1.5. Additional information

2.1.3. THEMATIC FOCUS: SPATIAL STRATEGIES FOR A CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Economic growth and the depletion of natural resources are interrelated developments, because the dominant process underlying growth is a linear one, that converts resources into waste. During this process, which stretches from mining, to producing and consuming, and then disposing, capital is removed from the natural environment and the value of natural resources is reduced. From the industrial revolution onward, depletion has been neglected. It is only since recently that the negative environmental eff ects of uninhibited, linear economic growth have caught public attention. Awareness is fostered by emblematic development such as the pollution of oceans by plastic. Awareness is also fostered by the growing recognition that our linear way of producing, consuming and disposing is economically unfeasible. The world’s population will grow to nine billion people by 2050. There is agreement that an exponentially growing demand, combined with the fi nite supply of resources, will lead to scarcity, strong price fl uctuations and, eventually, crisis.

According to Geldermans et al. (2018), the concept ‘circular economy’ emphasizes on environmentally and economically sustainable ways of using natural capital and resources. A circular economy is an economy that accommodates resources to fl ow through human-made and natural systems in renewable ways, creating or retaining value through slowed, closed or narrowed loops, rather than rapidly destructing value through the creation of waste (cfr. linear economy). This value can manifest itself in monetary principles as well as social, ecological or economic principles, taking into account potential trade-off s. Important in this notion is the establishment of productionconsumption-use systems built on restorative resources in optimal fl ows. Optimal fl ows imply that 22 URBANISM

Locations of businesses in (from top to bottom) (1) construction- and demolition, (2) agri- and horticulture, and (3) production of plastics. Source: Drift and Metabolic, 2018. cycles are closed or connected at spatially and temporally favourable conditions, i.e. where and when most appropriate (highest possible value, possibly via cascading loops). Moreover, changes in one part of the system should not incite negative externalities. Of particular interest for this studio are impacts on spatial quality. From that perspective we also takes the notion of wastescapes (open spaces as well as built form) into consideration. Experimentation with the concept in Southern Holland has led to the identifi cation of issues that deserve particular attention in the transition of the region towards more circularity. large-scale use of renewable bio-based raw materials (under consideration of ‘fair share’-principles for biomass), as well as the application of a variety of supportive organisational and business models (such as leasing). During a transition period, the province wants to align eff orts with in particular the energy transition. It also wants to focus on mitigating negative externalities of real estate development, through for instance supporting measures that extend the life of the built environment, avoid new construction, and enhance urban mining and circular demolition through coordinated area development.

Towards a circular construction- and demo-

lition sector - The South-Holland construction sector generates approximately € 13 billion per year, and entails around 33,000 businesses and 105,000 jobs in the building of homes, commercial buildings and roads (Drift and Metabolic, 2018). It is estimated that around 40% of all raw material fl ows within the provincial territory are generated by the sector and that it produces with around four million tons the largest waste stream in the region. Waste materials – in particular stony rubble - are reused but usually thereby undergo a process of down-cycling. Less than 3% of concrete granulate is turned back into concrete, for an instance. The negative balance is expected to worsen due to the ongoing energy transition. The rapid building of solar fi elds and wind farms - the latter for a large part on the North Sea - are expected to produce massive material return fl ows in the future. Aligned with a series of other policy agendas (Transitieteam Circulaire Bouweconomie, 2018, Ministerie van I&M, 2016), the Province of South Holland therefore strives for a fully circular construction economy in 2050. In a dedicated strategy, it seeks for a wider, diversifi ed and more value-sustaining re-use of construction waste, a circular design of the entire construction chain, a

Towards a circular agri-food sector -The South Holland agri-food sector covers half of the province’s surface, produces six million tons of products with a value of € 5.5 billion annually, and entailed around 16,500 businesses and 103,000 jobs in 2016 (Drift and Metabolic, 2018). The sector is an important driver of prosperity and innovation in the region but produces vast negative environmental externalities. Around one million animals consume 1.3 million tons of cattle feed yearly, and produce immense amounts of manure. Inputs such as soy, fertilizer, antibiotics, and pesticides generate a variety of serious ecological disturbance. Greenhouse horticulture, a key agri-food sector in Zuid-Holland, consumes large amounts of water and energy from fossil sources to produce food, fl owers and greenery. In alignment with a dedicated national agenda (Ministerie van I&M, 2016), the province of South Holland therefore seeks for the agri-food sector’s transition towards more circularity. Focus is on a reduced use of natural resources, the closure of nutrient cycles, and the recycling of residual fl ows. The transition is also strongly associated with more deliberate, wider and higher-quality applications of biomass. Because biomass plays an important role in many plausible production and consumption circles, its use implies great SPATIAL STRATEGIES FOR THE GLOBAL METROPOLIS 23

potential for an integrated circular economy. Preconditions in this context are the integration of main and green port economies, the diversifi cation of agricultural production across the region, and new respective urban-rural relations. However, while an increased reliance of economic sectors on biomass is desirable, it is also requires scrutiny. Simultaneous use of bio-based materials for e.g. construction, energy production, and packaging may, for instance, threat food security or lead to the depletion of natural habitats. Any strategy for a circular bio-based economy – one that rests on return fl ows of biomass residues, often classifi ed as organic waste - therefore needs to incorporate principles that organize the multiple claims on the materials effi ciently and fairly.

Towards a bio-based chemical sector - Besides the large-scale production of raw material by the Shell petrochemical industries, the province of South Holland hosts a number of businesses that are involved in the production of plastics. Approximately 30 companies manufacture plastics in primary form and there are major producers of plastic resins and PVC. Inhabitants and businesses in the region consume around 360,000 tons of plastic every year. Minor amounts of this waste are deposited or recycled; the vast majority (77%) is burned (Drift and Metabolic, 2018). To reform plastic cycles is therefore an important aim of the province of South Holland; as a host to multiple production sites, it ambitions to become a leading region in the transition towards a circular plastics economy. One of its main objectives is to reduce the use of plastics through off ering substitutes that are made of organic, preferably locally produced, raw material. Question on how and where such materials can be generated arise and how their production and processing can be linked in ways that, for an instance, benefi t the port industrial complex. Another main objective is an improved system for the collection of plastic waste. Such a system should stimulate a diversifi ed, more intense and more innovative re- and up-cycling of collected materials, should be aligned with other material fl ow systems - e.g. organic waste – and should not exceed provincial boundaries (‘no leakage’).

Socio-spatial justice

To mitigate social inequality that stems from spatial conditions and development is one of the core propositions of spatial planning. A variety of theoretical concepts to explain and temper an unequal distribution of spatial resources and externalities are in use in academic, policy and planning circuits. The concept of ‘spatial justice’ emphasizes the need to understand and act upon the spatial dimension of justice, both in terms of procedures that allow citizens to have a ‘voice’ and in terms of the distribution of access to the public goods that cities and regions can off er. The just city, in turn, refl ects the idea of a ‘right to the city’ not only in terms of equal distribution of benefi ts of city life but also in terms of the right to participate in the creation of the built environment. According to scholars it comprises three complementary components: democracy, diversity and equity. pate in decision-making. Students should in any case consider concepts at an early stage of the design process. Discussion during the course Research & Design Methodology for Urbanism will support their consideration.

The above sketched spatial and institutional development trends as well as the agendas concerning the reform of particular material fl ows in Southern Holland imply an immense amount of competing spatial claims on land whose very existence is – often due to climate change –under threat. Trends also imply increasing competition over scarce materials. Any spatial vision and development strategy has to therefore engage with diffi cult political choices. While formulating a vision and development strategy students in the Spatial Strategies for the Global Metropolis studio are asked to consider concepts to explain and temper an unequal distribution of spatial resources during transitions. Areas of practical application are manifold. They may concern substantial matters, such as access to homes and jobs, the distribution of environmental externalities, and a fair sharing of material and land resources. They may also concern procedural matters, for instance the possibility of stakeholders to particiSPATIAL STRATEGIES FOR THE GLOBAL METROPOLIS 25