March 2014
Katakombenheiliger: Human remains and Catholic Archaeology
Jewelled Skeletons of Central Europe
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2|A Journey with the catacomb saints
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A note about this magazine This magazine has been made by four anthropology students as part of a course on mortuary archaeology. It has been intended as a learning exercise and a research experience for the authors as well as an attempt to produce an engaging and informative reading experience for the general public. As will be apparent from the first few pages, the subject matter of this magazine deals with human remains. If this may be upsetting to you, please be advised many images of real human remains are shown throughout this magazine. We understand the subject matter of this magazine to be of profound personal religious significance to some people. Some sections of this magazine, the faux-advertisements in particular, are intended to be lighthearted. In general, though, we are approaching this subject as students of anthropology and, as such, will attempt to be respectful, objective, and academically rigorous and honest in our treatment of the material. Please be advised that the discussion in this magazine does not reflect the personal beliefs of any particular person and is not necessarily expressed in the terms that might be used by those for whom what we discuss holds personal meaning. We thank you very much for reading, J.D., S.M., M.T., and N.H. 4|A Journey with the catacomb saints
Table of Contents Letter from the editor
7
Who were the catacomb saints?
11
There and never back again: The journey from Rome
17
Empires of the Dead: The Charnel Houses of Europe
26
Catacomb saints and The counter-reformation
41
A map of the saints
47
CSI: catacomb saint investigation
49
Where are they now?
57
Fun & Games
61
Endnotes
65
Image credits
68
Previous pages: This image shows the relics of St. Albertus, brought to Burgain, Germany, in 1723. It is not unusual for a catacomb saint like Albertus or the saints shown on this page to have been smothered in gems. 5|PRAISE
The Basilica of St. Ursula
tourism
Kรถln
6|A Journey with the catacomb saints
Severinstor
Visit Cologne The religious heart of Germany
Overstolzenhaus
Hohenzollern Bridge
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Letter from the editor: In Early Modern Germany, a figure, draped in brocade and jacquard, is reclining on cushions of silk. They are surrounded by gilt; their head is covered with the finest of wigs and their fingers glitter with heavy rings, but this isn’t some Saxon prince. In fact, this person isn’t even alive. Posed behind costly panes of glass at the candlelit high altar of a baroque church, the reclining figure is a skeleton. This is a catacomb saint, a most spectacular relic of the Roman Catholic Church1. Relics, physical remains of
The Shrine of the Three Kings is the most elaborate example of medieval reliquary art; Cologne cathedral is said to be a reliquary itself for this massive shrine.
The stance of this catacomb saint, seeming to gaze at the viewer, is typical of these elaborately jewelled relics. revered persons preserved for worship, have long been an important part of honouring the Catholic saints2. Most relics are parts of a saint’s body, usually bones, but other items such as fragments of the true cross or Christ’s death shroud, the famous shroud of Turin3, were also kept for veneration. Saints were an important part of how Catholics understood religion and the world4, and relics offered a concrete link to these holy figures who could intervene and appeal to God on the supplicants’ behalf5. Most relics were only small pieces, perhaps single bones, and
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This arm-shaped reliquary has been xrayed to reveal the otherwise hidden arm bones inside were held in elaborate containers called reliquaries. The relics of the three magi who brought Jesus gold, frankincense, and myrrh at his birth, for example, are housed in the shrine of the three kings, a large golden chest in Cologne Cathedral6. Some reliquaries, shaped reliquaries, were made in the image of the body part they were built to contain7. These fragmentary relics were generally concealed by the reliquaries that housed them. This wasn’t true of the catacomb saints, the katakombenheiliger as they’re called in German1. The ‘holy
bodies’ of these saints were on display for all to see. The catacomb saints were martyrs from Rome, believed to have been persecuted at the dawn of Christianity1. Around the sixteenth century, their bodies were rediscovered buried in the catacombs beneath what’s now the capital of Italy. The Vatican, rather than leave these warriors of the church in the ruins of the catacombs, decided to put these skeletons to the work of God again and sent them north to Central Europe where the cult of saints was playing an important role in the counter-reformation8. The history of these bodies is an enigmatic one, which is why we’ve designed this special edition of Praise to tell their captivating story. This amazing issue will look at who these saints were, why they were so magnificently dressed, why they were so important to early modern Catholicism, and how they were worshipped in the churches of Central Europe. The editorial team here at Praise has loved researching these dazzling relics and we hope you too will enjoy this Journey with the catacomb saints.
Editor X 9|PRAISE
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___________________________ For anyone, the catacomb saints are dazzling to behold, man y are masterful demonstrations of craftsmanship
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Originating in central Europe; during the 16 & 17 centaury, the catacomb saints were the result of religious oppression correlating with the destruction of all religious symbols and icons. In this time many Christians of low status in the church, were killed and buried within the catacombs. Over time the Vatican church, ordered all Christians killed in this act of oppression1, to be recognized as martyrs and exhumed from their
graves beneath the city. After the martyrs were exhumed, they were dispersed throughout Europe to countries like Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Through their high rate of dispersal throughout Europe, this image of the lavishly decorated Christian martyrs was recognized throughout the continent as holy relics, and provided religious pride to churches and followers.
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A Letter to the Editor, F r o m o u r r e a d e r s: Who were the catacomb saints? In the past the catacomb saints remains were collected by rich Bavarian families of European society 2, as a sign of status. Compared to contemporary society, where the catacomb saints are preserved in different churches and religious displays as a sign of respect. The martyrs remains are regarded as holy relics and categorized as saints, based on the circumstances the early Christians met their demise. Through the continued analysis
of the historical, religious, and societal implications behind the catacomb saints, more precise non-convoluted information can be produced vis-Ă -vis the catacomb saints. The Catacomb saints were originally canonized saints that had been decorated in lavish gold and precious jewels. The saints represented the adornment catholic practitioners had toward their religion and their ideologies. 13 | P R A I S E
During the 16 & 17 centaury; in a time where early Christian symbols were targets of aggression from Calvinist protestant’s2, many early Christian believers were killed based on the new protestant reformation. Through the protestant reformation many countries within Europe had now become separated A picture of the Roman catacombs replace holy relics that had been amid religion. Most of northern destroyed during the protestant Europe was protestant, while the reformation. Eventually the south was mainly Roman remains of early Christian Catholic. This left central Europe martyrs were categorized as embedded with conflict, and saints, with little to no indication eventually evolving into war on grave or tombs2. These between the two factions. Near remains and supposed saints the end of the conflict, the were then reassembled and Vatican church had recognized decorated in gold and jewels in that throughout the war many order to better prepare the dead innocent Christians had been for the immense wealthy that casualties of war, and had been awaited them in heaven. These buried in the underground decorations included costumes, catacombs in Italy. Through the wigs, jewels, crowns, gold lace, direct order given from the armor, and cosmetic alterations. Vatican council, all Christian Another important aspect remains involved with the war of the catacomb saints, were the were considered martyrs and initial catacomb that there were were to be exhumed and sent to buried in and exhumed from. catholic churches in Europe to 14 | A J o u r n e y w i t h t h e c a t a c o m b s a i n t s
The relics of St. Deodatus in Rheinau, Switzerland. The catacombs were an intricate maze of underground burials beneath the city of Rome, and on the outskirts of the city. Catacombs in Europe were very popular and were present is numerous countries such as; Paris, London, Italy, and Austria. Specifically looking at the catacombs of Rome, it is noted that they were used primarily for Roman Catholic burials. For the majority of early Christians it was more common to have been cremated, but with more emphasis from the church of the second coming, more people
were deciding to be buried. The initial creation of the catacombs began with the Roman authorities introducing a rule, which forbid any form of burial within city limits. Many Catacombs still exist today in contemporary society, and responsibility is given to the church, in order to assure proper maintenance and to keep any religious sanctity present. The Catacomb saints historically represent the effects religion and other bias views have on society. Religiously, the saints’ represent how one social construct like religion, has the potential to induce war and other societal negatives. Who were the catacomb saints? J.D.
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There and Never Back Again: The Journey from Rome and How to Dress a Saint
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Crossing the Alps was no small feat. There is a reason the world still remembers when Hannibal did it with his elephants. Nonetheless, beginning in the 16th century, legions of skeletons set out north from Rome1. The catacomb saints were destined for the mountains and valleys of Central Europe where they would be dressed in the finest metals and fabrics and adorned with the most precious of gems. Dressed to show the glory of their piety, the catacomb saints became celebrated symbols of faith and community. When they left Rome, the catacomb saints were just as they’d been found in the catacombs, ancient skeletons, and their transportation couldn’t be taken lightly. The bodies had to be encapsulated in fabric and wooden boxes that were covered with waterproof cloth and sealed by Vatican officials2. Previous pages: Leaving Italy overland inevitably led through some of the most mountainous terrain in Europe like that shown in this modern image of Bern Canton, Switzerland.
For saints sent to Switzerland, the Swiss Guard could often be enlisted to deliver these packages. Other potential envoys included monks, pilgrims, and even trusted merchants. The journey was usually eased by the willingness of monasteries, churches, and some inns to receive parties sent with the Vatican’s holy cargo. The length of the voyage could vary, but speed often wasn’t of paramount importance. Once delivered, the catacomb saints could wait for a year or a number of years before being displayed for veneration3. For the bones, which were already more than a millennium old, to be put on display, they firstly had to be preserved4. To prevent further deterioration, layers of glue and sometimes wax were applied to the bones. Missing portions might have to be reconstructed with wood, wax, or papier-mâché. The bones were then wrapped in gauze for protection before being dressed and decorated4. This work was often done by nuns from the religious
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Some parts of the skeleton would be covered, but the ribs and sternum were often exposed because the flat surfaces took so well to decoration. communities receiving the saints. Although it was valued that nuns had the discipline to pay proper deference to the saints, the high quality of workmanship that was desired for the saints’ decoration meant these jobs would also go to laypeople with the appropriate skills. Adalbart Eder, a lay brother from Waldsassen, is an example of a metal smith whose work on the catacomb saints became renowned5. The decoration of the bodies was extravagant,
involving large amounts of gold, silk, and jewels1. Not all of the jewels were genuine, but even the fake gems were cut glass imported from Venice, a luxury in their own right considering this is around the period when Louis XIV’s Hall of Mirrors represented the height of splendour. The skeletons’ adornments were incredibly complex and utilized adept work at jewel-setting, embroidery, filigree, armour-smithing, tailoring, and beading among other techniques. The overall effect of these decorations was not always the same1. While some of the saints were dressed in contemporary aristocratic styles, some were influenced by early Roman fashions that reflected their origins, and still others were dressed in full suits of armour, although most of the saints received swords. These differences in style appear to have been at the discretion of whoever prepared the skeletons rather than reflective of any aspect of the saints themselves. 21 | P R A I S E
St. Gratian’s sandals, breast plate, and arm and shoulder guards are an example of the Baroque revision of Roman attire used in the decoration of some saints. It was not unusual for human remains to be on display in Catholic churches at this time (see page 26). It was also not unusual for bodies to be moved and put to rest elsewhere following an initial funeral, a practice known as secondary burial. The Habsburg aristocracy, for example, often had to be buried for a time and then transported for reburial after the body was clean6. This generally occurred because the upper class, which had become
increasingly mobile, did not always die in the place where their bodies, for personal or political reasons, were meant to be interred. The catacomb saints, however, are unusual because of the splendidness of their dress. In Christian ideology, the idea had emerged that elaborate dress was a form of vanity and that beauty should not be used as a substitute for virtue7. For this reason, archaeologists tend to look for sober dress to identify the burials of Germanic Christians from the Middle Ages onwards. One might expect then that saints, the height of Catholic virtue, would be dressed humbly. That quite the opposite is true goes to show these saints were not being treated like any other dead body. For the average person, ostentatious dress could be interpreted as an attempt to hide sin7. The catacomb saints were already martyrs beyond the reach of sin. Their elaborate ornamentation wasn’t a way to conceal wickedness, but a way to express the glory of sainthood.
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In a similar way to the treatment of bodies in the modern German museum exhibition Body Worlds, the treatment of the catacomb saints, whose bodies were complete unlike the relics of other saints, was meant to animate the martyrs and give them new life8. Whereas Body Worlds attempts to provide visitors a realistic and genuine experience of human anatomy, however, the jewel-clad catacomb saints were meant to offer devotees a tangible experience of faith and saintly power9. Furthermore, the saints’ dress could not be a display of personal vanity because they did not truly have a personal identity1. The catacomb saints were revered because they were martyrs rather than because they were any particular person. The manner of their death as Soldiers of God was thus more important than the saints’ lives. It was to emphasize the role of martyrs as Soldiers of God in early modern theology that the catacomb saints were consistently given weaponry. In
this sense, this practice is similar to burial techniques that, in recent centuries, have emerged for German soldiers of war, which, especially since the Germanic Wars of Liberation, have also emphasized how soldiers died rather than how they lived10. For the communities that funded the acquisition of the catacomb saints, decking them with gold and jewels was also a
Even the symbolic weapons given to the catacomb saints were opulent, another opportunity to show these were not warriors of the earthly kind. 23 | P R A I S E
point of civic pride11. Having one or more catacomb saints in the local church was a way for these communities to showcase their wealth and the fact that they could invest in their faith in this way. Providing the martyrs with jewels and clothes fitting their sainthood was also a way for people to ensure the saints
This image is only a portion of a commemorative painting showing the massive numbers of people that could be involved in the procession at a saint’s translation
would provide for them in future, similar to some much older European burial practices in which grave goods played a part in creating a reciprocal relationship with ancestors6. A community’s pride in and love for the catacomb saints was at no time more apparent than during a saint’s translation, the elaborate public ritual that took place when a catacomb saint was finally transferred to a church12. When the catacomb saints were fully prepared and their place in the church ready for them, their arrival was celebrated in ways similar to how visiting royalty was traditionally welcomed13. Covered in gold and precious stones, these bodies, dazzling proclamations of Catholic devotion, finished their journeys from Rome to the sounds of plays staged in their honour and ceremonial gunfire shot by the devotees who would pray to and adore them. There and Never Back Again: The Journey from Rome and How to Dress a Saint. -N.H.
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St. Pancratius
St. Theodora
St. Martialis
Authentic Engravings of the Saints Remember the catacomb saints like the truly faithful. Our commemorative engravings are just like ones made when the saints were first brought to Central Europe. These beautiful keepsakes could be kept to remember special occasions like translations or anniversaries of the saints’ arrival. They might also be used to honour the saints when a person lived far away or in the country and couldn’t visit their relic regularly. We have all your favourites. Get yours today!
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Fine Crystal of Europe
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Empires of the Dead: The Charnel Houses of Europe The catacomb saints are an incredible example of human remains on display, but they aren’t the only one. Catholic Europe is home to all kinds of chapels and catacombs full of bones arranged and decorated in fantastic ways. Some of these ossuaries were built to house relics, others as a way to manage the bodies that were overflowing long-used graveyards. This article will look generally at the context of displaying the Catholic dead and explore how, unlike a saint’s altar or a cemetery, Europe’s charnel houses were not just places to commemorate individuals or pray, but places for the living to meditate on the power of death itself. Image: An archway in the Paris Catacombs reminds visitors to think on entering the realm of death. 27 | P R A I S E
THE BODIES IN THE QUARRIES The Paris Catacombs Paris, France The Paris Catacombs were established in the late 18th century when graveyards like the Cemetery of the Innocents became so full it was thought the bodies had to be removed to protect public health1. Holding the remains of more than 6 million Parisians, the catacombs extend the height of a 5 storey building underground. “Arrête, c’est ici l’empire de la mort” (“Stop, here lies the empire of death”) and other short quotes line the galleries,
reminding visitors of the significance of the blessed space. The bones, piled in large orderly stacks, include the remains of significant figures such as the Swiss Guards lost in the 1792 storming of the Tuileries Palace and Robespierre and have become a kind of visible history of the city for the people of Paris. Image: The Paris Catacombs include many chambers of which the chamber in this image, the crypt of the sepulchral lamp, is only one.
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THE PAINTED SKULLS Hallstatt Beinhaus Hallstatt, Austria The bone house in Hallstatt is located on the ground floor of the Michaels chapel of the local Catholic parish church2. Room for burials has long been limited in this picturesque mountain region. For centuries, after a person had been dead for ten to fifteen years, their body was exhumed and their skulls and other body parts were cleaned, left to bleach in the sun, and placed in the bone house together with the bones of their kin3. In the 18th century, the people of
Hallstatt started an unusual and unique practice. The skulls began to be painted with the person’s name and date of birth and death so they could be remembered even without a grave. The skulls were also painted with floral designs, representing flowers and garlands of the kinds that would be left at a grave. Image: Although the other remains have been kept, only the skulls are painted and still have names associated with them.
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THE BODIES ON HOLY LAND Sedlec Ossuary Kutnรก Hora, Czech Republic When Henry, an abbot of the Sedlec monastery, returned from a diplomatic mission to the Holy Land in 1278, he brought earth from Golgotha that was spread over the Sedlec cemetery4. The cemetery became renowned throughout Central Europe and it would continue to grow following outbreaks of the plague and war. When the Church of All-Saints was built on the site in the 1400s, so many bodies had been buried there, a chapel had to be built beneath it to which
the overflow of remains could be relocated. In the early 1700s, the chapel was refashioned in Baroque style5, resulting in fanciful elements such as the bone chandelier and a coat of arms of the Schwarzenberg nobles also made out of bones. Image: Not all the bones at Sedlec have been arranged like the ones in this image. In other parts of the church, the remains are simply stored together in massive piles.
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THE SAINT AND THE 11 000 VIRGINS The Church of St. Ursula Cologne, Germany According to legend, in the fourth century, a RomanoBritish princess named Ursula and her 11 000 virginal companions were slaughtered by Huns while on a pilgrimage to Rome6. Perhaps because of the sheer abundance of relics allowed for by the story, the cult of St. Ursula and the 11 000 virgins became the most widespread in medieval Europe7. The golden chamber in Cologne’s Church of St. Ursula holds a significant collection of the
virgins’ relics. The golden chamber is unlike other charnel houses, falling somewhere between an ossuary and a reliquary. For visitors, these relics were a symbol of the power of the beatified dead and of a cult that, in the Middle Ages, could be a strong unifying force because these martyrs were so dearly beloved throughout Europe. Image: As well as the bones themselves, the golden chamber holds reliquary busts iconic of the virgins.
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THE BODIES FROM THE HOSPITAL San Bernardino alle Ossa Milan, Italy In 1145, a hospital and accompanying cemetery were established near Milan’s Basilica di Santo Stefano Maggiore8. Less than a hundred years later, like in other parts of Europe, a chamber had to be built to house the bones of the many people buried in the hospital cemetery. In the following decades, a small church grew up around the bone chamber. That church was later replaced and made larger; the ossuary now
stands down a corridor to one side of the church entrance. Like the Sedlec Ossuary, San Bernardino was renovated in the early modern period. Most of the bones are arranged in patterned stacks behind metal screens, but others decorate walls and line pillars8. Image: San Bernardino is leant an airy, luminous atmosphere by windows as well as ceiling frescos painted by Sebastiano Ricci.
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THE BONES THAT WAIT Capela dos Ossos Évora, Portugal King João V, inspired by a visit to San Bernardino alle Ossa in Italy, had a hand in designing Évora’s bone chapel8. For the Franciscan monks who moved the bones, however, the chapel was more than an aesthetic endeavour; it was a chance to save the souls of people buried in cemeteries that were increasingly using up valuable land9. The monks also hoped the chapel would serve as a monument to remind the increasingly wealthy residents of Évora of
the transience of material things, a message they made sure to express with the message over the chapel door, which reads “We bones that are here, for your bones we wait” and another poem hanging from a pillar that reads “Reflect on your similar end…Among all the concerns of the world, So little do you reflect on death.”9 Image: Although intended as a functioning chapel, today barriers have to hold visitors back from the bones that line the walls.
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THE MUMMIES’ BODIES Catacombe dei Cappuccini Palermo, Italy Sicily’s heat doesn’t quite compete with the heat in Egypt, but it has had some similar effects on their dead. The Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo are full of mummies10. The practice began in the late 16th century, likely when monks began to notice the effects of the dry Sicilian heat on dead bodies, and continued up to the beginning of the 20th century. Some of the more recently mummified bodies, on which more sophisticated embalming techniques were
used, have been spectacularly well-preserved. Most of the mummies are displayed standing upright and each is dressed in fine clothing, or religious garb in the case of monks10. The bodies are arranged among the galleries according to gender and age and profession, creating a kind of graphic tribute to the people of Sicily. Image: Even bodies that have lost their flesh are posed to stand for eternity in the catacombs.
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For our special issue, it's important to understand the background, or context, for these beautiful and odd saints. What makes a saint? Why were the catacomb saints considered saints? Why were they created? All of these questions can begin to be unravelled by understanding what happened in the Catholic Church at the turn of the 16th century, historically known as the protestant reformation2. The Catacomb Saints were created in a response to conflict between religious groups, between the Catholic Church and protestants4. The protestant reformation was one of the largest threats to the long held The catacomb saints weren’t the Catholic churches only effort at revitalization. Baroque architecture also became popular in the Counter Reformation, resulting in fanciful churches like this one in Regenburg, Germany.
Catacomb Saints and the Counter Reformation elite position of the catholic church1. Early reformers, like Martin Luther, condemned the church for being corrupt, as well as too indulgent2. These reformers would offer a solution to the moral corruption of the Catholic Church in the form of Protestantism, which spread like wildfire throughout Europe from the 16th into the 17th century2. In response to the new threat, the Catholic Church took to revitalizing the parishes and communities it was threatened with losing3. One way they did this was through the reinstatement of saints. Saint worship was one of many areas of dissatisfaction with the catholic church from the 43 | P R A I S E
Protestants, but has been important to Catholicism for thousands of years3.Protestant sects criticized that there was a lack of scriptural evidence for the veneration of saints, or human remains, and that it was a disgusting malpractice (heavenly bodies)4. The Catholic Church however argued there are written records of remain veneration, for example Moses leaving of Egypt with the bones of Joseph. They also argued that they represented an object that is connected to god, like a direct example of his work, and encourage devotion3. Saint veneration has a rich history; saints are most often high ranking members of the church, who embody catholic values and a moral life3. Examples like the Holy Virgin Mary, who represents a woman holy enough to deliver the son of god, is still highly venerated today, or saints like less known like St. Hema, the mother of St. Otto, a saint by 44 | A J o u r n e y w i t h t h e c a t a c o m b s a i n t s
association3. By revitalizing the saints, they could revitalize the catholic communities and identity3. Almost as important as reestablishing saints was the establishing of the image of a “heroic martyr� who proved the Catholic Church as the righteous religion4.As well as individual worship, saints often represented a direct source to help with a problem, or just an icon to aspire to be4. Many saints are community specific and don’t have wide home ranges, but they are an important connector between the church the communities surrounding it3. Commemoration of the saints often takes place through, bone fragments, statues, or dedicated chapels3. The The images on these pages show stained glass representations of Saints Elizabeth and Peter while alive from St. Vitus Cathedral in the modern Czech Republic. 45 | P R A I S E
The flowers held in this saint’s hands symbolize the peace found in martyrdom veneration of human remains is not an uncommon one, and it has been seen cross culturally often in the Christian traditions5. The catacomb saints however would not, by the traditional bar held for saints, be considered “real saints”4. The catacomb saints were created to be distributed for this revitalization of the church in the face of the
reformation4. But the remains decorated and relocated were not those of known saints, we can’t know for certain that the church knew who the remains belonged to; currently the assumption rests that they are the remains of Martyrs, perhaps not a holy person, but someone who was virtuous in the eyes of the church4. There are documents to prove the catacomb saints authenticity as martyrs, but the standard of authentication is often flexible4. One interpretation of their existence and creation is that it reaffirms the Catholic Church, as stable and true, as it manages to last through centuries and competition4. Another, that they were created to fill the spots left in communities throughout Europe that had been looted and left many relics destroyed or missing4. So, as we’ve begun to unfold above, the catacomb saints were a contentious and
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highly powerful tool used by the catholic church in a period of religious division4,5. They may not have been saints in the traditional sense, but they held the same meaning and were held worthy of the same veneration as a traditional saint4. Their glamourous adornments makes them one of the most prized outcomes of the reformation, but for some also the most embarassing4. While we see them moved about post reformation, we also see them changed and hidden, a sign of religious war come and past4. As people settled post reformation the need to recreate the saints, and use them as a symbol of victory and god faded, and they became as we know them now, a piece of spectacular history. Catacomb Saints and the Counter Reformation M.T.
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CSI: Catacomb Saint Investigation Body language allows people to decode unspoken messages and interpret hidden meanings. While rolling eyes or crossed arms might speak volumes in the realm of the living, the dead cannot always give us these helpful clues. The archaeologist must rely on the body position, the objects found with the body and the physical location to determine the role and relationships to the living1. Archaeological data provides the evidence needed to substantiate or challenge theories and when taken in consideration with Previous Pages: A Map of the locations of Catacomb Saints2, spanning a huge area in modern Switzerland Germany, and Austria.
historical documents can help clarify fact from fiction. Investigation 1: Were the Catacomb Saint relics geographically distributed in a manner to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church? Evidence: The Catacomb Saints are primarily found in modern day southern Germany and in Northern Switzerland with a few saints also found in Austria. Pilgrimage churches, monasteries and parish churches all were recipients of Catacomb Saints. These churches were located in major centers such as Munich as well as in smaller towns such as Sursee, Switzerland2. This would indicate that the size of the community was not the determining factor
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for the presence of a relic. From the map it is evident that the sites are fairly evenly spaced within Bavaria, with a small cluster occurring in Northern Switzerland. It is important to note that the map does not contain all of the locations that held relics, especially if the relics were later destroyed. The sheer number of towns that held Catacomb Saints meant that a large population had access to the relics. Conclusion: This pattern of dispersion demonstrates that a wide range of society was able to access the relics. A popular theory states that the saints were used as a mechanism to gather and reinforce Catholic support in challenged communities3. If this were true, the saints would have had to be available to the broad range of the local population. It appears that the locations of the Catacomb Saints would support
this. Intriguingly, textual sources indicate that although there was wide spread access to the Catacomb Saints, important churches, royals and officials would have received the heavenly bodies first and then gifted them to smaller parishes within their district4.
The church of St. George in Sursee, Switzerland, home to St. Felix and Irenaus. 51 | P R A I S E
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Investigation 2: Were the Catacomb Saints important to their communities? Evidence: The Catacomb Saints were traditionally located in a variety of places and containers within the church. However patterns and similarities can be seen throughout the presentation styles. Seated pairs were traditionally found on either side of the nave while individual saints were often found in the predella or the raised shelf above an altar5. These highly ornate altars containing the body of a Catacomb Saint were then surrounded by large amounts of decoration such as sculptures or artwork6. Thus the majority of saints were located within the church to be highly visible. The
Opposite: The ornate altar of St. Florinus, which includes a three-piece sculptural group and one large pane of glass. The Saint was placed reclining with a sword.
altars and reliquaries, which held the Saints, had large single panes of glass around them to allow for the clearest image of the saint. These were difficult and expensive to make and not traditionally found in general use during this time period5. One church, which held four Catacomb Saints, displayed them in such a manner so that at least one was always visible from anywhere within the nave or central section of a church8 .The saints often were placed close to the high altar, which is the primary altar and the center of many religious ceremonies. This location emphasized the saints and displayed their importance. In later years when the Catacomb Saints were no longer as popular, they were often found in side halls, reinforcing the symbolic meaning of their original and highly visible position in the heart of the church. There was regional 53 | P R A I S E
variation in this trend. For example in certain areas of Southern Germany, churches hid parts of the Saint under painted images to increase the dramatic impact when fully revealed at ceremonies6. Finally many of the Saints were accompanied by votive or other offerings7. Individuals of the community made these votive offerings, which were tied to a vow or a wish to a specific saint in either thanks or a request for aid8. The large number of gifts would indicate that the relics of the Catacomb Saints were regularly visited. Conclusion: With this evidence as context, archaeological theories can be applied. One theory by Joseph Tainter
supposes that the amount of energy expended in the funerary practices such as construction, placement of the container with the remains and the complexity of treatments such as dress (see page 17) directly correlates to the social rank of the individual9. In regards to the Catacomb Saints, the energy and labour devoted to making the Catacomb Saints visible such as the elaborate altars, the large panes of glass and the associated artwork as well as the time consuming process of body decoration, appear to indicate their high social rank or importance. The inclusion of offerings shows that the saints were visited and played a role in the community.
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Investigation 3: Are the Catacomb Saints propagating secret messages? Evidence: Certain trends and patterns developed within the body positioning of the saints. The majority of the saints were lying down with a single hand
positioned underneath their head10. From historical texts, this was believed to be the easiest method of arranging skeletal remains10. In some instances, the hands were arranged to cover the face to demonstrate humility11. Other Catacomb Saint bodies were in styled in standing and seated positions. Many of the Catacomb Saints were displayed with items such as swords, vials or chalices of blood, laurel branches and palm fronds. As there is a large degree of repetition in which items are chosen, it can be assumed that the Catacomb Saints and the objects are related. Through historical documents and
Opposite Page: A smaller reliquary for St. Theodor. A chalice placed with one of the Catacomb Saints. The chalice and blood is symbolic of martyrdom. 55 | P R A I S E
modern symbolism the items were related to the relics by martyrdom. Conclusion: Although there are many symbolic aspects in the presentation of the Catacomb Saints, there is no nefarious conspiracy theory; the saints are not symbols of mourning or the devious work of the Illuminati. The symbolic nature is primarily due to the objects placed with the Saint rather than the physical body positioning. The vial of blood is included to show sacrifice and martyrdom12. The laurel branch represents victory; in this context it was more specifically symbolic of victory16. The palm frond was the sign of martyrdom and was the most common type of associated artifact11. The sword another frequent artifact, identified a Catacomb Saint as both a martyr and a warrior for Christ11. The association with altars also held a symbolic meaning. The altar is
Opposite Page: St. Canditus, shown with a palm frond, covering his face as a sign of modesty. symbolic of the table at the last meal as well as Christ’s sacrifice. This connection to sacrifice meant that altars and martyrs are intrinsically tied and often found together within the church14. Through the combination of archaeology and historical documents, it is possible to gain a better understanding of the importance and role of the Catacomb Saints. CSI: Catacomb Saint Investigation S.M.
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A body covered in jewels and gemstones hidden in a plastered-over wall. It may sound like a case featured on a hit forensic crime drama but this was the fate for Saint Clemens. Although many catacomb saints are still on display in churches and museums across Germany, Switzerland and Austria, many more are being found in strange and unlikely places. How, after decades of devoted reverence did the saints end up here? Although a small number of the saints were still arriving in towns and churches in the early nineteenth century1, the general attitude of the Catholic Church
toward the saints had begun to change. While still a revered and their respective communities, the decorations of the catacomb saints were seen by the larger Catholic community as a shameful and frightening remnant of an “embarrassing past� 2. Beginning with the Hapsburg Emperor Joseph the Second, in 1782 and continuing throughout the nineteenth century with the onset of secularization, the catacomb saints were liquidized for their monetary value3. Remains that were not destroyed were given away to museums or other parish churches, hidden, or
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auctioned. Recently, fully decorated catacomb saints have been found in a variety of unusual locations such as a storage unit in a garage, attics and locked staircases. At one time the issue of the degree of visibility was of great importance to the Church, to the point that some saints were deliberately shielded from view to create more drama. However by the time of Emperor Joseph the Second, the catacomb saints were being covered to remove the saint’s presence rather than enhance it. New wax heads and bulky clothing were added to the saints, in an attempt to hide their skeletal form4. The intentional distancing from death and the dead was a response to change within the Catholic Church but also
demonstrated a shift in an important aspect of mortuary archaeology. The physical presence and accessibility of the dead demonstrates the society’s relationship with both the deceased individual, the general dead and the living5. The changing location and visibility of the dead clearly show a changing belief in the treatment of death
This storage unit is the new resting place for St Faustine8. 59 | P R A I S E
St. Felicianus has since been returned to the church in Rottenbuch, Germany by donations from the community but was was taken from the town, and stripped of its decoration decades before9. from a relic worthy of reverence to a shameful reminder of a less enlightened past. It was this changing sentiment that resulted in St. Clemens’ new home in his aforementioned wall. The separation and hiding of the dead could have indicated a larger trend during the modern period towards the separation of death and sanctity. At the end of the seventeenth century, corpses were no longer as sacred as in prior eras; they were increasingly used in public dissections and as carnival entertainment7. The normal body was seen as profane, in contrast to the pure corporal remains of a saint8. The perceived purity of the saintly remains might have changed due to the distancing of the body and sanctity, resulting in the concealing of the
Catacomb Saints. While unfortunately many of the Catacomb Saints have been destroyed, in recent years a few have been restored to their former glory in their churches and in their place in the religious life of their parishioners9 Catacomb Saints: Where Are They Now? S.M.
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C K H B R M U S A J W R B C T D I A E V
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A R N E L H O U S E C C R D Q B E X M T N T P Q O K I Y W E L A R U H C R F N I L L E V V A C V Q A F X E A W I E G X L V T F A O A U S H S N R A R V L E H Y R L Q Z Q V L H S E S A U T T G I K O I Z I E C F L L V G J L O A C D J N O L O H J A K Q E H W N G U R L X R E R S Q T W M J V P W E L K M G M R W D D I Y S I M Z K P A H O T M I R C U O K A L R Q T L C F Z C T M F Q I N L E B I J A X R J R A O H G F L O J O C Q H B J A W M C Y O Q F F R J K V H J B M T M H P O L I B E O R F M L A P S S C A T H O L I Q B S A R W D K W B S C G Q O Z H X D T X B C O X O M X E A O J NADALBART A Y E V ALPS K T JALTAR R U RBAVARIA X D A D Y WCATACOMB R K Z U CATHOLIC J J A M GCHARNELHOUSE Z D M F M Z
P J R A T L A U R R Y D W Y K C Q Q X O
X W L L V Z P K N P B B M O C A T A C U
CHURCH DEATH JEWEL RELIC MARTYR PALMFROND REFORMATION RELIQUARY SAINT SKELETON SWORD TRANSLATION VIALOFBLOOD 62 | A J o u r n e y w i t h t h e c a t a c o m b s a i n t s
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Endnotes Letter from the editor: 1. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. 2. HAHN, C., 2010. What Do reliquaries Do for relics? Numen, 57, pp. 284-316. 3. SCOTT, J.B., 1995. Seeing the Shroud: Guarini’s Reliquary Chapel in Turin and the Ostentation of a Dynastic Relic. The Art Bulletin, 77(4), pp. 609-637. 4. DITCHFIELD, S., 2009. Thinking with Saints: Sanctity and Society in the Early Modern World. Critical Inquiry, 35(3), pp. 552-584. 5. FORSTER, M.R., 2001. Catholic Revival in the Age of the Baroque: Religious Identity in Southwest Germany, 1550-1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. PEARSON, M. P., 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing Limited. 4. Jocelyn Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World, JHU Press, 1996 reprint There and Never Back Again: 1. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. 2. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 57-60. 3. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 60-63. 4. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 67
6. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL, 2014 Shrine of the three Holy Kings, circa 1190-1220. Der Kölner Dom [Online]. Available: http://www.koelnerdom.de/index.php?id =17450&L=1
5. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 64.
7. HAHN, C., 1997. The Voices of the Saints: Speaking Reliquaries. Gesta, 36(1), pp. 20-31.
6. WEISS-KREJCI, E., 2001. Restless corpses: ‘secondary burial’ in the Babenberg and Habsburg dynasties. Antiquity, 35, pp. 769-780.
8. PFAFF, S., 2013. The true citizens of the city of God: the cult of saints, the Catholic social order, and the urban Reformation in Germany. Theory and Society, 42(2), pp. 189-218. Who were the Catacomb Saints?:
7. BAZELMANS, J., 2002. Moralities of Dress and the Dress of the Dead in Early Medieval Europe. In: Y. HAMILAKIS, M. PLUCIENNIK, and S. TARLOW, eds, Thinking through the Body: Archaeologies of Corporeality. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, pp. 71-84.
1. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson.
8. LINKE, U., 2005. Touching the Corpse: The Unmaking of Memory in the Body Museum. Anthropology Today, 21(5), pp. 13-19.
2. JOHNSON, T., 1996. Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 47(2), pp. 274-297.
9. JOHNSON, T., 1996. Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 47(2), pp. 274-297.
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10. MOSSE, G.L., 1979. National Cemeteries and National Revival: The Cult of the Fallen Soldiers in Germany. Journal of Contemporary History, 14(1), pp. 1-20. 11. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 103-137. 12. FELDER, P., 1962. Die hundertjährige Translationsfeier der beiden Wettinger Katakombenheiligen Marianus und Getulius. Schweizerisches Archiv für Volksunde, 58, pp. 65-90. 13. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 91-100.
8. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014 San Bernardino Alle Ossa. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http://www. atlasobscura.com/places/san-bernardino-alle-ossa 9. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014 Portugal’s Chapel of Bones. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http://www. atlasobscura.com/places/portugals-chapel-bones 10. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014 Capuchin Monastery Catacombs. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/capuchinmonastery Catacomb Saints and the Counter Reformation: 1. FORSTER, M.R., 2001. Catholic Revival in the Age of the Baroque: Religious Identity in Southwest Germany, 1550-1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Empires of the Dead: 1. CATACOMBS OF PARIS, 2014 Catacombs. Catacombes Histoire de Paris [Online]. Available: http://www.catacombes.paris.fr/en/homepagecatacombs-official-website 2. HALLSTATT.NET, 2014 Beinhaus the bone house. Hallstatt.net [Online]. Available: http://www. hallstatt.net/about-hallstatt/sehenswertes-enUS/bone-house/ 3. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014 Hallstatt Charnel House. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http://www. atlasobscura.com/places/hallstatt-charnel-house 4. ROMAN CATHOLIC PARISH KUTNA HORA-SEDLEC, 2012 The Cemetery Church of All Saints with the Ossuary. Kutná Hora-Sedlec [Online]. Available: http://www.ossuary.eu/index.php/en/ 5. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014. Sedlec Ossuary “Bone Church”. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/sedlec-ossuary 6. ATLAS OBSCURA, 2014. Church of St. Ursula. Atlas Obscura [Online]. Available: http://www.atlas obscura.com/places/church-st-ursula 7. MONTGOMERY, S.B., 2009. St. Ursula and the Eleven Thousand Virgins of Cologne: Relics, Reliquaries and the Visual Culture of Group Sanctity in Late Medieval Europe. Oxford: Peter Lang.
2. HUDON, WILLIAM V., 2004. "Catholicism." In: J. DEWALD, ed, Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 419-427. 3. JOHNSON, T., 2009. Magistrates, Madonnas and Miracles: the Counter Reformation in the Upper Palatinate. Farnham, UK: Ashgate. 4. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. 5.PASSARIELLO, P., 1994.,Sacred Waste: human body parts as universal sacrament. American Journal of Semiotics 11(1/2), pp. 109-127. CSI: Catacomb Saint Investigation 1. PEARSON, M. P., 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing Limited. P. 141. 2. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 189. 3. JOHNSON, T., 1996. Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 47(2), p. 282.
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4. JOHNSON, T., 1996. Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 47(2), p. 286. 5. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 86. 6. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 91 7. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 131.
3. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 150-153. 4. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 172. 5. PEARSON, M. P., 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing Limited. P. 141. 6. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 162.
8. GALE, T. 2003. New Catholic Encyclopedia. 14. Detroit: Catholic University of America Press. Pp. 754 PEARSON, M. P., 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing Limited. P. 31.
7. O’GORMAN, S M. 1998. Death and Dying in contemporary society: an evaluation of current attitudes and the rituals associated with death and dying and their relevance to recent understandings of health and healing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27, p. 1129.
9. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 77.
8. PEARSON, M. P., 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing Limited. P. 60.
10. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp 81.
9. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 178.
11. WEBBER, F R. 1927. Church symbolism; an explanation of the more important symbols of the Old and New Testament, the primitive, the medieval and modern church. Cleveland: J.H. Jansen. P. 341
10. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 162.
12. JOHNSON, T., 1996. Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 47(2), p. 288.
11. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Pp. 157-178.
13. GALE, T. 2003. New Catholic Encyclopedia. 1. Detroit: Catholic University of America Press. P. 347. Catacomb Saints: Where are they now? 1.KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 142. 2. KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. P. 16.
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Image Credits When available, links to the sources of the images in this magazine have been provided here as well as through the images themselves.
Page 8: Holger Klein. Retrieved from: http:// learn.columbia.edu/treasuresofheaven/relics/ArmReliquary-of-the-Apostles.php
Cover: Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Katakombenheilig er_pankratius.jpg
Pages 9 & 10: Toby De Silva. Retrieved from: http://beautiful decay.com/2012/10/03/toby-de-silvas-beautifulphotographs-of-the-skeletons-of-martyred-saints/
Pages 1 & 2: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from: http://www. swide.com/art-culture/history/jewelled-skeletonsfound-in-rome-catacombs-book-and-photos-photogallery/2013/09/12
Page 11: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from: http://twin serpents.com/blog/2014/01/the-catacomb-saintsby-paul-koudounaris/
Page 4: All images, Toby De Silva. Retrieved from: http:// beautifuldecay.com/2012/10/03/toby-de-silvasbeautiful-photographs-of-the-skeletons-ofmartyred-saints/ Pages 5 & 6: Background, Wikimedia commons. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%B6l ner_Dom_um_1900.jpg Church of St. Ursula, Wikimedia commons. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%B6ln _st_ursula_langhaus_u_chor.jpg Severinstor, Wikimedia commons. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Severinstor burg_web.jpg Overstolzenhaus, Wikimedia commons. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Overstolzenhaus-Rheingasse-K%C3%B6ln.JPG Hohenzollern Bridge, Thomas Wolf. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hohenzolle rnbr%C3%BCcke_K%C3%B6ln.jpg Page 7: Top right, Toby De Silva. Retrieved from: http:// beautifuldecay.com/2012/10/03/toby-de-silvasbeautiful-photographs-of-the-skeletons-ofmartyred-saints/ Bottom left, Mario Houben. Retrieved from: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mhoubenphotograph y/8980248307/
Page 13: Rome Connection. Retrieved from: http://www. awesomestories.com/asset/view/Catacombs-ofRome-Ancient-Burial-Sites Page 14: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 56 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 15: Saint Gabriel Catholic Church. Retrieved from: http://www.saintgabriel.org/formation_2012_adult. html Page 16: Left, Wikimedia commons. Retrieved from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d5/Big_Ben_2007-1.jpg Top right, Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Parthenon_in _Athens.jpg Bottom right, Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f 9/Aachener_Dom_bei_Nacht.jpg Shark silhouette, Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category :Sharks_in_art
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Pages 17 & 18: Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LauterbrunnenVal ley.jpg Page 20: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 62 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 21: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 65 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 22: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 80 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 23: Peter Felder. Retrieved from page 71 of FELDER, P., 1962. Die hundertj채hrige Translationsfeier der beiden Wettinger Katakombenheiligen Marianus und Getulius. Schweizerisches Archiv f체r Volksunde, 58, pp. 65-90. Page 24: Paul Koudounaris. All images retrieved from KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 25: Vogue Germany. Retrieved from: https:// thevolts.com/blog/fashion/shining-moments-thebrilliant-history-of-swarovski Page 26: Atlas Obscura. Retrieved from: http:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/catacombes-de-paris Page 28: Eric Wierczek. Retrieved from: http://ericpariswier czek.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/img_5769.jpg
Page 32: Atlas Obscura. Retrieved from: http://www. atlasobscura.com/places/sedlec-ossuary Page 34: Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%B6l n_st_ursula_goldene_kammer03.jpg Page 36: G. Bancaglion. Retrieved from: http://www. atlasobscura.com/places/san-bernardino-alle-ossa Page 38: Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Capela_dos_Osso s,_%C3%89vora_-_Vista_para_o_altar_2.JPG Page 40: Magnus and Melis Bischofberger. Retrieved from: http://www.magsmag.com/wp-content/ uploads/2013/01/CappucciniC13-900x600.jpg Page 41: Decorology. Retrieved from: http://decorology. blogspot.ca/2012/01/more-from-my-europeansummer-2010.html Pages 43 & 44: Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from: http://m commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St._Vitus_Cathedr al_-_Stained_glass.jpg Page 45: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 10 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 50: Ronald Zumb체hl. Retrieved from: http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Picswiss_LU-20-24.jpg Page 51: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 102 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Page 30: Decorology. Retrieved from: http://decorology. blogspot.ca/2012/02/charming-and-magicallakefront.html
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Page 53: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 130 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 54: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 43 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 56: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 86 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 58: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 163 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 59: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from page 179 of KOUDOUNARIS, P., 2013. Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. New York: Thames & Hudson. Page 60: Dove silhouette, Clip Art. Retrieved from: http://www.clipartbest.com/flying-doves Background, Image by the author, N.H. Pages 63 & 64: Paul Koudounaris. Retrieved from: http://twin serpents.com/blog/2014/01/the-catacomb-saintsby-paul-koudounaris/ Pages 71 & 72: Toby De Silva. Retrieved from: http:// beautifuldecay.com/2012/10/03/toby-de-silvasbeautiful-photographs-of-the-skeletons-ofmartyred-saints/
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PRAISE
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