Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

Rooted Inequality: An

alyzi ng the Economic Causes and Consequence of Food Insecurity

Leyana Casey, MPH, John R. Lewis Social Justice Fellow

May 2024

Introduction

Food insecurity and economic mobility in the Black community are intricately connected. To address this interplay, it is necessary to comprehend the influence of socioeconomic determinants on food insecurity. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 17 million U.S. households were food insecure at some point in 2022. Of these households, 22.4% were Black. Food insecurity is defined as the condition of not having access to sufficient food, or quality, to meet one’s basic needs (United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service [ERS], 2023). Food security has two identifiers: low food security and very low food security. Low food security is reduced quality, variety, or desirability of the diet (ERS, 2023a). Not being able to afford balanced meals is one telling sign—but there is little indication of eating less (ERS, 2023a). Very low food security is associated with limited food budgets, skipped meals, and calorie-restricted diets (ERS, 2023a). The confluence of limited access to quality food directly correlates to adverse unemployment rates, low income, education levels, health outcomes, and housing insecurities, collectively impeding economic empowerment and perpetuating cycles of inequality and financial instability (Drewnowski, 2022). This policy brief explores the socioeconomic determinants of food security and their impact on the economic mobility of the Black community.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic

It has been longstanding that individuals facing economic hardships may experience food insecurity, and conversely, persistent food insecurity can hinder economic mobility. The onset of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic worsened food insecurity and hunger rates. The pandemic undid a decade-long trend of decreasing food insecurity that had been mitigating the adverse effects of the 2008 recession (Kakaei, 2022). In the United States, household food insecurity increased from 11% in 2018 to 38% in March 2020. In April 2020, 35% of households with children aged 18 and under were food insecure (Kakaei, 2022). Parekh et al. (2021) determined that supply chain disruptions resulted in inadequate inventory for smaller grocery stores, and food distribution centers were overwhelmed, depriving communities of fresh produce. Furthermore, lockdown measures and pandemic-related job loss limited consumers to foods they could afford and access. Americans struggled with the quantity and quality accompanied by rising prices (Kakaei, 2022; Parekh, 2021).

Socioeconomic Determinants of Food Insecurity

The term food apartheid is a framework that recognizes a system of segregation and discrimination that divides those with access to an abundance of nutritious food and those who have been denied that access due to systemic injustice (Jensen, n.d). The Black community faces disparities in accessing affordable, nutritious food due to underlying structural challenges, such as poverty, racial inequities, and community divestment (McClintock, 2018). These systemic issues reverberate across income and employment disparities, educational gaps, housing inequalities, and geographic disparities (Drewnowski, 2022). These facets collectively shape and limit an individual’s direct access to affordable, healthy food options and economic opportunities.

INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT

According to the Economic Resource Service, in 2022, 36.7 percent of households with incomes below the federal poverty line were food insecure (Statista Research Department, 2023). In that same year, 17.1% of Blacks were living below the poverty line and were more likely to be unemployed than whites (Moore, 2023). Household incomes below the poverty line and high unemployment rates among low-income populations make it more difficult to meet household food needs (Healthy People 2030, n.d.). The federal minimum wage of $7.25—often described as a starvation wage—exacerbates these challenges (Moore, 2022). The federal minimum wage was set in 2009 (Drexel University, 2021). Inflation and increased cost of living over the last 15 years have made it impossible for full-time minimum wage employees to access necessities such as food, housing, transportation, childcare, and healthcare in any location across the country (Drexel University, 2021). Although employment may protect households from food insecurity, nonstandard work arrangements such as part-time work and varied work hours increase a person’s susceptibility to food insecurity (Coleman-Jensen, 2012). Beyond employment status, instability in income and work schedules can hamper a household’s capacity to budget both money and time for acquiring food (ColemanJensen, 2012). While income and employment status are crucial determinants of food insecurity and hunger, the impact extends beyond these factors. Access to healthy food also influences work efficacy, employment, and income.

Employees facing food insecurity often feel sleepy, less focused, or unmotivated at work (Yaniz Jr, 2023). The struggle to meet job standards can result in unemployment, leading to financial challenges that force individuals to prioritize other needs over food and nutrition. Also, food insecurity consequentially impacts chronic diseases such as diabetes and other health conditions that disproportionately impact Black communities (National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, 2023). Illnesses, in turn, affect employers as an employee’s health directly influences workplace productivity (Moore, 2022). Those in poor health are more likely to miss work and become distracted, incurring costs due to lost time when employees are absent or not fully productive (Moore, 2022). Moreover, the experience of chronic illnesses often results in increased medical costs. For individuals already facing financial hardships, these additional costs can push them further into food insecurity, as they may need to divert limited resources away from essential nutrition to cover their health-related expenses.

EDUCATION

Research has shown that higher education levels bring economic and psychosocial advantages (Hayward et al., 2015). Conversely, illiteracy and lack of education diminish earning capacity and directly contribute to hunger and poverty (State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2004). Approximately 26% of Black U.S. adults aged 25 and older hold a bachelor’s degree or higher (Moslimani et al., 2024). The positive impact of education extends beyond food access and influences individuals to make healthier food choices (Handbury et al., 2015). Households with higher income or education levels tend to purchase food products that align more closely with USDA recommendations (Handbury et al., 2015). Lower educational levels correlate with diets high in carbohydrates, low in fiber, and increased consumption of sweets and red meats. Conversely, higher educational levels are linked to greater consumption of fruits, vegetables, and fish (Handbury et al., 2015). Fard et al. (2021) emphasizes that increased income and knowledge of healthy dietary behaviors accompany higher educational achievements. However, Handbury et al. found that differences among food purchases along the education dimension are more varied than those along the income dimension. For example, two households in the same location with varying incomes purchase more similar products than households with different income types that live in different locations (Handbury et al., 2015). Although, two households in the same location that are more and less educated—one with a college degree and the other with only a high school diploma— purchase just as different products as if they lived in different locations (Handbury et al., 2015). While education and nutrition have a positive correlation, limited studies have explored the cause behind education improving nutrition.

When discussing education, it is important to address the long-term effects of food insecurity on child development and educational outcomes. Food insecurity is particularly harmful to Black children with approximately 1 in 3 Black children, living without reliable access to food (Feeding America, 2023a). Children in food-insecure households experience poorer mental health, nutrient deficiencies, behavioral problems, and higher rates of chronic conditions like diabetes, anemia, and asthma—conditions that disproportionately affect the Black community (Children’s Sentinel Nutrition Assessment Program [C-SNAP], 2006; Gallegos et al., 2021; Orihuela, 2023). In addition, children experiencing food insecurity suffer adverse effects on the development of basic motor skills, social skills, and impaired memory. Black children in low-income, food-insecure households exhibit 57 percent higher odds of their parents identifying significant developmental concerns compared to those in lowincome but food-secure households (C-SNAP, 2006). The stress and anxiety food insecure children face also negatively impact their development (Gallegos et al., 2021). Health challenges make food-insecure children more prone to hospitalization, imposing additional financial burdens on families already grappling with hardships (Hickson, 2013).

Nationally, 85% of Black students lack proficiency in mathematics, and 83% percent of Black students lack proficiency in reading skills (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). Poor academic performance is a consequence linked to food insecurity (Feeding America, 2023b). These children risk falling short of expectations on standardized exams and an increased likelihood of grade repetition (Orihuela, 2023). Children facing challenges in school—lower grades, difficult social interactions, and grade repetition—are more prone to dropping out, a consequence with profound economic ramifications such as lowincome work opportunities (Cook & Jeng, 2009). As a result, low-income workers are less likely to secure jobs with benefits such as health insurance, pensions, or retirement plans, exacerbating both physical and financial difficulties (Cook & Jeng, 2009).

SPOTLIGHT: COLLEGE STUDENTS AND FOOD INSECURITY

State and federal aid programs have significantly increased the accessibility of higher education (Raskind et al., 2019). The 2024-2025 award year FAFSA form will reflect updates on student aid calculations that will extend Pell Grants to more students (United States Department of Education, 2023a). If the pattern persists, this additional aid will increase the number of low-income, first-generation, and racial/ethnic minority students enrolling in higher education institutions (Duke et al., 2021). However, students are often left with a remaining balance after Pell Grants, financial aid, and scholarship awards. In addition, low-income, first-generation, and racial/ethnic minority students may have additional responsibilities such as being caretakers that impact their financial status. With limited funding, students may be vulnerable to income instability, leading students to choose between stable housing, school tuition, class attendance, and eating (Duke et al., 2021). One study at a public, predominately white institution (PWI) found that African Americans and other racial/ethnic minorities receiving multiple forms of financial aid or experiencing housing problems were more likely to be food insecure or at risk of food insecurity (Payne-Sturges et al., 2017). Two studies of students at four historically Black colleges/ universities (HBCUs) found that within a 12-month period, about 73%-78% of surveyed students experienced some degree of food insecurity, including those with institution-sponsored meal plans (Duke et al., 2021; Thompson, 2018). Food insecurity can derail Black students’ educational attainment, graduation rates, and socioeconomic mobility by negatively impacting class attendance, learning ability, and academic success (Duke et al., 2019; Payne-Sturges et al., 2017). Food insecurity can result in Black students leaving school without a degree, with increased debt and poor job options, as well as with poor health outcomes.

HOUSING

The State of the Nation’s Housing Report showed that in 2023, the costs associated with homeownership and rentals significantly increased compared to the previous year. This escalation was attributed to rising interest rates, high inflation rates, increasing rents, and economic uncertainty. The surge in housing expenses has led to households spending over 30% of their income on housing, categorizing them as cost-burdened households (Harvard University, 2023). Cost-burdened households face a higher likelihood of experiencing food insecurity because they often must make difficult choices between paying rent or mortgage and maintaining their homes, leaving limited resources for food (Harvard University, 2023). Between 2019 and 2021, 8.7 million homeowners had housing costs that exceeded 50 percent of their income (Harvard University, 2023). Notably, over half of the increase in cost-burdened homeowners between 2019 and 2021 occurred among households with the lowest incomes, impacting nearly a third of all Black households (Harvard University, 2023). Additionally, 57 percent of Black renter households were burdened by housing costs (Harvard University, 2023).

The intersection of rising housing costs, financial instability, and limited resources often contributes to persistent homelessness and heightened experiences of hunger. Individuals experiencing homelessness are more vulnerable to food insecurity than the general population (Fitzpatrick & Willis, 2021). This vulnerability is exacerbated by racial disparities, with Blacks approximately four times more likely to experience homelessness than their white counterparts (National Alliance to End Homelessness, 2023). While existing literature has not definitively established a causal relationship between hunger and homelessness, it does acknowledge their interconnection and their roles as predictors of one another. Often, the precarity of food insecurity precedes that of housing insecurity. The challenges for individuals experiencing homelessness overlap with income and employment prospects. The instability of housing situations can hinder a person’s ability to obtain and maintain employment, directly impacting their income. Economic challenges, coupled with chronic and communicable illnesses, physical injuries, and mental health challenges resulting from or exacerbated by homelessness, make it difficult for individuals to afford nutritious food or access grocery stores (National Health Care for the Homeless Council, 2019). While some individuals experiencing homelessness may have access to soup kitchens, maintaining a healthy diet remains challenging (National Health Care for the Homeless Council, 2019). In soup kitchens and shelters, meals are typically high in salt, sugars, and starch, offering less expensive, filling options but lacking nutrition (National Health Care for the Homeless Council, 2019). The combination of limited income, poor health, and lack of healthy food further exacerbates vulnerability, creating a significant barrier to improving overall well-being (Habánik, 2018).

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND COMMUNITY DIVESTMENT

Food security is often tied to the accessibility of grocery stores or other sources of fresh and healthy foods. An area is designated as a food desert when access to grocery stores and fresh food is restricted. The USDA identifies settings where urban residents are more than 1 mile from a supermarket and over 10 miles away in rural areas to have limited food access, rendering these communities vulnerable (Food Access Research Atlas, 2023). Black communities disproportionately feel the impact of food deserts, with one in every five Black households situated in food deserts (Feeding America, 2023a). Food deserts coincide with regions that are both predominantly Black and experiencing poverty. They manifest prominently in rural landscapes and densely populated urban centers, particularly in the South, where concentrations of Black and low-income communities are prevalent (Reese, 2019). In these zones, the scarcity of grocery stores, restaurants, and farmers markets intensifies the hurdles in securing nutritious meals, exacerbating food security challenges. Supermarket redlining further heightens the issue of food deserts by limiting the amount of grocery stores in rural and urban areas. Supermarket redlining is a consequence of the prevailing notion in the grocery industry that suburbs offer safer and more profitable markets, leading to a deliberate neglect of urban and rural areas with predominantly Black populations (Crowe et al., 2018; Eisenhauer, 2001). This practice makes food more expensive and limits choices, making healthy organic products harder to come by. The ramifications of supermarket redlining extend beyond the mere inconvenience of limited options; it reinforces poor nutrition (Colson-Fearon & Versey, 2022).

Further, the scarcity of public transportation creates obstacles for residents attempting to reach grocery stores. Low-income and minority neighborhoods tend to have fewer full-service food markets per capita (Hilmers et al., 2012). With limited food retail options, residents are more likely to become transit-dependent (Gardner, 2022). Unreliable transportation may compel individuals to sacrifice healthy food choices or skip meals altogether. Even utilizing public transit or ride-share services can pose challenges, as individuals may have to allocate funds intended for food to cover transportation costs.

Barriers for rural communities include higher food and gas prices (Gardner, 2022). In many instances, rural communities lack the public transit systems available in their urban counterparts, exposing residents to an even greater risk of being unable to access affordable and nutritious food (Gardner, 2022). In these economically marginalized regions, the impact of geographic location becomes a critical factor. Low-income Black communities, whether situated in urban or rural settings, often experience insufficient access to affordable, diverse, and healthy food options. The scarcity of grocery stores and the overreliance on convenience stores in these areas contribute to the perpetuation of food deserts and the ability of the Black community to reach food security status.

Federal Policies and Initiatives

During the 2022 fiscal year, federal spending on the USDA’s food and nutrition assistance programs totaled $183 billion (ERS, 2023b). The Food and Nutrition Services Department of the USDA places programs into three categories: 1) nutrition assistance programs, 2) children’s nutrition programs, and 3) USDA food distribution programs. The most notable programs include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and National School Lunch Program (NSLP).

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formally known as Food Stamps, is a federal government program operating in all 50 states, the District of Colombia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands that provides food-purchasing assistance for low- and no-income people to help them maintain adequate nutrition and health. Each state can specialize the program to their residents’ needs. In 2023, SNAP benefit costs totaled about $107 billion (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Summary, 2023). On average, 41.5 million people received monthly SNAP benefits in the 2023 fiscal year (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Summary, 2023). A Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (2020) report recognized that SNAP has proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms available to reach low-income households and to provide help in recessions.

CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

SNAP benefits are one of the fastest, most effective forms of economic stimulus because they quickly inject money into the economy (Rosenbaum et al., 2020). About 80 percent of SNAP benefits are redeemed within two weeks of receipt and 97 percent are spent within a month (Rosenbaum et al., 2020).

IMPACT ON THE BLACK COMMUNITY : In 2020, about 27% of both adult and child SNAP recipients were Black (DeSilver, 2023).

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) promotes the health of low-income pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women, along with infants and children up to age 5. WIC offers nutritious foods to supplement diets, information on healthy eating, breastfeeding promotion and support, and referrals to health care providers (United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Services [FNS], 2022). Operating across all 50 states, 33 Indian Tribal Organizations, the District of Columbia, and five territories (Northern Mariana, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands), WIC has demonstrated a range of positive impacts (FNS, 2022). The WIC program has improved birth outcomes, increased healthcare cost savings, improved children’s diets, improved infant feeding practices, enhanced cognitive development, and improved the growth of nutritionally at-risk infants and children. It has also contributed to a decreased incidence of iron deficiency and improved dietary intake for pregnant and postpartum women (FNS, 2023a). Despite its benefits, the WIC program has been criticized as restrictive and confusing. Nearly half of eligible Black individuals choose not to participate, encountering barriers such as frustration over the limited range of approved foods and brands (FNS,2023b; Held, 2022). Complicated requirements also pose challenges for smaller food companies, limiting their ability to participate (FNS, 2023b; Held, 2022).

IMPACT ON THE BLACK COMMUNITY : In 2020, 6,266,700 women, infants, and children participated in the WIC program, with Black participants accounting for 20% of beneficiaries (FNS, 2023b).

The National School Lunch Program (NSLP), a federally assisted meal initiative, operates in public and nonprofit private schools and residential childcare institutions. The program provides children with nutritionally balanced, low-cost, or free lunches each school day (FNS, 2024). In tandem with NSLP, the School Breakfast Program (SBP), offering free or reduced breakfasts to low-income students, is essential. However, school breakfast is less widely utilized than school lunch (Bartfeld, 2009).

IMPACT ON BLACK COMMUNITY : During the 2021-2022 school year, 75% of Black children ages 5-18 were receiving free or reduced-price school meals (USAFacts, 2023).

Highlighting the 2022 White House Conference on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health

In 2022, the Biden Administration, for the first time in 50 years, hosted the White House Conference on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health. President Biden set the goal to end hunger and increase healthy eating and physical activity by 2030 so fewer Americans experience diet-related diseases—while reducing related health disparities. With this goal in mind, the conference gathered elected officials, activists, and leaders of business, faith, and philanthropy to develop and implement a national strategy to build on research and accelerate progress. To end hunger by 2030 and build on the federal government’s existing work to address hunger and diet-related disease, the national strategy identifies actions the Biden Administration is pursuing across five pillars (Biden Administration, 2022).

PILLAR 1: IMPROVE FOOD ACCESS AND AFFORDABILITY

• Help individuals benefit from federal assistance programs by increasing access to free and nourishing school meals; providing Summer Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT) benefits to more children; expanding and making it easier for eligible people to access SNAP, WIC, and Medicaid eligibility; increasing funding for the Older Americans Act (OAA) nutrition programs; modernizing federal programs such as using SNAP benefits to shop online

• Invest in community and economic development to increase access to food by leveraging housing and other community programs; improving transportation options; reducing barriers to food recovery; improving access to emergency food

PILLAR 2: INTEGRATE NUTRITION AND HEALTH

• Provide greater access to nutrition services to better prevent, manage, and treat diet-related diseases by piloting coverage of medically tailored meals in Medicare; testing Medicaid coverage of nutrition education and other nutrition supports using Medicaid section 1115 demonstration projects; expanding Medicaid and Medicare beneficiaries’ access to nutrition and obesity counseling; increasing access to nutrition-related services through private insurance

• Screen for food insecurity and connect people to the services they need by screening for food insecurity in federal health care systems; incentivizing payors and providers to screen for food insecurity and other SDOH; incentivizing hospitals to provide services focused on food insecurity and other SDOH

CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

• Strengthen and diversify the nutrition workforce by bolstering the healthcare workforce, including nutrition professionals, and ensuring other medical professionals receive nutrition education.

PILLAR 3: EMPOWER ALL CONSUMERS TO MAKE AND HAVE ACCESS TO HEALTHY CHOICES

• Empower consumers with updated and more accessible food labeling by developing a front-of-package labeling scheme for food packages; proposing to update the nutrition criteria for the “healthy” claim on food packages; making nutrition information readily available when grocery shopping online

• Create healthier food environments and a healthier food supply, so the healthier choice is the easier choice, by expanding incentives for fruits and vegetables in SNAP; facilitating sodium reduction in the food supply; reducing added sugar consumption; expanding access to healthier environments in federal facilities; addressing marketing of unhealthy foods and beverages; expanding breastfeeding support and counseling for mothers

• Support robust and tailored nutrition education by supporting regular updates to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, tailored nutrition education; implementing education campaigns; leveraging SNAP-Ed to promote healthy foods

PILLAR 4: SUPPORT PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR ALL

• Build environments that promote physical activity by expanding the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s State Physical Activity and Nutrition Program to all states and territories; investing in efforts to connect people to parks and other outdoor spaces; promoting active transportation and land use policies and funding regular updates

• Support robust and tailored physical activity education and promotion by promoting Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans; tailoring physical activity messages to resonate with specific demographic groups; facilitating physical activity in federal facilities

PILLAR 5: ENHANCE NUTRITION AND FOOD SECURITY RESEARCH

• Improve nutrition metrics, data collection, and research to inform nutrition and food security policy by bolstering funding to research on issues of equity and access; implementing a vision for advancing nutrition science; ensuring diversity and inclusion in nutrition, health, and food security research; expanding and diversifying the nutrition science workforce; investing in creative new approaches to advance research regarding the prevention and treatment of diet-related diseases; bolstering data collection; evaluating federal assistance programs and innovative models; researching the intersection of climate change, food security, and nutrition (Biden Administration, 2022)

Efforts to combat hunger, enhance positive health outcomes, and promote increased physical activity constitute an ongoing endeavor. Since the White House Conference, the Biden Administration has made strides toward these objectives. After the conference, a multitude of programs and initiatives have been initiated, including:

1. The convening of the inaugural National Nutrition Security and Healthcare Summit, where 200 healthcare, federal, and community leaders came together to identify ways to strengthen intersections between federal nutrition assistance programs and the healthcare sector.

2. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) providing $1.2 billion in Supply Chain Assistance funds and $30 million in grant funds to help school districts purchase equipment to prepare and serve nutritious meals that meet USDA’s nutrition requirements and make it easier for schools to prepare fresh foods.

3. Online shopping with SNAP benefits being available in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, with nearly 4 million SNAP households shopping online in August 2023.

4. FNS working to start up the Summer Electronic Benefits Transfer Program and modernize WIC and the WIC Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program.

5. FNS awarding about $100 million in Emergency Food Assistance Program Research and Resiliency grants to expand the program’s reach in underserved remote, rural, tribal, and low-income areas.

6. FNS centralizing consumer information to support healthy shopping and meal prep for income-eligible households in the Shop Simple with MyPlate app. MyPlate’s social media presence has been expanded to Instagram to reach more audiences with healthy eating tips and information.

7. FNS sharing physical activity resources on the SNAP-Ed Connection website.

8. FNS studying topics to inform the evaluations of the and study barriers to equitable access and opportunities. (Dean, 2023).

Policy Recommendations

To effectively combat food insecurity in the United States, a strategic implementation of comprehensive federal and local policies is necessary. These initiatives should address all contributing factors and interconnected elements associated with food insecurity. The following policy recommendations are designed to provide a holistic framework to reduce food insecurity disparities.

• Pass the Enhance Access to SNAP (EATS) Act of 2023. The EATS Act was introduced by Representative Jimmy Gomez (D-CA) and 117 House of Representatives cosponsors, and Senator Kirsten E. Gillibrand (D-NY) and 13 other Senate cosponsors during the 118th Congress (2023-2024). It expands the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) by removing the restriction on SNAP eligibility for students attending institutions of higher education (IHE) who would otherwise be eligible to participate in SNAP. Further, the bill provides that students enrolled at least half-time in a recognized school, training program, or IHE constitute individual households (not residents of institutions) may also be eligible for SNAP benefits.

• Prioritize increased investments in public housing initiatives and affordable housing programs. Public and affordable housing programs offer housing solutions for eligible low-income individuals and families. By strategically investing in these programs, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and local governments can address housing needs through housing trust funds and increasing housing fund appropriations, allowing families to allocate more of their income to food. Furthermore, establishing housing tax credits and housing vouchers for homeowners can make housing more affordable. Expanding qualification criteria for existing programs can ensure that residents who may not meet the poverty criteria but are still experiencing financial difficulties can obtain non-cost burden housing.

• Increase the federal minimum wage. Congress should pass legislation to increase the national minimum wage. Twenty-one states have either no minimum wage or follow the federal minimum wage. The federal minimum wage of $7.25 is not a livable wage. Increasing the national minimum wage can reduce financial hardships and increase household’s access to healthy foods. Estimates from the Center for American Progress show that raising the minimum wage to $15 could increase the wages of 1 in 4 workers—nearly 40 million, leading to an annual wage increase as large as $8,000 for some of the lowest-wage workers. Black workers, overrepresented among those earning less than $15 per hour, would significantly benefit from the wage increase (Khatter et al., 2023). However, a proper living wage that supports a basic standard of living without food and housing insecurity would be between $20 and $26 or more per hour, depending on the state (Drexel, 2021).

CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

• Expand and pass the Health Food Access for All Americans Act. During the 117th Congress (2021-2022), former Representative Tim Ryan (D-OH) and Senator Mark R Warner (D-VA) introduced the Healthy Food Access for All Americans Act. This legislation allows tax credits and grants for activities that provide access to healthy food in food deserts. Tax credits are provided for operating a new grocery store or renovating an existing grocery store in a food desert. The bill also authorizes grants for a portion of the construction costs of building a permanent food bank in a food desert and the annual operating costs of temporary access merchants (mobile markets, farmers markets, and food banks). The District of Colombia, through the Supermarket Tax Exemption Act of 2000, waives certain taxes and fees on grocery stores that are in specific neighborhoods. Qualifying supermarkets may be eligible to receive one or more of the following benefits for up to 10 years after development or renovation: 1) real property tax exemption, 2) business license fee exemption, 3) personal property tax exemption, 4) sales and use tax exemption on building materials necessary for construction. Expanding the HFAAA Act with some of the incentives from the Supermarket Tax Exemption Act can be even more beneficial in ensuring grocery stores, farmers markets, and food banks are established in food deserts.

• Invest in community gardens in low-income communities. Community gardens and other urban agriculture initiatives provide decentralized food options for food deserts and food insecure communities. Current community garden initiatives have provided free and low-cost food and nutritional education for those who cannot access a grocery store that serves their dietary needs. By allocating funding to community garden initiatives through grants and loans, federal and local governments along, with philanthropic organizations, can enhance access to healthy, affordable food, improve health outcomes, and empower households to distribute income to other necessities.

• Improve public transportation infrastructure in urban and rural areas. Transportation is a significant barrier for food insecure individuals, especially those in rural communities who sometimes travel over 10 miles to reach a supermarket. Federal, state, and local level Departments of Transportation must improve transportation infrastructure. Reducing the cost of public transportation and prioritizing the improvement of public transportation infrastructure can reduce barriers that hinder food-insecure individuals from reaching sources of healthy and affordable nutrition. Enhanced public transit options would alleviate the burdens faced by rural and urban communities, contributing to the goal of fostering food security, and promoting equitable access to nutritious food resources.

CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

• Establish food voucher programs to enable individuals to increase their purchase of fresh produce and other groceries. Programs like Double Up Food Bucks and New York’s Fresh Connection Checks for Veterans and Families supplement the financial resources available to low-income individuals and families. If the United States Department of Agriculture, federal and state Departments of Health and Human, and local Departments of Social Service provide additional funds and vouchers, low-income individuals and families can purchase more fresh produce from farmers’ markets and grocery stores. These programs operate independently of SNAP and WIC but can be used alongside these safety net programs to increase access to healthy foods. When used with existing safety net programs, these initiatives broaden the resources available to recipients. This facilitates improved access to healthy foods and allows households to allocate their income to address other essential needs. Expanding these programs or establishing similar ones on a federal or state level can increase the number of food insecure individuals that can receive additional assistance.

Conclusion

The economic aspects surrounding food insecurity underscores the multifaceted challenges that Black individuals and communities face. Factors such as income and employment, education, housing, geography, and community divestment are inextricably linked, forming a cycle deeply rooted in poverty and structural racism. The analysis of safety net programs reveals the vital role these initiatives play in mitigating the impacts of food insecurity. However, it is essential to recognize that these programs alone cannot break the cycle without a broader, systemic approach. The 2022 White House Conference on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health, the first of its kind in over 50 years, marked a significant milestone, offering a comprehensive platform for addressing these issues comprehensively. Understanding that food insecurity extends beyond hunger and nutrition is crucial. It touches upon every facet and stage of life. Breaking the cycle demands concerted efforts in policymaking, resource allocation, and addressing systemic inequalities. Fostering an environment that prioritizes economic mobility, educational equity, and community development, can pave the way for a future of food security.

CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

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CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

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CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

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CPAR | Rooted Inequality: Analyzing the Economic Causes and Consequences of Food Insecurity

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