Jebe led their hordes westward through Persia, then turned north to move through the Caucasus – the mountainous land bridge that connects the Middle East with southern Russia. After vanquishing a Russian army, Sübetei and Jebe returned to Mongolia to reunite with Chinggis. All this success was due to the Mongols’ tough, disciplined cavalry army, with men trained in hunting and fi ghting from early childhood. Chinggis also understood the power of fear: often he would dramatically sack one city in order to terrify a whole region into surrendering. When Chinggis Khan died in 1227, he had conquered more of the world than anybody in human history.

A modern re-enactment of a Mongol horde

Fact

The Mongols learnt new tactics quickly. Despite having no experience of siege warfare, Chinggis was quick to realise how powerful siege weapons could be. He took the city of Nishapur in Persia in 1221 by using 3000 giant crossbows and 300 catapults.

Check your understanding

1. What made the culture of the Mongols unusual? 2. How did Chinggis Khan become khagan of all the Mongols? 3. Why did Chinggis attack the Khwarazmian Empire? 4. What regions of the world had the Mongols conquered by the time of Chinggis’ death in 1227? 5. What was the purpose of sacking cities such as Bukhara and Samarkand?